Obstetrics and Gynecology – final examination

M = the Merck veterinary manual

R & O = veterinary reproduction & obstetrics (Noakes…)
CAR = compendium of animal reproduction (published by Intervet)
P = Physiology of small and large animals (Ruckebusch, Phaneuf and Dunlop)
T = current therapy in Theriogenology (David A. Morrow)

1. Female genital anatomy of the cow and investigation of the sexual apparatus of the cow
2. Female genital anatomy of the mare and investigation of the sexual apparatus of the mare
3. Female genital anatomy of the ewe and investigation of the sexual apparatus of the ewe
4. Female genital anatomy of the sow and investigation of the sexual apparatus of the sow
♀ genital organs include: Ovaries (gonads) * 2
Uterine tube (fallopian tubes) * 2
Uterus =Horns (connect by bifurcation) * 2
Body * 1
Neck (cervix) * 1
Vagina
Vulva
Mammary gland

Mare
Ovaries = bean-shaped (7-8 cm long and 3-4 cm thick)
Located in the sub-lumbar region  4/5 lumbar vertebra (position is in-constant)
The ovary free border leads a narrow deposition = ovulatory fossa
Connections = attached to the sub-lumbar region by the anterior part of the broad lig. of
the uterus (mesovarium)
= attached to the uterine horns by the ligament of the ovary (lig. ovarii
proprium) – a band of muscle enclosed between the layers of the broad lig
Uterine tube = each connected to the broad lig. (mesosalpinx) → reaches the ovary and forms a
pouch together with the broad lig. (bursa)
Uterus = situated mainly in the abdominal cavity, but extends also into the pelvic cavity
= the body and horns are attached to the abdominal and pelvic walls by the broad lig.
= the broad lig. extend on either side – from the sub-lumbar region and the lateral pelvic walls
to the dorsal border horn and lateral margin of the body of the uterus  the lateral layer
of each gives off the round lig. of the uterus (lig. teres uteri)
Vagina = passes in the pelvic cavity and related dorsally to the rectum and ventrally to the bladder
Vulva = related dorsally to the rectum, ventrally to the pelvic floor, laterally to the sacro-sciatic lig.,
semimembranous muscle and internal pubic artery
Mammary gland = 2 in number  in pre-pubic region

Ewe
Generally resemble the genital organs of the cow
Ovaries = almond shape (1.5 cm long)
Mammary gland = 2 in number
Cow
Ovaries = oval and pointed at the uterine end (3.5-4 cm long 2.5 cm wide and 1.5 cm thick)
= have-no ovulatory fossa
= situated near the middle of the lateral walls of the pelvic inlet
Uterine tube = enveloped by the broad lig.
Uterus = almost entirely in the abdominal cavity
= the horns are 35-40 cm long
= the cervix is 10 cm long and ∼3 cm thick (very dense)
= the body contains ∼ 100 cotyledons – irregularly scattered or arranged in rows (in non-
gravid uterus they measure ∼ 1.5 cm ∅, but during pregnancy they greatly enlarge)
= the broad lig. are-not attached to the sub-lumbar region like in mare, but to the upper part of
the flank – about a hand-breadth below the level of the tuber coxae
= the round lig. are well developed and can be traced distinctly (near inguinal ring)
Mammary gland = 4 in number

Sow
Ovaries = rounded
= concealed in the bursa ovarii (due to the large extent of the mesosalpinx)
= position is variable
Uterus = horns are extremely long (up to 1.2-1.5 m long) and freely movable (large broad lig.)  in
non-pregnant animals they are arranged in numerous coils
= the cervix is very long (10 cm)
Mammary gland = 10-12 in number

Bitch
Ovaries = elongated-oval and flattened (2 cm long)
= situated a short distance behind (or in contact with) the posterior of the corresponding
kidney (3/4 lumbar vertebra or half way between the last rib and the ileum)
= the right ovary lie between the duodenum and abdominal wall and the left one is laterally
to the spleen  each is concealed in the bursa ovarii
Uterus = body is very short (2-3 cm), but the horns are very long (12-15 cm)
= the horns are nearly straight and form a V-shape towards each kidney
Mammary gland = 10 in number  from the posterior part of the pectoral region to the inguinal
region (pectoral, abdominal and inguinal glands)

5. Diameters of the female bony pelvis and differences between the pelvis of various species of
animals
(from anatomy)

Mare Cow Ewe Sow Bitch

Sacro-pubic (cm) 20.3 - 25.4 19 - 24.1 7.6 - 10.8 9.5 - 15.2 3.3 - 6.3
Iliac (cm) 19 - 24.1 14.6 - 19 5.7 - 8.9 6.3 - 10.2 2.8 - 5.7
Shape of pelvic Spherical Elliptical Long and Elliptical or
inlet narrow spherical
(depend on
 breed)
6. Sexual maturation – puberty, age at first breading
Sexual maturation – puberty (R&O - 2-5, CAR - 259)

Mare 12 – 24 months
Cow 7 – 18 -“-
Ewe 6 – 15 -“-
Goat 4–8 -“-
Sow 6–8 -“-
Bitch 6 – 20 -“- early in small breed and later in big
Queen 7 – 12 -“-

Influenced by age, maturity (body weight), individual genotype (breed) and environmental influence.
Environmental influence on puberty:
Nutrition = good feeding  good growth rate  early puberty (but unless
the animal is severely malnourished, the onset of cyclic activity
will eventually occur).
Season of the year = in seasonal beading species (as ewe, mare…)
puberty depends on the time of year at which
the animal was born.
Proximity of ♂ = exposure to mature ♂ of the species (mainly in Su and sheep) may advance
the onset of puberty (“boar or ram effect”) => probably mediated by
pheromones and other sensory elements (sight, sound, touch and smell) that
influence hypothalamic GnRH secretion.
Climate = animal in tropic areas reach puberty at an earlier age than those in
temperate climate (not true in cattle)
Disease = any disease that influences the growth rate (directly or by reducing
feeding and utilization of nutrients)  delay onset of puberty
No domestic animal has physiological changes comparable with the menopause of women.
When the ♀ reaches puberty  genital organs increase in size, ovaries become active (produce ♀
gametes and synthesis of hormones), graafian follicles become mature (up to puberty they
develop only to the stage where they have theca interna and then they undergo atresia).
The main hormone responsible for onset of ovarian activity (and hence puberty) is Luteinizing
Hormone (LH).
The reason for the first “silent” estrous of the pubertal animal is believed to be because the CNS
requires to be primed with progesterone before it will respond (behavioral signs of heat)
Age at first breading
Mare Fillies are often seen in estrus during their 2nd spring and summer
(when they are yearlings), but under natural conditions it is un-
usual for them to foal until they are over 3 years old
Cow 14 month Should attained at least 65-75% of their mature weight
Beef Bo  breeding starts 3 weeks before the main herd (dairy Bo
breed all year so it doesn’t apply to them) so they start to
calve before the heard  extra time needed for re-breed
and they get closer attention
Ewe 7-8 m. (41-45 kg BW) Vary greatly and influenced by breed, nutrition and season of birth
(photoperiod)
Goat 7 month or 30 kg BW 7 (5-10) month if born early in the year (Jan/Feb)  late born may
not cycle in the first season (puberty at 15-18 month)
Influenced by body weight (nutrition), age, type of birth, presence of
buck, climate and season of birth
Must reach at least 60-75% of adult weight before breeding (allow
mother development and increase kids viability)
Sow 5-8 month 5-8 month  depend on genotype (including degree of in-breeding),
body weight, nutritional status, season and management
(boar effect is the most important, cross breeding, changes in
housing and forming new groups)
If estrus does not occur until 8 month of age or if the gilt was
serviced for 3 consecutive heats and do-not conceive  must
be culled (if gonadotropins were used to bring these gilts into
estrus  the progeny should not be kept for breeding)
At the first estrus the number of ovulations is low, but it increases 
so if mating is delayed until the 3rd heat a larger litter will
result
Bitch 6-7 month 6-7 (4-22) month  small breads have first heat in 6-10 month
 large breads have first heat in 18-20 month
Queen 5-12 month Non-pedigree cat = ∼ 7 month or 2.3-2.5 kg
= influenced by body weight (most important),
season of birth
Pedigree cat = oriental cat (as Siamese, Burmese)  5 month
= long hair cat  over 1 year
7. The estrus cycle in the mare (R&O – 10; CAR - 61)
Seasonal normally (spring to autumn  normally un-estrus in winter)  some may cycle regularly
throughout the year (enhanced if the mare are housed, given supplementary food and additional
light is provided)
Winter estrus is followed by a period of transition (estrus may be irregular or very long) to regular
cyclic activity (early heats may not be accompanied by palpable follicles, an-ovulatory and
manifestation of heat is a-typical)
Foals are normally born in spring and summer (food supply and environmental conditions are
optimal)
Pregnancy lasts 11 month (310-365 days) so the estrus season overlaps the parturition season  first
estrus after parturition (foal heat) occurs 5-10 days post-partum (may be very short) and the
normal cycle starts again (first 2 cycles may be longer than subsequent ones)  it is traditional
to cover a mare on the 9th day after foaling
There is strong relationship between the day length and the (an)ovulatory period  ovulation is
minimal or absent in the winter and maximum in the summer
The cyclic corpus luteum begins to regress at ∼ 12th day of the cycle, when there is parallel fall in
blood progesterone concentration  collapsed follicle is recognized as a raised bump on the
ovarian surface (usually there is some hemorrhage into the follicle and the coagulum hardens
within 24 hours)
Manual rupture of the mature follicle (3-7 cm ∅) results in termination of estrus within 24 hours  a
few hours before ovulation the tension in the follicle usually ↓, and the palpable presence of a
large fluctuating follicle is a sure sign of close coming ovulation
Cycle length during reproductive season is ∼ 21 days (range 20-23 days) length ↓ in summer (Jun-
Sept) and ↑ in spring
Estrus lasts ∼ 6 days (3-9 days)  longest (7-8 days) in the non-breeding season
Di-estrus (corpus luteum is fully functional) lasts 15 days
Ovulation takes place 24-48 hours before the end of estrus (constant relationship that does not
dependent on duration of cycle or length of estrus) in the ovulation fossa
Fertilization of the ovum takes place in the oviduct and is possible up to 30 hours after ovulation 
only fertilized egg pass into the uterus (non-fertilized ones remain for month in the uterine
tubes where they slowly disintegrate)
Transport of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus takes ∼ 6 days
Implantation of the blastocyst takes place 2 month after fertilization
Fillies are often seen in estrus during their 2nd spring and summer (when they are yearlings), but
under natural conditions it is un-usual for them to foal until they are over 3 years old
During estrus, usually a single egg is released and there are slightly more (∼ 52.2%) ovulation’s from
the left ovary
Twin ovulation commonly occurs in mare and there is a strong breed influence (common in
thoroughbreds and rare in pony)
Ovulation with subsequent formation of corpus luteum does not always occur, and the follicle may
regress or undergo luteinization
8. The estrus cycle in the cow (R&O - 17; CAR - 13)
Generally not dependent on the season of the year (poly-estrus)
Once puberty (7-18 month) had reached, cyclic activity should persist in cow every ∼ 21 days
(range 18-24 days) and in heifer every ∼ 20 days (range 18-22 days)  except during
pregnancy, 3-6 weeks after calving, high milk yield (mainly if there is dietary
insufficiency) and with some pathological conditions
Some cows and heifers fail to show signs of estrus (mainly at the first ovulation after pregnancy) but
have normal cyclic activity (silent heat or sub-estrus)
Estrus day is called day zero
Estrus duration is relatively short ∼ 15 hours (range 2-30 hours)  depending on breed, season of
year, presence of bull, nutrition, milk yield, lactation number and the number of cows that are
in estrus at the same time)
Ovulation (spontaneous) takes place ∼ 30 hours after the onset of estrus (occurs ∼ 12 hours after the
end of estrus)
Fertilization of the ovum takes place in the oviduct
The blastocyst arrives to the uterus at around day 5
Pregnancy lasts 279-290 days and the interval from calving to first ovulation varies greatly (depends
on breed, nutrition, milk yield, season, presence of sucking calf)
9. The estrus cycle in the ewe and goat
Ewe (R&O – 27; CAR – 97)
Seasonal poly-estrus  8-10 recurrent cycles of ∼ 17 days (14-19 days)  in the transition period
(end of summer) shorter cycles (<12 days) are common
The stimulus for onset of sexual activity is mainly shortening of daylight (while long days induce an-
estrus), but also breed (some are more resistant to light variations), management (male effect)
and social cues  the first estrus of the season is commonly “silent”
Breeding season is influenced by latitude (shortens with increase of latitude lines  at the equator
ewe may bread at any time of the year, while as we proceed to the northern or southern
hemisphere the breeding season is restricted and distinct with a prolonged an-estrus after
parturition)
Breeding season is also influenced by the breed and age (shorter in lamb and yearling).
Estrus cycle can be divided (as in other species) into 2 phases:
Follicular phase (3-4 days)
Luteal phase (∼ 13 days) = maturation of the corpus luteum and high levels of
progesterone (max. peak ∼ 6 days after ovulation)
Estrus in mature ewe lasts ∼ 30 hours (18-72 hours), at least ∼ 10 hours less in immature ewe) and in
Merino sp. it lasts 48 hours (influenced by age, breed and season)  comparing to other Ru
female, estrus in ewe is less apparent (may remain un-detected unless a ram is present)
Ovulation (spontaneous) occurs towards the end of estrus
Ovulation rate (number of eggs realized at ovulation) is influenced by breed, age, reproductive status
(dry or lactating), season of year, nutritional state and body condition
An-estrus (cycles stop) starts with pregnancy and lasts for some time after the pregnancy (post
partum or lactation an-estrus) and its length varies with breed, management and date of
parturition (seasonal and post partum an-estrus can have additive effect)  post-partum an-
estrus is mainly influenced by anti-gonadotrophic effect exerted by the suckling lamb, so it
normally disappears shortly after weaning (but even in the absence of lambs, as lambs reared
with milk replacers, there is a period of post-partum an-estrus period
Pregnancy lasts ∼ 5 month (145-152 days)  depending on breed, gestation number (parity) and liter
size  the first 1/3 is luteo-dependent, but after ∼ 50 days of pregnancy progesterone is mainly
produced by the placenta (so ovariectomy or administration of luteo-lytic doses of F2α do-not
terminate pregnancy during the last 2/3 of gestation)

Goat (R&O – 29; CAR - 115)

Seasonal poly-estrus (slightly longer then in ewe)  19-21 (<12-26) days (irregular in the beginning
of breeding season)  short cycles are related to season of year, onset of estrus season or
transitional period, buck effect and early post-partum periods
Breeding season is influenced by genetics (mainly), environment (temp., photoperiod) and latitude
(at the equator may bread at any time of the year, while as we proceed to the northern or
southern hemisphere the breeding season is restricted)
Estrus lasts 30-40 (22-60) hours and can be divided (as in other species) into 2 phases:
Follicular phase = 3-4 days
Luteal phase = ∼ 17 days
Ovulation occurs 12-36 hours after onset of estrus and their number varies from 1-4 per cycle (with
reduced kidding rates due to fertilization failure and embryonic mortality)
Pregnancy lasts ∼ 5 month (144-151 days)  the female depends on the luteal production of
progesterone throughout gestation, and any interference of the corpus luteum function at any
stage of gestation will terminate pregnancy (abortion)
Post-partum an-estrus or the interval between parturition and 1st post-partum estrus varies among
breeds, lactation length, management and nutritional condition  varies from 5-6 weeks (or
even less) up to 27 weeks
10. The estrus cycle in the sow (R&O - 29; CAR - 83)
Poly-estrus (domestic sow) or seasonal mainly in autumn (wild sow)
Photoperiod influences also domestic sow  an-estrus is more common in summer
 lower ovulation rates are more common in summer
 it is possible to decrease the interval from weaning to
estrus by artificially reducing the day length (from
23.6 to 5.7 days)
The recurrent cycles are interrupted by pregnancy and lactation (during lactation, the physical stimuli
of suckling causes heat to be delayed, but many sow show an an-ovulatory estrus 2 days after
parturition)
The cycle lasts ∼ 21 days (18-24 days)
Estrus lasts ∼ 53 hours (2-3 days)
Ovulation (spontaneous) occur between 38-42 hours after the onset of estrus (last 1/3 of estrus)
If satisfactory food is available for young piglets, the optimum weaning age is 5-6 weeks, follicular
growth is accelerated and estrus can be expected within 4-6 days (although weaning at 3 weeks
is possible, the disadvantages are that the following heat will be delayed or not show so well
and cysts are likely to develop in the ovaries)
Fecundity (fertility) is best from 4th-7th gestation
Cross breeding of in-bred lines and high energy diets for 11-14 days before the expected estrus
increases the ovulation rate  continuation of such diets after mating increases embryonic loss
Main differences between wild and domestic sow:
Domestic pig European wild pig
Number of corpora lutea 10 – 20 4–6
Intra-uterine loses (%) 30 13
Gestation length (days) 114 119
Average litter size 12 5
Number of parturition/year Up to 2.5 1-2
The main factor for maintenance of pregnancy is the level of progesterone (min. 6 ng/ml is
required), which mainly originates from the corpora lutea
In sow, prostaglandins do-not have an effect on developing corpora lutea until 12 day of the estrus
cycle  from this day until parturition prostaglandins can be used for induction of abortion or
parturition
11. The estrus cycle in the bitch and queen
Bitch (R&O- 30; CAR - 129)
Mono-cyclic  only one estrus during each breeding season
 differ from polycyclic species in that there are no frequent, recurring periods of heat
 all bitches have prolonged period of an-estrus or sexual quiescence between
successive heats irrespective if they have been pregnant or not
 the average interval between successive estrus periods is ∼ 7 (5-10) month (but it is
variable  in collie it is 37 weeks, in German shepherd it is 26 weeks and in other
species it is between these 2 figures)
 mating does not appear to influence the interval, although pregnancy (63 days = 54-
72) causes some increase (increases in 28 days on average)
No seasonal effect on reproduction (there is a fairly even distribution cycles throughout the year)
The cycle is traditionally divided into 4 phases:
Pro-estrus = have true pro-estrus (vulval edema, swelling and bloody discharge)
= female is attractive to male, but will not accept him
= lasts ∼ 9 days (2-27 days)
Estrus = vulva becomes less edematous and the discharge becomes clearer,
less bloody and smaller in amount
= accept male and adopts breeding position
= lasts ∼ 9 days (3-21)
Met-estrus = this stage starts when the bitch ceases to accept the male
= duration is not clear (some say it ends when the corpora lutea have regressed at
70-80 days, while others say it ends when the endothelium is repaired at 130-
140)
An-estrus = no external signs (the same is true after parturition following a normal pregnancy)
= lasts ∼ 3 month before the bitch returns to pro-estrus
Ovulation occur 1-2 days after onset of estrus (although some follicles continue to ovulate up to 14
days later)
Fertility declines from 7 years of age onwards
Split heat = seen in puberal but not in mature ♀ = swelling of vagina + discharge → regression (an-
ovulatory) → “true” heat (ovulatory)

Queen (R&O- 35; CAR - 163)

Seasonally poly-estrus but under modern housing conditions they frequently cycle regularly all year
(constant 14 hours of daylight)  sexual activity of free living cats is photo-period-dependent
(increasing daylight length → 1st estrus usually soon after the shortest day of the year)
Cycle lasts 13-15 days (10-22 days)  ovarian activity (onset and duration) depend on daylight
length
Cycle show more variation in pedigree cats = longhair cat  may have only 1 or 2 cycles per year
= oriental cat  longer estrus period (reduced inter-
estrus interval)
Pro-estrus → estrus → met-estrus → di-estrus (short period of sexual in-activity)  repeated until the
end of the breeding season and the last di-estrus of the season is followed by an-estrus (a long
period of sexual in-activity) which lasts until the first pro-estrus of the next season
Pro-estrus lasts 1.5-2 days  ♂ are attracted to non-receptive ♀  characterized by behavioral
changes as rubbing the head and neck against objects, constant vocalization, mating posturing,
rolling, Lourdes’s (lowers her front quarters and extends her hind legs), tail is erected and
slightly to one side and occasionally slight serous vaginal discharge
Estrus lasts 4-10 days  ♀ will accept ♂  in the presence of ♂ it will last 4 (3-6) days, and it
extends if ♀ is not-mated
Ovulation is not spontaneous  induced naturally by mating and artificially by stimulation of the
cervix or hormone administration  occurs 27 (24-30) hours after mating  the same signs as
in pro-estrus, but much more exaggerated (rapid rise in estrogen concentrations), ♀ may
urinate more frequently, be more restless (more active)…
Di-estrus lasts 8-10 days  sexual inactivity
An-estrus lasts 3-4 month  prolonged sexual inactivity
Estrus stages can-not be reliably identified by vaginal cytology
Parturition (∼ 63 days = 61-69 days) may be followed by pro-estrus or a period of an-estrus  on
average, queens will call 8 weeks after parturition (range from 1-21 weeks)  the interval
depends on the weaning age of the litter and in cats with a non-breeding season – on the time
of year when kittens are born
Pseudo-pregnancy (lasts ∼ 36 days) can occur following any non-fertile mating (it is difficult to be
sure that conception and resorption of fetuses have not-occurred) or if ovulation is stimulated
artificially
12. Duration of estrus and optimal breeding time

Species Cycle type Cycle length Duration of Optimal breeding time

estrus
Horse Seasonally polyestrus 19-26 days 6 days Last few days, should be bred at 2
(early spring to summer) days interval
Cattle Polyestrus all year 21 days 18 hours Insemination from midestrus until
6 hr after end of estrus
Sheep Seasonally polyestrus 16.5 days 24-48 hours 18-20 hr after onset of estrus
(early fall to winter)
Goat Seasonally polyestrus 19 days 2-3 days Daily during estrus
(early fall to winter)
Pig Polyestrus all year 21 days 2-3 days ∼ 24 hours after onset of estrus
Dog Un-seasonally 3.5-13 month 2-21 days From day 2 of estrus and on
Monestrus alternate days thereafter until end
of estrus
Cat Induced ovulation 14-21 days 6-7 days Daily from day 2 of estrus
seasonally polyestrus
(spring and early fall)
13. Uterine and vaginal changes during an estrus cycle
Mare (R&O - 10)
Uterus Cervix Vagina Secretion
Pro-estrus Vascularity ↑, tone Vascularity ↑, Vascularity ↑
↑( development of relaxation and
corpus luteum  dilation
diminish when the
c.l.regresses)
Estrus No increase in tone Very relaxed (its Walls are glistening Clear lubricant
protrusion can be with clear lubricant mucus
seen lying on the mucus
vaginal floor with
its folds edematous
and it is soft and
broad on per rectum
palpation)
Met-estrus Gradual reversion to di-estrus appearance
Di-estrus Pale pink and Pale pink, small, Pale pink Scant and sticky
flaccid constricted and firm
(narrow, firm
tubular structure on
rectal palpation)
An-estrus/ Flaccid Constrict and Scant and sticky
Pregnancy gradually turns
away from the
midline (narrow,
firm tubular
structure on rectal
palpation)
** Fertilization of the ovum takes place in the oviduct and is possible up to 30 hours after ovulation
 only fertilized egg pass into the uterus (non-fertilized ones remain for month in the uterine
tubes where they slowly disintegrate)
Cow (R&O - 19)
Uterus
Pro-estrus Tonic turgidity (muscle
contraction +congestion)
a day before estrus
Estrus Congested,
Muscles are physiologic
contracted, the
Horns feel erect and coiled
Endometrium is covered
with edematous fluid (its
surface is glistening)
Met-estrus Tonic turgidity a day after
estrus
24-48 after estrus the
caruncles show petechial
hemorrhages  gives
rise to post-estrus
discharge of blood
Di-estrus Endometrium is covered Vary from flat to low
by slight secretion
**Aborization pattern and amount of mucus depend on estrogen concentration
Vagina Cervix + Secretion +
(Epithelial cells of the microscopic observation of
anterior vagina) dried mucus smears
Hyperemia Hyperemia and aborization
Thermal conductance ↑ pattern is absent and mucus ↑
pH ↓ (from 7 to 6.72) ∼ a day before estrus
Hyperemia Hyperemia, vaginal portion
pH ↓ (from 6.72 to 6.54) is swollen (erected) and
Thickness ↑ greatly (cell relaxed (1-2 fingers can be
division + growth of tall, inserted) and mucus ↑↑↑
columnar, mucus secreting distinct aborization pattern
cells)
Rapid reduction in Mucus leucocytes ↑ (amount
Vascularity (become pale ↓ ∼ 4 days after estrus) and
3-5 days after estrus) sometimes blood (pale
Max. leucocytic invasion of yellow or brown color)
mucosa is 2-5 days after Vascularity ↓ rapidly
estrus Constriction of the opening
Aborization pattern
disappears
Aborization pattern is absent
columnar
Bitch (R&O - 32)
Vaginal smear * + ** Vaginal epithelium Endometrium ***
Pro-estrus Large number of RBC High, squamous, stratified Endometrial glands are
Estrus RBC number ↓, superficial epithelium the stratum loosely coiled with very
cells from the stratified corneum and the layers obvious lumina and deep
squamous epithelium (as immediately beneath it are epithelial lining
anuclear cells, pyknotic lost by desquamation,
nuclei, large intermediate leaving a low, squamous
cells)  in estrus end epithelium  1-3 weeks
appear polymorphonuclear after the heat ends, the
neutrophils epithelium is converted to
columnar epithelium
Epithelium and lamina
propria are infiltrated by a
large number of neutrophil
Met-estrus Polymorphonuclear (+Pregnancy) Endometrial glands become
neutrophils become Higher columnar epithelium larger, the coiled parts (in the
dominant than during an-estrus basal layer of endometrium)
Neutrophils escape to the are more tortuous and the
vaginal lumen lumina is smaller
An-estrus Nucleated basal and 2-3 layers of low columnar,
intermediate cells of the cuboidal epithelium
stratified squamous
epithelium and a few Ne
*Stained with simple (as Leishman) or tri-chrome stains (as Shorr)
**Can be used to determine the stage of the estrus cycle
***Endometrium = ∼ 98 days after onset of estrus (met-estrus) desquamation of endometrial
epithelium  at ∼ 120-130 days restoration by proliferation of cells from the
cryptus of the endometrial glands
14. Ovarian changes during an estrus cycle (R&O – 10, 19, 28-30)
Mare (R&O – 10)
During an-estrus, ovaries are small, bean-shaped and measure 6 cm from pole to pole, 4 cm from the
hilus to the free border and 3 cm from side to side
During pro-estrus, ovaries may be of medium size and knobby due to numerous follicles of 1-1.5 cm
Just before onset of heat, several follicles enlarge (1-3 cm)
By the first day of estrus one follicle is considerably larger than the remainder (2.5-3.5 cm)
During estrus, there are large variations in size depending on number and size of follicles (ovaries of
thoroughbred may contain 2-3 follicles each of 4-7 cm which gives it a huge size) → follicles
mature, enlarge (3-7 cm) and rupture (follicle tension ↓ a few hours before ovulation) →
During diestrus, there is an active corpus luteum and the other follicle regress, ovary may be only a
little larger than in an-estrus (no follicles larger than 1 cm are present)
The collapsed follicle is recognized as a raised bump on the ovarian surface (usually there is some
hemorrhage into the follicle and the coagulum hardens within 24 hours)
Fertilization of the ovum takes place in the oviduct and is possible up to 30 hours after ovulation →
only fertilized egg pass into the uterus (non-fertilized ones remain for month in the uterine
tubes where they slowly disintegrate)
During estrus, usually a single egg is released and there are slightly more (∼ 52.2%) ovulation’s from
the left ovary
Ovulation with subsequent formation of corpus luteum does not always occur, and the follicle may
regress or undergo luteinization

Cow (R&O – 19)

In dairy Bo ∼ 60% of ovulations are from the right ovary (in beef Bo the difference is not so great)
Follicles grow in 2 (or 3) waves (influenced by genetic or environment) → on 3rd-4th day and on 12th-
14th day of the cycle → a normal follicle (9–13 mm) from the first wave was present from 5th to
11th day and than undergo atresia and a second normal follicle (9-13 mm) from the second
wave was present from 15th to 20th day and than undergo atresia
The ovulatory follicle is selected ∼ 3 days before ovulation = follicles grow under the influence
of FSH → one follicle obtain dominance and subsequently ovulate (un-known intra-
ovarian mechanism which does-not involve FSH suppression)
During di-estrus several large follicles (7–15 mm) will be found → these follicle do-not alter
the ovaries external texture, but do cause some overall variations in ovarian size (the ease
of palpating them rectally will depend upon size, degree of protrusion and relationship to
the corpus luteum)
During pro-estrus and estrus the selected follicle enlarges and ovulates (ruptures) when it has
attained a size of at least 19 mm (on rectal palpation of the ovaries, it is usually possible
to detect the ripen follicle as a slightly bulging, smooth, soft area on the surface of one
ovary)
Ovulation may occur from any aspect of the ovarian surface, and it influences the shape of the ovary
→ usually it is in an a-vascular area of the follicular wall so hemorrhage is not a feature of Bo

ovulation (although there is marked post-ovulatory congestion around the rupture point and some-
times a small blood clot is present in the center of the new corpus luteum)
Ovarian size = depend mainly on the period in the estrus cycle and whether or not it contains active
corpus luteum
= the presence of follicles almost does-not alter the size
= in most cows examined between the 6th and 18th day of di-estrus, one ovary is
distinctly larger (CL projects from one of its surfaces) than the other (flat from side
to side)
 = during first 4-5 days of the inter-estrus phase, there will be relatively little variations in
= during estrus, there will also be little difference in size (the ovulating ovary is only
slightly larger than the other)
= ovaries of normal multi-parous cow do-not differ greatly from those of heifer but tend to
be larger due to progressive deposition of scar tissue and in some cases also to the
presence
of large numbers of small viable follicles → in mid-diestrus the ovary containing the
corpus luteum is plumb like and the other is flattened from side to side
= in multi-parous, except corpus luteum (active and regressed) and follicles, there is also old
scared corpus luteum of previous pregnancies (white or brownish-white, pin-head-size
projection on the surface of the ovary, max. ∅ ∼ 5 mm = corpus albicans) → it takes this
structure several weeks after parturition to regress (brown color and ∼ 10 mm ∅) and it is
slowly invaded by scar tissue

Ewe (R&O – 28)

Ovaries are smaller than those of a cow and they are near spherical shape
During an-estrus their size is ∼ 13 mm from pole to pole, ∼ 11 mm from attached to free border and
∼ 8 mm from side to side → the largest follicle present vary from 2-6 mm
At the beginning of estrus one or more follicle have attained the size of 10 mm, it walls are thin and
transparent and the follicle appears purple in color
The rupture of the follicle is followed by the elevation of a small papilla above the general surface →
ovulation occurs through rupture of this papilla (about 24 hours after estrus onset) → the
development of the corpus luteum is similar to that of cow
By the 5th day of di-estrus the follicle is 6 mm ∅, and it attains its max. size (9 mm ∅) by the middle
of the diestrus – when it has central cavity
As diestrus advances, the follicle color changes from blood-red to pale-pink and its size remains
constant until the onset of next estrus, where atrophy is rapid and the color changes first to
yellow and than to brownish-yellow
During pregnancy the corpus luteum remains 7-9 mm ∅, its color is pale pink and the central cavity
disappears (filled by white tissue)
During the an-estrus may occur ovulation with corpus luteum formation but without signs of heat
(spurious ovulation)
In twin ovulations the corpus luteum may be on the same or opposite ovaries → the number of
ovulations during heat depends on genetics, nutrition and age for example:
= hill sheep usually have 1 lamb but is they are transported before the breeding season to low-
land pasture twins become more common
= low-land breeds have on average 1.5 lambs per ewe
= max. twins when ewes are 5-6 years old, after which it remains constant
= primiparous ewe are much less likely to have twins comparing to pluriparous ones
= the Border Leicester Lleyn breeds in Britain commonly bear triples, and the Finnish
Landrace and Cambridge breeds produce 2-4 lambs per pregnancy

Goat (R&O – 29)

Ovaries are variable in shape (max. 22 mm length) depending on the present structures
The largest follicle reaches max. ∼ 12 mm ∅ and often have bluish tinge when they protrude from
the surface → the corpus luteum are pink

Sow (R&O – 29)

Ovaries are relatively large and mulberry-like, and their surface is lobulated due to elevations of
large follicles (8-10 mm ∅) and corpus luteum (10-13 mm ∅)
Except for the follicular stage of the cycle, there is continuous proliferation and atresia of a follicle
pool ∼ 50 (each 2-5 mm ∅)
Between day 14-16 of the cycle, gonadotropin stimulates selected follicles which are destined for
ovulation. It is also associated with rapid atresia of small follicles and blocking their
replacement from the proliferating pool (intra-ovarian control mechanism)
The ripe follicle is sea-shell pink with a fine network of surface blood vessels and a vary transparent
focus which indicates the site of coming ovulation
Haemorrhagic follicles are common
After ovulation there remain a considerable number of follicles of ∼ 4 mm ∅, some of which
gradually enlarge to ∼ 9 mm ∅ (by day 18)
After ovulation the ruptured follicle is represented by a congested depression, that soon is covered by
a blood clot (may persist up to day 12) that gives it a conical shape (by day 3) → the clot is
replaced by day 6 by a connective tissue plug or by a slightly yellow fluid (may persist up to
day 18) → max. size at days 12-15, after which the corpus luteum gradually regresses to the
next estrus
Corpus luteum is dark-red up to day 3 → changes to wine-red up to day 15 → as the corpus luteum
regresses (days 15-18) the color changes to yellow, creamy-yellow or brown-yellow →
remains through di-estrus up to the next estrus and than changes gray, pin-head foci

Bitch (R&M - 33)

In young ♀ the ovaries surface is smooth and regular, but in aged ♀ it is irregular and scared
An-estrus = ovaries are oval and slightly flattened
= ∼ 14 mm from pole to pole and ∼ 8 mm from the attached to the free border in a
medium size bitch
= no appreciable follicles can be seen (only on section the remnants of the corpus luteum
are seen as yellow or brown spots)
Pro-estrus = at onset the developing follicles are already ∼ 5 mm ∅ → progressively enlarge
Estrus = 6-10 mm ∅ → ovary is considerably enlarged (size and shape depend on the number of ripe
follicles)
= owing to the thickness of the follicles wall (hypertrophy and folding of the granulosa cells)
it may be difficult to distinguish between follicles and corpus luteum
= prior to ovulation the surface of the follicle show slight raised papule, pin-head size, and the
epithelium covering it is brown (contrasts with the flesh color of the remainder of the
follicle)
= ovulation is spontaneous and normally occurs 1-2 days after onset of acceptance
= most of the follicles rupture over a period of 48 hours
= the oocyte is capable of being fertilized for up to 108 hours after ovulation
Corpus luteum = first contains a central cavity → by the 10th day after ovulation it becomes filled by
compact luteinized cells and it attains its full size (6-10 mm)
= as a rule, an approximately equal number of corpus luteum are found in each ovary,
although occasionally there are wide differences (the numbers of fetuses in the
respective cornua in pregnancy frequently differs from those of the corpus
luteum on the ovaries on the respective side) → embryonic migration into the
cornua on the opposite side is common
= on section the corpus luteum is yellowish pink →
= it remains un-changed in non-pregnant bitch until about the 30th day after ovulation
→ slowly atrophies and viable vestiges may be present throughout an-estrus
= throughout pregnancy, the corpus luteum persist at their maximum size, but regress
rapidly after parturition
15. Detection of estrus and ovulation

Mare (R&O – 15, CAR - 62)

Observation of behavior
♀ in estrus will seek contact with other horses and especially ♂ (♀ not in estrus will reject any
advances of other horses) → since ♀ not in heat will usually violently oppose the
advances of a ♂, “trying” should be done over a gate, box-door or fence
♀ will put her head next to the head of the ♂
Standing reflex when the ♂ nips at her
Urinate frequently and there will be a winking motion of the vulva (repeated exposure of
clitoris)
A clear thin mucus can be excreted from the vulva
Vulva is slightly edematous
Raises her tail to one side
**signs are more clear when ♀ is brought into contact with ♂ or teaser (in the absence of ♂ or
other horses the signs are much less clear)
**signs are vague at the onset of estrus and will become clearer and more intense towards the
moment of ovulation
**in the presence of a foal, the maternal instinct may disturb the normal estrus behavior
Rectal palpation, preferably with the help of ultrasound (detection of follicular activity in the ovaries)
with the development of the corpus luteum the uterus increases in tone and thickness (both
diminish when the corpus luteum regresses)
at estrus there is no increase in tone
during an-estrus and first few days after ovulation the uterus is flaccid
during di-estrus, pregnancy and pseudo-pregnancy the cervix is identified as a narrow, firm
tubular structure → at estrus, the cervix is soft and broad
Progesterone testing → during the period of estrus plasma progesterone level will be below 1 ng/ml

Cattle (R&O – 18, CAR - 18)

Estrus signs = Standing when mounted (most reliable indication)
Swollen vulva
Hyperemic vaginal mucosa
Clear and elastic mucous vaginal discharge
Ruffled tail-head, possibly with minor skin lesions
Restlessness
Group formation
Chin rubbing
Flehmen (urine or perineum sniffing)
Licking, pushing, fighting, mounting other animals
Lordosis
Reduced feed intake
Reduced milk yield
**blood in the vaginal mucus is a sign that the cow was in estrus about 2 days before
Observation 3 times a day for 20 minutes each time (early in the morning, evening and around 10pm)
Teaser bull 3 times per day = vasectomized bulls, testosterone-treated cows → will mount cows in
heat (aggression, favoritism thus ignoring other cows in heat and vasectomized bulls have the
ability to spread venereal diseases)
Heat mount detectors glued on the mid-line of the back, just in front of the tai head (conflicting
results, losses, poor performance in cold weather and high proportion of false positive reactions
– when animals are kept in high density)
Tail paints = a strip (20x5 cm) of enamel paint on the coat that covers the points near the tail-head
which will be rubbed by mounting animals (high proportion of false positive reactions – when
animals are kept in high density)
Pedometers = count the number of steps → cows are more active at estrus
Rectal palpation, preferably with the help of ultrasound (detection of follicular activity in the ovaries)
Difficulties in estrus detection= cycle length vary from 18-24 days
= the cow may show signs for only a short period
= sexual activity often occurs at night
= sexual behavior of cow in heat shows individual variations
= tied housing (better detected in loose housing)
= mistake in identification of the cow

Sheep (R&O – 27, CAR - 102)

***While estrus detection is almost never used in natural mating, it is essential for artificial
insemination or hand mating since they are successful only if performed at a fixed time in
relation to ovulation or onset of estrus
Standing reflex = female allows male to mount (the only sure sign)
Aproned (a piece of leather suspended under the belly of a ram in front of the prepuce to prevent
mating when the ram is used as teaser) and vasectomized teasers → if artificial insemination is
done by using fresh semen, these methods can only be used only in very large flocks exploited
in special conditions and performed only during the breeding season (since they are time
consuming)
An alternative to estrus detection is control or synchronization of estrus → shortens the time
necessary to inseminate a whole group or flock, reduces labor…..and allows breeding during
the an-estrus season

Goat (R&O – 29, CAR - 118)

Detection of heat is difficult in the absence of male → in the presence of male pheromones
(can be transferred from the scent gland onto a cloth) will intensify the signs
Estrus symptoms are preceded by pro-estrus (lasts ∼ 1 day) where the buck closely follows the doe
but she will not allow him to mount
Standing reflex = female allows male to mount (the only sure sign)
♀ actively seek the presence of ♂ when in estrus
The odor of the buck has stimulating effect on the expression of estrus
♂ may exhibit flehmen reaction (urine or perineum sniffing), flick (move from side to side) his
tongue and strike the doe with a forelimb
The vulva show some edema, hyperemia and mucus discharge
The tail is twitched rapidly from side to side and up and down
Restlessness
More vocal (bleating)
Reduced appetite and milk yield
Urination near the buck
Some does show no signs other than limited tail wagging and standing for mounting by the buck
Does will occasionally stand for mounting by other does
As heat progresses, a variable amount of transparent mucus is visible in the cervix and on the floor of
the vagina → the mucus turns cloudy (best time for conception) → cheesy white (end of heat)
Estrus is occasionally observed during pregnancy
Sow (R&O – 29, CAR - 86)
Reddening and swelling of the vulva
Standing reflex = estrus can be divided into 3 parts → during the 1st and last parts (ovulation occur in
the 3rd period) only a ♂ can induce the reflex, while in the 2nd part a man can
provoke this reflex by the back pressure test (the use of synthetic boar aerosol
improves the response to this test)
Behavior = restlessness during feeding
= not settling down after feeding
= frequent urination of small quantities
= cocking (erect) position of ears after sniffing the vulva of other animals or smelling a
boar
= saw in pro-estrus sniff and try to ride other saws or will be recipient to such attentions
= in presence of ♂, saw in pro-estrus will sniff its testicles and flanks and may try to
mount him but will refuse to be mounted
= at the height of estrus saw assumes a stationary, rigid attitude with her ears erected and
she is quite ignores her environment
Pressing firmly (using both hand palms) the loin of the sow → estrus sow will stand motionless with
erect ears (sows not in heat will object to this approach)
Salivary pheromones (released from sub-maxillary glands) of a boar (10 month or more in age) or
housing the ♀ in the same pan as pre-puberal gilts or recently weaned saws → stimulates estrus
and estrus behavior

Vulva Mucus on vaginal mucosa Standing reflex

Too early Heavily red + swollen Hardly any Negative back pressure test
In time Moderately red + swollen Present Positive back pressure test
Too late No redness + swollen Sticky Negative back pressure test

Bitch (R&O – 31, CAR - 136)

Observation = Slight swelling of vulval lips (precedes the beginning of bleeding by several days)
Bleeding is max. during early pro-estrus → continues at this level into the early part of
the true heat
Standing in mating position with her tail slightly erected or held in one side (only in
estrus)
Vaginal cytology = (smear of vaginal cells) can be used to detect pro-estrus, estrus and met-estrus,
but in fact it can only be relied to detect the time of ovulation retrospectively (in
the past) → this is because the 1st day of met-estrus is the only stage which can
be pinpointed precisely (dramatic fall in % of superficial cells and re-appearance
of WBC) → if these changes are seen it can be said that ovulation occurred
about 6 days earlier (to late if the aim is to get the bitch pregnant)
Vaginoscopy = at the time of ovulation, skilled observer will note the onset of wrinkling effect
(wrinkling become very obvious ∼ 4 days after ovulation → most critical time for
mating)

Measurement of hormones levels =

 = LH = It is common to regard the pre-ovulatory LH peak as the central event in the cycle.
Most of the important events that occur in the cycle are closely synchronized with
this event.

Event Time post LH peak (days)

Ovulation 2
Oocyte maturation 4-5 (i.e. 2-3 days post ovulation)
Peak fertility 0-5
Implantation 18
Parturition 64-66

LH levels are raised only transiently over a period of 1-3 days, frequent blood
sampling (at least every day) would be required → therefore, the LH levels do not
provide a practical answer in detection of the best time to mate bitches
= Progesterone = detected within half an hour in a drop of plasma

Progesterone LH
Level increase LH peak
2-5 ng/ml ∼ 2 days after LH peak
Peak levels ∼ 13-28 days after LH
peak

Progesterone Mating
<5 (ng/ml) No mating – wait for next sampling (2 days later)
5-6 (ng/ml) Mating within 33-57 hour after sampling
6-12 (ng/ml) Mating the next day
>12 (ng/ml) Mating the same day

Queen (R&O – 36, CAR - 167)

Estrus stages can-not reliably be identified by vaginal cytology
Behavior = Pro-estrus = ♂ are attracted to non-receptive ♀
= behavioral changes as rubbing the head and neck against objects, constant
vocalization, mating posturing, rolling, lordosis (lowers her front quarters
and extends her hind legs), tail is erected and slightly to one side and
occasionally slight serous vaginal discharge
= Estrus = ♀ will accept ♂
= ovulation is not spontaneous → induced naturally by mating and artificially by
stimulation of the cervix or hormone administration → 27 (24-30) hours after
mating → the same signs as in pro-estrus, but much more exaggerated (rapid
rise in estrogen concentrations), ♀ may urinate more frequently, be more
restless (more active)…
 16. Neuro-hormonal control of the estrus cycle (CAR – 1-8)
General = the reproductive process is regulated by 2 systems → endocrine and nervous systems:
Nervous = Stimuli from environment (light, sight of other animal of the same spp, pheromones,
tactile)
↓
Stimuli transmitted to the brain (by optic, olfactory and sensory nerves)
↓
The brain translate the information and if necessary reacts by sending nervous impulse
(through nerve fibers) to target organs
Hormonal = Regulatory system that sends information by means of chemical messengers (hormones)
→ this system is regulated by feedback loops and impulses from the nervous
system
= Hormones = chemical substances, produced in a gland or tissue in the body, which
provoke a specific reaction in hormone sensitive tissue (target cells have
hormone- specific receptors)
= Hormone receptors = A unique molecular structure in/on the cell with a high and
specific affinity for a particular hormone → after binding to the
receptor the message can pass on → leads to cell specific response
(generally involves activation or inactivation of enzymes in the
target cells)
= These receptors have 2 functions:
1. Recognition of the specific hormone by the target cell
2. Translation of the hormonal signal into a cell-specific response
= Autocrine acting hormones = the producing cell is also the target cell
= Paracrine acting hormones = the hormone influences a neighboring cell or organ
(exocrine)
= Endocrine h.= Secreted by an organ or a group of cells → released directly into the
blood → reach target cells or organs
= Their effect vary according the number and type of receptors of a target
cell → the formation and degradation of receptors is a dynamic process
(number and type are not fixed)
** the function of one hormone in a cell can be the induction or
degradation of receptors for another messenger)
** receptors can be blocked by an excess of hormones
** extra-stimulation by a normally highly effective dose of
hormones → no further effect
= Exocrine h.= secreted externally via a duct → excreted by GIT, urine,
skin….. before reaching the target organs
= Most receptors need a second messenger to transmit the message for example cyclic-
AMP:
Chemical messenger binds to the receptor
↓
Activate the adenylate-cyclase-system situated in the cell membrane
↓
ATP is converted into cyclic-AMP (the second messenger)
↓
c-AMP activates an inactive cAMP-protein-kinase-A that splits up into an active
catalytic unit and a regulatory unit
↓
The active catalytic unit of the protein-kinase stimulates the phosphorylation of a
protein or enzyme which brings about the cellular effect
↓
The phosphorylation brings about the cellular effect (as protein synthesis, growth or
hormone secretion)
Neuro-hormonal control of the estrus cycle
CNS receives information from the environment of the animal (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile)
↓
Stimuli pass to the hypothalamus in the ventral part of the brain
↓
CNS stimulate the hypothalamus endocrine neurons which produce GnRH
↓
GnRH is transported via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system to the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland (in the ventral part of brain)
↓
GnRH stimulates the gonadotroph cells which secrete FSH and LH
FSH = Stimulates the development of ovarian follicles
LH = Stimulates the synthesis of androstenedione in theca interna of the follicle (from cholesterol)
→ Androstenedione is converted into testosterone
↓
Testosterone is aromatized (in the granulosa cells of the follicle) under the influence of FSH to
oestradiol-17β (has positive effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary)
The granulosa cells of the follicle also produce the hormone inhibin  negative feedback on
the FSH release from the pituitary → control follicle development
↓
Oestradiol =1. frequency of GnRH pulses ↑
2. induces estrus symptoms (behavioral and physical)
↓
Above a certain threshold level of oestradiol, the hypothalamus responds by GnRH ↑
↓
The GnRH ↑ causes LH ↑
↓
LH initiates ovulation
↓
After ovulation, under the influence of LH, the follicle becomes corpus luteum. The follicle cavity is
filled with blood vessels, and the granulosa cells increase in size.
↓
The corpus luteum (mainly a secretory organ) produces progesterone and oxytocin
Progesterone =1. essential for the normal cycle
2. after conception (getting pregnant) it is the main hormone responsible for the
maintenance of pregnancy:
a. GnRH pulse ↓ → inhibits new ovulations
b. prepares the endometrium for the nidation (implantation of the
fertilized ovum in the endometrium of the uterus in pregnancy) of
the embryo
c. inhibits un-controlled contractions of the uterine wall
Oxytocin → plays a role in luteolysis (and also stimulates uterine contraction = parturition, sperm
and egg transport and milk ejection)
↓
If the ovum (released from the follicle during ovulation) is not fertilized → the animal does not
receive a signal of pregnancy from the embryo → ∼ 16 days after ovulation, the endometrium
of the non-pregnant uterus releases PGF2α
↓
PGF2α initiates the regression of the corpus luteum (luteolytic hormone) → the mechanism is not
completely understood, but it includes vasoconstriction (blood supply ↓ to the corpus luteum)
and direct effect of PGF2α on the luteal cells
↓
As a result of the corpus luteum regression the progesterone concentration in the blood ↓
↓
The progesterone block on the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus – disappears
↓
Initiates a new follicular phase and the final development of a pre-ovulatory follicle

** Both hypothalamus and pituitary produce hormones and serve as target organ → create a
homeostatic feedback system by which most hormones regulate their own rate of secretion
** GnRH, FSH and LH are released in a pulsatile way (released in pulses)
** Follicular phase of the cycle = the period of follicle ripening, estrus and ovulation, which is
characterized by production of oestradiole
** Luteal phase of the cycle = the period from ovulation until luteolysis, which is characterized by
progesterone dominance

Differences between species in endocrine changes during the cycle (R&O – 16, 26, 28, 30, 34)

FSH Biphesic, with 10-12 interval between peaks → 1st peak occurs just after
Mare ovulation and the 2nd in mid- to late di-estrus (about 10 days before the
next ovulation)
It has been suggested that this peaks (unique to mare) are responsible for
priming the development of a new generation of follicles, one of which
will ovulate at the next estrus
LH There is no sudden increase (unique to mare) but a gradual increase →
persistence of elevated levels for 5-6 days, both before and after ovulation
Oestrogens Peak values during estrus
Progesterone Follow closely the physical changes of the corpus luteum

Cow FSH
LH The pro-estrus rise in estrogens stimulates the increase in LH (necessary for
follicular maturation, ovulation and corpus luteum formation → a second less
distinct peak 24 hours later
Oestrogens Sudden rise just before the onset of behavioral estrus → pick at the beginning
of estrus → decline to basal levels at the time of ovulation → fluctuations
during the rest of the cycle, with a small peak in about the 6th day of the cycle
(may be related to the 1st wave of follicular growth)
Progesterone The changes mimic closely the physical changes of the corpus luteum → peak
at day 7-8 after ovulation → decline quickly from day 18
In a number of cows there is evidence of delay on progesterone production or
secretion by the corpus luteum → does no appear to largely affect the
fertility of the individual
Prolactin Difficult to obtain since stress induced by restraint for vein-puncture is
sufficient to cause a significant rise

Ewe FSH Reaches a peak about 14 hours before ovulation (the same time as LH peak) →
a second peak 2 days after ovulation
LH The rise in Oestrogens is followed by a sudden rise of LH → reaches a peak
about 14 hours before ovulation (FSH peaks at the same time)
Oestrogens Rise just before the onset of estrus
Progesterone Follow closely the physical changes of the corpus luteum, but max. values (2.5-
4 ng/ml) are lower than those of the cow
 Prolactin Fluctuates through the estrus cycle, however it rises during estrus and ovulation
(reflecting the role of this hormone in the formation of the c.l.)
Sow FSH Concentration vary considerably, but there appears some pattern of secretion
peak with the LH peak → second larger peak on day 2-3 of the cycle
LH Peak at the beginning of estrus → second peak 8-15 hours after the oestrogen
peak → values remain low and fluctuate throughout the rest of the cycle
Oestrogens Starts to rise at the time that the corpus luteum begins to regress → peak about
48 hours before the onset of estrus
Progesterone Fluctuates through the estrus cycle
For the first 8 days after ovulation there is a good correlation between
progesterone levels and the number of corpus luteum, however, by 12 days
it is less obvious
Prolactin Peak together with the pre-ovulatory LH → second peak during estrus

Bitch FSH Peak at the same time as the LH peak

LH Rise rapidly after the oestrogens rise → peak lasts much longer than that of
other species (peak at the same time as the FSH peak) → ovulation occur 24-96
hours after this peak
Oestrogens Rise rapidly just before the onset of standing estrus
Progesterone Differ from other spp. by the persistent high levels of this hormone
Start to rise before ovulation, which confirm the morphological evidence pre-
ovulatory luteinization of the mature follicles 60-70 hours before ovulation
→ this pre-ovulatory rise in progesterone may provide the stimulus for the
bitch to accept the male (can be used as a method to determine the timing
of artificial insemination, that should not be delayed long after plasma
concentrations are >2-3 ng/ml)
Have a negative correlation with prolactin → thus, as progesterone level falls
towards the end of met-estrus or pregnancy, prolactin increases
Prolactin Have a negative correlation with progesterone → thus, as progesterone level
falls towards the end of met-estrus or pregnancy, prolactin increases

Cat FSH Have not been reported

LH (in the absence of coitus or mechanical stimulation) remains at basal level
during estrus
17 β estradiol Levels of above 20 pg. / ml indicate the phase of follicular phase.
estrogens Estrogen concentration increase at the time of estrus, from the baseline of
60 pmol / L to peak of 300 pmol / L.
Progesterone Remains at basal level during unovulatory estrus cycle.
 22 + 160. Reproductive management in cattle (in large scale herds) (CAR – 13, M - 1462)
Optimal production of both milk and calves
a. Every cow has to produce 1 live and healthy calf per year (calving interval = 365 days)
b. Raise/market 95 calves per 100 cows per year

Reproductive performance can be improved by

a. Proper identifying animals
b. Keeping records that enable determination of important herd parameters, such as % calf crop,
pregnancy rate, length of calving season, culling rates, calf mortality, breeding efficiency of
bulls and performance production information
c. Meeting the nutritional requirements of various classes of livestock in the heard (emphasizing
correlation between nutritional needs and costs)
d. Establishing breeding program for heifer and cows
e. Bull selection and reproductive management
f. Immunization program
g. Evaluating all abortions
h. Careful attention at calving
i. Providing adequate facilities
j. Ensuring that calves are well cared at birth and receiving adequate colostrum

Nutrition
The limiting nutrient in relating to reproduction in beef is energy (not so important in dairy since
most are fed rations that supply adequate energy during lactation) =
a. energy levels before calving influences when the cow returns to estrus
b. energy levels after calving influences the conception rate
Feed requirement vary during the reproductive cycle =
1st period = the interval from calving to breeding (∼ 82 days) → the period of greatest
nutritional demand since the cow is at max. milk flow and recovering from
the stress of parturition → by the end of the period she is expected to breed
2nd period = beef = the interval from re-breeding to weaning the calf (∼ 123 days) → cow
gain weight while still milking
= dairy = 2nd + 3rd periods overlap → although some gain weight, most high
producers lose weight during this 2nd period
rd
3 period = from weaning to 50 days before calving (∼ 110 days) → the period of least
nutritional demand = beef = has only to maintain her condition and fetus
= dairy = should gain body weight during the last few
month of lactation
4th period = the 50 days preceding calving → during this period occurs 75% of fetal growth
(critical stage) and cow condition at calving is critical to re-breeding (the
onset of estrus after calving is delayed in cows that lose weight or are thin
and not gaining weight during late pregnancy)
Dairy is usually fed for max. milk production throughout her 10 month of lactation → it is
assumed that she will loose weight during heavy lactation and regain the loss during the
remainder of lactation → the cow should not be overfed during the dry period because of
the possibility of fatty liver disease and ketosis during lactation
The amount of cow feed per Kg. of calf weaned is fairly constant, although larger cows require
more feed than smaller cows
 1st–calf heifers require special attention from both energy and competition (on food) standpoint if
they are expected to breed and conceive at the proper time → they are still growing,
lactating and may not have the rumen capacity to meet post-calving energy needs on
roughage alone →
supplement feeding of high-energy high-protein may be required for optimal reproductive
potential (in many places calves are also weaned 30-40 days earlier then other cows to allow
the heifer more time to grow and recover from lactation)
Protein = cows that give more milk require more feed with higher level of protein (increased milk
is produced at the expense of reproduction when feed is not adequate to meet all needs)
→ the protein requirement of young growing stock and heavy milkers is often a
limiting factor, while mature dry cows are often overfed protein and heifers must be fed
adequately from weaning to breeding if they are to calve at 2 years of age
Feed must be analyzed to monitor its true nutrient content and actual $$ value → variations in the
amount of trace elements, energy, protein…
Thin, old or small cows may not compete favorably with heavier cows within the same heard and
often benefit from being fed as separate sub-group
Lactating dairy are usually fed according to milk production → fed concentrate on an individual
basis or divided into groups according to milk production and fed complete blend ration

Breeding program
If cow is to calve consistently, she must be early with her 1st calf → heifers that are breed at 14
month and calve at 23 month → benefit from getting closer attention by calving before the
main herd starts to calve and having the extra time needed to re-breed
In order for a heifers to breed at 14 month she must attain at least 65-75% of their mature weight
before breeding → so nutrition is important
The breeding season of virgin beef should start 3 weeks before that of the main herd
Dairy calve throughout the year so these considerations are not apply to them
To compensate for the greater attrition rate usually expected with virgin heifers, a greater number
should be bred than is needed to maintain or increase heard numbers
An-estrus or irregular estrus cycles may result from poor management, failure in estrus detection,
poor nutrition, disease, injury, silent heat (no estrus behavior), disturbance in endocrine
functions, accidental access of bulls to cows (unexpected pregnancy) or failure to keep
proper breeding records (the cow can be already pregnant, to soon after calving…)
Estrus detection → systemic program for detection (very important)
→ observer familiar with signs of estrus
→ estrus detectors = cows or steers give an androgen, bulls altered so they can-
not inseminate, chalk, chemical or electronic activated markers on the tail-
head and vaginal probes that measure the electric conductivity of the
vaginal mucus
→ rectal palpation = ovaries (mainly in cow with silent heat) → estrus is
determined by the presence of a palpable follicle, absent
or decreased corpus luteum and firm uterine tone
= vaginal mucosa → edematous
= cervix → relaxed and hyperemic
= discharge → variable amount of clear serous mucus (blood
in the mucus in the immediate post-ovularory period)
= vulva → swollen
In cows that approach ovulation, the appropriate time can be estimated, and the cow can be bread
regardless of whether she shows behavioral signs or not (if the estimation was wrong and
the cow show signs a few days later, she can be re-bred)
 Synchronization (prostaglandin or its analogs → effective only in cows with functional corpus
luteum) reduce the dependence on estrus detection:
1st dose → animals in days 6-18 of the cycle → corpus luteum regresses → estrus within 2-7
days, while the
→ other animals → may either been recently in estrus or will be in a few days
2nd dose is given 11 days later (all cows are between days 6-18 of their cycle) → most cows
will be in estrus in 3-4 days and ovulate in 4-5 days
Insemination is based on signs of estrus or performed 60 hours (heifer) or 72 hours
(lactating cow) after the 2nd prostaglandin inj.
Non-functional ovaries (smooth, small, bean-shaped structures in rectal palpation) may be due to
low total energy intake during late winter or drought summer pasture, chronic or severe
disease, injury, ovarian tumor, congenital defect (freemartinism, hypoplasia…)…→ usually
non responsive to gonadotropin or steroid hormone treatment

Evaluation of fertility
Dairy heard =
Parameter Object
Interval calving–conception (avg. number of days open) <90 days
Interval calving–1st insemination <70 days
Conception rate at 1st insemination >60 %
Number of insemination per conception <1.5
Abortions (between days 45-265 of pregnancy) <3 %
Culling due to infertility <5 %
Age at 1st calving 24 month
Beef heard → the main source of income are weaned calves =
→ short calving season is important
Length of breeding period <63 days
% pregnant (35 days after the end of breeding season) >95 %
% of calf born alive (of cows confirmed pregnant) >93 %

Breeding =
Artificial insemination → used mainly in dairy (less in beef because of technical and cost
problems)
→ failure to detect estrus is the main reason of AI failure → 50-60 %
conceive in 1st service and the same number on the 2nd service if cows
are properly inseminated with good quality semen at the proper time
Embryo transfer is used to increase the number of pregnancy from the most valuable beef + dairy
cattle → sexing of embryos can be used
Before breeding, the following points should be considered =
a. Heifer should be bred according to size and age at puberty → first breeding should be
bred according to size and age at puberty (65-75% of mature weight at 1st breeding)
b. Breeding program → artificial insemination or natural service → with bulls known to sire
calves that have low birth weight → the bull owns birth weight (not his adult weight)
is a useful guide
c. Heat synchronization
d. Sufficient skilled labor to breed and assist during calving is essential
Pregnancy detection
Recommended to maximize efficiency in the well-managed herd
Beef herds → breeding season (AI or natural) lasts 60-70 days, which gives the cow an average of
2-3 services to conceive → cows that are not pregnant or were bred late should be identified
(if kept in the herd, they will disturb the program by calving late in the season and
maintenance costs are also significant) by pregnancy determination shortly after the season
is over while cows still have plenty of flesh and can be sold with greater profit
Dairy → should be examined within 1 month after calving and again 5-9 weeks after breeding

Embryo death, abortion and abnormal fetal development =

May be due to bacteria, virus, molds and other infectious agents that attack the placenta or fetus
→ Bo rehinotracheitis, Bo viral diarrhea, brucellosis, leptospirosis, campylobacteriosis,
trichomoniasis, anaplasmosis, ureaplasmosis, neospora-like protozoa, mycoplasma,
Aspargillus, Mucor, Leisteria, Actinomyces pyogenes, Haemophilus, Staphylococcus
aureus, Chlamidia
Non-infectious abortions = genetic reason →recessive or lethal genes, hydrocephalus, ostoperosis
(marble bone disease), arthrogryposis (crooked calf syndrome)…
= poisoning → excessive nitrates in feed or water, certain pine needles,
poisonous plants, mycotoxins (mouldy feed)…
= hormonal imbalance in pregnant dam
= injury affecting the pregnant cow
= nutritional deficiency → mainly vit. A, vit. E, selenium, iodine and Mn
23 + 161. Reproductive management in pigs (in large scale herds) (M – 1485)
General
Problems on a farm are usually a combination of genetic, nutritional, environmental, health and
management factors → investigation should concentrate on the herd and not individual
animal and a certain % of “abnormal” animals or reproductive problems should be expected
Accurate up-to-date records are essential

Reproductive indices used in pig herds

Index Level Interference level

Wean to service interval (% of ♀ in estrus by 8 days after weaning) 90 % 85 %
Repeated service at 21 days <10 % >15 %
Abnormal return to service (25-37 days) <3 % >5 %
Multiple mating >85 % <80 %
Abortions <2 % >2 %
Not-in-pig 1% 2.5 %
Farrowing rate (parturition in Su) >80 % <80 %
Live birth/litter 10-12 <8
Stillbirths <10 % >15 %
Mummies <2 % >2 %
Litter scatter (≤ 7 pigs/litter) 10 % 15 %
Weaned/litter 9.5 9
Pre-weaning mortality <11 % 12 %
Litters/sow/year 2.4 ≤2
Pig weaned/sow/year 20-22 <19
Non-productive sow days 30-50 >60

Selection
Gilt → selection is based on growth rate, disease status, sexual development, reproductive history
(dam’s performance as to wean-to-service interval, litter size, milking ability and pigs
weaned), conformation and underline (teat number and location)
→ ∼ 30-40% are culled because of problems as delayed puberty, failure to conceive,
defective teats, locomotor problems or vulval abnormalities (inter-sexuality or genital
hypoplasia)
→ pre-puberal gilts are usually fed a grower-finisher ration ad-libitum until they reach 90-
110 Kg or are 5-6 month old → separated from growing pigs, placed in gilt-pool pens and
limit- fed a balanced ration containing 12-16% protein
→ gilt selected for breeding = should reach puberty by 6-8 month and weight 105-123 Kg
= should-not have excessively straight legs or musculing
= well developed external genitalia by 5 month of age
= well developed udders → at least 6 pairs of evenly spaced teats

Disease and vaccination program

Performance can be influenced by porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome (PRRS), parvo-
virus, pseudo-rabies, entero-viruses, influenza, brucellosis, leptospirosis and other infectious
diseases
The herd should be minimally vaccinated against leptospirosis, parvo-virus (gilts) and erysipelas
Brought-in gilts should be isolated for 45-60 days, during which serologic tests should be
performed → to minimize the number of days for introduction of these gilt, the last portion
of the isolation period can be used for acclimatization to the herds residence pathogens
(through the introduction of cull sow, market hogs and manure exchange and/or feedback)
→ this natural exposure to endemic herd pathogens can provide essential protection against
diseases)
Puberty
Early puberty reduces production costs
1st estrus occur between 5-8 month of age depending on the genotype, liveweight, nutritional
status, season and management
Management = “boar effect” (most influencing management factor) is strongest when ♀ are
exposed to sight, sound, touch and smell of a mature boar (direct contact →
decreases as the number of senses stimulated by the boar decreases) → exposure
of peri-puberal gilts (5-8 month) to a mature boar for min. 10-15 minutes provides
an adequate stimulus
= cross-breeding
= changes in housing (confinement to outside pens and vice versa)
= forming new groups by mixing gilts from different pens
Gilts are-not served until their 2nd or 3rd estrus to ensure max. ovulation rate and thus litter size
Culling criteria= gilts in which 1st estrus does not occur by 8 month of age → if inj.
gonadotrophins are used to bring these gilts into estrus, the progeny shouldn’t be
kept for breeding
= gilts that have been serviced for 3 consecutive heats and do-not conceive
Estrus synchronization= adding progestogen (any substance having progestetional activity) to the
feed (as allyltren-bolone at 15-20 mg/day for 10-18 days) → estrus
will occur in 60-80% of the gilts 2-8 days after the last feeding
= prostaglandin’s can also be used as an abortifacient (induce abortion) to
synchronize estrus when administration after day 12 and before day 55
of gestation → gilt come to heat 4-7 days later

Estrus
Usually an-estrus during pregnancy, but many show a non-ovulatory estrus 3-4 days after
parturition (most likely due to residual effect of feto-placental estrogens in the presence of
low progesterone)
Ovulatory estrus is usually not-seen during lactation , except under conditions of group rearing,
high feed levels or boar effect → partial weaning or gonadotropin treatment can induce
estrus during lactation, but the results are inconsistent and not economic
Normal uterine physiology is established by 20-25 days post-partum, and most sow exhibit estrus
3-7 days after weaning
Estrus in gilts and post-weaning an-estrus sow can be initiated with exogenous hormones, but
these hormones interfere to the natural selection for reproductive efficiency → these
hormones should not be used as a long-term solution to address reproductive in-efficiency in
a herd
Estrus lasts ~36-48 hours in gilt and 48-72 hours in sow (cycle lasts 18-24 days = 21 days on
average) → time of estrus after weaning and duration of estrus in sow are influenced by
length of lactation, nutrition, body condition, genetics and other management factors
During ovulation (occur mid to late estrus),~15-24 ova are released → ovulation rate increases
over the first 3 gestations, so the 4-6 litters tend to be larger in number
Ovulation rate can decrease when ♀ are under-nourished → gilts should be on full-feed diet
(recently weaned sow should be fed with an energy-dense diet until after estrus and
breeding) and if not, increased energy intake for 10 days before estrus (= “flashing”)
The primiparous (a ♀ which had one parturition) sow mast support her own growth as well as
maintenance and lactation demands while her feed intake capacity is not yet fully developed
→ this problem can be avoid by breeding only gilts in good condition, not-overfeeding
during the first gestation, encouraging energy intake during the first lactation (ad libitum
feeding, high- energy diets, wet feed and avoiding high temp. in the farrowing room)
 Early weaning (as early as 10 days pot-partum) can result in post-weaning an-estrus → to
minimize this effect, it is recommended to → wean primiparous sows not less than 14 days
into lactation
→ wean sow in 2nd lactation not less than 12 days -“-
→ wean sow in 3rd or more lactation not less than 9 days -“-

Factors affecting ovarian activity in pigs

Proved or suspected factors Stage of breeding affected

Puberty After weaning After service
Insufficient ♂ stimulation + + -
Housing and social environment + + -
High ambient temp. + + +
Season of year (summer/fall) + + +
Photoperiod + ? -
Genotype + + -
Nutrition + + +
Short lactation - + -
Large litter reared - + -

Breeding
Pen mating = boar run with ♀
= used in smaller farms and works best in a pen of pigs in various stages of estrus
= with a group of recently weaned sows this method is less desirable because their
estrus may occur close together and lead to over-use of the boar
Hand mating = supervised natural mating
= ♀ is usually mated twice during the estrus → 1st service on the 1st day of standing
estrus and the 2nd – 24 hours later
= many commercial producers breed the ♀ once daily as long as she will accept the
♂
= the use of 2 different boars can increase the number of pigs per litter by one but
may mask infertility in one of the boars
Artificial insemination = heat detection is performed 1-2 times per day:
A. If performed 1 per day =
Gilts → 2-4 hr. after onset of standing heat and again 12-16 hr. later
Sow → 12-16 hr. after onset of standing heat and again 18-24 hr. later
B. If performed 2 per day =
Gilt → 12-14 hr. after onset of standing heat and again 12-16 hr. later
Sow → 24 hr. after the onset of standing heat and again 18-24 hr. later
= the recommended dose is ≥2 x 109 sperm in 60-100 ml (total sperm
numbers in a dose of semen depends on quality and storage time)
Boar should not be over-used =
Boar Boar-to-sow ratio
If sow are weaned in groups Young 1:2
Mature 1:4
Hand mating Mature No more than 2 breeding per day
Natural service 1:16–1:25
AI 1:100–1:125
Pregnancy
Sperm cells reach the oviduct within 30 min. of mating, and fertilization occur within 2-6 hours
Fertilization rates approach 100% in sow, but embryo mortality up to 30-40% accounts for the
usual litter size of 10-12 pigs
Retained dead fetuses become mummified and are usually expelled with normal developing
fetuses at the time of farrowing → a normal loss of <10% of the fetuses can be expected
The average gestation length is 114±2 days and is shortened in sows with large litters
The embryo is at greatest risk of dying the first 30 days → efforts should be made to avoid stress
during this critical period (overfeeding, heat, handling, moving, immunization) =

= pregnancy of <16 days are especially sensitive to heat stress

= avoiding exposure to other animals reduces disease risk
= if the gilts have been flushed for breeding, the feed intake should be reduced to the limit
feeding levels of ~2 kg immediately after breeding to avoid embryo loss due to high
energy intake
= farrowing (carrying) less than 5 piglets is indicative of embryo death after the time of
attachment (a minimum of 4 embryos must be present at the time of attachment for
pregnancy to continue)
= to increase colostral antibodies, the gilt or sow can be immunized during the last 6 weeks
of gestation → immunization program can include vaccination against transmissible
gastroenteritis, E. coli, atrophic rhinitis, erysipelas and other vaccines according the
disease situation in the individual farm

Pregnancy determination
Female does not return to estrus in 18-25 days (this is 75-85% accurate)
Ultrasonography = generally used at 30-75 days for determination of pregnancy
3 types can be used:
a. pulse echo (A-mode) = amplitude depth = emitting ultrasound waves from a hand-
hold transducer placed on the skin in the flank area → reflected waves
from the fluid- filled area (developing fetus) are picked up by the
transducer and converted into either audible or visual signal
b. Doppler = detect changes in sound frequency (fluid movement) using an audible
signal
c. real time = involves visualization of a two-dimensional image on a screen directly
under the transducer → can be used as early as 18 days after breeding
Rectal palpation can be used to confirm pregnancy >35 days gestation → the examiner palpates
for fremitus, size, position of the medial uterine artery in relation to the external iliac artery,
tone and tension of the cervix and weight and content of the uterus
Hormonal assay (not economic) = estrone glucuronide, progesterone, prostaglandin)
Vaginal biopsy (not economic)
 Test Days after service Comments
Earliest Latest Optimum
External physical 42 Term >55 (gilts) Inexpensive confirmation of late
signs >84 (sows) pregnancy
No return to estrus Daily --- Daily An-estrus and delayed returns
testing 18- testing 18- result in problems
25 30
Rectal palpation 18 Term 28-term Gilts to small – can check genital
organs of empty sows
Blood progesterone 17 Term 17-20 False positive can be a problem
Estrone sulfate 18 77-term 25-29 Also useful to diagnose embryo
death
A-mode ultrasound 23 85 30-70 Quick, easy test but false positive
a problem
Doppler ultrasound – 21 Term 30-40 Prolonged use distressing to ears
uterine artery pulse
Doppler ultrasound – 28 Term 42-term Can confirm fetal viability and
fetal pulse predict farrowing date
Real-time ultrasound 18 Term 24-term Can detect mummified fetuses,
fetal age and health information
Parturition
Piglets are usually delivered at frequent intervals (15-20 min.)
The stillbirth rate is usually 5-10% → intra-uterine death is usually due to infection, incorrect
position in the uterine horn during delivery, anoxia (umbilical cord ruptures or constricted
or when there is a delay in birth canal), low temp. in the farrowing house, low hemoglobin
levels (<0.9 g/l) in the sow and prolonged parturition time (exhaustion, uterus atony or
dystocia) → assistant can be provided in the form of oxytocin inj. (10-30 IU), manual
removal of piglets and walking the sow for a few moments (assisting delivery can increase
the number of pigs born a live in about 1 per sow)
Farrowing can be induced by IM inj. of 10-15 mg PGF2α (or synthetic analog) → 80-90%
farrow 18-36 hours later (most within 22-32 hours) if the PGF2α is given at 112-113 days
of gestation (used so most farrowing will occur during normal working hours, avoiding
weekends/holidays)
By inj. 20 IU of oxytocin 15-24 hours after the PGF2α inj. we can concentrate the farrowing into
a shorter period → shortens the interval to parturition but can increase dystocia incidence
Dystocia incidence is low (1-2%) → uterine inertia accounts for most (like all polyocous species)
and other causes include fetal malposition, obstruction of birth canal, deviation of uterus,
fetopelvic disproportion and maternal excitement
Lactation peak s at 3-4 weeks postpartum, and poor lactation is a significant cause of improper
productivity of pigs (postpartum dysgalactia syndrome)

Pre-weaning mortality (prevention)

Supervised farrowing → Minimize stillbirth
Provide piglets with needed warmth
Observation of nursing activity
Prevent crushing and cannibalism
Other management techniques → Cross-fostering
Split-suckling
Well-designed farrowing crates and pens
Pre-partum vaccination of sows
Appropriate feeding program for lactating sows
Cleanliness
24 + 162. Reproductive management in sheep (in large scale herds) (M - 1495)
General
Influenced by both genetic and non-genetic factors:
Genetic = rapid improvement can be achieved by crossbreeding, provided
that the crosses are appropriate for the local conditions (mainly
advantageous under intensive or semi-intensive conditions in
which multiple birth are advantage)
Non-genetic = nutrition, presence of phytoestrogens, disease, management techniques, male
infertility and environmental factors such as weather
Reproductive efficiency is measured by weaning % (number of lambs surviving to weaning
divided by number of ewes mated and multiplied by 100) → acceptable figures depend on
the type of operation => weaning % range from 80-85% under range condition with
minimal shelter
=> -“- 170-200% under intensive confinement system
Fertility can be improved by improved nutrition, ram effect, improved preparation of rams before
joining, reduction in effect of phytoestrogens (resulting from resistance of ewes) and pasture
management
The cycle is influenced mainly by the photoperiodism, but also by geographic location,
environmental temp. and breed of sheep
Generally, the ewe’s reproductive performance are maximal at 4-5 years of age
The optimal time to mate ewe’s (naturally or artificially) is in the first half of the estrus period or
12 – 18 hours after the onset of estrus → heat detection requires the presence of a ram,
because ewes show no overt signs of estrus
Puberty age varies greatly and is influenced by breed, nutrition and season of birth → well grown
lambs (mainly meat breeds) can be mated at 7-8 month of age and 41-45 kg body weight →
it is desirable because ewes that cycle as lambs tend to have higher twinning rates as adults
and ewes that breed as lambs are able to produce more lambs than those bred at 2 years old
The ovulation rate (major determinant of fertility) is influenced by:
Breed = Finn-sheep consistently have multiple ovulation’s, while Marino ewes have lower
rate
Genetic factors = poly-genic trait
Age
Nutrition = rate is higher in heavier ewes
= nutritional supplements over a few weeks before mating (flashing) may increase
ovulation rate, and flashing with protein-rich supplement is effective in ewes
on protein-deficient pasture
= phyto-estrogens cause infertility (reduced twin ovulation, reduced transport of
ova through the oviduct and reduced transport of sperm through the cervix →
the basis is failure of fertilization resulting from failure of sperm transport
through the cervix, reflecting estrogen-induced transdifferentiation of the
cervix → the cervix histology resembles the uterus and the structure of the
cervical mucus is altered): Temporary → ewe graze on estrogenic-pastures
around mating time
Permanent → prolonged exposure to phyto-estrogens
Season = in all breeds higher in the fall
Estrus induction
Ram effect = introduction of rams or teasers (vasectomized or epididymectomized rams or
testosterone-treated wethers = male sheep castrated at an early age before secondary
sex characters have developed) to ewes isolated from rams, and their odor can induce
the onset of ovarian cyclicity → the response depends on the depth of an-estrus of the
ewe (affected by breed, season, nutritional status, age and postpartum status) →
responding ewe commonly ovulate within 48 hours of rams introduction but do-not
display estrus → ovulation is followed by formation of a normal or short-lived (5-6
days) corpus luteum → corpus luteum regression and most ewe display estrus (∼ 19
days after ram introduction) → ewe ovulate without displaying estrus and commonly
form normal corpus luteum → regression of this corpus luteum results in estrus (∼ 25
days after ram introduction)
= pre-treatment of ewes with progesterone for a long period (for 7 days) before ram
introduction results in estrus accompanying the 1st ovulation (ovulation rate is higher
at this estrusthan at subsequent ones)
Pre-treatment with progestagens (for 7-14 days) → followed by Eq chorionic gonadotropin
(eCG = 600-750 IU)
** fertility if influenced by breed, season, lactation, postpartum period, dry or suckling, nutritional
status natural mating or artificial insemination and number of inseminations (1 or 2)

Estrus synchronization
Can be performed in ewes undergoing estrus cycles by using progestagen-containing pessaries
(medicated vaginal suppository) or by inj. of PGF2α or its analogs (fertility is better using
pessaries than using PG, and may be further improved by using eCG at the time of pessary
removal):
a. progestagen-containing pessaries are inserted for 12-15 days → at removal, 400 IU of eCG
can be administered → estrus usually occurs on 2-3 days after removal
b. PGF2α administration 10-14 days apart → estrus in most ewe within 2-3 days of 2nd inj.

Prenatal loses
Embryo mortality = death of embryo up to the end of implantation (∼ day 40 in sheep) → it is the
main source of loss during pregnancy (death during the fetal period are usually few)
Because most of the death occur sufficiently early in the pregnancy to allow at least one more
service before the rams are removed, embryo mortality does not usually cause a dramatic
fall in lambing % → however, it delays lambing, increase its time distribution, reduces
twinning rates, or leave a few ewes barren (infertile)
Embryo death before day 12 does not disturb the normal cycle length, whereas death after this
time increases cycle length
The basal level of embryonic mortality (that occurring in the absence of recognized stress) has
been estimated to be 20-30% → the causes of this loss are unknown, although
environmental factors (as severe under-nutrition, marked increase in nutrition, Se deficiency
and high temp.) may increase embryonic loss above this basal level (ureaplasmosis may also
contribute to embryonic death)
Fetal death → results most commonly from infectious process almost always in middle and late
pregnancy
Pregnancy determination
Accurate determination may increase the efficiency of sheep operations by allowing the
separation of pregnant ewes for supplementary feed, lambing supervision and culling non-
pregnant ewes
Detection failure to return to estrus (non-marking by ram or teaser)
Measurement of plasma progesterone concentrations 18 days after mating (0 = non-pregnant,
pregnant = detection of any level)
Laparoscopy = (from 30 days) an endoscope for examining the peritoneal cavity
Abdominal palpation = from 100 days
Recto-abdominal palpation = (from 70 days) insertion of a probe into the rectum and palpation of
the abdomen while the probe passes in the uterus from side to side→ in skilled hands,
it is fast, accurate and fairly safe (may rupture the rectal wall and cause peritonitis)
Ultrasound pulse echo detection (from 70 days, false positive diagnosis are due to detection of the
bladder) = placing the ultrasound transducer anterior and lateral to the mammary
gland in the wool-less area of the right flank and directing the beam foreword and
upward toward the last rib
Real-time ultrasound scanning = (from 40 days) more expensive but can detect the number of
fetuses

Artificial insemination
The optimal time for insemination with non-frozen semen is 12-18 hours after the onset of estrus
When estrus has been synchronized or induced using progestagens and gonadotrophins and/or ram
effect, most ewe are in estrus within 36-48 hours and ovulate at ∼ 60 hours → insemination
should be done 48-58 hours after pessary removal for cervical insemination, or 60-66 hours
for intrauterine insemination with frozen thawed semen

Embryo transfer
Involves super-ovulation, embryo recovery, short-term in vitro (out of body) culture
cryopreservation (maintenance of viability by storing at low temp.) and manipulation and
transfer of embryo
25. Stimulation of the sexual functions by means of biological and non-specific methods in cow,
sheep and pigs (R&O – 37, M – 1462, 1485, 1495)
Light = onset of cyclic activity in mare, ewe, goat and cat depend on changes in hours of daylight:
Mare + Queen → stimulated to activity by prolonging photoperiod
Ewe + Goat → stimulated to activity by decreasing photoperiod
mare = Stabled at the end of December and subject to artificial light,
preferably of increasing length → Enable to advance the onset of
normal cyclic activity so that there is estrus and ovulation
= Both tungsten (better) and fluorescent lights have been used → 200
watt bulb in each loose box, which increases in duration of lighting
by 25-30 minutes each week → Reproductive activity will initiate
when mare receives 15-16 hours of light each day
ewe = The cycle is influenced mainly by the photoperiodism (but also by
geographic location, environmental temp. and breed of sheep)
= Controlled lighting → Enable to change the breeding season from
autumn and winter to spring and summer
= Light regimen which does not change in duration → Enable to ensure
breeding throughout the year (resemble equatorial climate)
sow = affect puberty only

Male effect – sheep = introduction of rams or teasers (vasectomized or epididymectomized rams or

testosterone-treated wethers = male sheep castrated at an early age before
secondary sex characters have developed) to ewes isolated from rams, and
their odor can induce the onset of ovarian cyclicity → the response depends on
the depth of an-estrus of the ewe (affected by breed, season, nutritional status,
age and postpartum status) → responding ewe commonly ovulate within 48
hours of rams introduction but do-not display estrus→ ovulation is followed by
formation of a normal or short-lived (5-6 days) corpus luteum → corpus
luteum regression and most ewe display estrus (∼ 19 days after ram
introduction) → ewe ovulate without displaying estrus and commonly form
normal corpus luteum → regression of this corpus luteum results in estrus
(∼ 25 days after ram introduction)
sow = “boar effect” is the most influencing management factor
= strongest when ♀ are exposed to sight, sound, touch and smell of a mature boar
(direct contact → decreases as the number of senses stimulated by the boar
decreases) → exposure of peri-puberal gilts (5-8 month) to a mature boar for
min. 10-15 minutes provides an adequate stimulus

Weaning of piglets (gilt/sow) = early weaning (as early as 10 days pot-partum) can result in post-
weaning an-estrus → to minimize this effect, it is recommended to :
a. wean primiparous sows not less than 14 days into lactation
b. wean sow in 2nd lactation not less than 12 days -“-
c. wean sow in 3rd or more lactation not less than 9 days -“-

Stress (gilt/sow) = changes of environment (forming new groups by mixing gilts from different pens,
housing → confinement to outside pens and vice versa) or transport → can
stimulate the onset of postpartum estrus
Nutrition = the effect in seasonally breeding species is not clear
mare = Stabling and provision of good feeding → Assists in stimulating the onset of cycle
activity in early spring
= Yarded mares are turned out to fresh spring grass → ∼ 80% come into estrus and
ovulate within 14 days
 = Barren (infertile) and maiden (of breeding age but not yet mated) mare maintained
in yards on adequate but mainly dried feed-stuffs during the winter and spring →
Remain in an-estrus longer than those which are kept out on grass (may be due to
larger content of β –carotene in fresh grass = precursor for vit. A except in cat →
essential for proper growth and maintenance of surface epithelium, bones and
light sensitive pigments in the eye)
sheep = improved nutrition (flashing) by increasing the dietary intake (mainly energy)
before the ewes are mated → may increase the number of follicles which mature
and ovulate → increase the number of born lambs
= flashing with protein-rich supplement is effective in ewes on protein-deficient
pasture
= there is no evidence that adequate feeding can advance the onset of breeding
season
= ovulation rate is higher in heavier ewes
= phyto-estrogens cause infertility (reduced twin ovulation, reduced transport of
ova through the oviduct and reduced transport of sperm through the cervix →
the basis is failure of fertilization resulting from failure of sperm transport
through the cervix, reflecting estrogen-induced transdifferentiation of the cervix
→ the cervix histology resembles the uterus and the structure of the cervical
mucus is altered):
Temporary → ewe graze on estrogenic-pastures around mating
time
Permanent → prolonged exposure to phyto-estrogens
Sow = “flashing” technique to increase the litter size is similar to ewe → it is generally
assumed that flashing gilts/sows 4-6 (10 in Merck) days before estrus increases the
ovulation rate
= pre-puberal gilts are usually fed a grower-finisher ration ad-libitum until they reach
90-110 Kg or are 5-6 month old → separated from growing pigs, placed in gilt-pool
pens and limit- fed a balanced ration containing 12-16% protein
= the primiparous (a ♀ which had one parturition) sow mast support her own growth
as well as maintenance and lactation demands while her feed intake capacity is not
yet fully developed → this problem can be avoid by breeding only gilts in good
condition, not-overfeeding during the first gestation, encouraging energy intake
during the first lactation (ad libitum feeding, high- energy diets, wet feed and
avoiding high temp. in the farrowing room)
cattle = the limiting nutrient in relating to reproduction in beef is energy (not so important
in dairy since most are fed rations that supply adequate energy during lactation) =
a. energy levels before calving influences when the cow returns to estrus
b. energy levels after calving influences the conception rate
= feed requirement vary during the reproductive cycle => see question 22
26. Stimulation of the sexual functions by means of hormonal methods (R&O – 38)
177. Hormonal control of reproductive performance in dairy herds
The hormonal methods can be divided to various groups:
1. Preparations which stimulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones
Ovarian steroid hormones (mainly estrogens) → positive feedback on the anterior pituitary and
hypothalamus
Naturally occurring and synthetic estrogens were used to stimulate estrus → direct effect in
stimulating estrus behavior and changes in genital tract, but they may also stimulate the
release of pituitary gonadotrophins
GnRH → used to stimulate the release of endogenous gonadotrophins
→ gilts = was used to induce premature puberty, following eCG administration
→ cow = wasn’t successful in controlling the time of ovulation, although it can be used to
stimulate the onset of estrus in postpartum cow
→ mare = wasn’t proved to be effective in inducing estrus during the seasonal an-estrus

2. Preparations which replace or supplement anterior pituitary gonadotrophins

It is possible to extract purified FSH and LH from pituitary glands obtained at abattoirs → but it is
too expensive and time consuming for obtaining commercial quantities and there is a danger
of transmitting diseases (as BSE)
eCG → (equine chorionic gonadotrophin) obtained from the serum of pregnant mares → mainly
FSH-like, but with some LH-like activity
hCH → (human chorionic gonadotrophin) obtained from the urine of pregnant women → mainly
LH-like, but with some FSH-like activity
hMG → (human menopausal gonadotrophin) obtained from the urine of menopausal women →
high FSH-like action → used to super-ovulate cows for embryo transfer
eCG + hCG → eCG was used to initiate puberty in most domestic species and both have been
successfully used to manipulate cyclic activity
Mare = eCG does not appear to stimulate ovarian activity in mares in winter an-estrus (probably
due to that the dose required is very large and it is likely that eCG alone is not responsible
for stimulating the wave of accessory follicles during early pregnancy)
Cow = eCG administration to an-estrus cow → stimulate follicular growth and ovulation, but the
dose response is variable and can frequently result in multiple ovulation’s → thus, it is
necessary to withhold insemination at this induced estrus, unfortunately, in many cases the
cow will return to the an-estrus state
Ewe = the use of eCG alone to induce estrus in seasonally an-estrus ewes → not successful
= progesterone administration before eCG inj. → synchronized ovulation and estrus in
seasonally an-estrus ewes
= attempts to stimulate an early return to cyclic activity in lactating ewe → difficult, mainly
in those lactating heavily (presumably owing to the effect of prolactin release)
Su = an-estrus gilts and sows → eCG alone or in combination with hCG will promote follicular
growth and estrus → 2nd inj. of hCG 72 hours later will ensure that ovulation occurs
= the same technique can be used to synchronize cyclic activity, mainly if used in combination
with a progesterone or other pituitary-blocking substance
Bitch = combinations of eCG, hCG and estrogens to induce estrus in an-estrus bitch → usually
induce good behavioral response, but low number which ovulate and subsequently
conceive
Queen = mating queen cats with vasectomized tom, stimulating coitus by swabbing the vagina or
administration of hCG → induce ovulation → pseudo-pregnancy→ queen may not show
return to estrus for 4-8 weeks
3. Oestrogens
Synthetic or naturally occurring → used to induce estrus in an-estrus animals → in most cases
they have a direct effect on the tubular genital tract and on behavior, but it is doubtful if they
initiate ovarian activity and ovulation (in fact, large doses could result in pituitary inhibition)
4. Progestogens
Progesterone and pro-gestational compounds → used extensively in most domestic species to
control the estrus cycle, mainly synchronization within groups of female
Generally, the exogenous progestagens act in the same way as a corpus luteum → resulting in a
negative-feedback effect on the anterior pituitary and suppression of the cyclic activity
initiated by the release of gonadotrophins → when the source of progestogen is withdrawn
(or its effect declines) there is a return to cyclic activity
Mare Prevent race + jumping inj. 0.3 mg/kg Return to normal fertile activity 3-
horses from coming into BW/day 7 days after treatment ceases
estrus at an unwanted time
Stimulate onset of cyclic 0.044 mg/kg BW Good response when given in late
activity mixed in feed (in transitional phase from un-estrus to
vegetable oil) for 10 cyclic activity, when follicles are
days and then present (better results if increased
stopped day-light is used)
Suppress estrus (for shows or 0.044 mg/kg BW –
other functions) in feed for 15 days
Suppress estrus in mare with
prolonged estrus or other
aberrant (deviated) sexual
behavior
Control the time of estrus so Fed for 15 days and Come into estrus 2-3 days after
that effective use can be made then stopped treatment ceases
of a stallion
Cow = general use = suppress estrus (as in mare) or Synchronization for AI or to overcome
problems of estrus detection → treatment for 18-21 days
Synthetic substances Contain 3 mg progesterone→ on insertion, 3 mg Norgestamet + 5
(Norgestamet) for 18- mg estradiol are inj. IM as a 2 ml dose
21 days Come into estrus 4-6 days after treatment ceases, but the fertility in
the 1st estrus is lower than normal (may be due to impaired
sperm transport as a result of the atypical hormone balance)
Norgestamet and PRID contain (below) also oestradiol → used as
anti-luteotrophic and luteolytic agent
Subcutane implant of Implant removed 48-60 hour later→ followed by a double fixed-
synthetic progestogens time AI (48 and 60 hours later) → good synchronization and
+ inj. of oestradiol (at fertility (65% conception rate) and the main disadvantage is the
the same time) need to handle the cow a 2nd time to remove the implant
Progesterone releasing Stainless steel coil covered with an inert elastomer, placed in the
intra-vaginal device vagina (using a special speculum) → better when inserted on
(PRID) day 13-14 of cycle (and not days 2-4)
Contain 1.55 g progesterone→ absorbed and produce concentration
(in peripheral blood) comparable with max. levels of di-estrus
→ removed after 12 days and the cow comes into estrus within
2-3 days → good conception rate following a double fixed-
time AI (57 + 74 hours after removal)
Controlled internal T-shaped device containing 1.9 g progesterone → function like the
drug release device PRID
(CIDR-type B)
**By using PGF2α , at the time of removal of the implant (subcutane, CIDR or PRID),
synchronization approaches 100% → better results are achieved if the PGF2α is inj. 24
hours before removal
Ewe = general use = induce estrus in an-estrus during the non-breeding season and synchronizat.
of ewe already showing cyclic activity
= most pro-gestational substances are administered via the intra-vaginal route in the form of
impregnated sponges or tampons → we can use progesterone or its analogs, mainly
fluorogestone-acetate (FGA) and medroxyprogesterone-acetate (MAP)
= the progestogen is absorbed from the sponge in a sufficient rate to ensure a full negative
feedback effect on the pituitary function
= when intra-vaginal sponges are used outside the normal breeding season, it is necessary to
use eCG as a source of gonadotrophin at the end of the progesterone priming period
= the onset of normal cyclic activity can be determined by running vasectomized rams with a
harness or by using the rule-of-thumb calculation (from the lambing records of the non-
synchronized flock, calculate the date when 50% of the ewe had lambed → than, if the
sponges are not to be inserted earlier than 150 days before the same date for the current
year, eCG will-not be required) to determine if eCG is necessary
= the eCG dose should stimulate estrus and ovulation without causing super-ovulation →
opinion vary on the doses needed and the time of inj. → 48 hours before sponge removal
(the advantage is so small that the additional handling of the ewe does-not make it cost-
effective)
= fertility may be reduced if ewe are mated at the 1st synchronized estrus (may be due to poor
absorption of the progestogen from the sponge or to an effect of the abnormal steroid
balance on sperm transport and survival) → so, if the ewe fails to conceive at the 1st estrus,
there is usually good synchrony and conception rates at the 2nd
= attempts to induce estrus in the early post-partum and lactating ewe have been un-
successful (may be due to the influence of prolactin)
Goat = similar to sheep (sponges in conjugation with eCG) → initiate estrus during the normal
period of an-estrus (goat show intense estrus 36-48 hours after sponge removal)
= eCG doses = July → 500-600 IU
August → 500-400 IU
September → 300-0 IU
October onwards eCG is not required
= goats object to the insertion of the sponges (mainly the applicator) much more than ewe,
and in median goats it is better to use a finger and lubricant
Sow altrenogest/ 15-20 mg/day in Suppresses follicular maturation → no apparent
allyltrenbolone food for 18 days effect on the life span of the corpus luteum → good
(both sold in synchronization of estrus 5-7 days after withdrawal
oily solution) (breed differences in the degree of synchronization
→ good farrowing rate in cross-breeds)
Lower doses (2.5- Follicular growth is not inhibited and cystic follicles
5 mg/day in food) developed within 10 days after the beginning of
treatment (similar problem have been encountered
with other progestogens)
Bitch Megoestrol-acetate Oral (tablet) Postpone estrus in bitch when administered
Proligestone or inj. during an-estrus → can be maintained for over a
Medroxyprogesterone- year by inj. progestogens at intervals of 3-5
acetate months or after a 40-day course of oral
administration of tbl. twice a week
Prevent estrus from occurring at the first signs of
pro-estrus → a single inj. or oral administration at
a higher dose rate than for postponement, but for
shorter duration
 ** administration of progestogens at the time interval before the onset of the next
estrus, is rather un-predictable if treatment is not continued → furthermore, there is
good evidence that continued and frequent use of such preparations can predispose
to reproductive disorders, particularly cystic glandular hyperplasia of the
endometrium
Queen = suppression of estrus is desirable mainly for planing of litters throughout the year and to
allow the queen a period of rest from sexual activity after a litter and regain condition
before being breed again
= if a queen is allowed to call repeatedly without mating this may lead to considerable loss
in condition due to relative inappetance during estrus (mainly in oriental breeds, which
have short inter-estrus intervals and long periods of estrus)
= Proligesterone + Medroxyprogesterone-acetate (inj. progestogens)→ suppress estrus for
up to 7 months or more following a single inj. and can be repeated every 5 months to
achieve permanent estrus suppression (loss of pigmentation in the area overlaying
injection site is occasionally encountered)
= Megoestrol-acetate (oral progestogens) → administration of 5 mg as soon as signs of
estrus are observed, can prevent an individual estrus period (this method is less suitable
in cats than in dogs because of the very rapid and sudden onset of estrus behavior)
= Megoestrol-acetate (oral progestogens) → administration of 2.5 mg daily or weekly
(depending on whether treatment was started during the breeding season or an-estrus)
→ estrus postponement
= many queens treated with progestogens will show behavioral changes, mainly lethargy
and weight gain, and some queens may also develop endometritis or diabetes mellitus

5. Prostaglandin’s
Since the length of the inter-estrus interval in most species is controlled by the duration of the
lifespan of the corpus luteum, premature lysis, induced by administration of PGF2α or its
analogs, can be used to manipulate the normal pattern of cyclic activity
Since prostaglandin’s are abortifacient, they mast not be used in animals that might be
pregnant → pregnancy diagnosis if there is any doubt
The corpus luteum of mare, cow, ewe, goat and sow normally responds to the adminis. of
exogenous PG, but in bitch and queen, it is generally un-responsive – unless subject to
repeated doses
In mare, cow, ewe, goat and sow it is important to examine when the corpus luteum is responsive
or non-responsive (refractory in the beginning of estrus or already regressed under the
influence of its own endogenous auto-lysis) to exogenous prostaglandin → see Fig. 1.41
Mare = PGF2α or its synthetic analogue cloprostenol → the onset of estrus is generally well
synchronized (3 days after treatment), but the subsequent ovulation has a time spread of
7-12 days → improved by inj. of hCG or GnRH on the 2nd-3rd day of the induced estrus
= mare synchronization is useful mainly if the mare or stallion has to travel a distance for
service, it eliminates the need for frequent teasing of mare and also if the heat was missed
(especially foal heat) since it enables estrus to be induced prematurely and avoids the
need to wait for the next spontaneous heat
Cow = PG are used to synchronize estrus in groups of beef (cow and heifers) and dairy (heifers)
where detection of estrus is difficult → allow routine use of AI at a predictable time
(allows the use of semen from genetically superior sire → improved genetic potential of
offspring’s)
= 2 inj. of PGF2α or its synthetic analogues (cloprostenol) – given at 11 days interval (to a
group at randomly different stages of cycle) → all animal come into estrus 3-5 days after
the 2nd inj., and ovulate at about the same time → conception rates are comparable to
those following AI or natural service at a spontaneous estrus – if the cows are
inseminated twice at a fixed time (72 + 90 or 96 hours) after the 2nd inj. → see Fig. 1.42
 = the efficient of synchronization following the double inj. is usually much better in heifer
than in cows → it is not known precisely why, but possible explanation is the long-low
progesterone level occurring in up to 15% of cows (presumably the delay in the corpus
luteum reaching a sensitive stage → PG concentrations remain low for a prolonged
period of time after ovulation → interfere with synchronization)
= to reduce costs and to improve pregnancy rates → all animals in the group are injected
with PGF2α on the same day → observed for estrus during the following 5 days (cows
with a sensitive corpus luteum at the time of the 1st inj. will have an induced estrus 3-5
days later) → cow in estrus is inseminated as normal, and those not identified receive the
2nd inj., followed by fixed time AI → any individual showing estrus signs a few days
after fixed- time AI should be re-inseminated
Ewe = PGF2α or analogue given to ewe with a sensitive corpus luteum → estrus occur 36-46
hours after injection
= to synchronize a group at different stages of estrus → necessary to give two inj. 8-9 days
apart
= conception rates following natural mating are comparable with un-synchronized ewes
Sow = prostaglandin’s and their analogues are not luteolytic in sow until the 11th–12th day of the
estrus cycle → thus, it is not possible to devise a regimen of inj. that will synchronize a
group of animals with randomly distributed cyclic activity
= it is possible to prolong the lifespan of the corpus luteum with inj. of estrogens on days 10-
14 of the cycle → prostaglandin’s can be inj. after 5-20 days → induce estrus 4-6 days
later
= inj. of eCG or hCG at any stage of the cycle → produce accessory corpus luteum → inj. of
prostaglandin’s → luteolysis
Bitch & Queen = prostaglandin’s do-not cause luteolysis
6. Melatonin
The pineal gland controls reproductive activity in seasonal breeding species (as mare, sheep, goat
and cat) by secretion of melatonin as the daylight hours reduce
Mare = it has not been used successfully to modify seasonal activity because it would be
necessary to inhibit the secretion of melatonin or neutralize its effect to advance the time
of onset
Ewe & goat = (long day breeders) implant containing 18 mg melatonin (inserted subcutaneously
at the base of ear) → advance onset of breeding season by 2-3 month with good
fertility
= it is critical that male are sufficiently separated from female (out of sight, sound and
smell) for at least 7 days before the insertion of the implant → must remain
separated for at least 30 days, but not more than 40 days → male re-introduced→
peak mating activity occurs 25-35 days later
= melatonin should not be used in ewe lambs
7. Immunization procedures
Conjugation of a derivative of the natural ovarian hormone androstenedione with human serum
albumen → injected to Ewe twice (8 and 4 weeks before mating) and stimulate the
production of antibodies to androstenedione → binds free, naturally occurring
androstenedione in the blood → increased ovulation rate and number of lambs born by
about 25% (the precise mode of action is not fully understood)
Injected to Ewe twice → 8 and 4 weeks before mating (if the ewe was treated in the previous
season, one inj. only is required → 4 weeks before mating)
Mountain and hill ewe breeds should-not be treated because of the danger of pregnancy toxemia
(only ewe which are likely to be adequately feed during pregnancy should be treated)
27. The significance of the super-ovulation in the breed of domestic animals (R&O – 680)

Gonadotrophins → induce multiple ovulations in the ovaries of donor cow (super-ovulation) →

single embryos can be recovered and transferred to other cows 6-8 days after service at natural
estrus
Ovarian response to super-ovulation treatment is very variable both between animals and between
treatments of the same animal
The donor cow can be super-ovulated repeatedly at about 6-8 weeks intervals with no adverse effect
on subsequent fertility
Fertilization failure can be due to:
a. the substantial luteinizing activity of eCG and FSH preparations → can cause premature
ovulation → abnormalities of oocyte maturation and asynchrony between maturation of
the oocyte and the follicle → effect the viability of some ovulated oocytes
b. deficient sperm transport in super-ovulated animals → reduced number of sperm in the
uterine tube at the time of fertilization

Gonadotrophin treatment is initiated on days 9-14 (estrus = day 0) of a normal estrus cycle
Several gonadotrophin have been used to super-ovulate cattle:

eCG Single inj. of 2500-3500 IU has longer half-life in the cow than FSH or hMG →
require only 1 treatment, but its effect persists even after
induced estrus and in some cows embryo transfer is
adversely affected → poorer recovery rate of embryos
Equine FSH Multiple inj. of 20-24 mg
Porcine FSH Multiple inj. of 40-50 mg →
2/day for 4-5 days
Ovine FSH
hMG
↓
Prostaglandin is administered 48-72 hours later → cause regression of the mid-cycle CL and induce
estrus (usually 40-56 hours later)
↓
Normal manifestation of estrus → donor is usually inseminated twice (12-18 hours apart)
[the super-ovulated donor appear to be sensitive indicator of the fertility of semen → only bulls with
high fertility should be used]
↓
A modified phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) is used both for flushing the uterus and for storage
↓
Settling and aspiration or filtering (through a plankton filter) of the flushing medium
↓
Embryos are located with a stereoscopic microscope
↓
Embryos can be: 1. kept in PBS on the bench for at least 8 hours with no loss of viability
2. cultured for up to 48 hours with acceptable results on transfer
3. cooled to +4°C and maintain and maintained in a state of suspended development
for up to 3 days
4. stored for long periods by freezing
28. Morphological and functional changes of the corpus luteum during the estrus cycle in the cow
(R&O – 19)
Usually 1 follicle ovulates and 1 ovum is liberated after each estrus (twin ovulation in 4-5% of cows)
In dairy Bo ∼ 60% of ovulations are from the right ovary (in beef Bo the difference is not so great)
The ovulatory follicle is selected ∼ 3 days before ovulation = follicles grow under the influence
of FSH → one follicle obtain dominance and subsequently ovulate (un-known intra-
ovarian mechanism which does-not involve FSH suppression)
During pro-estrus and estrus the selected follicle enlarges and ovulates (ruptures)
Ovulation usually occurs in an a-vascular area of the follicular wall so hemorrhage is not a feature of
Bo ovulation (although there is marked post-ovulatory congestion around the rupture point and
some- times a small blood clot is present in the center of the new CL – as seen in PM
examination)
On rupture, the ovum (+ most of the follicle fluid) is expelled through a small opening in the follicle
→ follicle collapses (can be detected in rectal palpation)
The CL develops by hypertrophy and luteinization of the granulosa cells lining the follicle →
enlargement is rapid, and 48 hours after ovulation it attained ∼ 14 mm ∅ → at this stage, the
CL is soft, dull cream color and the luteinizing cells can be seen in the form of loose pleats
By 7 -8 day of di-estrus the CL attains its max. size (20-25 mm ∅), the luteinized pleats are
th th

relatively complete, the body comprises a more or less homogenous mass, it is yellow to
orange in color and its shape varies (most are oval, but some are irregular)
Some times the center of the CL is occupied by a cavity (4 mm on average – usually smaller but
occasionally up to 10 mm or more), filled with yellow fluid → in this case, a pin-head
depression in the center of the projection from the ovarian surface is the evidence of ovulation
(serves to differentiate them from luteinization of the walls of the follicle without ovulation =
ovarian abnormality)→ in the past, this cavity was described as cystic-CL, but Noakes says it
is normal
The CL maintain its max. size and appearance – until the onset of pro-estrus (∼ 24 hours before onset
of heat) → from this point it undergoes rapid reduction in size, changes in color and
appearance
By the middle of estrus, it reduces to ∼ 15 mm (its protrusion is much smaller and less distinct), its
color changes to bright yellow, its consistency becomes dense (invasion of scar tissue)
By the 2nd day of di-estrus, it reduces to ∼ 10 mm, its outlines become irregular and its color changes
to brown
By the middle of di-estrus, it shrinks to ∼ 5 mm and its surface protrusion is a little larger than a pin-
head → as it gets older – its color changes to red or scarlet → small red reminders of CL
persist for several month
29. Fertilization and implantation (R&O-51,P –586, 588, 589(t), 590)
Fertilization = Conception = the male and female gametes unite and form a zygote
Implantation = the attachment and embedding of the fertilized ovum in the endometrium
= before implantation, the embryo nutrition is provided by the zygotes own cytoplasmic
reserves and by the uterine milk = uterine secretion that contains proteins (18% in
mare, 10% in cow) and lipids (0.006% in mare, 1% in Ru)
= trophoblast = the peripheral cells of the blastocyst, which attach the fertilized ovum to
the uterine wall and contribute to the placenta and the membranes that
nourish and protect the developing organism → the inner cellular layer
is the cyto-trophoblast and the outer layer is the syn-trophoblast

Mating
↓
Spermatozoa wait in the ampulla of the uterine tube (oviduct) for the arrival of oocyte (although only
1 sperm is needed, it is estimated that ∼ million are needed to create suitable environment for
fertilization)
↓
Spermatozoa release proteolytic enzymes from their acrosome→ acrosin in Bitch +
Queen, and acid-phosphatase in Mare + Cow + ewe + goat + Sow
↓
Soften and loosens the layers of the cells covering the zona pellucida
↓
Ovum pass from the infundibulum to the ampulla, where fertilization (conception) occur → it lasts 6-
24 hours (depend on the species), during this time the ovum is activated and merges its cytoplasm
with that of the spermatozoa (the spermatozoa shades its tail and mid-piece after it passes the plasma
membrane and before the fusion)
↓
In the ampulla, fertilization is a multi-step process:
a. Physical penetration of the zona pellucida of the oocyte by a single spermatozoa
b. As it reaches the cytoplasm of the egg, the spermatozoa causes the regression of micro-granules
bordering the endoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane of the oocyte and at the same time,
receptors on the zona pellucida are changed and become un-responsive to other spermatozoa
(prevents poly-spermy which is the fusion of more than one sperm with a single ovum)
↓
Zygote which starts to cleave (divide) = about once a day during its passage towards the uterus (by
peristaltic contractions and ciliary movement in the uterine tube)
The variable duration of travel by the fertilized egg in the oviduct is determined positively by the
degree of activity of the tube muscle and cilia, and negatively by the muscle contraction of the
tube-isthmus or utero-tube junction (both positive and negative factors are probably influenced
by variable concentration of ovarian steroids and possibly by local production of prostglandins)
Arrival on day… Number of cells
Mare 5-6 Blastocyst
Cow 3-4 16-32
Ewe 3 8
Sow 2 4-8
Dog 5-8 16-32
Cat 5-6 8
**un-fertilized egg of Mare, remain in the tubes for several month, where they slowly
degenerate

↓
Further division and orientation and the morula (in the uterus), which becomes a hollow structure
(blastocyst)
↓
Up to the time of shading of the zona pellucida (at the 9th day), there is only little absolute growth of
the egg from its original dimension (∼ 1.4 mm)
From the time of its arrival to the uterus until attachment, the zygote is propelled or aspirated in the
uterine lumen, where it is nourished by the uterine milk
In polytocous species (giving birth to several offspring’s in one pregnancy), there is free migration of
embryos between the cornua, regardless the side of ovulation (the blastocysts are arranged
throughout the uterus so as to utilize effectively the uterine space)
In monotocous species: cow → such migration hardly ever occurs; ewe → occurs occasionally
↓
After the 9th day the blastocyst enlarges rapidly, and the embryonic attachment (implantation) occurs
at the following times :
Mare 25-30 days
Cow 12 days
Ewe 15 days
Sow 14 days
Dog + Cat 13-17 days
It connects between the trophoblasts (the peripheral cells of the blastocyst) and the uterine wall
(endometrial epithelium)
It is a gradual process, that is completed in ∼ 1 week in Bitch and Queen
∼ 2 weeks in Small Ru and Sow
∼ 4 weeks in Mare and Cow
The placenta can be classified according the degree of proximity of the maternal and fetal blood
circulation and distribution of villi (see question number 31)

Degree of proximity Villi distribution

Mare + Epithelio-chorial Diffuse placenta Villi are uniformly dispersed
Sow placenta The chorion is everywhere in contact with the
(simplest placenta) endometrium
Ruminant Cotyledonary Villi are grouped into multiple circumscribed
placenta areas
Placentome (cotyledon + caruncle)
Carnivore Zonary placenta Villi are disposed in the form of a wide
encircling belt
Further invasion of the endometrium by
trophoblast which is now apposed to the
maternal capillaries (placenta is partially
haemo-chorial because the main zonary
placenta is flanked by marginal hematoma–
in which accumulation of maternal blood
between the uterine epithelium and the
chorion, directly bathes the chorionic villi
that project into it)
Primates Only the tissue of the chorionic villi separate
the fetal and maternal blood
30. Placental development and placental function (R&O – 52)
Placental development
The allantois spread-out into the chorionic vesicle and makes contact with the chorion → fuses
outside with the chorion (vascular allanto-chorion), and inside it fuses with the amnion (allanto-
amnion) → the allanto-chorion eventually surrounds the allanto-amnion
↓
When the vascularization of the chorion by the allantois is complete (40-60 days in cow), it is ready
to participate in placental function (prior to this the embryo has been nourished through its
chorion and amnion by diffusion from the uterine milk)
In Ru, the allanto-chorion contacts the uterine caruncles, finger-like processes (containing capillary
tufts) grow out from the allanto-chorion into the crypts of the maternal caruncles (also
surrounded by capillary plexuses) → ruminant cotyledon (or placentome) through which takes
place nutrient + gas exchange between the mother and fetus (on average there are ∼ 120
functional cotyledons in cow and ∼ 80 in sheep → there can also be numerous functional
cotyledons in the non-pregnant horn, since the chorion and allantois extend into the non-gravid
horn)
Other species do-not have cotyledons and the villi are dispersed over the placental area
↓
During early development of Ru embryo occurs fusion between the allanto-amnion and allanto-
chorion → thus, where it lies over the amnion, the allantois is reduced to a narrow channel →
its shape resembles the letter “T”, with the stem coming out of the urachus, along the umbilical
cord and then diverging as the 2 cross-pieces over the lateral face of the amnion →
consequently, there is little allantoic fluid over the amnionic area (most of the fluid lies in the
extremities of allantois, which lies partially in the non-gravid horn )
A similar fusion takes place in pig (between the amnion and allantois)
↓
In late gestation in Bo uterus, with the increasing pressure of accumulating amnionic fluid, the
allanto-chorion tends to separate again from the allanto-amnion, so that the allantois may almost
surround the amnion → thus, the final arrangement of the 2 fetal sacs closely resemble that of the
horse (the amnion floats almost freely in the allantoic fluid)
In horse, the amnion, except for its attachment at the umbilicus, floats freely in the allantoic fluid
throughout gestation
In carnivores, as in the domestic herbivores, the allantois also grows out into the chorion, but only
the central part of it becomes vascularized and serves as a placenta
The amnion is surrounded by allantoic fluid, as in the horse

Placental function
Transport of nutrients from the mother to the fetus
Transport of excretory products from the fetus to the mother
Gas exchange between the mother and fetus (function as fetal lungs)
Hormone exchange between the mother and fetus
Mechanical protection of the fetus
Efficient barrier against the transfer parasites, bacteria and viruses, although some organisms can
pass (the basis for the differences in the “placental barrier” of different species depends on
the degree of intimacy between maternal and fetal placental blood vessels)
*** Co2, O2, electrolytes, hormones and water → move freely between the maternal and fetal
placenta circulation by simple diffusion gradients from high concentration to lower one
*** Amino acids, glucids and minerals → active transfer from low concentration to areas of higher
one (active transport requires energy)
31. Classification of placenta (R&O – 55)

Classification according to whether or not maternal tissue separated off with the fetal tissue at birth

Desiduate placenta Bitch + Queen

Non-desiduate placenta Other species

Classification according to the way the villi are distributed in the fetal chorion

Diffuse placenta Mare + Sow Villi are uniformly dispersed

Cotyledonary placenta Ruminant Villi are grouped into multiple circumscribed areas
Zonary placenta Carnivores Villi are disposed in the form of an encircling belt

Classification according the degree of proximity of the maternal and fetal blood circulation
(recognizes the phagocytic property of the trophoblast, or chorionic epithelium, that may be
exerted in tissues with which it comes in contact)

Epithelio-chorial Mare + Sow The chorion is everywhere in contact with the

placenta (simplest one) endometrium, and there is no loss of maternal tissue
Syn-epithelial-chorial Ruminant After embryonic attachment, a syncytiuma is formed
placenta on the maternal side of the placentome (cotyledon +
caruncle) by fusion of bi-nucleate cells derived from
the endometrium and troph-ectodermb → unlike
sheep and Goat, the syncytium in Cow is temporary
because the syncytial plaques are overgrow by the
rapid division of the remaining maternal epithelium
Endothelio-chorial Carnivores Further invasion of the endometrium by trophoblastc,
placenta which is now apposed to the maternal capillaries
This placenta is partially haemo-chorial because the
main zonary placenta (endothelio-chorial) is
flanked by marginal hematoma (the green border
in dog and brown border in cat) – in which
accumulation of maternal blood between the
uterine epithelium and the chorion, directly
bathes the chorionic villi that project into it
During parturition, separation of canine placenta
causes the escape of this altered blood from the
marginal hematoma → characteristic green color
to the normal parturient discharge
Haemo-chorial placenta Primates Only the tissue of the chorionic villi separate the
fetal and maternal blood

a
syncytium = multi- nucleated cellular mass produced by merging of cells
b
troph-ectoderm = the earliest trophoblast
c
trophoblast = the peripheral cells of the blastocyst, which attach the fertilized ovum to the
uterine wall and contribute to the placenta and the membranes that nourish and
protect the developing organism (the inner cellular layer is the cyto-trophoblast
and the outer layer is the syn-trophoblast)
 32. Placental hormone production (P – 598)
Progesterone and estrogens
In most animal (except dog + cat), stimuli from the endometrium and trophoblast stimulate formation
of the CL (CL only function is to secrete progesterone, and it regresses unless the animal
conceives)
From fertilization to implantation, ovaries (CL) produce the PG required for maintenance of
gestation
Goat, Sow and Bitch → the ovaries secrete progesterone throughout pregnancy and are essential for
maintenance of gestation
Sow → placental production of progesterone is not enough to maintain gestation after
ovariectomy
Mare, Cow, Sheep, Cat → placenta can supplement/replace the production of progesterone by the CL
Cow → the placenta is able to convert progesterone into estrogens (act with the progesterone to
produce an environment suitable for pregnancy)
Mare, Ewe and Sow → placenta is un-able to convert progesterone into estrogens
Mare → during the 1st half of pregnancy, the high level of progesterone is provided by the CL of
ovulation and afterwards by secondary luteinized follicles (the ovaries are stimulated to
produce a series of accessory ovulations, each followed by a progesterone secreting CL) →
during most of the 2nd half of pregnancy, the maternal (CL) progesterone level is low, but
the placenta produces metabolites (progestins) of progesterone (5–α− pregnanes, estrogens)
which replace the progesterone (after implantation, the placenta becomes an endocrine
organ) → 2 weeks before parturition, occurs a rise in progestins and progesterone
In most species, secretion of estrogens by the placenta begins only after the first 1/5-1/4 of gestation
From ∼ 8th week of gestation, mares placenta produces estrogens → excreted in the urine
The excretion of estrogens at ½ and near parturition is a reflection of correspondingly high plasma
concentrations of estrogens
Cow, Ewe → plasma estrogen remain stable throughout gestation and peak only just before
parturition
Goat → estrogens increase constantly → reach levels comparable with does in Sow and mare s few
days before full term is reached

Pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) = equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG)

Secreted by the endometrial cups in the fetal part of the placenta, in high concentrations during the 1st
half of gestation → has mainly FSH activity and stimulate formation of accessory CL in mare
It is a unique glycoprotein molecule, having both FSH and LH activities at a ratio of 10-30:1
Used in embryo transfer to produce super-ovulation → a single inj. of PMSG induces follicular
growth and ovulation in domestic animals (except mare, which only respond to equine
adenohypophysial extract and to FSH-rich human menopausal gonadotropin - hMG)
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Primates only → may be detected in urine
Produced by the trophoblast very soon after implantation → has luteinizing activity (show mainly
LH activity and maintain CL of pregnancy in primates)
Placental lactogens (PL)
Secreted by Cow, Ewe and Goat placenta throughout pregnancy, but not found in the placenta a few
days before parturition
Plays a role in the mammary gland growth in Ewe and Goat (not in Cow) and regulate maternal
nutrients to the fetus
Protein B (R&O – 84)
Unknown function → found in all animals (?)
Cow → secreted from the bi-nucleated cells of the trophoblastic ectoderm → found in serum from
day 24 after conception → can be used to confirm pregnancy, but since it has long half-life
it can also be found in serum many weeks post-partum
33. Placentation in various species of domestic animals (R&O – 58)
Mare
Much of the allanto-chorion and most of the amnion are contained within the gravid horn with a
direct continuation of similar width into the uterine body → the part of the allanto-chorion
which projects into the non-gravid horn is much narrower and is about 2/3 the length of the
gravid horn segment (in rare bi-cornual pregnancy the allanto-chorion occupies both cornua to
similar extent)
Projecting into the allantoic fluid are invaginations of the allanto-chorion → occur in proximity to
the endometrial cups whose secretion accumulates I them (their size corresponds with the
secretory activity of the endometrial cups →when distended with secretion, they are called
allanto-chorionic pouches) → they are few in number (no more than 6) and sometimes absent,
disposed in a concentric manner at the base of the pregnant horn, they are present from the 20th
week of gestation and produce eCG
The endometrial cups are formed from cells which invade the endometrium from the embryonic
trophoblast (they cause reaction in the maternal tissue → leads to freedom of the cups at day
∼140 ) → the cups have immunologic function in protecting the conceptus
The surface of the allanto-chorion adherent to the endometriom is red in color and has “velvety”
appearance and texture
The area adjacent to the internal opening of the cervix is devoid of placental villi → giving rise to the
so called “star”
The inner surface of the allanto-chorion (outermost when the placenta is shed) has smooth surface
Weight of fetal fluids (kg):

Gestation month Weight of total fluid (Kg)

1 0.03-0.04
2 0.3-0.5
3 1.2-3
4 3-4
5 5-8
6 6-10
7 6-10
8 6-12
9 8-12
10 10-20
11 10-20

Ruminants
Throughout the gestation the amnion enclosing the fetus, together with the larger portion of the
allanto-chorion, remains in the uterine horn corresponding to the ovary with the CL (a similar
“limb” of allanto-chorion projects across the uterine body into the other horn)
Most of the allantoic fluid gravitates in the poles of the allanto-chorion (lie in the horns) → the
uterine distention is the main clinical sign of early pregnancy
By the 3rd month, considerable fluid (up to 0.75 lit.) has accumulated in the amnion → gives rise to
the palpated in the pregnant horn
On the inner face of the amnion (mainly near the umbilicus) are numerous raised, rough, round foci
(amnionic plaque) → they are rich in glycogen, but their function is un-known → disappear
after 6 month of gestation
Towards the end of pregnancy, sooth, rubber-like masses float in the amnionic and occasionally
allantoic fluids (hippomans) → comprise of aggregations of fetal hair and meconium around
which solts are deposited from the fetal fluids → no functional significance
Cow = the total quantity of fetal fluid increases progressively throughout pregnancy (∼ 5 liter at 5
month and ∼ 20 liter at the end)
= throughout gestation the allantoic fluid is watery to urine-like
= in the first 2/3 of pregnancy the amnionic fluid is similar to the allantoic fluid, but in the last
1/3 it becomes mucoid (gives it lubricant property – which is helpful at parturition)
Sheep = the total volume of fetal fluids increases with advancing age of the conceptus:

Gestation month Amnionic (ml) Allantoic (ml) Total (ml)

1 3 38 41
2 169 89 258
3 604 131 735
4 686 485 1171
5 369 834 1203
**when twins are present the fluid volumes are approximately doubled

Sow =
The uterine surface of the allanto-chorion has small, round, gray foci (areolae) in which villi are
absent → occur opposite focal aggregations of uterine glands
Fetal fluids = allantoic fluid increases from ∼ 130 ml (at 1 month) → ∼ 200 ml (at the end) →
tendency to decline
= amnionic fluid does not increase over 20 ml (in first 2 month) → rises to a max. of 75-
200 ml → wide variation with tendency to decline

Cat =
Amnionic rises gradually to 10-15 ml → some decrease → slight rise just before birth
Allantoic fluid rises more rapidly → at mid-gestation higher than the amnionic (20 ml)→ declines to
∼ 6 ml at the end of gestation

Approximate length of blastogenesis and embryogenesis periods (P – 590)

Blastogenesis (days) Embryogeness (days)

Eq 12-15 15-60
Bo 12-15 14-45
Sheep 17-20 21-32
Goat 10-15 15-32
Su 10-15 16-35
Dog 14-21 20-30
Cat 11-17 18-22

Embryogenesis = the process of embryo formation (from the time the long axis begins to
develop to the time that the major structures begin to develop  than it
becomes a fetus)
34. Nutritional function of placenta, fetal nutrition and metabolism, course of the circulation,
cardiovascular changes
Nutritional function of placenta + Fetal nutrition and metabolism (P – 115, 597)

Before implantation, the embryo nutrition is provided by the zygotes own cytoplasmic reserves and
by the uterine milk = uterine secretion that contains proteins (18% in mare, 10% in cow) and
lipids (0.006% in mare, 1% in Ru)
After implantation, the embryo nutrition is provided by the placenta:
Co2, O2, electrolytes, hormones and water → move freely between the maternal and fetal
placenta circulation by simple diffusion gradients from high concentration to lower one
Amino acids, glucids and minerals → active transfer from low concentration to areas of higher
one (active transport requires energy)

Course of the circulation + Cardiovascular changes

In the fetus
Foramen ovale = open in the septum of the fetal heart → connects between the atrias
Ductus arteriosus = connection of the aorta and pulmonary artery

At birth, the “placental branch” of the fetal circulation is terminated, the umbilical vessels and sinus
venosus constrict, and their blood is infused into the neonate → loss of maternal oxygnation
causes asphyxia → triggers respiratory gasping and inflation of the lungs → functional closure
of the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus occurs after 1-2 days (permanent closure requires a
few weeks)
 35. Position of the fetus in the uterus (R&O – 224, P – 611)
Presentation = depending whether the head or hind quarters of the fetus appear first in the pelvic inlet
About 99% of foals and 95% of calves are presented anteriorly (higher % of posterior presentation in
excessively large fetuses, and much higher % in twin birth)
When sheep → single lambs show similar % of anterior presentation as cow
→ twins show considerable % of posterior presentation
Sow and bitch (polytocus) deliver 60-70% of fetuses in anterior presentation
In posterior presentation the hind-limbs may be extended or flexed beneath the fetal body:
Extended → little more dystocia than with anterior presentation
Flexed (breech presentation) → increased incidence of dystocia
Month of gestation Presentation
Cattle 1st+2nd No evident polarity
rd
3 Equal numbers of anterior and posterior presentation
4th+5th+half 6th Most in posterior presentation (between 5½ and 6½ months the polarity
becomes reversed)
End of 6th Frequently equal numbers of anterior and posterior presentation
Mid 7th Most in anterior presentation
Beyond 7th 95% in anterior presentation (the final birth presentation by the end of
the 7th month)
The natural forces which bring about these changes in polarity are not understood, but presumably
reflex fetal movements occur in response to changes in the intra uterine pressure due to myo-
metrial contractions, movements of adjacent abdominal viscera or to contraction of the
abdominal muscles
The higher % of posterior presentation in early gestation is the expected result of suspending an inert
body with the same gravity center → as the fetal nervous system develops (and with it the
sense of gravity), the fetal calf begins to show a reflex that tends to bring the head up → if this
assumptions are true, then posterior presentation should not be regarded as obstetric accident,
but a result of a sub-normally developed fetus or uterine deficient tone
Month of gestation Presentation
Mare Between 6½-8 ½ 98% assume an anterior presentation
Position = orientation of the fetal vertebral column in relation to the maternal vertebral column
The natural tendency is for the fetus to lie with its dorsum against the greater curvature of the uterus
→
Eq = upside down (ventral position) during late gestation → during labor the fetus changes
from ventral to dorsal
Bo = upright (dorsal position) during late gestation → maintain this relationship during birth
Posture = the disposition (flexion or tension) of the fetal head, neck and extremities in relation to the
body of the fetus
Normally, the head and fore-legs are extend in front of the fetus, and the hind-legs are stretched
behind
Bo in the last 2 month of gestation → anterior presentation and dorsal position with flexion of all the
appendages joints
Eq → ventral position with flexion of all the appendages joints
This disposition to flexion of appendages achieves the maximum economy of space → during
parturition (un-known mechanism), the hind-limbs become extended back and the fore-limb
become straightened in front of the fetus (the posture of the fore-limbs is necessary for normal
birth in cattle)
In polytocous species → normally, anterior presentation, dorsal position and extended posture (feto-
maternal relationship is not so exact → position of the comparatively small fetal limbs is less
important than in Eq or Bo, unless there is abnormally low number of over-sized fetuses –
where malposture of the limbs may cause dystocia)
36. Fetal growth rate, estimation of age (R&O – 61, 78)

See also pregnancy diagnosis in questions 42-46

Long bones length (conveniently radius and tibia) is a reliable indicator of fetal age from 50 days of
gestation to its end in sheep

Day after conception Length of radius Length of tibia

50 4.8 5
60 10 12
70 16 19
85 25 32
100 36 47
110 47 63
120 56 76
130 67 91
140 74 100
150 79 107

Calculation of the age of fetus (X) from crown-anus length (Y):

Calf X = 2.5 (Y + 21)

Lamb X = 2.1 (Y + 17)
Pig X = 3 (Y + 21)
X = developmental age in days
Y = crown-anus length in cm

Fetal body length in cow at various stages of pregnancy:

Pregnancy month Fetal body length (cm)

1 0.8
2 6
3 15
4 28
5 40
6 52
7 70
8 80
9 90
37. Morphological and functional changes in the organism of the dam during gestation
Changes in genital organs
Mare (R&O – 67)
Up to 40 day of gestation
Ovaries The CL can only be palpated (per rectum) for 2-3 days after its formation (therefore,
although it persists for 5-6 months, it can-not be identified)
Except in vary large mare, the ovaries can be palpated throughout pregnancy
Uterus During late di-estrus and estrus the uterine is soft and the endometriun thin → after
ovulation, tone ↑ and the uterus becomes more tubular (not marked in non-pregnant
animal and these changes reduce after CL regression at days 10-14) → CL persists and
the tone reaches max. at 19-21 days, when the conceptus causes a soft, thin walled
cornual swelling → this swelling ↑ slowly until about 30 days (organo-genesis phase) →
after day 30, faster growth and the swelling extends to the tip of the pregnant horn
The horn involved is not necessarily the one that produced the ovum because of the
extensive mobility of the conseptus within the horns and uterine body before
implantation (day 12-14), but most pregnancy are in the right horn
Twins are usually disposed at the base of each horn → 2 groups of endometrial cups (if both
twins are in the same horn, only 1 set of cups will be present)
Vagina Becomes progressively paler and dryer and is covered by thin, sticky mucus → the external
opening is gradually filled by a plug of mucus
Cervix Small, tightly closed and points eccentrically

days 40-120 of gestation

Ovaries Multiple follicular development → one/both ovaries become temporarily larger than during
heat → ovulation, formation of accessory CL and luteinization of un-ruptured follicles → by
day 100, follicular activity usually ↓ and the CL begins to regress
Uterus Up to day 60, the conceptus completely occupies the pregnant horn → after day 60, the body
and then the non-pregnant horn are invaded by the allanto-chorion membrane → the
pregnant horn changes from transverse to longitudinal position in the abdomen → by day
100, the fluid filled uterus is felt as a tense swelling on the pelvic brim

day120 of gestation – to parturition

Ovaries Becomes smaller and harder (regression of CL and follicles) and are drown forwards and
downwards by the gravid uterus
Uterus Increased tension of the utero-ovarian ligament and the anterior border of the uterus sinks
forwards and downwards (distension of the uterus by the fetus and fluids)
After 8 month, the fetus normally assumes an anterior longitudinal presentation
Except in very large mares, the fetus can be palpated during this period
Slight movements can be detected in the uterine arteries (less obvious than in cow)
Cow (R&O – 74)
Ovaries = CL of pregnancy (CL verum) persists at its maximum size throughout all gestation → can
be distinguished from the fully developed CL of di-estrus – only in PM examination (the
basic differences are that the CL vernum protrusion from the ovary surface is less marked
and the epithelium over it is white and scarred)
= as pregnancy advances, the position of the ovaries changes (but also in non-gravid animals
their location is not-constant):
Heifer → generally situated on each side (or slightly below) the cornua – at the level of
the pelvic brim, and may lie in the pelvic cavity
Cow (multiparous animal) → often situated in abdominal cavity, 5-8 cm in front of
pelvis
Due to the increasing weight of the uterus and hypertrophy of the ovarian and uterine
ligaments, the ovaries pass deeper and deeper into the abdominal cavity →
from the 5th month to the end, it rests on the abdominal floor
= generally it is possible to palpate the ovaries up to day 100 → beyond that it is too deep to
reach from the rectum, or may be confused with the cotyledons
Uterus
Time Fetus size
28 d. 0.8 cm Amnionic sac = spherical, ∼ 2 cm ∅ and occupies the free portion of gravid horn
long Allantoic sac = ∼ 18 cm long, width is negligible (fluid is insufficient to distend
it) and it occupies the whole gravid horn
35 d. 1.8 cm Amnionic sac = spherical, ∼ 3 cm ∅ and still occupies the free portion of the
long gravid horn
60 d. 6 cm long Amnionic sac = oval, transverse and ∼ 5 cm ∅ → the free part of gravid horn is
distended to ∼ 6.5 cm (2-3 cm in non-gravid) → may be recognized at palpation
80 d. 12 cm The free part of gravid horn is distended to 7-10 cm (the other one is only a little
long greater than normal)
90 d. 15 cm Uterine distension can be detected with accuracy and in most it is still high up (at
long the pelvis brim)
The gravid horn is ∼ 9 cm wide (the non-gravid ∼ 4.5 cm)
4th mo. Uterus sinks below the pelvic brim (the cervix lie on the pelis brem), and the
distension is less recognize (fluid gravitates towards the extremities of the horn)
Non-gravid horn = the extent to which the allanto-chorion sac occupies the non-gravid horn varies
greatly and in most cases it participates in placentation (its cotyledons grow and
the placenta is also connected to it)
Caruncles = hypertrophy during pregnancy, but vary in their size at various stages of pregnancy and
between individuals (probably due to difference in number) and also throughout the
uterus (those situated above the gravid horn are larger than those situated in the
extremities, and those in the gravid horn are larger than those in the non-gravid one) →
they are about 5-6 cm ∅ in the end of gestation (in rare cases, when the non-gravid horn
is un-occupied or it doesn’t play a role in placentation, they may be as large as 8x12
cm)
Uterine arteries = hypertrophy of the middle uterine arteries and a characteristic change in their pulse
wave (pulse changes and instead of being normal it becomes a “thrill” or tremor →
may be detected earliest at ∼ 86 day → it becomes constant after ∼ 175 day) → a
difference between the 2 uterine arteries is usually recognized from ∼ 100 day and
it indicates the side of the pregnant horn → in the end of gestation, the arteries
become greatly hypertrophied and tortuous (distinctly felt with thickness of a
pencil and a continuous tremor-like pulse)
Pregnant side = in dairy cows the right uterine horn is more often pregnant (∼ 60%), and the CL is
usually in the side of the pregnant horn
Bitch (R&O – 101)
Days Abdominal palpation
18-21 Embryos are felt as a series of tense, oval distensions in the horns (those situated in the
posterior parts are most easily palpated)
In fat or large bitches it is impossible to detect embryos at this stage
24-30 The distensions have become spherical and remain tense → easily recognized (some times the
posterior ones are smaller than those in front)
35-44 Remain spherical until day 33 → the constricted portions between the fetus units dilated,
becomes elongated and much of the tenseness is lost
The uterus comes in contact with the abdominal wall (visible abdominal distension in animal
with multiple fetuses) → palpation of the fetuses themselves is not-yet possible
45-55 Rapid increase in fetuses size, and it may be possible to detect the posterior situated ones
During this stage the uterus changes its position in the abdominal cavity → in animal with
multiple fetuses, each horn is an elongated cylinder (38-51 mm ∅ and 228-300 mm long)
and consists of two segments:
1. posterior which lie on the abdominal floor and pass toward the margin of the liver
2. anterior which lie dorsal and lateral to the other segment with its axis directed backward
– towards the pelvis
In the last stages, the uterus almost entirely fills the abdomen
55-63 Very easy detection (bitch fore parts should be raised – so the uterus moves back):
High in the flank we feel the one occupying the horn apex
In the midline just in front of the pelvis brim is one with its extremity in the uterine body
Digital extremities can be felt per rectum

Mammary At 35 days in un-pigmented skin, teat becomes bright pink, enlarged, turgid and they
gland protrude → persists until ∼ 45 days, when the teats become larger, soft and may
become pigmented → at day 50, hypertrophy of the glands → progresses, and at
parturition it comprises of 2 parallel, enlarged and edematous areas with a
depression between them, extending from the pelvic brim to the anterior part of
chest
2-3 days before parturition → a watery secretion → onset of milk secretion coincidence
with parturition
Similar changes may occur in pseudo-pregnancy

Sow (R&O – 74)

Day Cervix + vagina
0-20 No change can be felt
(similar to di-estrus)
21-30 Cervix is softer
31-60 Cervix feels like soft-
walled tubular organ
60-end
Cornua bifurcation Uterus Middle uterine artery
Becomes less distinct Slightly enlarges, ↑ to ∼ 5 mm ∅
with soft walls
-“- Walls are softer 5-8 mm ∅
Hard to define and ↑ to the size of the
thin walled external iliac artery
Piglets are felt here Larger than external
only at the end of iliac artery and show
gestation strong vibration
“Maternal recognition of pregnancy” = (R&O - 63)
Luteal phase of the estrus cycle is prolonged by the persistence of a single or a number of CL
→ progesterone concentrations remain elevated → result in negative feedback on the
anterior pituitary → inhibition of follicular development and ovulation, and prevention of
return to estrus (in poly-estrus animals = CL does not regress) → in many species the
placenta subsequently replace or supplement the luteal source of progesterone (see
question no. 32)
This maternal endocrine response is detectable before the blastocyst is attached to the
endometrium by microvilli (which directly or in-directly prevent regression of the CL)
Time of maternal recognition of pregnancy:

Day of recognition Day of definite attachment

Mare 14-16 36-38
Cow 16-17 18-22
Ewe 12-13 16
Goat 17
Sow 12 18
38. Signs of approaching parturition in domestic animals (P – 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum
Mare→ edema of the udder + ventral body wall and substantial increase in size (just prior to
labor)
→ changes from straw color to cloudy-straw color (in the weeks preceding foaling) → then it
changes to yellow or yellowish-white and becomes viscous → in most mares, 1-4 days
before parturition, the colostrum dries as a drop of wax at the end of each teat
Cow→ may not be shown until 2-3 weeks before parturition
→ replaces the sticky serum that can be discharged from the udder (just prior to calving)
Heifer → begins at 4th month of gestation, while in
Goat → udder may need to milked to relieve pressure – as parturition approaches
Sow → becomes prominent and distended during the last 1-3 days (mainly in gilts) and a few
drops of clear or straw fluid can be obtained by manual pressure → most sows will
farrow within 6-12 hours (up to 24) after free milk flow is established
Bitch → primiparous (1st pregnancy) = milk may be present up to 7 days prior to parturition
→ multiparous = lactation usually occurs 24 hours before parturition
Queen → begins to develop several days prior to parturition → visible growth in the last 72 hours
→ milk can be extruded 24 hours prior to parturition
2. Slight relaxation of the pelvic ligaments (sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic)
Mare → relaxation of ligaments is much less obvious sign of close parturition → some mare show
hollowing and softening of the area, accompanied by relaxation and lengthening of the
vulva – about 4 hours before foaling
Cow → (may be palpated) slight relaxation of pelvic ligaments and slight dropping of the muscles
over this region → slightly raises the tail-head (in some cow) → calving usually occurs
within 12 hours, when relaxation of the caudal border of the ligaments is complete
Ewe →a. during the last 3 days of pregnancy, 2-3 low- amplitude contractions per hour (in-
frequent), lasting longer than 5 minutes (usually relatively un-active uterus and cervix)
b. last 2 days, 2-3 motor-activity decreases for the next 12-24 hours, coincidence with an
accelerated softening of the cervix (increased distensibility)
c. last 12-24 hours, motor-activity ↑ progressively and becomes almost continuous shortly
before parturition
3. Rectal temperature
Mare + Cow → a weak indicator of parturition because of the great variability (during the last 48
hours before parturition) → Cow → temp. ↓ about 0.5°C
Mare → temp. ↓ 2-3°C
Ewe → ↓ about 0.5°C (below 39.4°C), 48 hours before parturition
Sow → ↑ by about 1°C (irrespective of the ambient conditions), ∼ 12 hours before parturition
Bitch + Queen → ↓ in at least 1-2°C, 24 hours before (difficult to detect because it is transient)
4. Enlargement of the vulva
5. Behavioral changes
Ewe → develop premature maternal instinct and an increased interest in the lambs of other ewes
Goat → restless and hollows out a nest
Sow → nervousness and nest building – 1 day before parturition → in confinement they are
restless, urinate and defecate frequently, respiratory rate ↑, bite the walls or surrounding
objects, scratch the floor and rearrange the bedding material → as farrowing becomes
closer, this excitement gradually decreases and the sow recumbent
Bitch → try to find a quite place in the house to establish their nest
→ large Bitches may dig a large hole (as wolves do)
Queen → try to find a quite place in the house to establish their nest
39. Hormonal control of gestation
Mare (R&O – 65)
Ovulation + CL formation → plasma progesterone ↑ within 6 days and persist at about this level for
the first month of gestation (frequently there is a transient fall at about 28 day, followed by a
rise)
In the early part of 2nd month the endometrial cups (∼ 12) are formed (invasion of fetal trophoblast
cells into the endometrium → densely packed tissue within the gravid horn) at the junction of
the gravid horn and body → produce eCG (Eq. Chorionic Gonadotrophin), which is first
demonstrated in blood 38-42 days after ovulation → max. at 60-65 days → after the max. it ↓
and disappears by day150 of gestation (eCG = PMSG = Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotrophin)
eCG has both FSH-like and LH-like activity → it is assumed that together with the pituitary
gonadotrophins, it provides the stimulus for the formation of accessory CL which starts to form
at 40-60 days of gestation (a result of ovulation like di-estrus CL or luteinization of un-
ovulatory follicles) → because of the presence of these accessory CL, the progesterone ↑ and
maintain this level for 50-140 days → than it ↓ and by 180-200 days it is very low and remains
so until day ∼ 300 → increases rapidly and reaches a peak just before foaling → after
parturition, ↓ rapidly to very low levels
Oestrogens concentration during the first 35 days are similar to those of di-estrus (although the
embryo produces oestrogen at 12-20 days) → ↑ and reach a plateau between 40-60 days at
levels slightly above those that occur before ovulation (the rise is due to the increased follicular
development associated with eCG production, and after day 60 it is due to the activity of the
fetus or placenta) → max. levels at ∼ 210 days (the main source is the fetal gonads) → gradual
↓ toward foaling, and a rapid one post-partum
The main estrogens in the mare are oestrogen and ketonic steroid equilin (oestradiol-17β ,
oestradiol-17α and equilenine are also resent)
Prolactin level show no-distinct pattern

Cow (R&O – 65)

The main source of progesterone is the CL, and the placenta produces only small amounts:
→ up to ∼ 200 days, removal of the ovary containing the CL or the CL itself (surgically or by
PGF2α ) → usually results in abortion
→ after ∼ 200 days until just before parturition → pregnancy usually continuous
Progesterone levels during the first 14 days are similar to those of di-estrus (in non-pregnant it ↓
from ∼ day 18 after ovulation) → slight ↓ and a rapid recovery→ remains at the same level up
to 20-30 days before parturition → ↓
estrogens concentration are low up to ∼ day 250 → ↑ and reach peak values 2-5 days before
parturition → rapid ↓ ∼ 8 hours days before parturition to the low levels immediately post-
partum
Both FSH and LH concentrations remain low during gestation with no significant fluctuations
Prolactin remains low until just before calving → ↑ and peaks 20 hours before calving → ↓ back to
the low levels by 30 hours post-partum
Bo. placental lactogen present in the dam circulation at ∼ day 160 of gestation → ↑ rapidly to max.
levels between 200 and parturition (its role is un-clear, but it appears to have prolactin and
growth hormone activities)
Ewe (R&O – 93)
In pregnant ewe, CL persists and peak di-estrus progesterone levels are maintained (in non-pregnant
cyclic ewe, level ↓ rapidly just before the onset of estrus) → gradually ↑ to ∼ day 60 →
considerable ↑ due to placental contribution, and the level remains high until the last week of
pregnancy → ↓ rapidly at parturition
Progesterone level is significantly higher in multiple pregnancy since in late pregnancy the placenta
produces 5 times more progesterone than the ovary
Oestrogen concentrations remains low throughout gestation → start to ↑ a few days before
parturition → sudden ↑ at the time of lambing → ↓ rapidly post-partum
Prolactin level fluctuate during pregnancy → start to ↑ towards the end and peaks on the lambing
day
Placental lactogen can be detected from 48 hours of gestation → ↑ and reaches peak by ∼ day 140→
gradually ↓ until lambing (its role is still un-clear, and it may have a role in the luteotrophic
complex and in controlling fetal growth and mammary development)
Bilateral ovariectomy after 55 days will-not result in abortion, since by this stage the placenta
produces most of the progesterone (but we must remember that the CL persists throughout
gestation and regresses only at the time of parturition)

Goat (R&O – 94)

As in ewe, in pregnant goat, CL persists and progesterone levels ↑until a plateau is reached (in non-
pregnant goat, level ↓ around the time of estrus) → ↓ rapidly a few days before parturition
Total estrogens are much higher than those in ewe = they gradually ↑ from days 30-40 of gestation
(in ewe they remain low until a few days before parturition) → peak values just before
parturition (in ewe there is sudden ↑ at the time of lambing)
Prolactin levels remain low during gestation → ↑ rapidly just before parturition
Bilateral ovariectomy at any stage of gestation will result in loss of pregnancy (unlike ewe, where
bilateral ovariectomy after day 55 will-not result in abortion) → the ovary is the main source
for progesterone

Sow (R&O – 89)

In non-pregnant sow, progesterone concentration falls rapidly 15-16 days after estrus, but in
pregnant sow – the CL persists and the progesterone level remains elevated → this level
persists most gestation (although a slight fall on day 24) → ↓ rapidly just before parturition
The ovaries and CL are always necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy and the number of
embryos does-not influence the progesterone concentration
Total oestrogen concentrations remain constant during pregnancy → ↑ 2-3 weeks before parturition
and peak values a few days before parturition → ↓ rapidly after parturition
Bitch (R&O – 98)
In pregnant bitch, progesterone levels are similar to those of non-pregnant (in non-pregnant bitch,
luteal phase is prolonged and progesterone levels persist for 70-80 days) → for this reason
can-not be used for pregnancy diagnosis
From ∼ day 30 of gestation there is gradual ↓ in progesterone, so by ∼ day 60 levels are very low →
sudden ↓ just before parturition → zero level just after parturition (in non-pregnant there is-no
rapid ↓ and low levels of progesterone persist)
Total oestrogen concentrations are slightly higher in pregnant than in the non-pregnant, with
evidence of some ↑ at the time of implantation → remain constant during the rest of gestation
→ ↓ 2 days before parturition and reach the non-pregnant levels by the day of parturition
Prolactin ↑ during the first half of the luteal phase in both pregnant and non-pregnant → much
greater ↑ in the second half of the pregnant → sudden ↑ during the rapid ↓ in progesterone (1-2
days before parturition)
Relaxin can be detected in Labrador and Beagle at 20-30 days of lactation (absent in non-pregnant
bitches at all stages of reproductive cycle)
The ovaries are always necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy, and even their removal at day 56
will result in abortion

Queen (R&O – 99)

Ovulation occur 23-30 hours after mating → progesterone levels ↑ rapidly → peak values at 1-4
weeks of gestation → levels gradually ↓ → ↓ rapidly during the last 2 days of gestation
Cats are un-usual in that queen may continue to display estrus behavior and accept mating, even
though ovulation may have occurred and there is significant production of progesterone
At 3-4 weeks of pregnancy occurs hyperemia of the teats (it is progesterone-dependent phenomenon
and seen also in pseudo pregnancy)
There is conflicting evidence concerning the relative roles of the CL and placenta in the synthesis of
progesterone during pregnancy
Relaxin is produced by the placenta (contribute to maintenance of pregnancy by inhibiting
uterine activity) and appears during the 3rd week of pregnancy → ↓ just before parturition
Prolactin is produced during the last 1/3 of pregnancy → concentration ↓ at weaning
40. Clinical pregnancy diagnosis
41. Laboratory pregnancy diagnosis
Methods of pregnancy diagnosis are of 4 types:
1. Management methods = Failure to return to estrus A
2. Clinical methods = Vaginal = Examination C
= Biopsy
= Uterine artery (per vagina)
Rectal palpation = Follicles
Uterine tone
Conceptus D
Amnionic vesicle
Allanto-chorion (membrane slip)
Uterine horns
Caruncles/cotyledons
Mammary gland
Body weight
Abdominal ballottement
Abdominal palpation
Recto-abdominal palpation
Peritoneoscopy
3. Ultrasonic methods = Fetal pulse detector
A-mode (amplitude depth analyser)
B-mode (brightness) = real-time ultrasound or imaging
4. Laboratory methods = Progesterone concentration in milk or blood (plasma) B
Oestrogens in blood or urine
Identification of eCG E
Pregnancy Specific Protein-B (PSPB)
Estrone sulfate (oestrogen) in blood or milk (cow); urine or milk (sheep,
goat)
Vaginal biopsy
Radiography
Rosette inhibition titer (RIT) test
Measurement of serum proteins
Serum proteins = Fibrinogen
C-reactive protein

A. Failure to return to estrus → False positive will occurs:

a. Silent heat
b. An-estrus as a result of lactation or environmental factors
c. Prolonged di-estrus but has-not conceived
d. Prolonged luteal phase associated with embryonic death (pseudo-pregnancy)
e. Ovarian cysts
B. Progesterone concentration in milk
→ Reasons for false-negative results are:
a. Mistaken identity of the animal (on the farm or in the lab.)
b. Milk storage problems due to excessive heat or UV-light
c. Low progesterone production by the CL
d. Inadequate mixing of milk so that a low fat sample is obtained
→ Reasons for false-positive results are:
a. Animal with shorter than average inter-estrus intervals (when sample is taken 24 days after
insemination, if the cow is not pregnant she will already be in luteal phase of next cycle)
b. Embryonic death (if it occurs after the day when milk was collected)
c. Luteal cysts which produce progesterone
 d. Incorrect timing of insemination (if sample is taken 24 days after cow was incorrectly
inseminated in early or mid-estrus, than she will be in the next estrus – with a functional
CL and elevated progesterone concentrations)
e. Pathological prolongation of the life-span of the CL
C. Vaginal examination → false positive:
a. In early pregnancy the vagina is indistinguishable from that seen in di-estrus
b. Prolonged di-estrus
c. Pseudo-pregnancy (early embryonic death and retention of fetus due to persistent CL)
D. Palpation of the conceptus in Mare
→ false positive in rectal palpation:
a. Partially filled urinary bladder (during days 70-100)
b. An inflated large colon (during days 90-120)
c. Pyometra
d. Pseudo-pregnancy (early embryonic death and retention of fetus due to persistent CL)
→ false negative in rectal palpation:
a. Confusion over the service date (later than the one recorded)
b. If the uterus is not palpated completely
E. Identification of eCG
→ false positive
Embryonic or fetal death (once the cups are formed they will persist and secrete eCG even if
the fetus has died → regress only at the original time of regression)
→ false negative
Blood sample taken too early or too late
Production of low levels of eCG

Ultrasound methods
Fetal pulse detector
High-frequency (ultrasonic) sound waves emitted from a probe, placed in the exterior of the animal
or in the rectum, are reflected at an altered frequency when they strike a moving object or particles,
e.g. the fetal heart or blood vessels → the reflected waves are received by the same probe and the
difference in frequencies are converted into audible sounds
A-mode (amplitude depth analyser)
A transducer head emits ultrasonic sound waved and receives the reflected sounds, which is shown
as a one-dimensional display (on oscilloscope* or light- emitting diodes) of echo amplitudes for
various depths
* an instrument that displays a visual representation of electrical variations on the fluorescent screen
of a cathode-ray tube
B-mode (brightness) = real-time ultrasound or imaging
The probe* (transducer) contains piezo-electric crystals which (when subjected to an electric current)
expend or contract and produce high frequency** sound waves → the probe is applied to the skin
surface or inserted into the rectum, and the sound waves are transmitted through tissues → a
proportion of the waves is reflected back to the transducer (depending on the characteristic of the
tissue) → the returning echoes compress the same crystals → result in production of electric pulses
which are displayed as 2 dimensional display of dots on a screen → liquids are black (non-echogenic)
while solid tissue is white (echogenic) → gel is applied to the tissue to eliminate air (gas reflect 99%
of waves)

* linear probe = crystals arranged in side by side in lines → rectangle field

* sector probe = single crystal → fan-shaped field
** frequency = 1-10 MHz (lower frequency = better penetration, but poorer resolution)
42. Early pregnancy diagnosis in the cow (R&O – 80)
Method
Real-time ultrasound (direct
imaging)
Failure to return to estrus
and persistent CL
Progesterone concentration
in plasma and milk
Assay of pregnancy-
specific protein B (PSPB)
Palpation of the amnionic
vesicle
Palpation of the allanto-
chorion (membrane slip)
Uterine horns
Palpation of fetus when the
amnion losses its turgidity
Palpation of the caruncles /
cotyledons
Uterine artery (per vagina)
Estrone sulfate in blood or
milk
Palpation of the fetus
Abdominal ballottement
**findings in rectal palpation = the ease of palpation depends on the size of the cow, the degree of
the suspension of the uterus and the degree of relaxation of the rectum and uterine wall = see q.
no. 37
**hormonal control of pregnancy = see question number 39
Earliest time
13 day
21 day Failure of regression at ∼ day 21
21 – 24day Blood sample taken at ∼ day 21 after estrus →
progesterone remain elevated
Progesterone crosses the mammary and appears in milk
(fat) → closely follow the changes in blood and show
higher concentrations per volume unit than in blood
24 day Not very useful today
End of 1st Horns are gently palpated along their entire length → the
month amnionic sac is felt as a distinct, round, turgid object 1-2
cm ∅, floating in the allantoic fluid
33 day This method depends on the fact that in cow, attachment
of the allanto-chorion to the endometrium occurs only
between the cotyledons and the caruncles and that the
inter-cotyledonary part of fetal membrane is free
Pick up the gravid horn between 2 fingers just cranial the
bifurcation → gently squeeze the whole thickness of
the horn → the allanto-chorion is identified as a very
fine structure as it slips between the fingers before the
uterine and rectal walls are lost from grasp
35 day Unilateral corneal enlargement and disparity in size
Thinning of the uterine wall
Fluid-filled fluctuation of enlarged horns
45-60 day Amnionic sac becomes less turgid, and in some cases it
is possible to directly palpate the developing fetus
80 (90-100) First felt in the midline by passing down upon the uterine
day body and base of the horns (irregular folded surface)
85 day Hypertrophy of the middle uterine artery until presence
of vibrations (impossible in non-pregnant animal) →
become larger, but impossible to palpate once the has
sunk into the abdomen (between 5-7 month)
105 day Milk or blood → increases levels throughout pregnancy
120 day Per rectum
7 month Pressing the abdomen and flank with fists → the object is
to push the fetus (floating in fetal fluids) away from the
body wall and then identify it as it swings back against
the fist which is kept pressed against the abdominal wall
43. Pregnancy diagnosis in the ewe and doe (R&O – 94, 98; M – 1472, 1498)
Method
Rosette Inhibition Titer
(RIT) test
Progesterone level in milk
and plasma
Failure to return to estrus
Peritoneoscopy
Fetal pulse detector – rectal
probe
B-mode ultrasound sector
transducer probe
Vaginal biopsy (similar in
sow – question no. 45)
Estrone sulfate test in urine
or milk
Uterine artery (per vagina)
Fetal pulse detector –
external probe
Radiography
Recto-abdominal palpation
Palpation of fetus
Mammary gland
Abdominal ballottement
Earliest time
24 hours Determine the immunosuppressive potential
of anti- lymphocyte serum → applied to
determine the presence of an Early
Pregnancy Factor (EPF)
15 – 18 CL persists → progesterone levels remain
elevated
16 – 19 days Marking by ram → fail to be mark again after
16-19 days
17 – 28 days Direct inspection (under general anaesthesia) of uterus &
ovaries with laparoscope (endoscope)→91%accuracy
20-25 (35-55) 97% accuracy
days
30 days The method of choice → accurate + rapid for pregnancy
diagnosis (30 days) and also determination of the
number fetuses (optimal at 45-50 days) → the only
accurate method for detectioning the no. of fetuses
Performed about 20 cm cranial to the udder and across
the whole width
<40 days The stratified squamous epithelium of vaginal mucosa is
sensitive to hormonal changes during estrus cycle and
pregnancy → accuracy ↑ with advancing gestation (<40
days 81%, >40 days 91%, >80 days 100%)
40-50 day Its level increases 40-50 days after conception and
remains high throughout pregnancy
>50 days Palpation per vagina as they run outside the anterior
vaginal wall at 10 and 2 o’clock positions → some
enlargement after 50 days and 62% accuracy after 60 day
40-80 Applied to the skin surface of the abdomen just cranial to
the udder (using transmission-gel) → ewe sitting or
standing → characteristic sounds indicate the presence
of fetal heart or vessels (heart rate greatly exceeds
that of the mother, except in late gestation where it
can be less than the mother) → between 40-80 days
60% accuracy, after 80 days – over 90%
Between 80-100 days this probe can also be used to
differentiate between single and multiple pregnancy
(not the precise number of lambs)
70 days Accuracy ↑ with advancing gestation (66-95 days 52%,
>96 days 100%)
70 days Involves insertion of a probe into the rectum and
palpation of the abdomen while the probe crosses the
uterus from side to side
>100 days Through the abdominal wall
-“- Development in primipara (1st gestation)
Ewe stands normally and the abdomen (just in front of
the udder) is lifted repeatedly → the fetus can be felt
dropping on the palpating hand
44. Pregnancy diagnosis in the mare (R&O – 68; M - 1479)
Method
B-mode ultrasound
Failure to return to estrus
Progesterone in milk or
blood
Uterine tone
Palpation of conceptus
Identification of eCG
Oestrogens in blood
Abdominal ballottement
Oestrogens in urine
Vaginal examination
(speculum or manual)
Fetal pulse detector
A-mode ultrasound
**Follicles (found in rectal palpation) are normally present during the first 3 months of gestation
**Twin conceptus can be identified up to day 60 → after this, a single conceptus involves both horns
Earliest time
9 Black sphere of ∼ 3 mm ∅
16 days Marked mare (teaser stallion) → fail to be
mark again 16 days after insemination
16-22 days Levels remain elevated
17-21 days Uterine horns as tubular organs (if no-conceptual
swelling is palpable, then this tone should be
only interpreted as suggestive of pregnancy)
Uterine body and the non-pregnant horn remain tonic
until at least day 50 of gestation
17-21 days At 17-21 days it is a small, soft swelling of
2.4-2.8 cm or as an apparent ‘gap’ in the
otherwise tonic horn → at day 30 it is 3-4 cm
→ at day 40 it is 6-7 cm (tennis ball) → later
it is not possible to completely cup it in the
palm
40-120 days Blood sample
85 days Concentration exceeds the max. values
obtained in non-pregnant mares
∼100 days Pressing the abdomen and flank with fists
150-300 days
Vaginal mucosa is pale pink, mucus is scant
and the cervix small and tightly closed → the
opening is gradually filled with thick tacky
mucus → mucus plugs the opening and points
eccentrically
45. Pregnancy diagnosis in the sow (R&O – 90; M – 1494)

Rectal palpation
Day Cervix + vagina Cornua bifurcation Uterus Middle uterine artery
0-20 No change can be felt Becomes less distinct Slightly enlarges, ↑ to ∼ 5 mm ∅
(similar to di-estrus) with soft walls
21-30 Cervix is softer -“- Walls are softer 5-8 mm ∅
31-60 Cervix feels like soft- Hard to define and ↑ to the size of the
walled tubular organ thin walled external iliac artery
60-end Piglets are felt here Larger than external
only at the end of iliac artery and show
gestation strong vibration

Method Earliest time

Progesterone level in blood ∼ 16 days Level remains elevated
B-mode ultrasound 18 days
Rectal palpation 18 days
Failure to return to estrus 18-22 days Traditionally used but not-very reliable
Vaginal biopsy (similar to 18-90 days Histological assessment of the number of
ewe) layers of the stratified squamous epithelium
of the vaginal mucosa** (best performed 32-
35 days after insemination)
Oestrogen in plasma 20 days Detection of oestrone-sulfate in pregnant
animals (not found in non-pregnant) →
highest levels (and optimal time for
detection) is at 24-28 days
Uterine artery pulse 21 days
A-mode ultrasound 23 days
Fetal pulse detector 28 days
External signs 42 days
** Pro-estrus → estrogen predominate → rapid proliferation of stratum germinativum → so at estrus
there are up to 20 layers
From the end of estrus and throughout the luteal phase → progesterone predominate → number of
layers ↓, so by day 11-12 there are only 3-4 irregular arranged layers → only 2-3 layers in
late di-estrus
With the onset of pregnancy → progesterone domination continues → by day 26 the typical
histological picture is 2 parallel rows of epithelial cells with condensed darkly stained nuclei
→ this pattern persist until the final 3 weeks of gestation
46. Pregnancy diagnosis in the bitch and queen

Bitch (R&O – 101; M – 1506)

Days Abdominal palpation

18–21 Embryos are felt as a series of tense, oval distensions in the horns (those situated in the
posterior parts are most easily palpated)
In fat or large bitches it is impossible to detect embryos at this stage
24–30 Easily recognized (some times the posterior ones are smaller than those in front)
35–44 The uterus comes in contact with the abdominal wall (visible abdominal distension in animal
with multiple fetuses) → palpation of the fetuses themselves is not-yet possible
45–55 Rapid increase in fetuses size, and it may be possible to detect the posterior situated ones
In the last stages, the uterus almost entirely fills the abdomen
55–63 Very easy detection (bitch fore parts should be raised – so the uterus moves back):
High in the flank we feel the one occupying the horn apex
In the midline just in front of the pelvis brim is one with its extremity in the uterine body
Digital extremities can be felt per rectum

Method Earliest time

B-mode ultrasound
A-mode ultrasound
Fetal pulse detector
Mammary gland
Radiography
Body weight
Abdominal distention
Fibrinogen (serum proteins)
C-reactive protein (serum
proteins)
14 days Most accurate method for pregnancy diagnosis
18 days With external probe (do-not perform to caudal because of
the urinary bladder )
29 days External transducer, placed near the mammary
gland
35 days Become larger, hypertrophy of the glands
2-3 days before parturition→ a watery secretion → onset
of milk secretion coincidence with parturition
Similar changes may occur in pseudo-pregnancy
42-45 days Fetal sacs (23-25 days)
Displacement of intestine by gravid uterus
Identification of the uterus
Presence of fetal skeletons (42-45 days)
>5 weeks Rapidly ↑ according to the number of fetuses
(more fetuses more weight)
>5 weeks In multiple pregnancy (if only 1-2 fetuses present
or the bitch is fat or large→ distension may-not
be noticed)
Distention can also be caused by pyometra (during
pseudo-pregnancy), ascites, peritonitis with effusion,
splenic enlargement and neoplasia (liver, abdominal
lymph nodes or uterus)
Rise during pregnancy with peak values at 4
– 5 weeks (do-not occur in met-estrus in non-
pregnant bitches)
Rise in mid-gestation (probably due to
damage caused by implantation of the
fetuses)

Bitch is not poly-cyclic → pregnancy can-not be anticipated by failure to return to estrus

Pseudo-pregnancy is very common
The abdominal and subcutaneous fat depositions are often marked during pregnancy (stores of fat for
the subsequent lactation, which is lost again during nursing period)
Queen (R&O – 105, M - 1506)
Method Earliest time
B-mode ultrasound 1st week
Abdominal palpation 16-26 days Fetuses are identified as individual, turgid , spherical
swellings
Up to 13 days may be confused with fecal boluses
After 6 weeks, conceptuses markedly increase in size,
elongating and merging → more difficult to palpate
(but by this stage there is significant abdominal
enlargement)
Fetal pulse detector >3rd week
Radiography 42-45 days Displacement of intestine by gravid uterus
Identification of the uterus
Presence of fetal skeletons (42-45 days)

47. Length of pregnancy in various species of domestic animals (M - 978)

Days
Mare 330-340 (heavy)
340-342 (light)
Cow 279-292
Ewe 144-147 (meat)
148-151 (wool)
Goat 145-155
Sow 112-115
Bitch 58-70
Queen 58-65
48. Nutrition, handling and placement of the pregnant animals
56. Care of parturient animals
58. Periparturient care of the dam
64. Health management of the periparturient cow and calf in large herds

Mare (M – 1482, R&O – 159)

Mare should be taken to the foaling area 3-4 weeks before her expected foaling date, so she can build
up antibodies to the pathogens present in the environment (these antibodies will be passed to
the newborn via colostrum)
Foaling box-stalls should be large (at least 3.5x3.5 m) → walls should be of solid construction, free
of sharp edges and observation should be possible without disturbing the animal
Foaling area should have good ventilation and be well bedded with clean, dry straw
If the presentation is normal (two feet and muzzle at the vulva), then the mare is almost certain to
deliver the foal (an exception is dog-sitting presentation that only looks normal)
As soon as an irregular presentation, position or posture is recognized, or if no progress occur within
10 minutes of the onset of straining → vet. exam.

Cow (M – 1470, R&O – 159)

For nutrition, see question number 22
Animal should gain weight before calving, but over conditioning will cause:
Excess fat deposition in the udder → lower milk production
Excessive fat deposition in the pelvis → may result in dystocia
Calving sheds, small pastures or other calving arrangement → must be clean, dry and protected from
the weather (calving in clean area, separated from the rest of the herd helps to reduce disease)
In large herds, it is desirable to have several small calving pastures to allow weekly rotation to avoid
building of disease-causing organisms
When calving stalls are used, they should be cleaned + disinfected between calving
Close observed for labor (necessary to determine when delivery should be assisted)
Feeding pre-parturient cows at 1100 – 1200 am. and again at 930 – 1000 P.M → 75% of cows will calve
between 700 am 700 pm (problems are more likely to be identifies and assistance are more likely
to be available)
If after 12 hours of restless there is no straining or if a cow comes into a normal 2nd and there is no
progress after 1 hour of straining → vet. exam.

Ewe (R&O – 159)

For nutrition, see question number 24
Pregnant ewe should be kept in a handy yard or in a lambing yard or pan

Sow (R&O – 159)

For nutrition, see question number 23
Should be well washed and introduced into a farrowing crate – several days before the expected
farrowing → most farrow at night and there is great loss due to overlying by the sow (more
than ½ the deaths up to weaning occur 48 hours after birth)
49. Mechanism of parturition (P – 607)
On the basis of mechanical events, we can divide parturition into 3 stages:
I = starts with increasingly frequent uterine contractions, which raise the intra-uterine pressure and
causes dilation of the cervix → ends before the rupture of the allantoic membrane
II (fetal expulsion) = escape of the allantoic fluid and then amnionic fluid, and some vigorous
straining leading to the eventual delivery of each offspring → the birth canal includes the
cervix, vagina and vulva – each of which can expand sufficiently to accommodate the fetus
III = rupture of the umbilical-cord and expulsion of the fetal-membranes (placenta) from the uterus
**The II + III stages are repeated for the delivery of each fetus in the litter
**Any event occurring before the II stage is regarded as pre-partum, and any event occurring after
completion of the II stage is regarded as post-partum

See questions 51-55 for individual animals

50. Physiology of parturition – generally (R&O - 141)
Ewe
Before 120 days of gestation, most of the fetal cortisol is derived from ewe (trans-placental transfer)
After 120 days (20-25 days before parturition) there is dramatic ↑ in fetal cortisol concentration
(originate from fetal adrenal) → peak 2-3 days before birth → decline 7-10 days post-partum
↓
Last 10 days of gestation there is ↑ CRH (Corticotrophin-Releasing Hormone) secretion from the
fetal hypothalamus (and may-by also the sheep placenta can secrete CRT)
Endogenous opioids (effect the fetal hypothalamus rather than the pituitary), Pro-Opio-Melano-
Cortin (POMC) and arginine vasopressin may also play a role in stimulating ACTH secretion
since they increase towards the end of gestation
↓
Maternal cortisol ↑ only around the time of parturition, while at the same time, the binding capacity
of the fetal plasma increases and ↓ the amount of free cortisol in the fetal circulation → reduce the
negative feedback effect on the secretion of ACTH → ACTH secretion ↑
↓
With advanced age, the fetal adrenal becomes more responsive to ACTH and secrete
ACTH is one of the factors influencing maturation
↓
The ↑ in fetal cortisol stimulate the conversion (enzymatic) of placenta-derived progesterone to
oestrogen (cholesterol → pregnenolone → progesterone → 17α -hydroxy-progesterone →
androstenedione → oestrogen)
↓
The estrogens ↑ have 3 effects:
1. Oestrogens have direct effect on the myometrium and increase its responsiveness to oxytocin
→ oxytocin (together with mechanical stimulation) stimulate release of PGF2α from the
myometrium
2. Alter the structure of collagen fibers → softening of the cervix
3. Act on the cotyledon-caruncle complex and stimulate production of PGF2α (progesterone ↓
and oestrogen ↑→activate enzyme phospholipase → convert phospholipids to arachidonic acid
→ arachidonic is converted under the influence of prostaglandin synthetase enzyme into PG +
PGF)
The uterus produce 2 prostaglandins = PGF2α in the endometrium and PGI2 (prostacyclin) in the
myometrium (during fetus expulsion)
↓
Prostaglandins are soluble in fat and water so they can pass from cell to cell via cell membrane or
via extra-cellular fluid and have a wide range of action:
1. Smooth muscle contraction (PGF2α is intrinsic stimulation of smooth muscle) → force the fetus
towards the cervix and vagina where it will stimulate sensory receptors and initiate Ferguson’s
reflex** → release oxytocin ↑(posterior pituitary) → further stimulation of myometrial
contractions and release of PGF2α
2. Luteolysis → Progesterone level ↓ in blood
3. Softening of cervical collagen
4. Stimulate sooth muscle cells to develop gap junctions (areas of contact) → allow the passage of
electrical pulse and ensure coordinated contractions
** Ferguson’s reflex = stimulation of mechano-receptors in the vagina, cervix and uterus – by
mechanical distension
Cow
Between 150-200 days of gestation, placental estrogens act on the fetal cotyledons → release
PGF2α → CL regresses and the placenta produces most of the progesterone
The endocrine changes are very similar to those in the sheep and goat
Goat
CL provides the progesterone necessary for maintenance of gestation
Fetal cortisol ↑→ placental 17α -hydroxylase → diverts the synthesis of progesterone by the CL
into oestrogen → changes in oestrogen/progesterone ratio stimulates synthesis of PGF2α
(as in ewe) → luteolysis + further ↓ in progesterone (must disappear before parturition can
occur)
The endocrine changes are very similar to those in the sheep and cow
Sow
CL provides the progesterone necessary for maintenance of gestation throughout its entire
duration
Cortisol ↑in fetal plasma → maternal blood cortisol ↑, oestradiol ↑, PGF2α ↑ and progesterone
↓
The endocrine changes are very similar to those in the sheep
Mare
The mechanisms responsible for initiation of parturition are not well understood as those of
ewe…., however it is likely that the fetus is responsible for the initial trigger mechanism,
since the fetal adrenal undergoes rapid hypertrophy immediately before parturition and fetal
plasma cortisol levels ↑ nearly 10-folds during the last 8 days before parturition
In newborn, β -endorphin ↑ (produced in neural synapses, where they modulate the transmission
of pain perception → rise the pain threshold + produce sedation )→ may involve in
triggering parturition or are produced in response to the act of parturition (not fully
understood)
In maternal circulation, progestogens (progesterone + progestins) remain low from mid to last 2-3
month of gestation → ↑+peak 48 hr pre-partum → ↓ rapidly to low levels at time of
parturition
Oestrogen ↓ during the last days of gestation (in other species it ↑) reaching low levels at
parturition
Bitch
The mechanisms responsible for initiation of parturition are not well understood as those of
ewe….,
Cortisol ↑ before parturition → peak 8-24 hours pre-partum
Progesterone ↓ gradually from about 30th day of gestation → ↓ rapidly 12-40 hours pre-
partum (due to ↑ in PGF-metabolites 48 hours before parturition → release luteolytic
amounts of PGF2α )
Oestrogens remain at constant level throughout pregnancy → ↑ ∼2 days pre-partum →
reach non- pregnant values at the time of parturition
Prolactin↑ as progesterone↓ 1-2 days pre-partum (not known if prolactin plays a role in
parturition)
Queen
The mechanisms responsible for initiation of parturition are not well understood as those of
ewe….,
Progesterone remains between 20-50 ng/ml in the first 2/3 of gestation → ↓ gradually towards
parturition → just before parturition ↓ rapidly → almost zero at the time of parturition
Oestradiol ↑ slightly just before parturition
Relaxin
Relaxin generally influence the pubic symphysis, pelvic ligaments, cervix, myometrium, mammary
gland.
Sow = produced mainly by CL → stimulates cervix growth during late pregnancy, relax the cervix at
parturition (also influenced by oestrogen/progesterone ration), influence myometrial activity
(↓ frequency + amplitude of contractions)
Cow = produced mainly by CL and ↑ just before calving → cervix relaxation at term
Mare = produced by placenta → ↑ from ∼80 days of gestation
Bitch = produced by placenta → ↑ from ∼ 4 weeks of gestation and remain elevated until term
Cat = produced by placenta → ↑ suddenly from 23 days of gestation → peak at 36 days → ↓
dramatically just before parturition
Sheep = may-not be produced, so cervix relaxation may-not be relaxin-dependent
51. Normal parturition in the cow
Signs of approaching parturition – question no. 38 (P - 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum
Cow→ may not be shown until 2-3 weeks before parturition
→ replaces the sticky serum that can be discharged from the udder (just prior to calving)
Heifer → begins at 4th month of gestation, while in
2. Slight relaxation of the pelvic ligaments (sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic) = (may be palpated) slight
relaxation of pelvic ligaments and slight dropping of the muscles over this region → slightly
raises the tail-head (in some cow) → calving usually occurs within 12 hours, when relaxation of
the caudal border of the ligaments is complete
3. Rectal temperature = a weak indicator of parturition because of the great variability (during the
last 48 hours before parturition) → temp. ↓ about 0.5°C
4. Enlargement of the vulva

Parturition (M – 1470, R&O - 161)

I 1-4 (6) hours Uterine contractions + cervix dilation → passage of the amnion and part of the
fetus into the vagina
Great variation in symptoms = from none (mainly multi-gravid) to abdominal pain
(usually heifer)
Occasional straining
Food is only “picked” and irregular rumination
Animal may lower or kick at the belly, stand with back arched and tail raised, go
down and raise again frequently
Restlessness
Pulse may be increased
The passage from 1st to 2nd stage is not clear-cut (as in mare)
II Heifer 1-4 hr. Abdominal contractions due to the fetus in the vaginal canal → first appears a
Cow <3 hr. water-bag → end with the expulsion of the fetus through the vulva
Straining is less frequent and animal may first remain standing → generally goes
down during the passage of the head through the vulva→ remain recumbent
until the calf is born (usually breast recumbence, but may lie on her side)
Pulse rate ↑ to 100 or more
Less intense but of longer duration than in mare → longer in heifer than cow, and
male take longer than female
In twin birth, intense straining of the 2nd calf begins 10 min. after delivery of 1st
The umbilical cord ruptures as the calf falls from the vulva
III <12 hours Expulsion of the fetal membranes
post-partum Placenta separation slower in cow than in mare → this whole stage is longer, but
the process of expulsion is similar
It is normal for the cow to eat the fetal membranes
52. Normal parturition in the mare
Signs of approaching parturition – question no. 38 (P - 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum
Edema of the udder + ventral body wall and substantial increase in size (just prior to labor)
Changes from straw color to cloudy-straw color (in the weeks preceding foaling) → then it
changes to yellow or yellowish-white and becomes viscous → in most mares, 1-4 days
before parturition, the colostrum dries as a drop of wax at the end of each teat
2. Slight relaxation of the pelvic ligaments (sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic) = relaxation of ligaments is
much less obvious sign of close parturition → some mare show hollowing and softening of the
area, accompanied by relaxation and lengthening of the vulva – about 4 hours before foaling
3. Rectal temperature = a weak indicator of parturition because of the great variability (during the
last 48 hours before parturition) → temp. ↓ 2-3°C
4. Enlargement of the vulva

Parturition (R&O – 160)

I ∼ 4 hr. Beginning is best indicated by onset of patchy sweating behind the elbows and
flanks (occurs in most but not obligatory → begins ∼4 hours before parturition
and increases as the stages progresses)
Initially the mare yawns (open her mouth), there is no obvious indication of pain,
food is generally taken, respiration is normal, pulse is slightly raised (∼60
during all the last period of pregnancy) and temp. may-be sub-normal (36.5–
37°C) → as the stage advances, the mare becomes restless, tends to wander
aimless around, the tail is frequently raised or held on one side, there may be
swinging of the tail or slapping against the anus and kicking at the abdomen →
mare become very restless (twitches, standing on hind-limbs, going down on
knees or sternum and raising again, looking at the flank…) → the stage ends
with rupture of the allanto-chorionic membrane and the escape of urine-like,
allantoic fluid from the vulva
II ∼ 17 min. Starts by appearance of the amnion or beginning of forceful, frequent straining →
(10-70 min.) very soon after straining begins, the mare goes-down and lie on one side with
her limbs extended ( generally remains in this position until the foal is born) →
the appearance of the water bag (amnion) is quickly followed by appearance of
a digit and straining occur at regular intervals (each 3-4 powerful efforts are
followed by a period of rest of about 3 min.)
One forelimb proceeds the other one by 7-8 cm and this position is maintained
until the head is born (significant because it indicates that one elbow passes the
bony pelvic inlet before the other = minimum obstruction) → during its
delivery, the head is usually in oblique position but may be transverse (cheek is
lying on the limbs)
The longest and greatest effort is associated with the birth of the head → the chest
presents less difficulty → hips slip-out easily → usually the foal is born within
the amnion, which is ruptured by the movements of the fore-parts of the fetus
(respiratory movements may be seen within the intact amnion) → after foal
expulsion, the mare may remain lying on her side exhausted for up to 30 min.
As the foal is born, the umbilical cord is intact, and it ruptures (5-8 cm beneath the
belly) only as the result of movement by either mare or foal
III Within 3 hr’s No straining → expulsion by myometrial contractions → the membranes are
post-partum passed with the allantoic surface (smooth and shiny) of the allanto-chorion – on
the outside (indicates that the separation was complete before expulsion begins)
53. Normal parturition in the sow
Signs of approaching parturition – question no. 38 (P - 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum = becomes prominent and
distended during the last 1-3 days (mainly in gilts) and a few drops of clear or straw fluid
can be obtained by manual pressure → most sows will farrow within 6-12 hours (up to
24) after free milk flow is established
2. Rectal temperature = ↑ by about 1°C (irrespective of the ambient conditions), ∼ 12 hr pre-partum
3. Enlargement of the vulva
4. Behavioral changes = nervousness and nest building – 1 day before parturition → in confinement
they are restless, urinate and defecate frequently, respiratory rate ↑, bite the walls or
surrounding objects, scratch the floor and rearrange the bedding material → as farrowing
becomes closer, this excitement gradually decreases and the sow recumbent

Parturition (R&O - 166)

I Uterine contractions + cervix dilation→ passage of the amnion and part of the fetus into the
vagina. 60-75% farrow at night
II Abdominal contractions due to the fetus in the vaginal canal → end with the expulsion of the fetus
+ through the vulva + Expulsion of the fetal membranes
III Fetal membranes of adjacent piglets are usually fused → individual or aggregated after birth may
be expelled during the 2nd phase as well as after the birth of the last fetus (so it is un-realistic to
separate the 2nd and 3rd stages)
Sow in late pregnancy are mostly asleep in lateral recumbency → become restless 24 hours before
parturition (1st stage pains) accompanied by bed- making activity → the intense activity is
followed by recumbency and rest, but after some time – bedding activity resumes (there are
several alternating periods of rest and bed-making) → in the hour preceding the birth, the sow
settles quiet into lateral recumbence (sow usually remain in lateral recumbence but gilts may
get up after the birth of the 1st or 2nd , or change from side to side, or from lateral to ventral
recumbency)
After the pre-partum quiet period, there is intermittent straining accompanied by paddling leg
movements → passing of small amount of fetal fluid and marked tail twitching → birth of 1st
piglet → piglets are usually delivered at intervals of 15-20 minutes
The greatest effort is over the 1st piglet → next fetuses being expelled more easily
The allanto-chorion and amnion usually rupture as the fetus passes the birth canal, but
occasionally piglets are born within the amnion
Fetal membranes tend to be expelled as 2-3 masses of joined allanto-chorions, and one or more of
the masses commonly pass before all the fetuses are born, but the larger mass is usually passed
out 4 hours after the last piglet
After all the piglets have been expelled, the sow usually stands-up and micturates a large amount
→ lie down again (some times very clumsily) and remain quietly for a long period and allow
the piglet to suck
54. Normal parturition in the ewe and doe
Signs of approaching parturition – question no. 38 (P - 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum =
Goat → udder may need to milked to relieve pressure – as parturition approaches
2. Slight relaxation of the pelvic ligaments (sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic) =
Ewe →a. during the last 3 days of pregnancy, 2-3 low- amplitude contractions per hour (in-
frequent), lasting longer than 5 minutes (usually relatively un-active uterus and cervix)
b. last 2 days, 2-3 motor-activity decreases for the next 12-24 hours, coincidence with an
accelerated softening of the cervix (increased distensibility)
c. last 12-24 hours, motor-activity ↑ progressively and becomes almost continuous shortly
before parturition
3. Rectal temperature =
Ewe → ↓ about 0.5°C (below 39.4°C), 48 hours before parturition
4. Enlargement of the vulva
5. Behavioral changes =
Ewe → develop premature maternal instinct and an increased interest in the lambs of other ewes
Goat → restless and hollows out a nest

Parturition (M - , R&O - 166)

Course is very similar to cow, except that the incidence of twining and even triplets is higher
Spontaneous birth may occur despite retention of a forelimb

I Uterine contractions + cervix dilation → passage of the amnion and part of the
fetus into the vagina
II 1 hour Abdominal contractions due to the fetus in the vaginal canal → end with the
expulsion of the fetus through the vulva
III 2-3 hours Expulsion of the fetal membranes
55. Normal parturition in the bitch and queen
Bitch
Signs of approaching parturition – question no. 38 (P – 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum
Primiparous (1st pregnancy) = milk may be present up to 7 days prior to parturition
Multiparous = lactation usually occurs 24 hours before parturition
2. Rectal temperature = ↓ in at least 1-2°C, 24 hours before (difficult to detect because it is transient)
3. Enlargement of the vulva
4. Behavioral changes
Try to find a quite place in the house to establish their nest
Large Bitches may dig a large hole (as wolves do)

Parturition (R&O - 165)

I ∼ 12 Uterine contractions + cervix dilation → passage of the amnion and part of the fetus into
hours the vagina
Bitch is restless, refuse food and pant
Myoelectrical activity starts 12 days before parturition (3-10 minutes that recur at low
frequency of max. 2.5/hr) → 48 hours before parturition intervals are shorten to <3
min (correlates with the ↓ in progesterone) → frequency ↑ as progesterone ↓ 12-24
hours before parturition
II Abdominal contractions due to the fetus in the vaginal canal → end with the expulsion of
+ the fetus through the vulva
III Onset is indicated by straining (in most cases the bitch remains in her bed in sternum
recumbency although sometimes she may stand and move about during straining
efforts)
The water-bag of the 1st fetus appears at the vulva and attain the size of golf-ball → it is
generally ruptured by the bitch who licks vigorously at her vulva → delivery of the
head requires the greatest effort (as in other species) and in most cases the body
follows easily → expulsion of 1st fetus may take up to one hour, but usually much
faster) → as a rule, the bitch rests for a while after birth of the 1st puppy (lies and lick
the young which soon begins to suckle), she pays frequent attention to her vulva and
lick up any discharge, the umbilical cord is intact at birth of the puppy → quickly torn
by the mother (bites it away) → the fetal membranes are expelled in 10-15 minutes
and are promptly eaten by the bitch → straining starts-again after some time (½-2
hours) → time needed for delivery of 2nd fetus is usually shorter → may be followed
by rest or by birth of the 3rd puppy
The stage of expulsion of the fetuses is most variable (one bitch may have her 1st puppy
and then rest for several hours, then deliver 2-3 more very quickly and then rest again
before expelling several more; another bitch may expel the fetuses at fairly regular
intervals) → there is no-rule
Expulsion of the fetal membranes is also irregular
Unlike sow, there is tendency to expel puppies from alternate horns
The total time of this stage depends on the number of fetuses, but when the litter is within
the usual limits (4-8) it takes ∼6 hours
In bitch, much of the uterine discharge is dark-green color
Queen
Signs of approaching parturition – question no. 38 (P – 606)
1. Mammary development (enlargement) and Secretion of colostrum = begins to develop
several days prior to parturition → visible growth in the last 72 hours → milk can be
extruded 24 hours prior to parturition
2. Rectal temperature = ↓ in at least 1-2°C, 24 hours before (difficult to detect because it is transient)
3. Enlargement of the vulva
4. Behavioral changes = try to find a quite place in the house to establish their nest

Parturition (R&O - 166)

I Uterine contractions + cervix dilation → passage of the amnion and part of the fetus into the
vagina
Restless, frequently visiting the site selected for parturition or hiding in it, occasionally lying
down and straining un-productively
II Abdominal contractions due to the fetus in the vaginal canal → end with the expulsion of the
+ fetus through the vulva
III Begins with straining in lateral recumbency → expulsion of the kittens is usually rapid with
short intervals between each birth and completed within a few hours (pattern of fetal
expulsion may be much more variable and in some cases part of the litter is born on one day
and the reminder 24 hours or more later → if the queen is alarmed it may disrupt the pattern
of birth, and she may move the kittens already born to a new place before resuming
parturition
The placenta are usually expelled still attached to the fetuses or shortly afterwards → quickly
consumed by the queen
Breakdown of the marginal haematoma results in pigment which gives a brown coloration to
the discharge
57. Perinatal care of the calf (R&O – 179)
64. Health management of the periparturient cow and calf in large herds
1. Onset of spontaneous respiration
Normally within 60 seconds of expulsion
If not = ensure upper respiratory tract is clear of fluid, mucus and fetal membranes (with the aid of
fingers or with a simple suction device)
= elevation of the rear of the calf result in escape of fluid
= vigor rubbing of the chest with straw or towels (stimulate respiration)
= portable oxygen cylinder and resuscitator
= Respiratory stimulants as coramine and adrenaline → not very useful
-“- a mixture of solutions of crotethamide and corpropamide
(placed on the tongue) → can help in some cases
If resuscitation does not result in spontaneous respiration in 2-3 min., it is un-likely that the
newborn will survive – even if there is good pulse

2. Thermoregulation
Following birth the body temp. of the newborn ↓ quickly – before it eventually recovers (the
degree of fall and speed of recovery very from species to species and with the
environmental temp.)
In newborn the metabolic rate is controlled by:
Metabolic rate = increases to 3 times the fetal rate soon after birth → depend on adequate
substrate and can only increase to a certain level (summit metabolism) →
since glycogen and adipose tissue reserves are low, immediate and
adequate food must be available
Reduce heat loss = newborn has little subcutaneous fat (poor insulation) and the body
surface is wet (heat loss due to evaporation) → heat loss is greater in
smaller individuals because of greater surface area per unit of body
weight
Thermoregulation can be improved by:
Ensure adequate food intake
Controlled environmental temp.
Reducing heat loss by quickly drying the coat

3. Umbilicus
Ligation is necessary (usually passive rupture or by bites of dam)
In foal, premature rupture must be prevented since the pulse can persist for up to 9 minutes after
expulsion (thereby ensuring adequate blood volume)
The navel should be cleaned with an antiseptic solution → dried → antibiotic spray or dressing

4. Protection from an excitable or vicious dam

59. Postpartum period in the cow (R&O – 171)
Involution (reduction in size of the genital tract)
It occurs in decreasing logarithmic scale – greatest changes during the first days after calving
Uterine (myometrial) contractions continue for several days (help to expel fluid and tissue debris)
Shrinking and atrophy of uterus, horns, cervix………. and myofibrils reduce in size
There is positive correlation between prostaglandin and concentration and diameter of the uterine
horn (higher levels of PG more rapid involution)
Factors influencing the puerperium:
1. Age = involution is more rapid in primipara (1st parturition) than pluripara
2. Season of year = involution is more rapid in spring and summer
3. Suckling/milking = results are contradictory (may be breed dependent)
4. Climate = heat stress → accelerate and inhibit the speed of involution
5. Peri-parturient abnormalities = dystochia, retained placenta, hypo-calcemia, ketosis, twin
calves and metritis → delay involution
6. Delayed return to cyclic ovarian activity = inhibit involution

Restoration of endometrium
Although placentation in cow is considered non-deciduous (in human + primates, the endometrium
shade all but the deepest layer after birth), there is a noticeable loss of fluid and tissue debris
during the first 7-10 days (the discharge is named lochia) → contain fetal fluids, blood from
ruptured umbilical vessels, parts of placenta and parts of the uterine caruncles (degenerative
changes and necrosis of the superficial layers)
The lochia is yellowish-brown or reddish-brown and the volume differs between individuals → from
2 liters to zero (complete absorption of the lochia) → greatest flow 2-3 days post-partum, and
disappears by 14-18 days
Normal lochial discharge does-not have an un-pleasant odor
Caruncle and their blood vessels become constricted
Regeneration of endometrial epithelium (complete re-epithelialization takes more than 25 days)
Factors influencing the puerperium:
1. Retained placenta and metritis → inhibit healing
2. Ovarian return to cyclic activity → may have positive effect

Elimination of bacterial contamination

At calving and immediately post-partum, the vulva is relaxed and the cervix is dilated → allow a
wide range of bacteria to enter the reproductive tract (Corynebacterium pyogenes, E, coli,
Streptococci, Staphylococci…..) + the blood, cell debris and sloughed caruncular tissue
provide medium for bacterial growth → flora fluctuations due to spontaneous contamination,
clearance and re-contamination during the first 7 weeks post-partum (bacteria decrease with
time)
In most cases, the bacteria does-not cause metritis/endometritis
The main elimination mechanism is phagocytosis by migrating leukocytes → but also uterine
contractions, sloughing of carunclular tissue and uterine secretion assist in expulsion of
bacteria
Early return to cyclic activity is probably important because the oestrogen-dominated uterus is more
resistance to infection
Factors influencing the puerperium:
1. Magnitude of contamination = massive bacterial growth overwhelm defense mechanisms
2. Nature of bacterial flora
3. Delayed uterine involution
4. Retained placenta
5. Calving trauma to the uterus
6. Return to cyclic ovarian activity
Return to cyclic activity
Due to the prolonged period of inhibition during pregnancy (continuous negative feedback effect of
progesterone), the pituitary requires some time for recovery → due to the low or absence of
gonadotrophins, the ovary is relatively quiet and the cow is in an-estrus phase
Opinions vary about the 1st estrus post-partum → the first sign of estrus is not always a true
reflection of the cyclic activity (some show signs only at 2nd-3rd estrus)
Progesterone concentrations can be detected in milk → high levels at onset of cyclic activity
Anterior pituitary release FSH during the first days post-partum, so with sporadic release of GnRH
there is gradual rise in plasma FSH → causes some follicular development → result in negative
feedback by oestradiol and inhibin
The ability of the pituitary to release LH is much slower (although the early release of GnRH causes
some rise in LH, it quickly returns to basal levels)
Summery = immediately post-partum there are no-clearly defined episodes of FSH or LH activity –
irrespective of suckling, milking or other function → later, the level of FSH rises first
followed by LH
= in milking cows, due to increased GnRH levels → increased basal levels of LH (together
with increased frequency and amplitude of LH pulses) → peak in ovulation → after
ovulation there is a luteal phase which may be of normal length with return to estrus
after 18-24 days or it may be much shorter (these short luteal phase probably arise
because of inadequate pre-ovulatory development of the follicle so that it either
becomes luteinized in the absence of ovulation or luteinization is inadequate)
Most post-partum ovulations occur in the ovary contralateral to the previous gravid horn
PGFM (prostaglandin metabolites) return to normal levels before the 1st post-partum ovulation
Stimulation of the teat and milk removal cause a rise in glucocorticoids → suckling delay the return
to cyclic activity (may be by releasing opioid peptides which influence the release of LH and
GnRH) => prolactin has a similar role
Factors influencing the puerperium:
1. Peri-parturient abnormalities = may delay ovarian return to activity
2. Milk yield = contradictory evidence
3. Nutrition = inadequate feeding (mainly energy) during the dry period and after calving →
delay
4. Breed = longer delay in beef compared to dairy
5. Parity = delay in primipara compared with pluripara – up to 4th lactation
6. Season of the year = effect of photoperiod → darkness inhibit return
7. Climate = delay in tropical climates compared with temperate zones
8. Suckling intensity and milking frequency = the greater frequency of milking and intensity of
suckling (no. of calves) → the longer period of
acyclicity
60. Postpartum period in the ewe and doe (R&O – 177)
Very similar to cow → the main difference is that parturition is followed by a period of an-estrus
(seasonal breeders)
Involution
Rapid shrinking and contraction of the uterus (mainly during 3-10 days post-partum) → complete
involution by 20-25 days

Restoration of the endometrium

As in cow, there are profound changes in the structure of the caruncles with degeneration of the
surface, necrosis, sloughing and subsequent regeneration of the superficial layers of the
endometrium

Return to cyclic activity

Although in temperate climates ewes normally become an-estrus after lambing, there is evidence on
ovarian activity (a few days to 2 weeks post-partum) → follicular growth is common but
without ovulation (when it does occur it is usually associated with silent heat → failure of
follicular maturation and ovulation is probably due to deficient in GnRH → inadequate release
of LH to stimulate normal ovarian action)
61. Postpartum period in the mare (R&O - 176)
Puerperium is shorter in mare than in cow, with rapid involution and relatively good conception rates
at the first post-partum estrus
Lochia discharge is relatively slight in most mares and usually ceases by 24-48 hours post-partum
(although in some cases it can persist for up to a week)
Uterine horn shrinks rapidly (the non-gravid horn shrinks at a slower rate) → reach pre-gravid size
by day 32 post-partum
The cervix remains slightly dilated until after the 1st estrus
Ovarian return to cycle is rapid → foal heat 5-12 days post-partum (although conception rates at this
1st estrus are lower than at other times, a large number of mares are fertile – proves that the
endometrium is capable to sustain pregnancy)
Endometrium is fully recovered by 13-25 days post-partum
There is nothing comparable with the degeneration and sloughing in the cow → small amounts of
villous debris are frequently attached to the maternal crypts but are removed by autolysis →
the maternal crypts disappear as a result of lysis and shrinkage of the epithelial cells of the
endometrium, condensation of their contents and collapse of the lumen of the crypts→ by 14
days the endometrium is quite normal
As in cow, bacterial contamination of the uterus frequently occurs (mainly β− hemolytic Streptococci
and Coliform) → usually eliminated by the foal heat → if not, although may increase during
di-estrus, they usually disappear at the 2nd post-partum estrus
Placenta retention → delay involution
Exercise → hasten involution
The process is more rapid in primipara (1st parturition) than in pluripara
62. Postpartum period in the sow (R&O – 178)
It is important that the changes will occur rapidly, with a return to a normal gravid status, so that
pregnancy can be established as quickly as possible after weaning

Involution
Completed by 28 days post-partum

Restoration of the endometrium

One day after farrowing, the uterine epithelium is low columnar or cuboidal and extensive folding
that is present during pregnancy → at 7 days, the epithelial cells are very low and flattened and
show signs of degenerative changes (there is also cell division which is subsequently
responsible for epithelial regeneration) → the process is completed by day 21 post-partum and
is capable of sustaining pregnancy

Return of cyclic activity

Suckling and subsequent weaning have a profound effect on return to activity and other puerpural
changes in the genital tract (owing to the time taken for the completion of the puerperium →
the later the time of weaning and hence the later the sow is served, improve fertilization rates
and pregnancy rates) → in most cases there will be no return to estrus and ovulation until the
piglets are removed
In general, the later the time of weaning, the shorter the time interval to the 1st estrus
The time to the 1st ovulation can also be shortened by temporary removal of the whole litter for
varying periods during the day (partial weaning) or the permanent removal of part of the litter
(split weaning)
By 3 days post-partum, there is rapid regression of the CL of pregnancy and signs of cellular
degeneration
During suckling there is considerable follicular activity (sometimes associated with behavioral estrus
shortly after farrowing), but without ovulation → follicles become atretic
During lactation → LH secretion is suppressed (probably due to direct neural inhibition of GnRH) →
follicular growth and ovulation is inhibited
Irrespective of whether weaning occurred at 3-5 weeks, most sow show a pre-ovulatory LH peak
within 7 days of weaning (at the time of weaning there is transient rise in basal LH of about 2
days duration, but unlike cow, there is no consistent change in the episodic release of LH)
Prolactin concentrations are high during lactation → decline rapidly to basal levels a few hours after
weaning
FSH concentrations rise 2-3 days after weaning
Inadequate nutrition (mainly severe weight loss) and season of the year → delay onset of cyclic
activity
Exposure to a boar → accelerate onset of cyclic activity
63. Postpartum period in the bitch and queen (R&O - 179)
Bitch
Bitch is mono-cyclic → parturition is followed by an-estrus and the onset of the next heat is un-
predictable
Regression of the CL of pregnancy is initially rapid so → later it is much slower (still found 3 month
later)
The rate of involution is similar to other species, and by 4 weeks post-partum the uterine horns return
to their pre-gravid size
The lochia discharge immediately post-partum is very noticeable because of its green color →
changes within 12 hours to a blood-stained, mucoid discharge
In the non-pregnant bitch, the surface of the endometrium undergoes desquamation followed by
regeneration → repair completed by 120 days after the onset of estrus
After pregnancy and normal parturition → the time taken for regeneration of the endometrium is
about 134 days (desquamation of the epithelial lining of the endometrium starts at 6 weeks
post-partum and completed by 7 weeks → the whole regeneration process ends by 12 weeks)

Queen
Lactation will usually suppress estrus activity, but if the queen has no-kittens to suckle or only 1-2
kittens – she may show post-partum estrus 7-10 days after parturition
Quest. Merck Blood Remarks
115 T – 239-40
118-124 44-7 R&O - 389-95
125 739-42 1314-27 Hypocalcemia in Ru
126 733-4, 745-7 Hypocalcemia in Mare + Bitch
127 736-8 1343-53
128 461
129 1020-4, 1029
132 950 119-20, 1706-7
133 372, 455, 863
135 140
140 1034,1071 1066-9 Herpes-virus
145-146 1005-7
147 Silent heat
150 1018-9, 1038-40
151 1018
155 1027 R&O 405
156 997 R&O 396
165 984
166 987 1653
167 R&O 347
170 1020-1 618-23 Sow only
174 731 1354-8

Obstetrics and Gynecology – final examination

M = the Merck veterinary manual
R & O = veterinary reproduction & obstetrics (Noakes…)
CAR = compendium of animal reproduction (published by Intervet)
P = Physiology of small and large animals (Ruckebusch, Phaneuf and Dunlop)
T = current therapy in Theriogenology (David A. Morrow)
S = Slatter
B = veterinary medicine (blood…)
J = handbook of veterinary obstetrics – Jackson
66. Superfecundatio, superfetatio, pseudograviditas
Superfecundatio (R&O – 131)
Fertilization of 2 or more ova during the same ovulatory cycle, by separate coital acts

Superfetatio (R&O – 132)

The fertilization and subsequent development of an ovum when a fetus is already present in the
uterus, a result of fertilization of ova during different ovulatory cycles and yielding fetuses of
different ages

Pseudograviditas (R&O – 35, 36, 463, 476)

Mare = Describe a syndrome in which non-pregnant mare that have been served do not return to
estrus
Early embryonic death after 15 days of gestation with persistent CL-verum → prolonged luteal
phase, the cervix remains tightly closed and the uterus is tense and turgid)
If early fetal death occurs after formation of endometrial cups (at 36 days) → mare will either
become an-estrus or come into estrus (if it comes into estrus, follicular luteinization occurs without
ovulation and therefore the estrus is not fertile → last until the endometrial cups regress
spontaneously at 90-150 days because there is no-practical way of destroying the cups prematurely)
Goat = Persistent CL → accumulation of sterile uterine secretion in the uterine lumen (hydrometra)
→ cyclic activity stops and abdominal distension (variable degree) → pseudo-pregnancy
More common in older goats (incidence increase with age)
There appears to be an association to advancing the onset of cyclic activity before the start of the
normal breeding season (by using progestogen sponges and eCG)
If un-treated → pseudo-pregnant persist → goat will expel a large volume of cloudy uterine fluid
(cloud-burst) around the time of normal kidding
Treatment with PGF2α or analogue → expulsion of fluid and estrus in ∼ 4 days
Bitch =Most show pseudo-pregnancy during met-estrus, but sign and intensity are very variable →
termed covert (hidden) or overt (visible) pseudo-pregnancy
Overt = clinical signs range from slight mammary development and lactogenesis to bitch showing all
the external signs of pregnancy (including imaginary parturition, nesting, loss of appetite, straining,
emotional attachment to inanimate objects and heavy lactation)
There is no-difference in the progesterone concentration between bitches with or without signs of
pseudo-pregnancy it is likely that prolactin is responsible for initiating the changes → (there is
negative correlation between progesterone and prolactin)
Pseudo-pregnancy can be intensified or prolonged in bitches undergoing ovary-hysterectomy
Queen = Sterile mating which successfully induce ovulation lead to pseudo-pregnancy
During first 3 weeks of pseudo-pregnancy, progesterone concentrations are similar to those in
pregnancy → levels ↓ and reach baseline by 7 weeks → estrus will usually occur shortly afterwards
Nesting and milk production are un-common, but hyperemia of the nipples is usually evident
Appetite may ↑ with some redistribution of fat → lead to increase in abdominal size
67. Superestrus, graviditas extrauterina
Superestrus (R&O – 680)
Super-ovulation = accidental or planned production of more than one ovum at ovulation
Accidental = can occur when cows are treated with large doses of FSH as a treatment for an-estrus
Planned = Production of a number of ova from 1 cow at the same ovulation period (for embryo
transfer)
Induced by Gonadotropins (eCG, FSH, hMG…) treatment is on day 9-14 (estrus = day 0) of a
normal estrus cycle → 48-72 hours later, administration of prostaglandin (cause regression of the
mid-cycle CL and induce estrus) → estrus occur 40-56 hours later (normal manifestation)

Graviditas extrauterina (R&O – 285)

Spontaneous or faulty obstetric technique rupture of the uterus → depending on the size of the
rupture and whether or not infection occurs – it may heal without problems or the fetus may escape
to the abdomen → great variation of symptoms from no-symptoms shown (owner unaware of the
incidence) to shock and fetal toxemia
If no-symptoms shown, owner may be unaware of the incidence → the only evidence of it is the
subsequent finding of uterine adhesion or of mummified fetus among the abdominal viscera
When rupture occurs during parturition → fetus passes into the abdomen, parturition pain and
straining stop and uterine inertia may be suspected (until a uterine expulsion proves otherwise)
Causes to spontaneous rupture
Uterine torsion
Cervical non-dilatation
Distension due to twins in one horn
Hydrallantosis
Excessive fetal size
Breech presentation (fully occupies the maternal pelvic inlet → when uterine contractions begin, the
fetal fluids do-not have a way to escape → hydrostatic pressure in the uterus ↑)
Causes to accidental rupture
Correction of fetal position during dystocia
Traction of fetus when the cervix is incompletely dilated
Careless use of obstetrics tools
External violence (parturient dam falls heavily, kicked, car accident…)
68. Embryonic mortality (R&O – 110)
Embryonic and fetal loss
Mare 15 – 24 %
Cow 45 – 65 %
Sheep 20 – 30 %
Sow 30 – 50 %

Causes of embryonic/fetal loss:

Genetic factors
Single gene defects (recessive or dominant)
Polygenic abnormalities
Chromosomal abnormalities
Environmental factors
Climate
Nutrition
Stress
Ovulation rate
Failure of the normal feto-maternal recognition factors
Uterine conditions
Hormones
Infectious agents
Teratogens =Viruses = Bluetongue virus, Border disease virus, Bo viral diarrhea, Rift vally fever
virus…..
Plants = Lupins, Veratrum californicum
Others = hyperthermia, iodine deficiency

Detection of embryonic/fetal loss:

Irregular extension of the inter-estrus period
Slaughter and correlating the number of embryos to the number of CL (disadvantage = sow must die
and the pregnancy is lost)
Per-rectum examination of the fetus (disadvantage = only in large animals and early loss is un-
detectable)
Doppler, A-mode and B-mode ultrasound

Sequence to embryonic/fetal death

Resorption of embryonic tissues → animal returns to estrus (if there is no-other conceptus in the
uterus)
Death due to infection → pyometra
Death after fetal bone ossification had begun → complete resorption can-not take place → fetal
mummification
Failure of an aborting fetus to be expelled → maceration
Abortion (often caused by infectious agents)
Stillborn (may occur as a result of developmental anomalies)
69. Mumificatio fetus (R&O – 127)
70. Maceratio fetus (R&O – 128)
71. Putrescentio fetus

Mummification of a fetus
Fetal death after the beginning of bone ossification (without infection) → complete resorption can-
not take place → fetal mummification
Papyraceous m. =Fetal fluids are resorbed and fetal membranes become dried
The uterus contracts on the fetus, which becomes twisted and contorted
In polytocous species, if mummification occurs only to part of the embryos → does-not interfere
with the continuation of the pregnancy of the live fetuses and the mummified fetuses are simply
expelled at parturition
Causes = Pig * Infection with SMEDI viruses (entero- viruses from 2 serological *groups with
epizootic disease of pigs – characterized by Stillbirth, *Mummification, Embryonic Death and
Infertility)
*Uterine overcrowding in large litters
*Placental insufficiency in large litters
Cat = Uterine overcrowding in large litters
Dog = CHV (Canine Herpes Virus)
Ewe = twin/triplet when one of the embryo has died
Mare = twin pregnancy (one fetus is usually smaller than the and dies)
Cow = haematic mummification is more common
Haematic m. =Fetal fluids are resorbed and the fetus and its membranes are surrounded by a viscous,
chocolate-colored material (it was thought that the color is due to pigments from blood hemorrhages
– and hence the name → now it is believed that the hemorrhage follows the fetal death rather than the
cause)
Etiology is un-known, but it has been suggested as:
*Genetic (mainly since it is more common in some breeds and families)
*Torsion of the umbilical cord as the primary cause of death
*Hormonal anomaly (was induced by using oestradiol and trembolone-acetate)
Occur following fetal death between 3-8 month of gestation → since there is no-fetal sign for the
onset of parturition, the CL persists and the pregnancy will continue for un-predicted time (often
diagnosed only when the cow is examined because of prolonged gestation period) → can be treated
by inducing abortion by luteolysis (using prostaglandins) and the fetus is expelled in 2-4 days
(prognosis for further breeding is good since there is no-intrinsic damage to the reproductive tract)

Maceration and Putrefaction (putrescentio) of a fetus

Failure of an aborting fetus to be expelled (may be due to uterine inertia) → bacteria enter the uterus
through the dilated cervix→ digestion of the soft tissues (by combination of putrefaction and
autolysis) → living a mass of fetal bones within the uterus (sometimes become embedded in the
uterine wall and are difficult to remove other than hysterotomy)
Fetal maceration causes endometritis and there is severe damage to the endometrium → animal
should be sent for slaughter. In later stages, signs of systemic illness are usually absent, although
weight loss and decline in milk production may occur.
When the fetus is macerated, there is usually a chronic, watery or mucopurulent discharge from the
vulva over a period of several weeks or month.
72. Infectious causes of abortion
Abortion = Termination of pregnancy after organo-genesis is complete but before the fetus can
survive
Cow (M – 989)
Neospora Abortion between 4-6 month of gestation (fetus autolyzed) No treatment or
Some calf survive → paralysis or orientation deficits prevention
BVD Infection of the fetus between 42-125 days of gestation → Herd
(Bovine Viral Diarrhea) fetal death and abortion or resorption, or fetal immuno- vaccination and
tolerance and persistent infection removal of
Infection of the fetus after 125 days of gestation → persistently
abortion or fetal immune-response may clear the virus infected cattle
IBR The virus is carried to the placenta by WBC → placentitis Herd vaccine.
(Infectious Bovine within 2-16 weeks → then infects the fetus and kills it (intra-nasal,
Rhinotracheitis = within 24 hours → abortion usually from 4 month to modified live
Bovine Herpes-virus-1) parturition (fetus is usually autolyzed with multifocal viruses or killed
small necrotic foci in the liver and other organs) vaccines)
Leptospira interrogans Feed or water contaminated by dog, rat or wildlife, cow Eliminating
may be life-long carrier, urine and milk of the dam may be source of
infective for up to 3 month….. → placentitis → fetus dies infection and
1-2 days before expulsion → abortion in last 1/3, 2-6 vaccine every 6
weeks after maternal infection (usually no lesions) month
Brucellosis Enter via mucous membranes → invade the udder, lymph active control
nodes and uterus → acute or chronic placentitis → abortion (tests,slaughter)
or stillbirth 2-5 weeks after initial infection and vaccination
Mycosis (fungi) Aspargillus, Mucor, Absidia, Rhizopus → enter through Avoiding
oral or respiratory lesions → hematogenously to placenta moldy feed
→ severe, necrotizing placentitis→ abortion from 4 m.
Actinomyces pyogenes Bacteria is present on mucous membranes of many normal No effective
cows, urine, abscess discharge → enter bloodstream → bactericide
endometritis and placentitis →sporadic abortion in last 1/3 available
Trichomonas foetus Venereal disease → mild placentitis → usually results in Artificial
infertility, but occasionally abortion in 1st half of gestation insemination
Campylobacteriosis C. fetus veneralis = venereal disease → usually causes Artificial
infertility but may invade the placenta and fetus → insemination
sporadic abortion between 5-8 month of gestation and vaccination
C. fetus fetus = transmitted by ingestion → hematogenous
spread to placenta → mild placentitis → extend to fetus
may result in abortion with a live calf at expulsion
Listeria monocytogenes Placentitis, fetal septicemia and dam may have fever and No effective
anorexia → fetus retained for 2-3 days after death bactericide
(extensive autolysis, liver is shrunk and contain pin- point available
abscesses) → abortion at any stage of gestation
Chlamydia psittaci Placentitis → sporadic abortion after the 4th month of Ovine chlamyd.
gestation (usually last 1/3) vaccine
Blue-tongue virus
Parainfluenza-3 virus
Ureaplasma
Mycoplasma
Haemophilus somnus
Salmonella
Sheep (M – 993)
Campylobacter fetus Transmitted by ingestion → hematogenous spread to placenta Strict hygiene,
fetus → abortion in late pregnancy or stillbirth (ewe may develop and vaccination
metritis after expulsion )
Tetracycline may prevent exposed ewe from abortion
Chlamydia psittaci Necrotic placentitis (but fetus is not necrotized) → late Isolation of all
(Enzootic Abortion abortions, stillbirth or weak lambs inf. ewe +lamb,
of Ewes) Exposure during early gestation → abort late in that gestation treatment with
Exposure during late gestation → abort toward the end of the oxytetracycline,
next gestation vaccine before
Congenitally infected ewe→abort at end of their 1st pregnancy breeding (killed
Ewe seldomly abort from EAE more than once ovine chlamyd.)
Toxoplasma gondii Exposure in early gestation → resorption / mummification Once infect.→
Exposure in late gestation → abortion / peri-natal death ewe immune
Listeria Abortion in late gestation (fetal liver may have small necrotic No effective
monocytogenes foci) bactericidal
Brucellosis B. ovis → problem in ram but rarely cause abortion Vaccine for B.
B. melitensis → abortion melitensis
B. abortus → occasionally causes abortion in late gestation
(placentitis, edema and necrosis of placenta)
Salmonellosis S. abortus ovis, S. Dublin and S. typhymurium → endemic in
some parts of Europe, but elsewhere usually stress related →
most ewe are sick and febrile before abortion → no specific
placental lesions and fetus is autolyzed

Goat (M – 994)
Chlamydia psittaci Necrotic placentitis (yellow necrotic foci) → fetus may be Isolation of all
necrotized or not → late abortions infected doe +
Natural immunity lasts ∼ 3 years (older doe may be at risk) treatment with
Exposure during early gestation → abort late in that gestation oxytetracycline,
Exposure during late gestation → abort toward the end of the ovine vaccine
next gestation (killed ovine
chlamydia vac.)
Congenitally infected ewe→ abort at end of their 1st pregnancy
Toxoplasmosis Exposure in early gestation → resorption / mummification Once infect.→
Exposure in late gestation → abortion / peri-natal death doe immune
Leptospira Sheep are relatively resistant, goats are susceptible → Eliminate infec.
interrogans leptospiremia → anemia, icterus, hemoglobinemia or febrile → source +vaccine
abortion every 6 m.
Brucellosis B. melitensis → abortion Test, slaughter
B. abortus → occasional abortion
Abortion may be accompanied by mastitis, lameness and doe
may develop chronic uterine lesions
Infection of adult is lifelong (organism in milk)
Listeria Sporadic abortion in late gestation (no specific fetal lesions) No effective
monocytogenes bactericidal
Pigs (M – 994)
Porcine Parvo-virus Asymptomatic in adults Vaccination and
Infection before 70 days of gestation → mummification or natural
increased number of stillborn (endometrium is-not affected → immunity is
no PGF2α release → abortions are rare) lifelong
Porcine Entero-virus Almost all herds are infected (asymptomatic) → fecal-oral No vaccine
transmission → mainly early embryonic death and stillbirth available
Pseudo-rabies Infection can be inapparent or cause respiratory and CNS Eradication
signs in young pig program +
Fetal death at any stage of gestation + endometrial vaccination
desquamation → PGF2α release, luteolysis and abortion
(mummification maceration and stillbirth also occur)
As in other herpes viruses, natural infection can result in
latency and carrier state → recovered should be culled
PRRS Late abortions, stillbirth, weak neonates
(Porcine Reproductive and In the herd – respiratory disease, anorexia, vomiting
Respiratory Syndrome) and high prevalence of other diseases
Japanese B-Encephalitis Virus → teratogenic and frequently causes hydrocephalus Vaccine
Hog-cholera virus Severe maternal illness → abortion Vaccine
Leptospira interrogans Most infections are asymptomatic → abortion 1 – 4 weeks Vaccination
after infection (abortus is autolyzed), but mummification, every 6 month
maceration, stillbirth and weak piglets are also seen. + streptomycin
Carrier state can be eliminated by streptomycin (25 mg/kg) in outbreak
Brucella suis Infected (venereal) sow abort at any stage of gestation due Control
to endometritis and fetal infection
No effective treatment found except control
Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus spp.
Erysipelotherix rhusiopathiae
Salmonella spp
Pasteurella multocida
Actinomyces pyogenes
Listeria monocytogenes
Escherichia coli

Horses (M – 996)
Eq. Herpes-virus-1 Abortion usually after 7 month of gestation (not presided Vaccination at
(Eq. Rhinopneumonitis) by maternal illness) 5, 7 and 9 mo.
In fetus – jaundice, yellow-white lesions in liver…. of gestation
Eq. Viral Arteritis Spread venereally or aerosol → abortion 6-29 days after Vaccine
infection (arteritis in fetal myocardium or no-lesions)
Ehrlichia risticii Abortion in mid to late gestation Vaccine (un-
known
effective)
Streptococcus, E. coli, Ascending infection through the cervix → placentitis
Pseudomonas and Klebsiella Chronic placentitis → retarded fetal growth
Salmonella and Leptospira
Eq. mycotic placentitis Aspargillus, Mucor, Candida → ascending infection →
abortion in late gestation
73. Noninfectious causes of abortion (M – 989, 993, 994, 996)

Cow Genetic factors (most lethal genes cause early abortion or early embryonic death)
Vitamin A (essential for proper growth) and E (antioxidant) deficiency
Heat stress → fetal hypotension, hypoxia and acidosis
Pyrexia → high maternal temperature
Severe trauma (rare in Bo since fetus is well protected by amnionic fluid)
Toxins =Ponderosa pine ingestion in late 1/3 (estrogenic material)
Oxytropis or Astragalus (contain alkaloids that can affect the CL, chorio-allantosis and neurons
→ abortion or deformation)
Gutierrezia microcephalus
Coumarins from rat poison, mouldy sweet clover or many grasses
Mycotoxins (mainly those with estrogenic activity)
Sheep Very similar to cow
Goat Plant toxins
Dietary deficiency of copper (required for bone and blood formation because it’s a component
of some enzymes), vit. A or magnesium (required for activity of many enzymes)
Drugs as estrogens, glucocorticoids, phenothiazine, carbon tetrachloride or levamisole
Pig Heat stress
Carbon monoxide (CO) toxicity due to faulty propane heaters
Vitamin A deficiency
Toxins =Mycotoxins
Cresol spray (used for louse control)
Dicumarol
Nitrates
Horse Twining (placental insufficiency ultimately causes abortion)
Umbilical cord abnormalities as torsion due to abnormal length
Ectopic pregnancy
Bitch Breeding in the wrong time ( most of the bitches ovulate between 10 – 14 days after onset of
proestrus, but it can occur in 5th or at day30, so if the breeding occur at days 12 – 16, it can be
missed.
Cat Mating, not in the correct time (detecting proestrus or estrus is problematic)
74. Premature induction of parturition
103. Induction of parturition
172. Induction of parturition

Premature induction of parturition

Mare (R&O – 148, CAR – 75)
Indication =Ensuring birth will occur in the presence of a skilled assistance (close observation)
Mares that had problems with parturition or needed surgical correction in the past
Mares with serious problems (colic, endotoxaemia…) around the time of expected parturition → in
order to prevent further escalation of the problem
Recommended to be performed only on =
Mammary glands are developed and contain colostrum (the most important criterion) → Ca content
of secretion is useful to predict foal survival
Sufficient gestation length → not-before 320 days of gestation
Cervix should be soft and able to allow the insertion of 1-2 fingers
Mares that can be closely monitored after the induction
Methods = Oxytocin= cervix is ready → im 120 IU to mare 360-600 kg → foaling 15 min. later
= cervix is not ready → im 30 mg stilboestrol dipropionate in oil → oxytocin 12-24 hours later (if
cervix is ready)
= 10-15 after oxytocin administration it is recommended to perform a 2nd vaginal examination to
determine the foals position and posture
= doses of less than 60 IU result in retained placenta
Dexamethasone = (quick-release synthetic corticosteroid) 100 mg/day for 4 days → parturition 6-7
days after start of treatment
PGF2α = repeated inj. of 1.5-2.5 mg every 12 hours (may cause discomfort and dystocia due to
position abnormalities)
Fluprostenol = (analogue to PGF2α ) single dose (250 µ g to pony; 1000 µ g to thoroughbred) →
parturition within 0.5-3 hours
Progesterone = parturition 6-7 days after treatment

Cow (R&O – 149, CAR – 47)

Indication =Advancing the time of calving to coincidence with the availability of pasture or
according milk production demands → induce calving in a certain, desirable period
Ensuring birth will occur in the presence of a skilled assistance (close observation)
Immature dam, small pelvis or prolonged pregnancy over 280 days → shortening gestation →
reducing birth weight of calf by (calf may be too large because during the last weeks growth rate is
rapid)
Diseased or injured cow where → in order to prevent further escalation of the problem or where a
live calf can be obtained before slaughter
Recommended to be performed only on after 270 days
Methods = Corticosteroids = dexamethasone (short, medium or long acting – depending on time
between treatment and effect) → mimic the foal increase in cortisol
PGF2α = During last weak of pregnancy → most will calve within 48 hours
Combination of Corticosteroids and PGF2α = may be preferred because corticosteroids are needed
for fetus maturation

Bitch and queen (R&O – 152)

Un-successful
Ewe and Goat (R&O – 151, CAR – 112)
Indication = Lambing under supervision
Post-partum flock management
**Indications are limited since dystocia due to feto-maternal disproportion is un-common
**It is not-possible to shorten gestation length appreciably without ↑ lamb mortality
Recommended to be performed not before day 144 of pregnancy
Methods = Oestrogens = 2 IM inj. of 1-2 mg oestradiol benzoate 5-6 days before term
= single inj. of 15 mg oestradiol benzoate 5 days before term
Corticosteroids (as dexamethasone, flumethasone and betamethasone) → single IM inj. within 5 days
of term → parturition within 2-3 days
ACTH = stimulate endogenous corticosteroid production
PGF2α = can-not be used because in sheep the placenta produces progesterone which blocks the
action of PGF2α

Sow (R&O – 150, CAR - 92)

Indication = Farrowing under supervision
Group farrowing → allow cross fostering (greater survival of piglets from large litters or agalactia
sows)
→ allow all in all out management (easier to clean)
→ group weaning
Increase reproductive efficiency by reducing the farrowing interval by a few days
Methods = Synthetic corticosteroids = inj. 75-100 mg/day on days 101-104 → farrowing on day 109
PGF2α or analogue = 10 mg PGF2α or 175 µ g cloprostenol IM inj. on days 112-113 → farrowing
∼ 28 hours later
Cloprostenol combined with oestradiol benzoate = 10 mg of oestradiol benzoate 24 hours before
cloprostenol

Accelerating parturition – Sow (R&O - 152)

Oxytocin = uterine inertia → 1-2 IU repeatedly (doses of 10 IU cause uterine spasm and are contra-
indicated)
Carazolol (β -blocking agent) = stress → release of adrenaline → uterus relaxation (during
pregnancy, β -receptors in the uterus become dominant)
= if the β -receptors are blocked with carazolol (0.5 mg/50 kg given at the beginning of labor) →
adrenaline will have little or no-effect on stressed animals myometrium → uterus will remain its tone
→ parturition will-not be delayed

Delaying parturition (R&O - 152)

Clenbuterol = (β -adrenergic agent) stimulate β -receptors of myometrium → reduce uterine
contractions → delay parturition for a short time
Cow = provided that the cervix is-not fully dilated and 2nd stage has not commenced = injection of
0.3 mg clenbuterol hydrochloride (10 ml) → followed (4 hours later) by 2nd injection of 0.21 mg (7
ml) → inhibit calving for 8 hours after 2nd injection
= Indication = Management tool
Ensure improved relaxation of vulva and perineum in heifer
Sow = 150 µ g → relaxation of mayometrium → interrupt expulsion of piglet→ after several hours–
return of contractility
= 20-40 IU oxytocin → reverse the effect of clenbuterol
76. edema gravidarum, edema ante partum
Udder edema (Mare, Cow, Ewe) (P – 18, 626)
Begins 2-4 days before calving → peak at calving → decline 1-2 weeks after calving
In the beginning of lactation, blood, interstitial tissue and lymph flow to the mammary gland increase
→ the mass of the large fetus gradually compresses the afferent lymph vessels on the abdominal floor
(where they leave the inguinal canal) → mammary or ventral edema
In heifer, since incomplete development of mammary veins → inadequate venous return and inability
of the lymphatics to remove the large amounts of interstitial fluid during this time → edema
Edema of the placenta (R&O – 129)
Frequently accompanies placentitis (for example Brucella abortus infection) → does-not cause
dystocia but may accompany abortion or stillbirth
Dropsy of the fetal sacs (mainly Cow) (R&O - 129)
Excessive quantities of fetal fluid in the amnionic (hydramnios) or allantoic (hydrallantois) sacs →
distension of the abdomen → the later this condition occurs, the more likely the animal will survive
to parturition → gradual loss of condition → very poor condition at parturition (in less severe cases),
abortion or recumbency and death
Most occur in the last 3 month of gestation – cause is un-known (hereditary, low number of
cotyledons, placental dysfunction → doesn’t drain the continues produced fluid)
Treatment = If animal is recumbent → slaughter
If animal is near parturition → caesarian section (important to allow the fluid to escape slowly to
prevent hypovolemic shock)
Dropsy of the fetus (R&O - 131)
The form of the fetus and the degree of obstetric hazard are determined by the location and amount
of the excessive fluid → dystocia is due to the increased diameter of the fetus
Hydrocephalus = swelling of the cranium due to accumulation of fluid → trocarization and
compression, fetotomy or caesarian section
Fetal ascites = infectious disease of the fetus and developmental defects (as achondroplasia) →
dropsy of the peritoneum → if fetus is near parturition, it my cause dystocia → relived by incision in
the fetal abdomen with fetotomy knife
Fetal anasarca = excess fluid in subcutaneous tissue (mainly head and hind limbs) → great increase in
fetal volume →dystocia
77. Inversio et prolapsus vaginae – etiology (R&O - 134)
78. Inversio et prolapsus vaginae – methods of treatment
Most common in cattle and sheep → usually seen in mature female in the last 1/3 of pregnancy (more
common in pluripara than primipara)
The exact causes are un-clear, but several factors are believed predispose:
Less efficient anatomical anchorage of the genital tract (cattle of beef breed – mainly Hereford)
Endocrine imbalance in which oestrogen predominate (drug administration, excess in diet, feeding
mouldy maize and barley or inherited) → excessive deposition of fat in the pre-vaginal connective
tissue + ligament relaxation → increased mobility of the vagina
Close confinement of sheep or sheep fed on lush pasture and then restriction of exercise → it is- not
known whether sex hormones present in the herbage play a part or not
Feeding with high-roughage diets (as silage, poor quality hay or root crops)
In some bitches → hyper-plasia of the vagina mucosa at estrus → may protrude through the vulva
(sometimes referred as vaginal prolapse, although such description is incorrect and is not comparable
with the condition in other animals)
Protrusion of the mucous membrane of the part of the vagina which lies just in front of the urethral
opening → in severe cases the whole of the anterior vagina and cervix may protrude
The earlier before parturition it occurs, the more serious it is likely to become
Most cases in cow are seen in the last 2 month of gestation, and in sheep a few days before lambing
In the mildest cases, the lesions appear only when the cow is recumbent and when the animal rises
the prolapse disappears → it tends to progress with time, and a larger bulk protrudes and does not
disappear in standing position → this tissue, with its circulation impeded, is prone to injury and
infection → the resulting irritation causes straining efforts → increases the degree of prolapse and so
on…….→ eventually, the whole vagina, cervix and even rectum becomes everted (thrombosis,
ulceration and necrosis of the prolapsed organ + toxemia and severe straining) → leads to anorexia,
rapid deterioration of body condition and occasionally death
In sheep, severe prolapse with heavy straining is-not well tolerated → death from shock, exhaustion
and anaerobic infection
Premature parturition or abortion → relieves the condition and may lead to quick maternal recovery
Post-parturient prolapse of cattle is usually due to severe straining in response to vaginal trauma or
infection → followed by Fusiformis necrophorus infection → high degree of irritation with frequent
exhausting expulsion efforts
Methods of treatment
The aim is to arrest the process by early replacement and retention of the prolapsed portion
Epidural-anesthesia (stop straining and desensitize the perineum for suture) → evereted mass is
washed, dressed with antiseptic, lubricated and placed back → retained by:
1. Tape or stout nylon sutures which cross the vulva and inserted into the perineal skin (preferably
over rubber tubes)
2. Special vulval clumps
3. Metal sutures
4. In sheep – perineal wool (or a string attached to it) may be tied across the vulva
5. Large safety-pins
Tenesmus can be prevented for several days (up to more then a week) by artificial pneumo-
peritoneum = sterile 10 cm needle → passed through the abdominal wall at the sub-lumbar fossa →
connected to a pump which pump air into the peritoneal cavity – until the flanks are distended above
the thorax (contra-indication is before parturition – because pneumo-peritoneum will prevent 2nd
stage parturition)
For cows showing recurrent prolapse, remote from parturition or post-partum it is recommended an
almost complete surgical occlusion of the vulva = posterior epidural or local infiltration anesthesia →
strips of mucous membrane (1.2 cm wide) are dissected from the upper ¾ of each vulval lip → the
exposed areas are sutured by fine nylon sutures and a few mattress sutures of tape or stout nylon are
deeply placed across the vulva to protect from the effect of straining → the incision must heal and the
suture must be incised a short time before parturition (Robert’s modification of Caslick’s
operation)
Sub-mucous resection (reefing operation) on the prolapsed organ → the object of the operation
(which should not be performed later than 3-4 weeks from parturition) is to excise the protruding
mucous (the protruding part) and then approximate the cut edges → proximal + distal encircling
incisions through the mucous membrane are made near made near the urethral opening and the
cervix respectively (the interfering mucosa, in the form of half-moon, is removed) → the cut edges
are connected by absorbable material (Farquharson)
Uses a special needle and a subcutaneous suture of nylon tape around the vulva → to introduce the
needle, two “stab” incisions (under epidural anesthesia previously induced to replace the vagina) are
made in the mid-line (the upper one between the dorsal commisure of the vulva and the anus, while
the lower is immediately beneath the ventral vulval comissure) → the needle is inserted into the
lower incision and passed subcutaneously until its point emerges through the upper incision → a
nylon tape in inserted into the needle-hole and then the needle is pulled back (leaving one side in the
upper incision) → the needle is inserted again into the lower incision and passes up the other vulval
labium → the upper free end of the tape is inserted into the needle-hole which is pulled back → the
tape encircles the vulva and its ends are tied with a simple knot (with such a degree of tightness that
allow 4 fingers to be inserted up to their 2nd joint) → the upper incision is sutured by 2 sutures, while
the lower incision can be either left open or sutured → the vulval labia are not damaged, there is no-
tissue reaction and it can remain in place for month → the knot can be opened before parturition to
allow birth (Buhner’s method)
Fixation of the cervix to the prepubic tendon with a nylon suture which is placed from the anterior
vagina by means of 10 cm U-shaped cutting needle loaded with 0.9-1.2 m strand of nylon → before
inserting the suture (under epidural anesthesia)the bladder is pushed to one side (Winkler)
In ewe, we can use a stainless-steel stay in U-shape – which is placed into the vagina → the emerging
ends are fastened by a string to other side of the wool of the gluteal region → this retainer has been
improved by the development of a plastic spoon which is fastened in the same way or by a harness
79. Paraplegia gravidarum ante et post partum
A large fetus may damage the obturator nerve which passes in the inner surface of the iliac shaft
A large fetus is forced into the maternal pelvic → may damage the lumbar nerves (pass over the
lumbo-sacral joint to form the lumbo-sacral plexus) → paralysis of the gluteal or obturator nerves
Gluteal paralysis = Seen in Mare and Cow (in mare it is followed by spontaneous birth) →dam has
difficulties to rise and when she walks we see “weakness of the hindlimbs ”
→ later, atrophy of the gluteal muscle
Good prognosis → the disability usually disappears in a few weeks (complete recovery may take
month) → if the dam can-not get up within a few days of parturition the prognosis is grave
The affected animal should be placed in a pen without ditches and obstacles and may be helped to
rise
Obturator paralysis = More frequent in Cow than Mare
It supplies the adductor muscles of the thigh:
When both nerves are damaged → the legs abduct and the cow is unable to raise (if the cow is helped
to its feet, the legs abduct again) → bad prognosis
When nerve is damaged on one side → the cow also needs assistance to get up, but if the affected leg
is prevented from sliding – she can stand (if the cow fails there is a risk of limb fracture or hip-joint
dislocation) → good prognosis if the animal can walk with assistance
Tying together both hind-legs (above each fetlock) prevents excessive abduction and secondary
tearing of the adductor muscles or fracture of the femoral neck during attempts to stand
Rapid improvement in most cases (a few days) and progress to complete recovery, but unless there is
improvement within 4 days – recovery is unlikely
Treatment include good bedding to lie on, assistance to rise and stand during milking or suckling and
as often as possible in other times, stimulation to walk (and prevention of falling), hindquarter
massaged…..

81. Maternal dystocia – displacement of the gravid uterus (R&O – 210)

Ventral hernia – Mare, Cow and Ewe
Hernia of the gravid uterus through a rupture of the abdominal floor (occur in very late pregnancy)
Causes =Trauma (several blows on the abdominal wall)
Non-traumatic (abdominal muscles become in some way so weakened that it is unable to support the
gravid uterus)
The rupture is on the ventral aspect of the abdomen, a little to one side of the midline (Mare = left,
Ru = right) – behind the umbilicus
Visible as a local swelling that rapidly enlarges – until it forms an enormous ventral swelling
extending from the pelvic brim to the xiphoid (the whole uterus and its content had passed out of the
abdomen and occupy the subcutaneous) → complicated by edema of the abdominal wall due to
pressure on veins
As a rule, pregnancy is un-interrupted, but the condition (of both mother and young) gets worse
when parturition comes (mainly in mare)
In mare, if the foal is to be saved, it is essential to aid the mare the moment the expulsion forces start
=
Pulling the fetus if the it can be reached
If the foal can-not be reached, the mare must be narcotized, turned on her back and the hernia
reduced by pressure → mare turned back to normal position before delivery is attempt
After parturition and involution of the uterus, the hernia will be filled by intestine → after suckling
the foal, the mare must be destroyed
Ru may give birth spontaneously despite severe ventral hernia, but animal must be closely watched
for complications during parturition

Downward deviation of the uterus – Sow

Affected animal strain vigorously despite an empty vagina (the piglets did-not rich it yet) →→ at
some point, the uterus (inside the body) deviated sharply in downward and backwards direction
Predisposition factors are sow with deep bodies and large litters
It is very difficult to extract the obstructed piglets manually, and it may be necessary to insert an arm
and flex the deviation back to normal position

Retroflexion of the uterus – Mare

Colic in mares near parturition in which the foal occupied the maternal pelvis → can be pushed
forward into the abdomen, but this manipulation provokes renewed colic, and the fetus soon regained
the inter-pelvis position
It can be treated by inj. of muscle relaxant (isoxsuprine lactate) at regular intervals – relived the colic
and allowed the foal to move foreword in front of the pelvis → followed by normal parturition

Inguinal hernia – Bitch and Queen

Unilateral hernia that may contain one or both uterine cornea → painful but without systemic
disturbance → the mass is tense and irreducible, but with little tendency to strangulate (provided that
intestines are-not involved)
The course of the condition depends mainly on the degree of tension in the sac (influenced by its size
and the number of fetuses involved) → death of the fetuses, resorption (of placenta and fetuses)…
Treatment alternatives
1. Reduce the hernia and allow pregnancy to continue
2. Enlarge the hernia ring by incision → reduction of the hernia → suture
3. Dissect-out the hernia sac (cut near the body) including amputation of the involved horn/s →
suture (if the animal is pregnant also in the other horn inside the abdomen, it should-not be
interfered)
4. If the fetal development is sufficient (near term) → the same as option 3, but to perform
hysterotomy (cesarean section) → it is possible to return the uterus back or remove it (hysterectomy)
82. Torsio uteri – etiology (R&O - 205)
83. Torsio uteri – diagnosis
84. Torsio uteri – methods of treatment
Rotation of the uterus on its long axis with twisting of the anterior vagina

Etiology
A complication of late 1st stage or early 2nd stage parturition probably due to:
Instability of the bovine uterus (uterus attachment) → can be accepted as a cause of torsion’s up to
180° but it can-not account for torsion’s of 360° or more
Inordinate fetal movement which is part of the postural adjustment during 1st stage (in response to
myometrium contractions)
Excessive fetal weight
Pregnancy in one horn (rare in bovine twin pregnancy)
In ewe, the anatomical attachment of the uterus (in sub-lumbar and not sub-iliac like in cow) is better
and twining is very common, but still uterine torsion occur → breed and fetuses in both horns do-not
appear to effect the incidence

Clinical features
About 75% of torsion’s are anti-clockwise
Although the uterus rotates about its long axis, in most cases the actual twist involves the anterior
vagina (in minority of cases there is minimal distortion of the vaginal walls)
The severity of the twist does-not directly affect the survival of the fetus (fetal death is caused by
loss of fetal fluids or separation of the placenta)

Symptoms
Up to the onset of parturition the signs are normal (usual signs of restlessness due to abdominal pain,
myometral contractions and cervix dilation), and the only real sign symptom is that the period of
restlessness is abnormally long or it does-not progress into 2nd stage
If the torsion does-not occur until the early 2nd stage, then after the restlessness – there will be a short
period of straining, but they will stop
In severe cases, all parturient behavior stops, and unless the animal was closely watched – there
might not be any sign that parturition had begun → if the condition is-not relieved, the placenta will
separate and the fetus will die → persistent low-grade abdominal pain, progressive anorexia,
constipation, secondary bacterial infection, maceration, putrefaction, maternal toxemia…….
Diagnosis by palpation of anterior vagina → walls in oblique spiral indicate torsion
Treatment
1. Rotation of the fetus inside the uterus
Inserting a hand into the vagina (better under epidural anesthesia) → holding it by its shoulder or
elbow → first maneuvers are designed to generate a gentle swinging motion before attempting to
rotate it (in the opposite direction to the twist) → after rotating the first 180°, rotation is spontaneous
Success depends on whether the cervix is sufficiently dilated to allow the hand to enter, and whether
the fetus is alive
Care must be taken not to rupture the fetal membranes → markedly reduces the fetal viability
When the head of the live fetus is reached, pressing on its eyeballs will cause a convulsion reaction
that can be translated into a rotation
Abdominal ballottement might assist swinging the calf before attempting per vagina
Providing the fetus is accessible, Cammerer’s torsion fork (connected to canvas rope) can be placed
on the extended limbs
Torsion of the uterus anterior to the cervix or if the twist is 720° or more – can-not be treated by
vaginal manipulation
2. Rotation of the Cow’s body = correction by “rolling” (Reuff’s method)
The aim is to rotate quickly in the direction of the torsion (while uterus remains relatively steady)
Requires the assistance of at least 3 people
One assistant holds the head while the front-feet are tied together and then the hind-feet are tied
together (with separate ropes 2.5-3 m long) → each rope is held by 1 or more assistants which at a
given signal pull it suddenly, so the cow is rapidly turned over from one side to the other → vaginal
examination to examine if the correction has occurred (access to the cervix and may-be the fetus) →
if there is no-relief, the Cow is slowly rotated back and the same procedure of rapid turning is
repeated → if there again there is no relief and the spiral folds are tighter – the rolling is in the wrong
direction and sharp rotation in to the other side is carried out (if the spiral folds are-not tighter,
repetition of the original procedure is applied until the correction is achieved)
If a cows extremity can be grasped while the cow is rolled, it will help to fix the uterus in place
Schafer modified this technique by application of a wide plank of wood (3-4 m long and 20-30 cm
wide) to the flak of the cow (one end is on the ground) → an assistant stands on the wood, while the
cow is slowly turned by pulling its legs (the wood fixes the uterus while the cow’s body is turned)
3. Surgical correction
If the case can-not be corrected by the previous methods → a laparotomy should be performed on the
standing cow (at the left or right sub-lumbar fossa) → rotation of the uterus by intra- abdominal
manipulation
The left flank approach is preferable (although loops of small intestine can be displaced on the left
side of the abdomen) because a cesarean section may be required before the torsion can be corrected
or after the torsion is corrected if the cervix does-not dilate
Para-vertebral or field infiltration anesthesia → 15-20 cm incision in the left sub-lumbar fossa → the
hand is inserted, the omentum is pushed and the direction of the twist is confirmed:
Left twist → the hand is passed down between the uterus and left flank → the uterus is swinged and
then rotated by lifting and pushing to the right
Right twist → the hand is passed over between the uterus and right flank → the uterus is swinged and
then rotated by lifting and pushing to the left
After rotation of the uterus, if the cervix is only partially dilated, we can perform cesarean section or
cervical section (fetus is pulled back to stretch the cervix → deep incision at one point of the cervix
→ gives immediate relief and allows delivery)
85. Initial examination during parturition
General examination
Case history = date of expected parturition (pre-mature, prolonged), animal primigravid or
multigravid, previous breeding history, general management during pregnancy, when did straining
begin + nature + frequency, has water-bag appeared and when……
Animal physical and general condition = If recumbent – is she resting or exhausted
Pulse rate
Body temperature
Vulva = Is something protruding or not
Protrusion of the amnion (if yes – is it moist and glistening and is fluid caught in it – if yes recently
exposed, or dry and dark – as in prolonged cases)
Protruding fetal parts (if yes – are they moist or dry)
Nature of discharge = Blood (mainly if profuse – indicate recent injury to the birth canal)
Dark brown smelly (a very delayed case)
Degree of abdominal distension in Bitch and Cat
Onset of vomiting and great thirst – bad sign in Bitch

Detailed examination of large animals

**Animal effectively restraint (twitch, epidural if necessary)
Place sand on the floor because it may be slippery for the animal
External genitalia and surrounding parts must be thoroughly washed
The introduction of the hand through the vulva may provoke defecation in Cow – wash again
Bitch and Queen should be placed standing on the table
Bitch and Queen hair may be clipped or not (depending on length) around the vulva

Vaginal examination by hand (large animals) or finger (small animals)

Vagina empty or with newborn
Cervix degree of closure (if it is closed and occupied by sticky mucus – 2nd stage has not begun)
Uterine torsion (does the vagina end abrupt at the pelvic brim and its mucosa spiral)
Presentation of fetus
86. Basic causes of dystocia

There are several causes of dystocia:

* Primary uterine inertia – an original defect in the contractile potential of the myometrium
* Secondary uterine inertia – Inertia of exhaustion which results from dystocia → frequently
followed by retention of placenta and slow involution of the uterus → predispose to metritis
* Dystocia due to deviation of the head and neck of the fetus
* Lateral deviation of the head – anterior presentation
* Downward displacement of the head – anterior presentation
* Dystocia due to deviation of the forelimbs
* Dystocia due to pathological position of the fetus
* Dystocia due to pathological presentation, position and posture of the fetus

Signs of dystocia

Cow
* the cow has been in first stage labor longer than 6 hours
* the cow has been in second stage labor for 2 hours and progress is slow or absent.
* straining vigorously for 30 minutes without the appearance of calf.
* incorrect presentation, position or posture.
* the appearance of detached chorioallantois, fetal meconium or blood stained amniotic fluid at the
vulva.
* the amniotic sac is observed outside the vulva for 2 hours and delivery is not complete

Mare
* minimal intervention and disturbance are indicated during stage 1, as mares may arrest the foaling
process is seriously disturbed.
* if fetal forelimbs don’t appear at the vulva within 5 – 10 minutes of rupture of the chorioallantois,
manual vaginal examination is indicated.
* if fetal membrane are retained, treatment should be instituted within 6 hours of foaling.

Ewe
* the presence of a foul vaginal discharge or decaying placenta at the vulva.
* an abnormal disposition of the fetus at the vulva.
* a prolonged non-aggressive first stage of labor.
* the ewe strains vigorously for 20 – 30 minutes or intermittently for 30 60 minutes but no fetus is
seen.

Goat
* An active labor for 30 minutes but no progress toward delivery.
* an abnormal disposition of the fetus at the vulva.

Sow
* Prolonged gestation more than 116 days.
* signs of imminent birth but farrowing has not commenced.
* appearance of blood-tinged vulvar discharge and meconium without signs of straining.
* foul smell and discolored (brown, gray) vulvar discharge and decaying placenta at the vulva.
* straining but not piglets born (nonproductive continuous straining lasting longer than 15 minutes or
intermittent straining longer than 30 minutes.
* Cessation of labor for more than 2 hours after previous straining and delivery small number of
piglets
* litter size unexpectedly small.
Bitch and queen
* Gestation prolonged beyond the expected date of parturition
* prolonged non-progressive preparation for birth (no parturition within 23 hours of the drop in rectal
temperature)
* vigorous straining for 1 – 2 hours without fetal delivery
* the resting period during active labor exceeds 4 hours.
* delivery of dead offspring.
* green vaginal discharge (bitch), red-brown discharge (queen) but no fetus/es delivered so far.
These discharge is normal once birth is underway.
* black, purulent or hemorrhagic vaginal discharge.

87. Dystocia due to uterine inertia (primary and secondary) (R&O – 212)

Primary uterine inertia

An original defect in the contractile potential of the myometrium
It is less common than secondary uterine inertia and it is seen most common in Bitch and Sow,
occasionally in Cow and rarely to others
It varies in degree from case to case (from cases in which 2nd stage does not begin, to cases where
parturition is complete except for retention of one placenta in a polytocous birth)
Causes =1. Inherited weakness of the uterine muscle (Scottish terrier, Ayrshire cattle…)
2. Over-stretching of the myometrium by an excessive large fetus, twins, hydrallantois, or an un-
usually large number of fetuses
3. Toxic degeneration in bacterial infections
4. Fatty infiltration of the myometrium
5. Senility (rare)
6. Abnormal chemical environment of the uterus = ratio between progesterone and oestrogen or lack
of either oxytocin or calcium as in parturient hypo-calcemia:
Inherited imbalance
Late-abortion or premature birth
Congenital nervous problem or environmental disturbances which interfere with hypothalamic
regulation of oxytocin secretion an release by the pituitary
Excessively small litter may fail to supply adequate endocrine contribution to terminate the
pregnancy
7. Uterus rupture or torsion on its long axis → myometrial activity stops
Diagnosis =History = Mammary changes, ligament relaxation in the pelvis, restlessness due to
abdominal discomfort → indicate that the 1st stage had passed, but no progress has been made
In multiparous species, after a normal beginning of 2nd stage, all further activities has stopped
Examination of the birth canal and presentation of the fetus = opened cervix beyond which can be
felt a fetus
Treatment = Should be provided as soon as it is clear that the 2nd stage is present and that it is not
proceeding normally
In large, uniparous species → the fetal membranes are ruptured by vaginal manipulation → fetal
posture corrected (if necessary) → fetus is delivered by gentle traction
In Bitch → only 1 fetus is present in the uterus → delivery by vectis (short metal rod with a loop at
each end → put on the cranium of long-nosed breeds of canine or feline → allow traction or rotation
of the fetus) or forceps per vagina
→ multiple fetuses are present → cesarean section
Pituitrin (posterior pituitary extract) can be inj. IM (provided the cervix is dilated, obstructive
dystocia is not present and the uterus is-not over-distended)→ best result is obtained in early 2nd
stage (its disadvantage is that it may construct the cervix and by promoting placental separation of
un-born fetuses it can reduce their survival → if natural delivery does-not occur within 20 min. of inj.
assisted delivery becomes more urgent)
Ergometrine maleate may be given orally if the pituitary fails to bring down the last fetus or for
expulsion of retained hemorrhages
IV inj. of calcium boro-gluconate can be given for sub-clinical hypo-calcemia in Bitch → slowly
initiate parturition (to prevent possible eclampsia, the dose should be repeated sub-cutaneously after
parturition)
Secondary uterine inertia
Inertia of exhaustion which results from dystocia → frequently followed by retention of placenta and
slow involution of the uterus → predispose to metritis
Common in all species and generally it can be prevented (depends on early recognition that
parturition had stopped to be normal and the application of the appropriate assistance)
Foe example in some breeds of dog (as Scottish terrier) = the bitch is heavily gravid and the
gestational period is normal → 1-2 fetuses have been expelled without exceptional difficulty → from
this point, all signs of labor stops and the bitch lies and suckle the young already born (without
expelling the greater part of the litter) → no further progress is made, and if treatment is not offered
– the fetuses will die → infection of the uterus and toxemia

Treatment
In uniparous species→ correction of the dystocia that caused the inertia
In multiparous spp→ treatment depends on duration of the parturition, number of still un-born
fetuses and their condition and the degree of uterine infection:
a. In the early stages → delivery of the fetus which causes the dystocia → may be followed by return
of uterine contractility (after a few hours) → parturition may continue (such is often the case in Sow
and occasionally in Bitch and Cat)
b. If the case is of longer duration where there are still a few un-born, it is best to proceed with the
delivery:
Sow → be inserting a hand through the vagina – into the uterus
Bitch →Forceps delivery (not good if there are still 3-4 fetuses because it can-not reach them and
“blind fishing” can result in uterine rupture)
Laparotomy (if the case duration is not more than 12 hours since the beginning of the 2nd stage)
Hysterectomy = surgical removal of the uterus (if the case lasted longer and the fetuses are dead and
putrefied)

88. Dystocia due to abnormalities or injuries of the pelvic bones (R&O – 186, 222; T - 699)
Pelvic area = dorso-ventral (widest) and bisiliac (the 2 iliac bone or 2 any corresponding points on it)
dimensions (cm2) of the pelvic inlet → can be measured per rectum
The pelvic area is influenced by:
1. Immaturity = early parturition – insufficient dilation of the birth canal
2. Breed = cross breeding in beef cattle increases pelvic area (very high incidence in Friesian dairy
breeds while Jersey are least affected – but also the bull is influencing)
3. Fracture = displaced connection after fracture
4. Diet = good nutrition and use of growth stimulants in heifer increases pelvic area
5. Development = under development of the dam – nutrition, genetic defect, illness, age (the younger
the heifer the higher dystocia rate)
6. Disease = exostosis (benign new growth projecting from a bone surface → can be inherited or
acquired after a fracture)
89. Dystocia due to abnormal size of the fetus (absolute and relative) (R&O – 186, 222)

Relative oversize – the fetus is of normal dimensions but the maternal pelvis is too small.
Absolute oversize – the maternal pelvis is normal but the fetus is abnormally large

1. Small litter
2. Breed and cross breeding
Calf weight
Gestation length
Sire effect (individual ♂ show marked effect on birth weight of their progeny)
Sex → ♂ birth weight is usually higher than ♀
Twining (birth weight ↓)
3. Prolonged gestation
4. Developmental defects
Duplication (hereditary muscle hyper-trophy in Bo)
Ascites (abnormal accumulation of fluid)
Anasarca (extensive subcutaneous edema = generalized edema)
Hydrocephalus
90. Dystocia due to deviation of the head and neck of the fetus (R&O – 253, 257)
Lateral deviation of the head – anterior presentation
Cow and Ewe
The head may by displaced to either side
When treated in early 2nd stage → easily corrected by hand (without the need for epidural anesthesia)
→ the hand is lubricated and inserted, and when the straining stops – the fetus is pushed back (from
the base of the neck) → then the hand is quickly transferred to the muzzle of the calf – which is
firmly grasped and corrected (nose in line with the birth canal – Fig. 14.6)
In more inaccessible case, the muzzle may be reached after first traction on the on the commissure of
the mouth (Fig. 14.7) or on the mandible (Fig. 14.8) → ropes are now put on the limbs → traction
synchronized with cow expulsion efforts
In other cases with greater loss of fetal fluid and with the uterus contracted o the fetus, it is more
difficult to correct the posture → epidural anesthesia → substitution of fetal fluids → a rope is
applied over the mandible of the calf (Fig. 14.8) and the other end is given to an assistant → the
operator inserts his hand again, grasp the muzzle and correct the posture of the head, while the
assistant pulls the rope to keep the head in its corrected position
In very delayed cases of head deviation and in congenital rigid curvature of the neck (wryneck)→
correction is impossible and decapitation is required (wire-saw fetotomy)→ the head is removed first
and later the rest of the body

Mare
More serious in foal then in calf due to the greater length of the head and neck (Fig 14.11)→ the
foals nose lies further away near the femoro-tibial and femoro-carpal joints (instead of in the middle
rib) → thus, except in ponies – the displaced head is beyond reach of the vet. hands, and special
instruments are required (Kuhn’s crutch, Blanchard’s long flexible hook and Krey-Schottler double
hook – all “extend the arm” of the vet. and help to grasp the foal)
Kuhn’s crutch (it has a 1 m long handle and a U-shaped end-piece with an eyelet for cord in the end
of each arm) → after grasping the head by the crutch and pulling it → the vet. pushes the fetus by
manual pressure one the pectoral muscles, while an assistant pulls the head (with the crutch) → this
way the foal head may be brought into reach and the muzzle is directed into the birth canal → gentle
pulling of the forelegs and head
Blanchard’s hook (long handled hook which is designed to engage the foals orbit, commissure of the
mouth, nostril or ear-canal) → the instrument is inserted and when the fetal head is felt, an attempt is
made → if a firm hold is obtained, the hook is pulled with the head while the fetal trunk is pushed →
the head reaches the vet. reach
Krey-Schottler double hook (may be used if the foal is dead with laterally displaced head or in
difficult dystocia with a living fetus) → the method is to insert and pull again and again as many time
as necessary to bring the head within reach (done be applying the hooks more and more forward – to
the dorsal skin and muscles of the neck)
In case of wryneck, it is impossible to extend the neck → the head and neck must be amputated
(wire-saw fetotomy)
Downward displacement of the head – anterior presentation
Cow and Mare
Uncommon in cattle and usually takes the form of “vertex posture” in which the calf’s nose is
stopped by the pelvic brim and the forehead is directed into the pelvis (Fig. 14.9) → provided
sufficient pushing can be achieved – correction is very easy, but neglected cases may require
epidural anesthesia and fetal fluid supplement
More severe variation, the “nape presentation” and “breast-head” posture (the head is pressed
ventrally between the forelimbs) → are usually caused by traction of the limbs – before the head had
extended → treated similarly to “vertex posture”, but if its not → one or both of the calf forelimbs
should be pushed back into the uterus (gives room for the head to be rotated and lifted over the pelvic
brim → then the leg(s) is extended again and the fetus is pulled
Tying the Cow and placing her in dorsal recumbency may greatly help these manipulations in very
difficult cases
Another alternative is to rotate the fetus by means of Cammerer’s torsion fork – applied on the legs
→ temporary ventral position from which the head may be more easily extended
When manipulative correction fails → fetotomy = “nape presentation” → the head is removed
= “breast-head posture” → one forelimb section
In difficult cases where the calf is still alive → cesarean section
91. Dystocia due to deviation of the forelimbs (in anterior presentation) (R&O – 250, 256, 260)
98. Fetotomy operations in the anterior presentation
Not detected in the bitch
Carpal flexion posture
Cow, Mare and Ewe
One or both feet may be affected
In unilateral cases, the flexed carpus is located at the pelvic inlet, while the forefoot may be visible at
the vulva
Push the fetus back (by his head or shoulder) → grasp the retained foot (by hand or rope), push the
carpal up and then over the pelvic brim (the fetal foot should always be carried over the pelvic brim
in the cupped hand of the vet. as seen in Fig. 14.1-14.3, 14.10)
In very prolonged dystocia and cases of ankylosis (abnormal immobility of a joint) → the limb can-
not be extended and must be cut at the carpus (wire-saw fetotomy)

Incomplete extension of the elbow(s)

Cow, Mare and Ewe
The digits emerging at the same level as the fetal muzzle (instead of before it)
The head is pushed back → each limb is pulled in turn (the leg is pulled in an oblique upper direction
so as to lift the processus olecranon over the maternal pelvic brim)→ traction of the forelimbs + head

Shoulder flexion posture = complete retention of the forelimb(s)

Cow, Mare and Ewe
May be unilateral or bilateral (Fig. 14.4-14.5)
In bilateral type the head in partially of completely born, but there is no-signs of the feet (in bilateral
carpal flexion the head can-not be advanced so far)
In a “roomy” cow with small calf → traction in the abnormal posture may help
If it is not possible to pull the fetus out in this posture (to big) → postural correction is usually easy
(unless there has been much delay)
If the fetus is dead and the extruding head is swollen (to big to push back) → Krey’s hooks are
placed in the orbits and the head is pulled – so as to bring the head beyond the vulva → amputation
of the head (at occipito-atlas joint) → following this, the fetus is pushed back and the retained feet
tend to come forward → the fetus forearm is grasped and the defect is easily converted to carpal
flexion posture and relieved accordingly (Fig. 14.4-14.5)
In more difficult cases, the limb must be caught → then the noose pushed back until it lies above the
fetlock (metacarpal joint)→ the forefoot are turned to their natural parturition position (as described
before)→ the fetus is pulled out
In delayed cases, such manipulation may be impossible → fetotomy of the feet

Foot-nape posture
Mare
Upward (above the head) displacement of one or both forelimbs →unique to Eq – due to a more
slender head and longer limbs of the foal (great danger of penetrating the vaginal roof by the feet)
The foal head is pushed back, while the uppermost limb is pulled → similar manipulation of the
other foot → finally, the head is raised again and each limb is placed underneath → traction of both
head and forelimbs
If the limbs penetrated the vaginal roof → epidural anesthesia or deep narcosis→ reposition is
attempt, but if it is not possible → amputation (wire-saw) of the head or upper limb (which-ever is
easier)
If one foot is already protruding through the ruptured perineum or rectum → incision of the
perineum may be necessary → extraction of the fetus → repair both the laceration and the incision
93. Dystocia due to deviation of the hind limbs (in posterior presentation) (R&O - 261)
99. Fetotomy operations in the posterior presentation
101. Bisection of the pelvis in breech presentation

Hock (tarsus) flexion posture

Cow and Mare
The condition is usually bilateral (14.15) → the hock may be felt in front of the pelvic brim or inside
the birth canal
The aim of the procedure is to extend the hock joint(s) and the difficulty is in finding sufficient space
for this to be done (with or without epidural anesthesia and/or fetal fluid replacement – if needed)
In new cases the posture may be corrected by hand → the fetus is pushed back as far as possible →
the hand grasps the fetal hock → the points of the digits are cupped in the hand and the foot is lifted
over the pelvic brim (the limb extends into the vagina)
In cases where it is impossible to extend the hock due to lack of space→ an assistant inserts his arm
and press forwards and upwards on the point of the hock, while the vet. tries as before to bring the
foot into the pelvic canal
An alternative method is to tie a rope around the hock flexure, and the rope passes out between the
digits (Fig. 14.16) → the fetus is pushed and while an assistant pulls the rope → the foot is lifted
over the pelvic brim
In cases where it is impossible to extend the hock and usually the calf is dead → 2 alternatives:
1. Cutting the Achilles tendon allows maximum flexion of the hock and thus allow the limb to be
pulled into the birth canal
2. The limb may be amputated below the point of the hock (wire-saw fetotomy)(Fig.-14.17)
Mare → the same methods as in cattle, but due to the longer limbs of the foal – the procedure is
much more difficult and fetotomy is more often

Hip flexion posture

Cow, Mare and Ewe
Bilateral retention = “breech presentation” → usually on rectal examination, the calf tail is
recognized (Fig.-14.18) and the degree of obstruction of the birth canal varies
The aim of the treatment is to convert the condition into a hock joint flexion, and than continue as
described before (with or without epidural anesthesia and/or fetal fluid replacement – if needed)
If epidural anesthesia is applied, it is possible (but usually not necessary) to suspend the cow by
attaching its hind legs to an overhead beam → can be very helpful
The calf is pushed back (with a view to bring the retained limbs within reach) → the leg is grasped as
close to the hock as possible → traction of the limb converts the posture into hock flexion →
continue as described before
If it is impossible to bring the hock within reach (usually the calf is dead) → fetotomy to remove the
retained hind-limb (wire-saw fetotomy) → the femur is sectioned through its articular head → the
detached feet is removed, and the other foot is sectioned in the same way
Another method after the section of one foot → apply traction by an anal hook which is passed into
the fetal anus and over the fetal pelvic brim (Fig.-14.19) → attempt to deliver the calf without
extending the other foot
Occasionally, after amputation of one hind limb, it is possible to extend the other limb and deliver
the fetus by traction of the extended limb
Mare → occasionally a mare will foal un-aided despite complete retention of the hind limbs, and in
many cases it is possible to deliver breech presentation by traction without correcting the posture (but
in recent cases, especially if the fetus is alive, an attempt should be made to extend the limbs –
although much more difficulty is expected because of the long limbs of the foal)
92. Dystocia due to pathological position of the fetus (R&O – 266)
94. Dystocia due to pathological presentation, position and posture of the fetus
Position
More frequent in horse than in cattle – due to that in late gestation or 1st stage labor (not in cattle)
there is physiological rotation of the fetus from ventral to dorsal position, and this mechanism
occasionally breaks down → the fetus then presents longitudinally (anterior or posterior) – either
with its vertebral column applied to one side of the uterus (right or left lateral position) or facing the
floor of the birth canal (ventral position)
The process whereby Cow or Ewe fetus sometimes comes to lie in ventral position is not understood
(probably rises during 1st stage due to uterus peristaltic forces and relaxation)
In order to make birth possible → the fetus must be rotated into normal (dorsal) upright position
(pushing the fetus and then rotating it – the mother must be standing + epidural anesthesia)
In Ewe we use the same methods as for Mare and Cow – but by raising the Ewe hindquarters and
supplementing fetal fluid → rotation is much easier and instruments are rarely required

Anterior presentation, lateral position (Mare, Cow and Ewe)

If fetus is alive → vet passes his hand to the fetal head and presses on its eyeballs – which cases
convulsive reflex response in the fetus and by applying rotational force in the appropriate direction, it
is easy to turn the fetus into dorsal position → the fetal nose and limbs are advanced into the birth
canal → pulling with maternal help
If the live fetus is un-responsive to the presses on its eyeballs → mechanical rotation (with epidural
anesthesia) by Cammerer’s torsion fork (U-shaped) and ropes on the head and forefeet → another 2
ropes are passed and encircles the upper-forearm → the fork is passed into the vagina and each tooth
is attached to one of the upper-forearm ropes → the vet pushes the fetus with the fork, and at the
same time turns it vigorously to the appropriate side → if there is sufficient space and fetal fluids
(can be supplemented) – the fetus rotates
Kuhn’s crutch can be used instead of Cammerer’s fork

Anterior presentation, ventral position (Mare, Cow and Ewe)

Eyeball pressure with manual rotation or mechanical rotation by torsion fork
If the dam is down and will not get up → should be placed in dorsal recumbency → raising the hind
quarters can be helpful
If the fetus rests on its back with the head and limbs flexed on its neck and thorax → fetus is pushed
and the head and forelimbs extended → rotation

Posterior presentation, lateral position (Mare, Cow and Ewe)

The vet. inserts his hand and grasps the upper part of the limb → simultaneous pushing (down) and
rotation – to rotate the fetus in 90° → if its impossible – Cammerer’s torsion fork applied to the hind-
limbs

Posterior presentation, ventral position (Mare, Cow and Ewe)

The vet. inserts a hand between the fetus hind-limbs – up to the inguinal region, where one of the
thighs is grasped → the fetus is pushed and rotated in a half circle → if its not possible - Cammerer’s
torsion fork should be used
An alternative method is to place a traction bar and tie it by rope to the hind-feet → rotation force is
applied to the traction bar
There is high risk that the hind-feet of a foal in this position – will penetrate the vagina and rectum
→ if it did penetrate → cesarean section and later correction of the fistula
Presentation
The vertebral column of the fetus is displaced vertically or transversely to the pelvic inlet (instead of
being in line with the birth canal) → since there is limited space in the vertical plane, absolute
vertical position is not-possible and oblique vertical presentation is rare (in Mare)
Classification is according whether the fetal vertebral column or abdomen is presented at the pelvic
inlet
Dorso-vertical presentation = the fetal vertebral column is presented at the pelvic inlet
Ventro-ventral presentation = the fetal abdomen is presented at the pelvic inlet = “dog sitting
position”

Oblique dorso-vertical presentation (Mare, Cow and Ewe)

According whether the head or breech (hindquarters) is nearer to the pelvic inlet, the presentation is
converted into anterior or posterior longitudinal = bring the fetal head and/or limbs to the pelvic inlet
→ convert the defect into ventral longitudinal presentation → then rotate to dorsal position (as
described before – pushing and presence of natural or artificial fluid are both essential)
The fetus is griped by Krey’s hook as near as possible to the more proximal fetal extremity → then,
the fetus is pushed and the hook is pulled – until the fore or hind quarters of the fetus are in the
pelvic inlet → adjustment of the position and posture → delivery by traction

Oblique ventro-vertical presentation (Mare, Cow and Ewe) = “dog sitting position” (Fig-15.2)
Diagnosed by – protrusion of head and forelimbs (which have been pulled without success) = the
head and forefeet are in the vagina and its hind-parts in the uterus (hind-feet are also in the birth
canal and the rest on the pelvic brim) → the more the fetus is pulled – the greater the impaction
Most cases are severely impacted → epidural anesthesia and adding lubricant fluid into the uterus →
pushing the fetus sufficiently to allow the hindquarters to be pushed off the pelvic brim into the
uterus (thus converting the dystocia into simple anterior presentation)
If it former is not working, the new aim is to push the front of the fetus and to convert to posterior
presentation, ventral position → a rope is tied in the upper part of the forelimbs and connected to
Kuhn’s crutch or Cammerer’s torsion fork → the fetus if strongly pushed (with the instrument) → as
soon as it is possible – ropes are tied to the hind feet → the fetus is pushed again while the hind-feet
are held strongly (this way, the fetus might be pushed into the uterus – in posterior presentation,
ventral position) → then the fetus is rotated from ventral to dorsal position → traction of the hind-
legs
In case that the head, neck and forelimb protrude from the vulva, pushing will-not succeed → mare
should be sedated (or better under general anesthesia) and placed in dorsal recumbency → fetotomy
(the loop of the weir is placed as far as possible around the fetal thorax) → evisceration → ropes are
attached to the hind-feet → the stumped vertebral column is pushed, while the ropes are pulled (the
remainder of the trunk is pushed into the uterus) → rotation and traction of the hind-feet (if there is
swelling of the vaginal mucosa – which prevents vaginal manipulation and fetotomy → cesarean
section)

Dorso-transverse presentation (Mare, Cow and Ewe) → Fig.-15.3-15.4

The vet. should decide which extremity of the fetus is nearer to the pelvic inlet → correction by
pushing the fetus and pulling his nearer extremity to the birth canal
Unless one extremity is within easy reach – it is very difficult or impossible to reach it in the uterus
→ if there appears to be a chance of success, the Cow should be given epidural anesthesia and the
Mare deep sedation (or better general anesthesia – so she can be placed on her back) → supplement
of fetal fluid → attempt is made by manipulation of the proximal fetal extremity to turn the fetus into
ventral position, anterior or posterior presentation → rotate the fetus into dorsal position → delivery
by traction (if this version can-not be done → cesarean section because fetotomy is very difficult to
carry out in this type of dystocia)
Ventro-transverse presentation (Mare, Cow and Ewe) → Fig.-15.5
A variable number of fetal appendages may enter the birth canal (must be distinguished from twins
and double monsters and from schistosoma reflexes) → (presence of uterine fluid is essential) e
pidural anesthesia in Cow or deep sedation (or better general anesthesia – so she can be placed on her
back) in Mare → convert the abnormality into longitudinal (usually posterior presentation, ventral
position) presentation – by pulling the posterior extremity (with ropes) and pushing the anterior
extremity (with Cammerer’s or Kuhn’s crutch and cuffs) → the fetus is rotated from ventral to dorsal
position → delivery by traction of the hind-limbs → unless conversion progress is rapid and
successful, cesarean section is indicated (fetotomy requires a lot of efforts, dangerous to the dam and
un-certain to success)
In bi-corneal type (Fig.15.6) of transverse presentation (the fetal extremities are disposed in the 2
horns and its trunk lies across the anterior portion of the uterus body) → if ventral displacement of
the uterus had occurred, it may be impossible to palpate the fetus → cesarean section
95. Twining in uniparous animals as a common cause of dystocia (R&O – 272)
Mare – abortion is more likely than dystocia (very small uterine capacity)
Cow – twins can cause dystocia
Sheep – it is un-certain that twins predispose to dystocia (dystocia due to twins is balanced by
reduced feto-pelvic disproportion)
Twin dystocia is of 3 types:
1. Both fetuses try to pass the birth canal together (Fig-16.1-16.2)
2. One fetus in the birth canal – but with defective posture, position or presentation (usually due to
insufficient uterine space)
3. Uterine inertia (over-stretching of the uterus by excessive fetal load or premature birth → defective
uterine contractions → birth of the 1st or 2nd fetus does-not proceed although presentation is normal)
If the twins are of small body size → manipulative correction and delivery are possible
First the dystocia must be diagnosed (as a rule in all cases of difficult birth – the presenting fetal
appendages must be identified → this way the vet. will-not apply traction to the 2 fetuses at once, nor
should the twins be mistaken for schistosomus, double monster or ventro-transverse presentation of a
single fetus)
Where a twin is presented with an abnormality of posture it is treated as if it were a single fetus (if it
is un-known that twins are present – but it is suspected because the fetus is small or because of the
history of the dam → the uterus must be searched for another fetus)
Simultaneous presentation of twins (type no.1) is treated in logical sequence:
The polarity of the fetuses is determined → the more advanced fetus is recognized → its presenting
extremity are pulled out (by rope)
Any defect of presentation, position or posture – must be diagnosed and treated (epidural anesthesia
may help) → the less advanced fetus is pushed, while the nearer one is pulled and delivered → the
2nd fetus posture…is corrected → delivery of the 2nd fetus
It is easier to deliver if the hindquarters are raised
The uterus should always be examined for another fetus (2nd,3rd…)
If correction is impossible → fetotomy of the presenting fetus or cesarean section
96. Dystocia due to fetal monsters (R&O – 273)
Mare – monsters are rare except of - Wryneck = torticollis
Cattle and Sheep
Schistosomus reflexus = the lateral edges of the somatic disc in the developing embryo curve
upwards instead of downwards → the viscera float free in the amnion, the head and tail are curved up
towards each other → the fetus creates dystocia with the free floating viscera or the 4 limbs and the
head all together, presenting in birth canal
Ankylosis = abnormal immobility and consolidation of a joint (calf legs are bent and fixed in flexion
and there is some deformity of the spine)
Perosomus elumbus = the vertebral column stops at the caudal thoracic region and the posterior part
of the body is joined to the front half be soft tissue only
Double monsters = Siam twins
Dropsical fetuses = edema = abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in the abdominal cavity or in the
cellular tissues
Anasarcous = extensive subcutaneous edema
Hydrocephalus = enlargement of the cranium due to abnormal accumulation of CSF within the
cerebral ventricular system
Pig = Hydrocephalus = see in Cattle and Sheep
Double monsters = see in Cattle and Sheep
Perosomus elumbis = see in Cattle and Sheep
Delivery of monsters
Recognition of the exact disposition of the fetal extremities and an estimate of fetal size may be very
difficult → the vet. must decide if traction (with lubrication and protection of the birth canal from
irregular objects) can do the job
Prior to traction, the diameter of anasarcous, ascites and hydrocephalus – can be reduced by
appropriate manipulation or single incisions with a fetotomy knife
If moderate traction does-not succeed → fetotomy (wire-saw) of cesarean section (fetotomy should
be first considered – due to price and recovery of the dam, and also in all cases where sufficient
reduction of the fetal diameter may be achieved by simple sections → thus, fetotomy is indicated in
ankylosis, wryneck, perosomus elumbus, anterior duplication and schistosomus)
Hydrocephalus whose head is too rigid to reduce by cranial puncture → saw-off by wire or chain
If several fetotomy incisions are required (as in excess fetal size - as in anasarca, extensive
duplications, or very irregular presentation) → cesarean section
Occasionally, the presenting part of the fetus is normal, but the distal part is grossly malformed →
parturition is normal until the malformed portion engages the pelvic inlet (the cause is not apparent
and may be impossible to know) → for example perosomus elumbus, hydrocephalic fetus in
posterior presentation, anterior duplications presented posteriorly → in this cases, heavy but
unsuccessful traction has usually been applied before the arrival of the vet.→ this history, together
with the normal appearance of the presenting portion – should make suspicious of an abnormality →
cesarean section is the easier solution
Obstetric management of Schistosomus reflexus
Fetal viscera may be seen protruding from the vulva (if not, they are soon located by vaginal exam.)
→ the viscera may be mistaken for those of the mother – and uterine rupture may be suspected
(shouldn’t be difficult to differ by careful exam. of the organs and the absence of uterine tear)
The viscera must be torn away → the fetal diameter is now compared with that of the birth canal →
if it seems favorable to birth → Krey's hooks are fastened to the fetus → reasonable traction with
adequate lubrication (the expulsive efforts of the cow are gently aided) → if it doesn’t work – wire-
sow fetotomy (at the spinal flexure of the fetus Fig-16.3) or cesarean section → the small parts are
with-drown by Krey’s hooks → if it is not possible to with-draw they are cut again – perpendicular
(90°) to the 1st cut
97. Fetotomy – general
Subcutaneous fetotomy – forelimbs (R&O – 242)
1. The leg is tied in the metacarpal region – and the rope is pulled by an assistant → The vet. makes a
small incision (with scalpel) into the skin in front of the metacarpal joint → Roberts’s fetotomy knife
is inserted into this cut, and longitudinal incision is made (on the front of the forelimb) – from the
metacarpus to the scapula
2. “Skinning” the limb in situ (Fig-13.4) = separation of the skin from the muscles by hand
3. Division of the adductor muscles by Roberts’s knife – with vigorous probing → the muscle mass
is separated into several ‘strings’ → each ‘string’ is cut by the knife
4. Disarticulate the metacarpal joint – so that the digit is left connected to the detached skin of the
metacarpus → then, a rope is attached to the cannon bone (3rd metacarpal of Eq or 3rd and 4th
metacarpal of Ru)
5. The rope is pulled by 2 assistants (with traction bars) and the denuded forelimb is disconnected by
the forcible traction of the 2 assistants, while the vet. pushes the front of the fetus (this way, the
muscles attached to the top of the scapula are broken and the limb comes away)
In many cases the removal of one forelimb gives sufficient reduction in fetal diameter to allow
delivery by traction → if delivery is not-possible, the other foreleg must be amputated the same way
Occasionally, after removal of one or both legs – and despite partial rotation of the fetus, the
hindquarters become locked at the pelvic inlet → now the calf should be withdrawn as far as
possible, and the protruding part of the trunk is completely cut → fetal abdomen is eviscerated →
one of the hind-limbs must be removed – and there are 2 ways to do so (the one chosen depend on
the mobility of the retained legs):
If it is possible, the posterior part of the calf is pushed and one hind-limb is brought forward with the
aid of a rope → removal of he limb by subcutaneous fetotomy (as described)
If it is not possible to grasp the limb (after pushing) and bring it forward, the leg is amputated by
direct cutting fetotomy knife (as Unsworth’s) → an incision is made over the hip joint of the leg to
be removed → the muscles lateral to the femoral head are divided and the upper extremity of the
femur is isolated → pulled by a rope, the teres ligament of the femur head is torn and the head is
freed from the acetabulum → then, the rope is tied around the trochanter and the leg is pulled out of
the skin
after one hind-leg is removed, the remaining of the posterior part of the fetus can be withdrawn by
traction (by a double hook)

Subcutaneous fetotomy – hind-limbs (R&O – 247)

A nick is made just above the metatarsal joint – on the posterior aspect of the extended fetal leg →
into this nick is placed the ‘beak’ of Roberts’s knife → an incision is made with the knife up the back
of the limb up to the anterior gluteal region → the skin is separated all around the leg → the muscles
above the hip joint and the abductor muscles are divided → the femoral head is detached from the
acetabulum (by forcible rotating the limb laterally) → the skin is cut around the metatarsal joint → a
rope is placed over the freed end of the metatarsus → traction of the rope by 2 assistants while the
vet. is pushing the calf → removal of the leg allows traction and expulsion of the whole fetus → if it
does-not, the other hind-limb is similarly removed
If after removal of one or both hind-legs – the fore-quarters become obstructed at the pelvic inlet →
as much of the calf as possible is pulled out of the vulva and amputated → evisceration → the
reminder is pushed back → an incision is made (Unsworth’s knife) in the skin over the scapula
cartilage and the muscles which connect the scapula are divided → the upper end of the shoulder is
isolated (knife dissection) → Krey’s hooks are connected to the scapula and help to pull out → the
remainder of the calf is pulled
Percutaneous fetotomy – forelimbs (R&O – 245)
Delivery by wire-saw tubular fetotomy
For ease of sterilization – the model preferred is the Thygesen’s instrument
Removal of the fetal head, neck and one forelimb (Fig – 13.6) → the wire is looped around the neck
and forelimb and pushed back as far as possible (behind the posterior angle of the scapula – where a
deep incision is made with Unsworth’s knife to accommodate the wire) → the head of the instrument
is brought to the base of the neck – on the opposite side to the foreleg being removed → the wire is
pulled in long strokes – so as to move the max. length of available wire → the detached segment is
drawn-out of the birth canal → the remainder is delivered by traction
If birth is not possible (after cutting the head and one forearm) → the calf is pushed back and the
wire is put around the trunk of the calf (Fig-13.7) → the vertebral column is cut --. The anterior part
of the calf is delivered → the remainder of the abdomen is eviscerated → cut the hind extremity in a
sagital plane (the wire is passed around the sacrum and behind the perineum and the head of the
instrument is placed against the fetal spine Fig-13.8) → the hindquarters are divided and each half
can be pulled out in turn (by double hook)

Percutaneous fetotomy – hind-limbs (R&O – 248)

The wire-loop is placed over one foot and passed up the limb – until it lies anterior to the external
angle of the ileum (where a cut in the skin is done by Unsworth’s knife)→ the head of the instrument
is placed lateral to the anus, and the tail of the calf must be introduced into the loop (otherwise the
wire will slip during sawing – and the section will be made through the distal 1/3 instead of the upper
extremity of the femur) → the cut limb is removed → the rest of the body is pulled by Krey-
Schottler hook (attached to the perineum) or with the aid of Obermayer’s anal hook (passed over the
calf’s pubic brim) → if delivery is still impossible, the other hind-limb must be removed
If the calf can-not be removed after removal of both feet → the trunk is cut (wire loop) as far as
possible → then one or if necessary both forelimbs are amputated (the wire is passed with the aid of
Schriever’s introducer) → the cut limb may be pulled out by Krey’s hook → the anterior portion of
the calf is pulled out → if its not possible, the other forelimb must be cut in the same manner

102. aftercare and examination of the dam after fetotomy ( J 171 )

the vagina and uterus of the dam should be manually examined after fetotomy for evidence of soft-
tissue damage. Local and parenteral antibiotics should be administered. If the placenta is readily
detachable from the uterine caruncles it should be removed. Careful nursing for a few days s
indicated.

1. Examination for the presence of another fetuses in the uterus and abdominal cavity → careful
palpation or ultrasound
2. The genital canal and uterus should be examined for the presence of an invaginated uterine horn,
laceration, ruptures.
* small, superficial tears of the cervix, vagina or vulva → nor important unless there is retained
placenta.
* in the vulvo-vaginal border, laceration may lead to infection and necrosis → local treatment with
healing protective ointments + antibiotic
* extensive laceration of the cervix → may lead to cervical induration and chronic cervicitis
any teat or rupture of the uterus → poor prognosis → slaughter, laparotomy, hysterectomy.
* large tear in vulva, vagina, cervix or uterus → suture ( puling the cervix and uterus back or
outside the vulva make the suture easier.
* small uterine rupture (mainly in dorsal wall) → may heal spontaneously, and the uterus should be
stimulated to contract by oxytocin .
3. examination of placenta + placentome ( cow + mare) → avoid retained placenta.
4. uterine infection → antibiotic, local treatment of uterus with antiseptics, oxytocin (stimulate
uterine involution + prevent sepsis), removal of any placenta present.
5. prevent possible uterus prolapse after forced extraction → oxytocin (prevent prolapse by aiding
involution + separate fetal membrane from uterus)
6. animal unable to rise → examination for paresis, hip-dislocation, spinal injury, pelvic injury.
7. examination of udder for any wounds / laceration that occur during the dystocia.

104. Laparohysterotomi (cesarean section) in the sow (R&O 329)

indication
– irreducible vaginal prolapse, fetal emphysema, secondary uterine inertia. Preparturient vaginal
prolapse may be complicated by rectal prolapse and even the gravid uterus and often undergoes
marked edematous swelling
in secondary inertia, it is not always easy to be certain that fetuses remain in the uterus (→ X ray)

Anesthesia
The operation is usually performed under deep sedation and local analgesia, or general anesthesia.

Operative technique
The operation is performed through a vertical flank incision on either side. The gravid horn should be
exteriorized for incision outside the peritoneal cavity in order to minimize peritoneal contamination.
If the fetuses are not emphysematous, it is possible to evacuate both horns through a single incision
as close to the uterine body as possible. The piglets in the ovarian poles of the cornua are squeezed
down then horn and grasped through the incision. If the fetuses are emphysematous multiple incision
sited directly over or between them may be necessary. Placenta which have not separated should be
left inside and not forcibly removed by traction. because the cornua is long it is important to be sure
that all the piglets have been removed. The uterine incision is repaired with inversion sutures.

Maternal recovery and causes of death

Deaths are usually due to the combined effect of toxemia and surgical shock and occur during the
immediate postoperative period.
Animals which are in high risk to die can be identified according to cyanosis of the limbs, ears and
udder.
Sever preoperative vaginal prolapse may recur after surgery and require the insertion of a temporary
retaining perivaginal suture.

105. Laparohysterotomi (cesarean section) in the bitch and queen (T 819, R&O 332)

bitch
Indication
The decision to operate is based largely on a subjective assessment of the circumstances of the case
* the duration and prognosis of the whelping,
* the number and viability of fetuses born and unborn
* the nature of vaginal discharge
* changes in the pattern of straining
* uninformative information on vaginal examination
* delay in the initiation of parturition
* delay in propulsion
* delay in delivery despite vigorous straining
in any case of delay in parturition, the border between decision to operate, or manipulate by other
ways, depends on the case and experience of the vet.
In some brachycephalic breeds, pregnancy is routinely terminate by cesarean section, largely on the
high incidence of dystocia and stillbirth.
Whatever the reason, surgery should normally be delayed until the onset of first stage labor in order
to avoid the risk of fetal pregnancy.

Anesthesia
The choice for anesthetic technique is important to ensure fetal viability or because of the condition
of the bitch after a protracted or complicated whelping.
Fetal viability can be confirmed preoperatively, but the absent of positive signs does not necessarily
mean that all the fetuses are dead.
The delivery of live fetuses depends on correcting or preventing fetal depression and hypoxia which
may be due to:
* placental separation
* Maternal hypotension (over dose)
* inadequate pulmonary ventilation of the bitch during anesthesia

Operative technique
The operation is performed either through a flank or a midline laparotomy. The linea alba is ideal
approach to the gravid uterus. Vein between the rows of mammary gland immediately below the skin
have to be ligated the incision may be extended cranially as far as necessary, and there is access to
both uterine horns.
The wall of the gravid uterus is thin and stretched and tears easily in a circumferantial manner around
the horns or body.
If the uterus can be exteriorized, al the fetuses should be removed through a single, longitudinal
incision on the dorsal surface of the uterine body. Those in the upper segment of the cornua are
milked through the uterine wall until their membranes rupture and the fetal extremities, can be
grasped with fingers through the hysterotomy incision. If the placenta slips out with the fetus, it is
likely that the puppy is dead, but immediate palpation is still indicated for evidence of heart beat.
Fetuses bathed in dark-green fluid are usually dead.
After exteriorization of the uterus, the peritoneal cavity is packed with swabs to prevent subsequent
contamination with uterine fluid.
The uterine incision is closed with two rows of interrupted or continuous inversion sutures.
The peritoneal and muscle layers of the laparotomy wound are repaired with interrupted stitches and
the subcutaneous dead space is obliterated with a row of absorbable sutures. the skin sutures should
be loosely but securely tied. The immediate administration of oxytocin induces uterine involution
and expulsion of remaining placenta and uterine debris

Postoperative period
* a continuing vaginal discharge of blood after cesarean section may indicate serious hemorrhage
from areas of placental attachment if placentas have been forcibly detached. This a life-threatening
complication and indicate the need for further oxytocin therapy immediately.

Queen
indication
cesarean section should be considered in the following situation:
* in a 70 – day pregnancy when medical induction has not been possible
* in unresponsive primary or secondary uterine inertia
* irreducible obstructive dystocia
* when kittens are valuable and it is believed that other manipulation may damage kittens or the
dam’s genital system (especially if two or more fetuses are retained)
* when a heavy discharge is present and uterine infection is suspected
* a female with a history of recurrent cesarean section.
* surgery should be considered in females with elevated or subnormal temperatures, since operation
may be less stressful than prolonged labor

106. Laparohysterotomy (cesarean section) in the ewe and doe (R&O 330, T 892, 592 )
EWE
Indication
The main indication for cesarean section in the ewe are failure of the cervix to dilate, irreducible or
severely traumatized vaginal prolapse, fetopelvic disproportion and fatal emphysema after protracted
dystocia.
Vaginal prolapse should be initially be treated conservatively by reposition and the insertion of
vulval retention sutures, in the hope that pregnancy will continue to term.

Operative technique
Hysterotomy is performed through a left flank incision under paravertebral nerve block or local
infiltration analgesia with the animal in the right lateral recumbency.

Anesthesia
Care is essential in inducing local analgesia in sheep because accidental intravenous administration
or the injection of an excessive quantity of anesthetic agent may rapidly result in convulsion.
All general anesthetic technique incur some risk of regurgitation and many depress the fetus

Operative technique
The viability, position and number of lambs present at the time of surgery should be considered when
selecting the site for the abdominal incision.
The most used approach is through the left flank, although the midline, paramedian, right and left
dorsoventral abdominal incision can be used.
An incision of 15 cm is made through the abdominal wall and into the peritoneal cavity. the most
accessible extremity or the head of the lamb then palpated within the uterus and gently manipulated
through the incision.
The uterine wall is incised through a relatively a vascular region, avoiding any cotyledons. The
incision should be made over a sufficient length to enable easy manipulation and rapid delivery of
the lamb. Prolonged manipulation of the lamb in uterus may stimulate the lamb to breath amniotic
fluid, which is often contaminated with meconium.
The sheep is highly susceptible to the toxemic effect of intrauterine clostridial infection, and most
deaths are due to this complication.

GOAT
Indication
Cesarean section is made to relieve dystocia, to obtain caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE0-free kids.
The doe should be careful physical evaluated before the surgery. If signs of shock (hypovolemic and
cardiovascular collapse) are evident, I.V therapy should be given.

Anesthesia
If the doe is profoundly depressed, she may require only leg restrain and local anesthesia at the
incision site (30 ml lidocaine). The regional therapy of choice is epidural analgesia at the
lumbosacral junction.

Surgical procedure
The left paralumbar fossa is clipped, prepared, and draped for aseptic surgery. A 15-cm incision,
centered in the left paralumbar fossa, is made beginning approximately 4 cm ventral to the lumbar
transverse processes. The skin, external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique and
transverse muscles of abdomen and peritoneum are incised or split separately. The gravid uterus is
located and gently delivered to the incision. It is often possible to completely exteriorize the gravid
horn. The uterus is incised along the greater curvature, preferably between rows of placentomes.
This incision should be of sufficient length to avoid tearing the uterus. The fetal membranes are
incised, and the fetus is extracted. Contamination of the abdomen with uterine fluids should be
prevented. The umbilical cord is stretched and broken near the body wall. Excessive hemorrhage can
be controlled with a simple ligature. The uterus should be evaluated closely for additional kids.
These may be delivered through the original incision or, if necessary, a second incision may be made
along the greater curvature of the other uterine horn. The uterus is closed after the practitioner has
assured that there are no additional kids. The placenta may be partially
resected to facilitate uterine closure. If the fetus is dead or emphysematous or if there is evidence of
metritis, antibiotic or antiseptic boluses may be placed in the uterus.
The uterus is copiously lavaged with sterile saline and is returned to the abdomen. It is palpated to
ensure that it is in normal position.
following surgery, the doe may be given 5 units of oxytocin intravenously or intramuscularly to
aid in involution of the uterus. Within 24 to 48 hours the cervix will usually dilate and the placenta
will be passed.

Prognosis
The prognosis after cesarean section is good if the surgery was preformed electively. A guarded
prognosis for life and fertility should be given if the fetus was emphysematous or macerated or if the
doe was seriously ill prior to the operation

107. choice of anesthetic procedure according to surgical approach (Laparohysterectomy) (T 351, J

153)
usually epidural anesthesia and regional or local anesthesia are sufficient for most patients. General
anesthesia and deep sedation should be avoided when the fetus is alive. Xylazine can be used, but it
has disadvantage by adversely increasing myometrial tone.
A muscle relaxant drug, isosuprine, is used to simplify manipulation of the uterus at the laparotomy
incision. Oxytocin is used after surgery to neutralize the action of relaxant.

Flank operation – standing animal – epidural injection of 5 – 10 ml 2% solution procaine

hydrochloride will reduce abdominal straining, defecation and tail movement and preserve the
standing position. Linear infiltration of the dorsal and cranial boundaries of the operative field with
2% procaine hydrochloride provides satisfactory anesthesia.

Ventral midline approach – low epidural anesthesia aids in preventing abdominal straining during
the procedure. The ventral surface of the abdomen is shaved. The midline is infiltrated with 2%
procaine hydrochloride from 7 cm anterior to the umbilicus to the base of the udder.

Ewe
Local anesthesia is normally used and may be given by local infiltration, inverted L block or
paravertebral method. 60 ml of 2% lignocaine is required for the local infiltration. Epidural
anesthesia is useful to prevent straining during surgery and 2 – 4 ml of 2% lignocaine is injected
using the space between the first and second coccygeal vertebrae.

Dogs and cats – although local and epidural anesthesia can be used for cesarean section, general
anesthesia is more satisfactory. Almost all anesthetic and sedative agents will cross the placenta and
have some adverse effect upon the fetus.
Gaseous anesthetics are rapidly excreted via the respiratory system in both kittens and puppies and
are the safest anesthetic agents for cesarean section. Masking down with halothane followed by
intubation and maintenance with halothane and oxygen produces satisfactory anesthesia. A good
supply of oxygen at all times, including the pre-induction period, is very important to ensure a good
supply of this vital gas to the young.
Halothane may reduce the activity of uterine muscle and postoperative administration of oxytocin to
encourage uterine involution is advisable.
A good supply of oxygen must be maintained throughout surgery to ensure that fetal life is not
compromised.
Recovery from general anesthesia must be monitored. Vomiting may occur in the recovery phase (as
it may during induction) if the stomach was full at the time of surgery. Preoperative starving is
seldom possible in emergency cesarean section cases.

108. ventral midline approach in the cow (T 352)

when cesarean section is done in young beef heifer, the ventral midline approach is better. This site is
also useful when the operator encounters a large, greatly distended, septic uterus. low epidural
anesthesia aids in preventing abdominal straining during the procedure. The patient in cast and
restrained at an angle between right lateral and dorsal recumbency by tying the head and forelimb
anteriorly and the left hindlimb posteriorly. The right hindlimb is secured dorsally.
The ventral surface of the abdomen is clipped or shaved and scrubbed from the udder to a transverse
line 12 cm anterior to the umbilicus. the midline is infiltrated. A sufficient size sheet is put to cover
the abdomen, udder and hindlimb.
The skin incision is begun 5 – 7 cm anterior to the umbilicus and is carried posteriorly as needed.
following incision of the subcutaneous fascia, the abdominal tunic and peritoneum are incised
longitudinally.
Upon opening the abdominal cavity, the free edge of the greater omentum is identified internal and
posterior to the posterior commissure of the abdominal incision. This free edge is drawn anteriorly,
thus exposing the uterus. The gravid horn is exteriorized by grasping a fetal part, usually one or both
pelvic limb.
Incision of the uterus, removal of the fetus and suturing of the uterine incision are performed as
usual. Following return of the uterus to the abdominal cavity, the greater omentum is drawn
posteriorly over the exposed viscera.
The peritoneum and abdominal tunic are closed together, using a continuous overlapping mattress
suture. The skin and fascia are sutured with a continuous pattern.

109. Hysterectomy in the bitch and queen ( S 1303 )

indication
elective sterilization is the most common indication for ovariohystrectomy. Removal of the ovaries
and the uterus is the usual treatment for many of the ovarian and uterine disease ( ovarian cyst,
pyometra, uterine torsion). Ovariohysterectomy is also indicated to prevent recurrence of vaginal
hyperplasia. The average age for spaying of cat and dogs is around 6 month, either just before or
after their first estrus.

Procedure
The length of the midline abdominal incision is based on the size of the animal and whether it is a
dog or a cat. The distance between the umbilicus and the pubis is divided into thirds. In the dog, the
incision is made in the cranial third because the ovary are more difficult to exteriorize than the
uterine body. In the cat, the incision is made in the middle third because the uterine body is more
difficult to exteriorize than the ovaries. If the uterus is distended or enlarged, the incision is
lengthened. A flank incision is not performed because the entire uterine body is difficult to remove.
The right uterine horn is located by means of an ovariohysterectomy hook or the index finger. A
clamp is made on the proper ligament of the ovary and is used to retract the ovary while the
suspensory ligament is stretched or broken with the index finger. A window is made in the
mesovarium caudal to the ovarian vessels the ovarian pedicle is triple clamped, and the pedicle is
severed between the clamp closet to the ovary and the middle clamp. The clamp most distant from
the ovary is removed so that the pedicle ligature can be placed in its groove.
Absorbable suture material is used for ligatures. The pedicle is grasped with small hemostats, the
remaining clamp is removed, and the pedicle is inspected for bleeding. The pedicle is gently replaced
into the abdomen, and the hemostats is released. The procedure is repeated on the opposite ovarian
pedicle. In young dogs or cats two clamps can be used because it is not necessary to groove the
pedicle. The broad ligament is severed or torn. If the broad ligament is vascular, it is ligated with one
or two sutures before it is cut.
Three clamps are placed on the uterine body just cranial to the cervix. The uterine body is severed
between the proximal and middle clamps. The uterine arteries are individually ligated caudal to the
most caudal clamp. The caudal clamp is removed and the uterus is ligated in the groove that remains.
The uterine pedicle is grasped with a small hemostat above the clamp, the clamp is removed, and the
pedicle is inspected for bleeding. The pedicle is gently replaced into the abdomen, and the hemostat
is removed.

110. Hysterotomy, hysterectomy, hysteropexy, episiotomy

Hysterotomy
Incision of the uterus (cesarean section) → See question no. 104-108
Hysterectomy
Surgical removal of the uterus → See question no. 109

Hysteropexy
Fixation of a displaced uterus by surgery → See question no. 82-84

Episiotomy (T – 341)
Surgical incision into the perineum and vagina for obstetrical purpose (the basic assumption is that
surgical incision is preferable than tearing, trauma or laceration)
Indications =Mutation delivery
Oversized fetus delivery
Insufficient dilation of the vulva (hypoplasia or juvenility)
Induration of the vulva or vestibule (due to previous trauma)
Congenital vulval stenosis (episiotomy can be performed to enlarge the stricture permanently – to
void difficult matting and dystocia)
In the case of decomposing fetus, partial fetotomy is preferable to episiotomy due to the great
contamination
Technique = 1. Anesthesia is not required for incision (the stretched tissues are insensitive to pain),
but it may be required for suture after delivery
Epidural → slow onset (mainly if animal is recumbent) and it may inhibit the desired abdominal
pressing once delivery starts again
Local infiltration → ineffective and unnecessary if the limiting fetal part is stretching the vulva
2. The incision (scalpel or scissors) begins at a point along the free edge of the stretched vulva, 3-5
cm from the dorsal commisure (the vulva tearing tends to begin at the dorsal commisure and to
extend dorsally into the anus and rectum) → the whole vulval lip is cut and the incision continues in
dorso-lateral direction (the length of the incision depends on the need for enlargement of the orifice,
and usually 7 cm are sufficient to allow delivery without tearing)
3. Delivery
4. The incision is cleaned
5. Suture (absorbable or non-absorbable) with a modified vertical mattress suture (the deep part of
suture passes through the skin, fibrous tissue and vestibular submucosa, while the superficial part
passes through the skin alone)
6. Aftercare include antibiotics and examination of the patient before next breeding season

111. trauma to the birth canal (R&O 278)

any part of the birth canal may suffer contusion during forcible extraction of an oversized fetus, but
the cervix and vulva are likely to be lacerated than the dilatable vagina. The considerable fat content
of the vagina of heifers of the beef breeds makes such animals particularly prone to vaginal
contusion when the fetus is oversized. Infection by fusiformis necrophorus is then probable, and a
most severe vaginitis ensues. The condition is very painful and cause continuous marked toxemia.
pyogenic infection is also possible. All vaginal contusions and laceration should be treated with
antibiotic preparation. Parenteral antibiotics should also be given. Epidural anesthesia gives
temporary relief from straining.
Rupture of the vagina should be repaired, , if possible, by suturing. Infection following rupture may
give rise to peritonitis, with marked toxemia or abscess formation with subsequent vaginal
constriction. All vaginal injuries should be treated with attention to the possible sequelae.
Wounds of the perineum and vulva are easily sutured. If laceration of the vulva and perineum are left
unsutured, scar tissue formation and distortion impeded the sphincter action of the vulva, with
consequent aspiration of air, vaginitis and metritis. Than, much more difficult operation is required.
When the vulva is incised during parturition of a foal, the incised tissue should be resutured
immediately after delivery. Repair of the vulva, perineum and cervix may be done under epidural
anesthesia.

112. trauma to the urinary bladder and intestines during parturition ( J 180)

Eversion of the bladder

Eversion is seen in the mare where the short wide urethra predisposes to the condition in the
Post-parturient period.

Clinical signs
The everted organ lies within the vagina or protrudes from the vulva. Examination reveal that the
inner surface of the bladder is exposed; the trigonum vesice is seen, with urine coming from the
ureter.

Treatment
After gentle cleaning the bladder is manually replaced under epidural anesthesia by pushing it back
down through the urethra.

Herniation of the bladder

The bladder passes through a tear in the vaginal floor and its serosal surface appears at the vulva →
the peritoneal surface of the bladder is visible. It may occur in all species.

Clinical signs
A fluid-filed viscus appears at the vulva. In the cow, it might be mistaken for a portion of fluid-filed
amnion. In many cases obstruction of the urethra occurs as a result of the displacement of the
bladder, which fills with urine.

Treatment
The bladder is emptied by catheterization or cystocentesis. With the animal under epidural anesthesia
the bladder is replaced in its correct position and the torn vaginal floor is repaired. Foley catheter
may be left in place for 48 h to prevent filling of the bladder.

Intestinal injury
It is uncommon but lesion can be seen in cattle slaughtered after parturition. Signs are seldom seen in
living animals unless severe intestinal damage has been sustained.

Etiology
Loops of small or large intestine are trapped and squashed between the fetus and the pelvis,
especially in cases where dystocia is prolonged, fetal fluids are lost and excessive traction by
manipulator has been used.

Clinical signs
Minor damage will pass unnoticed. If rupture of the bladder has occurred the signs of developing
peritonitis will be seen. Within few hours anorexia, pain intestinal ileus and pyrexia are seen. A full
clinical examination is essential and the presence of peritonitis and its extent is established by rectal
examination.

Treatment
Intensive antibiotic and supportive therapy (fluid and Non Steroid Anti Inflammatory Drug ) is used.
Intraperitoneal antibiotic therapy may also be given. Laparotomy in normally not indicated unless the
exact location of the primary injury is known.

113. inversio and prolapsus uteri (R&O 302)

prolapse of the uterus is a common complication of the third stage of labor in the cow and the ewe. it
occurs less frequently in the sow and is rare in the mare and bitch. In the ruminant species the
prolapse is generally a complete inversion of the gravid cornu, while in the sow and the bitch
inversion is generally partial and comprises one cornu only. Cases are on record in which the bitch
has everted one cornu before she has completely delivered the fetuses from the other. In the mare the
rare cases of prolapse are generally partial only.

Cow
Multigravida (of the dairy breeds) are more often involved than heifers. In the majority of instances
the prolapse occurs within a few hours of an otherwise normal second-stage labor, although in some
it may be delayed several days.

Etiology
The cause of prolapse of the uterus is not clear, but it occurs during the third stage of labor, within a
few hours of the expulsion of the calf, and at a time when some of the fetal cotyledons have
separated from the maternal caruncles. The only force that can lift the heavy uterus out of the
abdomen into the pelvis and hence propel it to the exterior is abdominal straining. Straining occurs
normally during the third stage and is synchronous with the continuing peristaltic contraction of the
uterus which occur ever 4 minutes. Uterine inversion and prolapse are associated with the onset of
uterine inertia during the third stage when a portion of detached afterbirth occupies the birth canal
and protrudes from the vulva. The association with inertia correspond with the greater frequency of
prolapse in cows than heifers, in dairy rather than beef cows. it was found that the pregnant horn
does not undergo a progressive inversion from its anterior extremity; only the posterior two-third
inverts.
The affected cow is recumbent, and if in lateral recumbency ruminal tympany will be prominent, but
occasionally the cow is standing with everted organ hanging down almost to its hocks.

Prognosis
The prognosis depend on:
* type of case
* duration of the condition before the treatment
* whether the organ has sustained severe injury

replacement of the organ does not offer insurmountable difficulties and recurrence after replacement
is uncommon. Such animals conceive again.
Occasionally prolapse of the uterus is followed by death of the animal.

Treatment
The prolapsed viscus should be wrap in a large towel to prevent further contamination. Ruminal
tympany should be relieved, if present, by passing stomach tube
An epidural anesthesia should be given. This will prevent straining, and also has the advantage that
defecation is in abeyance during the operation. The everted organ should be washed with warm
saline solution. If the fatal membranes are already partially detached and their complete removal can
be carried out easily and without injury to the caruncles, this should be done. When attachment is
complete or when attempts at detachment are associated with hemorrhage, it is better that the organ
be replaced with the membrane still adherent.
The prolapsed organ should be palpated in order to detect the possible presence within it of a
distended urinary bladder → it should be relieved by the use of a catheter.
The operator should replace the uterus, starting with those portions nearest the vulval lips. By gentle
pressure, the nearest cotyledons are pushed into the vagina, taking care that the lips of the vulva
remain well apart and do not become turned inward. it is better to replace portions of the upper and
lower surfaces alternately. As the mass disappears through the lips of the vulva the operator should
continue to press it forward to the full length of the arm. The uterus should be pressed forward
beyond the cervical ring.
To help restore uterine tone, and prevent recurrence of the prolapse, a postoperative injection of
oxytocin should be given.
A final advantage of apidural anesthesia is that for an hour after replacement of the organ ant
tendency to strain will be removed.

EWE
The operation is very similar to the cow, but it is easier. Epidural anesthesia is not required but it
prevent straining after the organ is replaced. The fatal cotyledons cannot readily be detached and it is
preferable to leave them attached and return them with the uterus.

114. Atonia uteri post partum ( T 242)

uterine atony without any form of disturbance of the detachment process can be a cause of retained
placenta. The fetal membrane are already detached and cannot be expelled because of the absence of
uterine contraction, or the mechanical process of detachment is hindered by the insufficiency of the
uterine contraction and muscle tone. In this case, it is possible to remove the cotyledons from the
caruncles without causing any harm by pulling slightly on the fetal membrane.

Ca deficiency
Exhaustion (long parturition) – (secondary)
↓
low / no – activity of uterus after parturition
↓
retained placenta
↓
infection, edema, fluid accumulation.

Primary = Ca deficiency
Over – stretching (twins)
Toxic degeneration in bacterial infection
Hormone deficiency (estrogen / progesterone, oxytocin
Hereditary weakness of myometrium
Systemic illness
Dietary deficiency
Fatty infiltration
Pre-mature birth / late abortion
Very small litter (fail to supply adequate endocrine contribution)
Torsion / tear uterus → myometrial contraction ↓
125. Paresis puerperalis (M 739)
parturient paresis is an febrile disease of mature dairy cows that occurs at or soon after parturition
and is manifested by changes in mentation, generalized paresis and circulatory collapse.

Etiology
At or near the time of parturition, the onset of lactation result in the sudden loss of calcium through
milk. Serum calcium levels decline from a normal of 10 – 12 mg / dL → 2 – 7 mg / dL. Commonly,
serum magnesium is increased, and the cows are hyperglycemic. The disease may occur in cows at
any age but is most common in high producing dairy cows above 5 years.

Clinical signs and diagnosis

Parturient paresis usually occur within 72 h of parturition. The disease can contribute to dystocia,
uterine prolapse and retained fatal membrane.
There are 3 stages of parturient paresis:
* during stage one, cows are able to stand but show signs of hypersensitivity and excitability. Cows
may be slightly ataxic, have fine tremors over the flank. Cows may appear restless huffing their rear
feet and bellowing.
* in stage two, cows are unable to stand but can maintain sternal recumbency. Depression, anorexia,
subnormal body temperature and cold extremities are seen. Smooth muscle paralysis leads to GI
stasis, which can be manifested as bloat, failure to defecate, and loss of anal sphincter tone.
* in stage 3, cows lose consciousness progressively to the point of coma. They are unable to maintain
sternal recumbency, have complete muscle flaccidity and can suffer severe bloat.
As cardiac output worsens, heart rate can approach 120 beats / min, and pulse may be undetectable.
Cows in stage 3 may survive only few hours.

Treatment
Treatment is directed toward restoring the serum calcium level to normal as soon as possible to avoid
muscular and nervous damage and recumbency.
Recommended treatment is I.V injection of calcium gluconate salt. A general dose is 1 g calcium / 45
kg body W. in heavily lactating cows, a second dose is given SC because it provide a prolonged
release of calcium into the circulation.
Calcium is cardiotoxic; therefore calcium containing solutions should be administrated slowly, while
cardiac auscultation is performed
In mild cases, administration of oral calcium is preferred, because it avoids the risk of cardiotoxic
side effects.

Parturient paresis is ewes

Parturient paresis in pregnant ad lactating ewes is a disturbance of metabolism characterized by acute

hypocalcemia and rapid development of hyperexcitability, ataxia, paresis, coma, and death.

Etiology
The exact cause is unknown. Deficiency of calcium or magnesium, or both, may be contributing
factors. The disease occurs t any time from 6 weeks before lambing to 10 weeks after, principally in
highly conditioned older ewes at pasture.

Clinical signs an diagnosis

characteristically, the disease occurs in outbreaks. The incidence in severe outbreaks can be 30 % at
one time. The earliest signs are slight hyperexcitability, muscle tremors and a stilted gait. These are
soon followed by dullness, sternal decubitus, mild ruminal tympany and regurgitation of food
through the nostrils, coma and death within 6 – 36 h.
diagnosis is based on the history and clinical signs. In outbreaks occurring before lambing,
pregnancy toxemia is the main differential diagnosis. Diagnosis of hypocalcemia can be confirmed
by a dramatic and usually lasting response to calcium therapy.

Treatment
Consist of I.V or SC calcium, preferably with some added magnesium. Affected sheep should be
handled with care, lest sudden death occur from heart failure.

126. Eclampcia puerperalis (M 733, 745 )

Mare
Hypocalcemia (Eclampsia) is a rare condition associated with acute depletion of serum ionized
calcium.
Etiology
Prolonged stress and excess calcium losses in milk may result in clinical signs of hypocalcemia. In
lactating mares, high milk production and grazing of lush pastures appear to be a predisposing
factors. Hypocalcemia after prolonged physical activity results from sweat loss of calcium, increased
calcium binding during hypochloremic alkalosis, and stress induced high corticosteroids level.
corticosteroids inhibit vitamin D activity, which leads to decreased intestinal absorption and skeletal
mobilization off calcium.

Clinical signs
The severity of clinical signs corresponds with the serum concentration of ionized calcium.
Increased excitability may be the only sign in mild cases. Severely affected horses may show
behavioral changes (increased muscle tone, prolapse of the third eyelid, stiffness of gait or hindlimb
ataxia, dysphagia, salivation, coma and death). In lactating mares, the disease may take a progressive
and sometimes fatal course over 24 – 48 h.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, history, and response to treatment. definitive diagnosis requires
demonstration of low serum level of ionized calcium.

Treatment
I.V administration of calcium solutions (20% calcium borogluconate), usually result in full recovery.
These solution should be given slowly and the cardiovascular response should be closely monitored.
If the horse is not improving after the initial infusion, a second dose may be given after 30 minutes.
Some horses require repeated treatments over several days.

Bitch
Puerperal hypocalcemia is an acute, life threatening condition that usually occurs 2 – 4 weeks after
whelping. Small bitches with large litters are most often affected.

Etiology
Hypocalcemia result from the loss of calcium into the milk and from inadequate dietary calcium
intake. This imbalance in calcium metabolism occurs because calcium mobilization from bone into
the serum pool is insufficient to maintain the efflux of calcium leaving through the mammary gland.
heavy lactational demand from large neonates or a large litter are often noted. Hypocalcemia can
occur in any breed of dogs, with any size litter, and at any time during lactation. (rarely) it may occur
during early lactation in queens.
In dogs, Hypocalcemia has an excitatory effect on nerve and muscle cells. Excitation-secretion
coupling is maintained at the neuromuscular junction in dogs with hypocalcemia. Tetany occurs as a
result of spontaneous repetitive firing of motor nerve fibers. As a result of the loss of stabilizing
membrane-bound calcium, nerve membranes become more permeable to ions and require a stimulus
of lesser magnitude to depolarize.

Clinical signs
Panting and restlessness are early clinical signs. Tremor, tetany, muscle spasm and gait changes
result from increased neuromuscular excitability. Hypothermia may occur is severe cases.
Behavioral changes (aggression, salivation, hypersensitivity to stimuli and disorientation) are
frequent. Tachycardia, hyperthermia, PU, PD and vomiting are sometime seen.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made from the history, clinical signs and response to treatment. a pretreatment serum
calcium concentration (<7 mg / dL ) usually confirm the diagnosis. A serum chemistry profile is
useful to rule out concurrent hypoglycemia and other electrolyte imbalances.

Treatment
Slow I.V Administration of 10 % calcium gluconate. This usually result in rapid clinical
improvement within 15 min. muscle relaxation should be immediate.
During administration of calcium, heart rate should be monitored for bradycardia or arrhythmia.
Once the animal is stable, the dose of calcium gluconate is reduced to saline (0.9 % ) and given S.C.
The bitch may remain nonresponsive after correction of hypocalcemia if cerebral edema has
developed. Vitamin D supplementation is used if serum calcium concentration remain low.

127. ketosis as a cause of reproductive dysfunction during post partum period ( M 736 )

ketosis is a metabolic disease, characterized by weight loss, decreased milk production and
neurologic abnormalities that occur usually during the first 6 weeks of lactation. Predisposing and
concomitant conditions are retained fatal membrane, metritis, mastitis and displaced abomasum.
After a cow develops the condition once, she is more likely to b affected during succeeding lactation.

Etiology
Ketosis is a result of a negative energy balance in the 6 weeks after parturition. The cow is unable to
eat enough nutrients to meet her energy needs for maintenance and milk production during this
period. Therefore, blood glucose level drop and hypoglycemia develop. In an effort to correct this
condition, body fat and limited protein stores are mobilized for gluconeogenesis. Ketone bodies are
produced during the mobilization process.

Clinical signs
Onset of signs are usually gradual. Initial signs include a slight decrease in food intake, drop in milk
production and firm mucus-covered stools. As the disease progresses, a marked weight loss occurs,
movement is limited. There may be an acetone odor to the breath, urine, or milk. Walking may be
abnormal with circling and falling.
If ketosis is untreated, milk production decrease to a level that does not require much energy to
produce.

Diagnosis
It is extremely important to obtain a complete history when ketosis is suspected. Special attention
should be given to length of dry period, parturition date, nutrition since parturition and daily milk
production records. Rapid loss of body weight, depression and decreased appetite suspect ketosis. All
cows suspected of having ketosis should receive physical examination along with special test for
ketone body. (Rothera’s test)
Blood glucose levels are also helpful. Normal levels of 40 – 60 mg / dL drop to below 25 mg / dL
in clinical ketosis

Treatment
Routine treatment I I.V administration of 500 ml of 50% glucose and I.M administration of
glucocorticoid.
Glucose administration results in an increase in blood glucose and improve in clinical signs and milk
production. However, the recovery is usually transitory, and both clinical signs and milk production
soon return to pretreatment level unless glucose treatment is repeated in 24 – 48 h.
To effect a rapid and lasting recovery, any predisposing conditions must also be eliminated, and
proper nutrition provided.

128. mania puerperalis (B 461)

MANIA
Mania is a manifestation of general excitation of the cerebral cortex. These areas are highly
susceptible to influences (anoxia and increased intracranial pressure) which affect the brain
generally.
In mania the animal act in a bizarre way and appears to be unaware to its surrounding. Maniacal
actions include licking, chewing of foreign material, sometimes themselves abnormal voice, walking
into strange surroundings and aggressiveness in normally docile animals. Mental disorientation is a
component of mania.

Disease characterized by mania include:

* encephalitis (the furious form of rabies, Aujeszky’s disease in cattle)
* degenerative disease of the brain (early polioencephalomalacia)
* toxic and metabolic disease of the brain (pregnancy toxemia, acute lead poisoning, severe hepatic
insufficiency in horses)

129. dysgalactia post partum ( M 1020 )

Sow
Post partum dysgalactia syndrome (PPDS) is characterized by transitory hypogalactia. It can lead to
acute multiglandular mastitis.

Clinical signs
PPDS is seen within the first 3 days after farrowing. It is associated with fat sow syndrome,
prolonged farrowing and high postpartum fever. Management practices include too much manual
intervention during parturition or too many parenteral injections to sows (antibiotics, oxytocin) or
piglets (antibiotics). Piglet losses are due to emaciation or diarrhea, as a consequence of poor
nutrition during the first few days postpartum.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis is based on clinical signs. clinical examination is best performed while piglets are
nursing; milk ejection in affected sows is absent or brief duration, which causes the piglets to
actively nurse for an extended time. During the initial stages, the piglets repeatedly attempt to nurse
at frequent intervals. As a result, the teats may be traumatized. As the energy reserve of the piglets
are depleted, their attempts to nurse decrease, and they migrate to warm places. The mammary gland
vary from normal to swollen, firm, and warm to the touch. Pure bacteria culture may be isolated from
milk samples. rectal temperature of the sow varies from normal to markedly increased (>40.5Oc ).
Physiologic hyperthermia observed in lactating sow should not be confused with fever. Reduced
appetite to anorexia, constipation and depression may also be seen.

Treatment
Systemic or local therapeutic intervention can sometimes be helpful but only on a short time basis.
(antibiotics, glucocorticoid). Oxcitocine or prostaglandin can be useful in cases of prolonged
farrowing or postpartum endometritis.
130. the care of parturient cows in large scale herds, its organization and the care of the newborn

as soon as cow shows complete relaxation of the posterior border of the sacroiliac ligament she
should be put in a clean, well bedded box and kept under frequent observation (not in Israel). If after
12 hours of restlessness there is no straining a veterinary examination should be made to exclude
primary uterine inertia, failure of the cervix to dilate and uterine torsion. If a cow comes into a
normal second stage and there is no progress after 1 hour of straining she should be examined to
ascertain the cause of the obstructive birth.
The immediate approach of labor can be recognized by slackening of the pelvic ligaments and the
change of the mammary secretion from a relatively transparent to an opaque cellular
secretion – colostrum. When the temperature is checked, change of more than 0.5Oc is a good sign
that delivery is going to be occur.

Onset of spontaneous respiration.

If parturition occurs normally, spontaneous respiratory movement will occur within 60 second of
expulsion; if there is a delay, respiratory movement can sometimes occur before the offspring has
been completely expelled (very important in the case of posterior presentation).
There are some factors that are responsible for the initiation of spontaneous respiration:
* during the birth process PO2 and blood pH are falling and Pco2 is rising due to the start of placental
separation and occlusion of the umbilicus → restricting gaseous exchange. If the face of the lamb is
cooled with water there is stimulation of respiratory movement, licking and nuzzling of the dam
provides some stimulus.
Survival of the newborn is dependent upon the rapid onset of normal spontaneous respiration. Once
birth is complete it is important first to ensure that the upper respiratory tract is cleared of fluid,
mucus and attached fatal membrane. This can be done with the aids of fingers.

Thermoregulation
Following birth the body temperature of the newborn falls quickly from that of the dam before it
eventually recovers; in the fall and calf the fall is transient; in the lamb recovery occurs within a few
hours; the piglets takes up to 24 h or even longer in cold condition; in the kitten and puppy the period
before the temperature recovers to that of the birth is 7 – 9 days.
The newborn has little subcutaneous fat and insulation is poor. The body surface is wet and heat is
lost due to evaporation. Heat lost is greatest in smaller individuals because they have a greater
surface area per unit of body weight.

131. perinatal and early postnatal mortality (T 417, B 109)

calves born dead and those that have died by 24 h after birth give a good indication of calving
management. Factors contributing to calf mortality are:
* condition score of heifers and cows – high condition score have a higher risk for dystocial
mortality
* sire selection and ease of calving
* observation of cows in early stages of parturition
* cleanliness of calving area, hands, and equipment if calving difficulties arises
* ability and training of individuals working in calving area
* colostral management
* pneumonia is very important cause of mortality in beef calf followed by exposure to extremely
cold weather or being dropped at birth into deep snow.
132. Hypoxia neonatorum (B 119)

Hypoxia can occur as a result of influences during the birth process or they can occur because of
pulmonary immaturity in premature birth. a special cause of hypoxia, due to hypovolemia in addition
to inadequate oxygenation of blood, occur in the foal as a result of an inadequate placental blood
transfusion when the umbilical cord is severed too early after birth and may lead to neonatal
maladjustment syndrome.
The response of the neonate to hypoxemia is an increase in blood pressure and a redistribution of
cardiac output with increased blood flow to the brain, heart and adrenal gland and a reduction in flow
to the lungs, kidney and gastrointestinal tract. Failure of these regulatory changes leads eventually to
cerebral anoxia. Maintenance of adequate oxygen supply is essential in the care of hypoxemic and
premature foals.
Fetal anoxia may be an important cause of the weak calf syndrome. Affected calf are fully
developed at birth and may be born with or without assistance. They do not make the usually effort
to sit up in sternal recumbency and usually can’t stand even when assisted. They are dull and inactive
and the sucking reflex is poor or absent. They may die within few minutes or hours. The cause is
unknown, but intrapartum hypoxemia due to prolonged parturition, is considered as a possible cause.
In lambs, severe hypoxia during birth results in death shortly following birth and there is an
increased risk in those that survive for metabolic acidosis and depressed heat production capacity
which causes hypothermia.
There is no effective practical treatment for calves affected with intrapartum hypoxia other than the
provision of ventilation.

133. Umbilical bleeding, urachus patens, meconium colic ( B 372, 455,863)

Umbilical bleeding
A syndrome of unknown etiology in newborn piglets. Following birth and for periods up to 2 days
afterwards, blood drips from the umbilicus of affected pigs to produce severe anemia with death
frequently occurring from crushing. A variable number of piglets within the litter may be affected
and the syndrome may have high incidence on certain problem farms. the addition of vitamin K and
folic acid to the sow’s ratio may be followed by a drop in incidence. Dosing pregnant sows with
vitamin C has been found to be effective. The defect appear to be one of immaturity of collagen so
that a proper platelet clot does not form. The navel cords are abnormally large and fleshy and fail to
shrink after birth.
Vitamin C must be given for at least 6 days before farrowing. Shorter periods of supplementation
reduce the severity of bleeding, but do not completely prevent.

Urachus patens

Urachus – fetal canal connecting the bladder with the allantois via the navel. If it fails to close →
continuous dripping of urine (from the navel)
Failure of the urachus to close at birth occurs most commonly in foals but is also seen in other
species. Failure to close causes to leak from the umbilicus. The urine flow varies and may be a
continuous stream, dribbling or a continuous moistening of the umbilical stalk.
Cystitis is a common sequel but omphalitis and urachal abscess also develop as complication. The
urachus can be cauterized with phenol or silver nitrate to induce closure. If cauterization fails,
surgical correction is required.
When the infection is localized in the urachus, there are usually signs of cystitis, especially increased
frequency of urination.

Meconium colic

Epidemiology
Colt foals mostly. Worst in dry years
Foals which have a narrow pelvis are most susceptible.

Clinical finding
Frequent staining. Meconium palpable on rectum. May be severe pain and tympany of large bowel.

Treatment
Medical with lubricants and fecal softener mostly sufficient. Enterotomy rarely.

134. Dyspepsia neonatarum

Etiology – Escherichia coli

pathogenesis + clinical signs
= colonize the intestine shortly after birth → under certain conditions (changes in the host
or bacterium) it becomes pathogenic → mucosa adhesions, metabolic dysfunction, death of
enterocytes, affect local or systemic vasculature or septicemia :
1. enteric = common in young (after weaning or feed changes) → pathogen adhere to mucosa and
proliferate in small intestine → toxin production → stimulate excessive secretion of fluid from
intestinal mucosa and goblet cells → varying degree of diarrhea.
2. enterotoxemic = grow in small intestine → produce toxin → absorbed and acts elsewhere → sudden
death (Su.) or anorexia, nervous signs → edema (edema disease) → vasculitis and necrosis of vessel
walls → PM changes may be absent (in sudden death) or subcutaneous edema in frontal area, over
the snout, in eyelids, submandibular, ventral abdominal and inguinal areas and ln., hydro-
pericardium, encephalomalacia in brain stem (associated with lesions in cerebral vessels).
** edema disease in Su
3. local invasive = man → organism penetrate and destroy the intestinal epithelium →
ulcerative enteritis.
4. septicemic = mainly calf → mastitis, metritis, cystitis, omphalophlebitis or enteritis → E. coli
invade the systemic circulation → produce endotoxins → toxic shock, cardiovascular collapse
(hemorrhages on epicardium, endocardium, parietal and visceral pleura), focal ulcers in stomach (or
abomasum), hypothermia, coma → high mortality and survivors may develop disease due to bacterial
localization (arthritis, meningitis, ophtalmitis and pyelonephritis).

Diagnosis
isolation of E. coli in large numbers from more than one parenchymatous organ together with
gross or microscopic lesions

man is infected by ingestion of undercooked beef, or foods or water contaminated

with bovine feces.

135. Omphalophlebitis (B 140)

Omphalophlebitis
Inflammation of the umbilical veins which may involve only the distal parts from the umbilicus to
the liver. Large abscesses may develop along the coarse of the umbilical vein and spread to the liver
with the development of a large hepatic abscess which may occupy up to one-half of the liver.
Affected calves are usually 1 – 3 months of age. The umbilicus is usually enlarged with a purulent
material. However, in some cases the external portion of the umbilicus is not enlarged.
Placing the animal in dorsal recumbency and deep palpation of the abdomen dorsal to the umbilicus
in the direction of the liver may reveal a space-occupying mass. Ultrasonography may assist in the
diagnosis. Affected valves are inactive, inappetent, and may have a mid fever. Parenteral therapy
with antibiotic is unsuccessful. Exploratory laparotomy and surgical removal of the abscess is
necessary.

Diagnosis
* Place the animal in dorsal recumbency → deep palpation of the abdomen – dorsal to the
umbilicus in the direction of the liver → may reveal a space-occupying mass.
* ultrasound

136. reproductive efficiency indexes – definitions ( T 400 )

Interval to first estrus – time between the parturition until first estrus
Interval to first breeding – time between the parturition and first insemination
Days open – the time from parturition until successive insemination
First service conception rate – percentage of cows that became pregnant after first insemination
Service per conception – number of services which is needed until the cow become pregnant
Intercalving interval – amount of cows that become pregnant after first insemination
138. factors influencing the fertility of domestic animals (R&O 346)

the factored which influence the fertility in cows can be divided into two main groups – anatomical
factors and functional abnormalities.

Anatomical factors
Both congenital and acquired abnormalities of the genital system can influence fertility, but acquires
abnormality are more frequently observed. Anatomical abnormalities usually affect individual cows
or heifers and don’t have a major influence on fertility in a herd.

Congenital anomalies
* ovarian agenesis
one or both ovaries may be absent and in these cases the genital tract is infantile and cyclical
behavior is absent.

* Ovarian hypoplasia
One or both ovaries are small narrow and functionless. When both ovaries are hypoplastic the genital
tract is infantile and estrus cycle doesn’t occur.
Ovarian hypoplasia should be distinguished from functional anestrus in heifers. In anestrus of
heifers, the ovaries are not small, their surface are smooth rather than furrowed and the shape is
rounded rather than spindle-like. Also the tubular tract is better develop. This is associated with poor
body condition and is reversible when this improves. An extreme form of ovarian hypoplasia may be
seen in the bovine freemartin.

* Freemartinism
Sterile females born twin to a male. In cattle with multiple conception, the placental blood vessels
usually fuse so that a common circulation develops between the fetuses, which allows the
antimüllerian ducts hormone and testosterone secreted by the male to inhibit development of the
female tract. The tubular genital organs in affected animals range from cord-like bands to near
normal uterine horns. Freemartins have a short vagina that ends blind and does not communicate
with the uterus. The cervix is absent. The ovaries fail to develop and remain small. In calves(1 – 4
weeks old ) the normal vaginal length is 13 – 15 cm, while in a freemartin it is only 5 – 6 cm.
Vaginal length is measured by a well-lubricated probe with a blunt end. The interchange of cells that
occur in the placental circulation between the two fetuses can be demonstrated by detecting two
different blood types in a single animal.

Acquired abnormalities
Lesions of the uterine tube and adnexa
The most frequently observed lesions are between the ovary and the ovarian bursa. The extent of the
adhesions varies: they consist of web-like strands in the depth of the bursa, which do not involve the
uterine tube. In others there is complete envelopment of the ovary in a closely applied fibrous bursa.
The site of ovarian attachment is frequently the scar left from a regressed corpus luteum. Where the
bursa is diffusely applied to the ovary, ovulation is prevented and luteinization of the follicles occur.
Regressed luteinized follicles of past cycles are often present in the same ovary.
Diagnosis of the ovarobursal adhesions in life is difficult and may be impossible. Only half of the
lesions that cause infertility are diagnosed by rectal palpation.
There is no satisfactory treatment for the condition. Some cases may be prevented if rough
manipulation of ovaries and irrigation of uteri with large quantities of irritant antiseptics are avoided.

Adhesions of the uterus

Adhesions of the uterus to the omentum, intestine or abdominal wall. A similar lesion may follow
uterine rupture. Such lesions may accompany ovarobursal disease. They are frequently associated
with sterility.
139. Physical examination of the reproductive system ( T 95, 577,897 )

examination of the female reproductive tract is essential for diagnosis of pregnancy, estimation of the
gestational age of the conceptus and characterization of her reproductive physiological pathologic
status.
COW

History

Physical examination
The most accurate method of examination is per rectum palpation of the cervix, uterus, ovaries and
supporting structures.
Cervix – the palpable characteristics of the bovine cervix change very little with the stages of the
estrus cycle.

Membrane slip – from 30days ( the connective tissue band on the lesser curvature of the
chorioallantoic membrane

Amniotic vesicle – from 30 – 65 days of gestation ( moveable oval object within the uterine lumen)
Placentomes – from 75 days of pregnancy ( soft, thickened lumps in the uterine wall)
Palpation of the fetus – only until the fetus “fall” ( after 2 month of gestation) and from 8 month of
gestation)

GOAT

Examination can be done only during laparoscopy

SOW

External genitalia
Observation of the vulva can help detect potentially sterile or slow-breeding females. The most
commonly observed abnormality is the infantile vulva. The infantile vulva is usually accompanied by
small, prepubertal ovaries and uterine horns.

140. Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis ( M 1034 )

Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis

Caused by bovine herpesvirus -1 and is transmitted by natural service or by nasogenital contact. It is
characterized by vaginal lesions. Affected cows show signs of vaginal discomfort (raised tail,
frequent urination) and have many, round, white raised lesions of the vestibular mucosa. Within a
short time, these lesions progress to pustules or ulcers.
The histologic lesions consist of necrosis of vestibular and vaginal epithelium with intranuclear
inclusion bodies typical of herpesvirus infection. The virus may be secreted in the semen of infected
bulls (witch have similar lesions of the penis and prepuce). Intrauterine inoculation of the virus
produces necrotizing endometritis and cervicitis.
In genital infection (of herpes virus 1 ) the first signs are frequent urination, elevation of the tailhead
and mild vaginal discharge. The vulva is swollen and small papules are present on the mucosal
surface.
If secondary bacterial infection do not occur, animals recover in 10 – 14 days.

Diagnosis – uncomplicated BHV – 1 infections can be diagnosed on the characteristic signs and
lesions. Samples should be taken early in the disease, and a diagnosis should be possible in
2 – 3 days.

Treatment
Antimicrobial therapy is indicated to prevent or treat secondary bacterial pneumonia.
Vaccine (modified live or inactivated virus )
One cause of vulvitis in sheep is ulcerative dermatosis, which is characterized by crusted ulcers of
the vulvar skin, penis, prepuce and facial skin.

141. Oophoritis et perioophoritis acuta et chronica

Oophoritis – inflammation of the ovary.

Ovarities, inflammation or infection of the ovary, may occur secondary to trauma, to infection from
the uterus that passes through the uterine tubes, or by extension through the uterine walls causing a
peritonitis and perimetritis. Trauma may frequently be produced by rough handling or massage of the
ovary. Scars, usually star-shaped or transverse, are common in the ovaries of cows where corpora
lutea have been enucleated or cysts ruptured by manual manipulation per rectum. Bleeding may
occur and hematoma form around the ovary; subsequently this hamatoma organized and produces
extensive adhesions.
It can disturb passage of sperm or ova and cause infertility.

Treatment – ATB
– Sterilization (if damage of CL and follicles or ovaries is severe).

Perioophoritis
Inflammation of the ovarian surface, infundibulum, broad ligament (mesovarium, mesosalpinx)

Etiology
Metritis, endometritis, pyometra, septic metritis
After abortion
Retained placenta
Careless rectal examination → rupture of cysts.
Oviduct tuberculosis
Adhesions from slight bleeding after ovulation.

142. Reproductive failure in fur animals ( M 1365, 1386 )

Mink
Seasonal breeders (activity correlated with increase daylight) → artificial light may adversely affect
photoperiod and interfere to normal reproductive cycle.
Breeding season last 4 weeks (late February – early March). Mating should occur within 1 hour of
placing the ♀ in the ♂ pen (usually mated again 7 –8 days after)
Ovulation is induced by coitus.
Pregnancy last 40 – 75 days.
Mastitis = E. coli, staphylococcus, streptococcus,
Abortion = Proteus, klebsiela
Plasmacyosis (Aleutian disease) – poor reproduction (viremia, weight loss, gastrointestinal bleeding)
Diethylstilbestrol poisoning → reproductive failure (no estrus, abortion), urinary tract infection
Thyroid + parathyroid glands included in meat trimmings fed to mink → aneastrus or silent heat.

Rabbit
No estrus = decrease light, vitamin deficiency, nutritional deficiency, over-feeding.
Decrease milk = bacterial mastitis → septic (trauma, poor sanitation)
→ non septic ( = non breeding rabbit → associated with increase
estrogen, uterine hyperplasia or uterine adenocarcinoma)
Pyometra
Embryo mortality = toxins, trauma, stress.
Prolapse of uterus
Tumors (senile trophy of endometrial glandular cells) → papillary cyst, adenoma, hyperplasia.

Chinchilla
Mastitis, metritis

Guinea pig
Infertility or decreased production of young = bacterial infection
Estrogen contaminated feed
Genitalia impaction by bedding
Wire floors
Heat stress
Nutritional imbalance
Environmental disturbances.
Prenatal death =* maternal infection by salmonella, bordetela, streptococcus, treatment is ineffective
* Metabolic toxemia (linked to obesity, maturity, anorexia, hypoplasia of
uterine artery) only chloramphenicol and sulfonamide can be used safely
* asphyxia at delivery (main cause of death at delivery)
* dystocia
* trauma
stillbirth is related to litter size * small litter (1 – 2) carried less than 66 days
* large litter (>4 ) carried mare than 72 days
* any litter born in less than 62 or more than 75 days
abortion = (not related to litter size) = toxemia of the mother
dystocia = common is obese ♀→ bloody or green-brown vulvar discharge, exhaustion, depression,
large fetus in birth canal
atonic uterus
metritis or general debilitation → reproduction decrease, infertility, stillbirth, abortion
mastitis (mainly due to low sanitary condition) → milk become dark-red.

144. functional failures of the ovary – generally (R&O 356)

some functional problems occur because of some endocrinological abnormality which is difficult to
specify even with current method of hormone assay, when a single sample of blood or milk are
examined. The abnormalities occur as a result of inherited factors, nutritional deficiency or access,
social influence arises from modern husbandry methods.
Cyclic ovarian activity should maintained continuously except during pregnancy and for a short time
postpartum. The only way of the farmer to know that this is occurring is the signs of estrus (every 21
days). It is possible that there are signs, but they are not observed.
There are some possible causes:
* The ovaries may be quiescent and inactive (true anestrus)
* there may be normal cyclic ovarian activity but the cow doesn’t show the normal behavioral signs
(silent heat)
* there may be progesterone- producing structure in the ovary which is exerting an inhibitory effect
upon the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. This may be a persistence corpus luteum or a cyst.

True anestrus
The ovaries are quiescent with an absence of cyclic activity. The reasons may be insufficient release
or production of gonadotrophins to cause folliculogenesis.
The clinical signs are a cow or heifer which has not been seen in estrus. rectal palpation reveals small
ovaries which are flat and smooth, especially in heifers. The main feature is the absence of corps
luteum (mature, developing or regressing). Old cows frequently have roughened irregular ovaries
because of the presence of old regressed corpora lutea and corpora albicantia.
It may be difficult to differentiate between a small developing or regressing corpus luteum and
anestrus ovaries. Confirmation can be obtained by reexamination of the cow per rectum after 10
days. In each case the cow in true anestrus will have virtually unchanged ovaries whilst a cow in late
diestrus or early diestrus will have a distinctly palpable corpus luteum.
Milk or blood progesterone determination are helpful in confirming the diagnosis.

Treatment
Improved feeding, particularly increasing the food intake. Temporary weaning and restricted
suckling together with the use of progesterone during the time of calf removal can result in reducing
the time to first ovulation postpartum.
Equine Chorionic Gonadotrophin (eCG) can be used to stimulate ovarian activity. If the cow is not
inseminated there is a possibility that she will relapse into anestrus.
Progesterone treatment, together with estrogen, has been used to induce ovarian activity postpartum.
These are effective because they stimulate the short luteal phase that usually precedes the first
normal estrus cycle or cause an accumulation of gonadotrophin by exerting a negative-feedback
effect on the anterior pituitary.

Silent heat
The first and second ovulation postpartum are frequently not preceded by behavioral signs of estrus
and are “silent heat”. After the second estrus it is unlikely that many true “silent heat” occur. When
ovulation occurs in the absence of observed estrus it is more likely to be the result of a failure of
observation than to poor detection.
Diagnosis of the condition is made on the clinical history and rectal palpation of the genital system.
The corpus luteum must be differentiated from a cyst. It may be persistence or the cow may be
pregnant. If there is any doubt then a reexamination should be made in 10 days. Since the accuracy is
not 100%, the determination of progesterone in milk or blood can be useful.
Treatment – is a mature corpus luteum is present and the cow is not pregnant, PGF2α is indicated.

Persistence corpus luteum

Anything which interfere with the production or release of endogenous luteolysin will result in
persistence corpus luteum.
Pregnancy is the condition which most frequently result in persistence of the corpus luteum, but in
the presence of uterine infection and inflammation of the tissue there is interference with the
production or the release of luteolysin. One consequence of this is pyometra which can persist for
several month if untreated.
The condition can be treated with administration of PGF2α or analogues

145. Ovarian cystic degeneration in the mare - very very rare.

146. ovarian cystic degeneration in the cow ( M 1005)

3 ovarian structures in cattle include the term: cyst. Follicular cyst, luteal cyst and cystic corpus
luteum.
cystic corpus luteum are known to be a normal stage or variation of corpus luteum development
because they are found in normally cycling and pregnant cows without concurrent abnormal
reproductive performance. Cystic corpus luteum have a soft, mushy core area, due to presence of
fluid from a degenerating blood clot. Cystic corpus luteum are most often detected 5 – 7 days after
estrus when the structure is nearing the end of the corpus hemorrhagicum or growth phase.

Etiology
Hereditary predisposition has been implicated as an etiological factor.
During normal prestrus, regression of the corpus luteum coincides with development of a selected
follicle, while the growth of any additional follicles is inhibited. In animals developing cystic ovary
disease, ovulation fails to occur and the dominant follicle continues to enlarge. Other follicles may
grow and form multiple cyst bilaterally or unilaterally. Follicular cyst resemble enlarged follicles 2.5
– 6 cm in diameter. Th size and form of an affected ovary depends on the number and size of cysts
present. The cystic ovary is capable of steroidogenesis and its products can be estrogen, progesterone
and androgen.

Clinical signs
Relaxation of the vulva, perineum, and the large pelvic ligaments, which causes the tail to be
elevated, is common in chronic cases. Some affected cows show these signs, but other may not. This
variation is due to the condition and the nature of the hormone signals
During the first week, the uterine wall is thickened and edematous as an extension of the preceding
estrus. toward the end of the first week, the uterine wall develops a sponge-like consistency. In
chronic cases, atony and atrophy of the uterine wall are common. Some degree of mucoid to
mucopurulent vaginal discharge is common.

Diagnosis
The larger, multiple cysts are easily identified by rectal palpation. History, conformation and uterine
changes, when present, provide supplemental diagnostic evidence. Palpation of the uterus is helpful
for differentiation between a single follicular cyst and a mature graafian follicle. Only the estrus cow
has a coiled, extremely turgid uterus. Ultrasound is also helpful in diagnosing cyst type (follicular /
luteal) and in differentiating cysts from corpora lutea.
Treatment
The oldest treatment s manual rupture – the ovary is grasped and moderate pressure is applied until
the cyst burst. After successful rupture, it is recommended that the ovary is compressed to minimize
hemorrhage. Hemorrhage probably occurs most often when the condition is misdiagnosed, and
rupture of a corpus luteum or corpus hemorrhagicum is attempted.
Hormonally, Human Chorionic Gonadotropin is available and commonly used. Gn-RH are equally
effective but less antigenic than HCG. The two products may be alternated when retreatment is
necessary.

147. failures in signs of estrous behavior ( T 962)

”silent estrus”
mares exhibiting silent estrus show all the physiologic correlation of heat without any of the
behavior signs. Tape-recorded sounds of a stallion soliciting mares and breeding them can help, as
can the presence of stallion odor. The presence of a known stallion with whom the mare has a good
social relationship can help. It may be necessary to permanently or temporarily wean the last foal.

Sow
Occasionally, gilts may initiate normal ovarian activity but fail to demonstrate estrus or standing heat
in the presence of boars. If mated, (A.I ) behaviorally females are fertile.
Behavioral anestrus can be differentiated from delayed puberty or prepubertal ovarian status
(absence of corpora lutea) by analysis of plasma or serum for progesterone.

Cow
The first and second ovulation postpartum are frequently not preceded by behavioral signs of estrus
and are “silent heat”. After the second estrus it is unlikely that many true “silent heat” occur. When
ovulation occurs in the absence of observed estrus it is more likely to be the result of a failure of
observation than to poor detection.
Diagnosis of the condition is made on the clinical history and rectal palpation of the genital system.
The corpus luteum must be differentiated from a cyst. It may be persistence or the cow may be
pregnant. If there is any doubt then a reexamination should be made in 10 days. Since the accuracy is
not 100%, the determination of progesterone in milk or blood can be useful.
Treatment – is a mature corpus luteum is present and the cow is not pregnant, PGF2α is indicated.
148. Salpingitis acuta et chronica

inflammation of the uterine tubes is characterized by macroscopic enlargement. Lesions are

frequently bilateral and consist of infiltration by lymphocytes, plasma cells and neutrophils.
Most cases of salpingitis follow infections of the uterus. Necrotizing and granulomatous salpingitis
may follow infection by Actinomyces pyogenes, mycobacterium tuberculosis and brucella abortus.
Mild inflammation of the uterine tubes doesn’t result in permanent damage accompanies uterine
infection caused by Campylobacter fetus.
Salpingitis may be a sequel to manipulation of the ovaries and uterine tubes by palpation per rectum
as well as to aggressive irrigation of an infected uterus and inappropriate treatment with estrogenic
hormones.

Pyosalpinx is characterized by segmental accumulation of pus within the lumen of the uterine tube
following mechanical blockage of either extremity. The tubes are not usually affected over their
entire length. Pyosalpinx frequently follows severe cases of uterine infection and may be
complicated by perimetritis and localized peritonitis.
Hydosalpinx is characterized by accumulation of thin mucus within the lumen of the uterine tube.
Hydrosalpinx is a common sequel to chronic salpingitis.

Clinical signs
The usual history associated with diseases of the uterine tubes is infertility. Additional history may or
may not include uterine infection or traumatic therapy (uterine irrigation, enucleation of corpora
lutea, administration of exogenous estrogen)
In cows, lesions involving adhesions between the ovary, ovarian bursa, uterine tube and surrounding
tissues may be identified per rectum by inserting two or three fingers into the ovarian bursa and
rolling the tube.
Diagnosis of diseases of the uterine tubes of ewe and does is impossible by physical examination.
Diagnosis is made by observation of the tube by exploratory laparoscopy.

D.D
Ovarian neoplasia, parovarian cyst, cystic ovarian diseases and ovarian hematomas.

Diagnosis
For suspected unilateral blockage each uterine horn may be catheterized individually with a Foley
catheter placed at the base of the horn, on different days.

Treatment
Treatment of disease of uterine tubes is not successful. A period of sexual rest may be beneficial and
is indicated in valuable animals. The prognosis for reproduction in cases of bilateral obstruction of
the uterine tubes is poor.

150. Pyometra (M 1018, 1038 )

large animals
pyometra is characterized by the accumulation of purulent or mucopurulent exudate in the uterus. In
cows, it is invariably accompanied by the persistence of an active corpus luteum. In affected mares,
the cervix is often found to be fibrotic, inelastic, affected with transluminal adhesions, or in some
other way impaired. Mares may continue to cycle normally, or the cycle may be interrupted.
Discharge from the genital tract may be absent or intermittent and corresponding to periods of estrus.
affected animals do not exhibit any systemic signs of illness.

Treatment – in cows, administration of PGF2α at normal luteolytic doses. Expulsion of exudate and
bacteriologic clearance of the uterus follows 90% of treated cases.
In mares, lavage of the uterus using large volumes of fluid is recommended, but the condition
frequently recurs, and permanent cure in these cases requires hysterectomy.
If pyometra is diagnosed in mall ruminants and swine, evacuation of the uterus is recommended.

Small animals
Pyometra is a hormonally mediated diestrual disorder characterized by an abnormal uterine
endometrium with secondary bacterial infection. In the normal bitch, the corpora lutea produce
progesterone for 9 – 12 weeks after ovulation in each estrus cycle. In the cat, if pregnancy does not
occur after a cat is induced to ovulate, the life span of the corpora lutea is ∼ 45 days.

Etiology
Factors associated with pyometra include administration of long-lasting compounds to delay or
suppress estrus, administration of estrogens to dismated bitches and post-insemination or post-
copulation infections. Progesterone promotes endometrial growth and glandular secretion while
decreasing myometrial activity. Bacteria from the normal vaginal flora or subclinical urinary tract
infection are the source of uterine contamination. E. coli is the most common bacterium isolated in
case of pyometra, but also staphylococcus and streptococcus can be found. Because queen require
copulatory stimulation to ovulate, form corpora lutea, and produce progesterone, pyometra is less
common in queens than in bitch. Pyometra can develop in uterine tissue left after
ovariohysterectomy. Pyometra can also occur secondary to postpartum metritis.
Estrogen, by itself, does not contribute to the development pyometra → it increases the stimulatory
effect of progesterone on the uterus. Administration of exogenous estrogens to prevent pregnancy
during diestrus greatly increases the risk of developing pyometra.

Clinical signs
Clinical signs are seen during diestrus, usually 4 – 8 weeks after estrus, or after administration of
exogenous progestins. The signs are variable and include lethargy, anorexia, polyuria and vomiting.
When the cervix is open, a purulent vulvar discharge, often containing blood, is present. When the
cervix is closed, the large uterus may cause abdominal distention. Signs can progress rapidly to
shock and death.
Physical examination shows lethargy, dehydration, uterine enlargement and mucopurulent vaginal
discharge.

Diagnosis
Pyometra should be suspected in any ill, diestrual bitch or queen, especially if PU / PD or vomiting is
present. The diagnosis can be established from the history, physical examination and abdominal
radiography and ultrasound. Vaginal cytology is often helpful in determining the nature of the vulval
discharge. The uterine exudate should be cultured and sensitivity test performed.

Treatment
Ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice, but medical management can be done if it is needed.
Fluid (I.V) and broad spectrum antibiotics should be administrated. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base
imbalances should be corrected before the surgery. The bacterial infection is responsible for the
illness and will not resolve until the uterine exudate is removed. Oral antibiotics should be continued
for 7 – 10 days after surgery.
Medical therapy with prostaglandins (PGF2α ) can be used for animals to be bred in the future.
Prostaglandins cause luteolysis, contraction of the myometrium, relaxation of the cervix, and
expulsion of the uterin exudate. PGF2α should be used with caution in the bitch or queen with a
closed-cervix pyometra bacause the risk of uterine rupture is increased. Pregnanc must be ruled out
because prostaglandins can induce abortion. Broad-spectrum, bactericidal antibiotics, should be
given for at least 2 weeks.
PGF2α can cause restlessness, panting, hypersalivation, abdominal pain, vomiting, urination and
defecation. In cats, vocalization and intense grooming may be seen. These reaction disappear within
2 h of the injection.
The animal should reexamined 2 weeks after. If mucopurulent vulval discharge or uterine
enlargement is still present, PGF2α mat be repeated.

151. Endometritis in the mare ( T 718 )

Pathogenesis
The action of the cervix, vestibular sphincter and vulva promotes removal of foreign material during
estrus. mucus exudated and transudated flow outside while air and surface contaminants are
excluded.
Neutrophils migrate from the circulation to the uterine lumen where they ingest and kill
contaminating organisms. These cells are than eliminated mechanically.
(fertile mare during early postpartum period.) the bacteria that gain access to the uterus during
parturition and those deposited during breeding within the first 2 weeks are eliminated in 5 days after
ovulation to allow pregnancy to become established.
Aging, repeated foaling, anatomic breakdown and slowing of the cellular immune mechanisms
eventually decrease the efficiency of bacterial clearance. If the uterine environment suffers from a
prolonged inflammatory process, embryos die and mares recycle.
The causal organisms of endometritis are common surface, fecal and soil bacteria. Streptococcus and
pseudomonas are easily transferred to the uterus during breeding, foaling or examination. The
severity of the contamination is unimportant in healthy mares.
Failure of uterine defenses may occur abruptly following serious trauma to the reproductive tract, or
gradually.

Diagnosis
Diagnostic procedures should be targeted at detecting the signs of inflammatory change.
Changes in the tubular tract can be detected by rectal or vaginal examination. Examination of the
vaginal tract and cervix is done with a speculum. Changes in color of the mucosa, presence of
exudate originating beyond the cervix or pooling in the vagina and traumatic lesions may be detected
through the speculum. Rectal palpation of the uterus and cervix may suggest fluid accumulations in
the uterus or local lesions in the tract.
Support for the diagnosis may come from examining uterine cytology or endometrial histology.
The bacterial pathogens involved in endometritis are Streptococcus, E. coli, Pseodomonas and
Klebsiela

Therapy
* correction of anatomic defects when indicated
* reduction of the inflammation and bacterial numbers in the uterus – administrated locally
(intrauterine) or by systemic routs.
* prevention of recurrence of the disorder.

152. diseases of vulva and vagina, urovagina and vaginismus (T 345, 476, 479)

Urovagina
Pooling of urine in the anterior portion of the vagina can be a cause of infertility. The condition is
instigated by congenital or acquired cranioventral tipping of the pelvis, so the external urinary
meatus is higher than the anterior pelvic floor, thus directing the urine flow inward. The collection of
increasing volume of urine in the anterior part of the vaginal vault induces drooping of the dilated
vaginal vault into the abdominal cavity. The external cervical os is bathed in urine that may permeate
the cervical canal and fill the uterus.
Treatment – surgery

Segmental vaginal Aplasia

Segmental aplasia of the müllerian duct system is seen in cattle ( “white heifer disease”) and dogs.
The occlusion created may be partial (hypoplasia ) or complete ( aplasia) and can occur anywhere
along the vaginal wall. Hypoplastic conditions may only become apparent in bitches during natural
breeding or parturition. Complete partitioning of the vaginal fluid during the estrus cycle can be
confused with a closed-cervix pyometra.
In breeding animals caudal and mid-vaginal stricture can be resect, and the vaginal segment are
anastomosed. No treatment is required for a non-breeding, asymptomatic female with partial
obstruction. Non-breeding symptomatic animals are treated by ovariohysterectomy and/or
vaginectomy.

Congenital anomalies
Congenital anomalies may contribute to the formation of vaginitis, cystitis and difficulty in breeding.

Vulvar stenosis
Vulvar stenosis is detected at the junction between the vestibule and the vulvar labia and is thought
to be the result of an imperfect fusion of the genital folds or genital swelling.
An episiotomy can be performed to enlarge the strictured region permanently in order to prevent
difficult mating and potential dystocia. Without surgical correction affected bitches require artificial
insemination.

Atretic vulva
When vulvar hypoplasia or atrophy occur, the vulva appears small or infantile and is frequently
retracted into the perineal skin folds. The condition is usually recognized in spayed females, who
clinically present with a moist, perivulvar dermatitis caused by retention of urine within the skin
folds.
Estrogen therapy can b used to maintain normal vulvar size. Continual estrogen administration is
required for its effectiveness, which may result in fatal bone marrow suppression. Exteriorization of
the vulva is the treatment of choice.

155. Trichomoniasis (M 1027, R&O 405 )

A venereal protozoal disease of cattle characterized by early fatal death and infertility, resulting in
extended calving intervals.

Etiology
The causative protozoan, trichomonas fetus, is found in the genital tract of cattle. When cows are
bred naturally by an infected bull, 31 / 90% become infected. Bull s of all ages can be infected but
this is less likely in younger males. Transmission can also occur when the semen from infected bulls
is used for artificial insemination.

Clinical signs
Infection is characterized by low pregnancy rates, a profuse mucopurulent vulval discharge, early
abortion and pyometra.
Cows and heifers which have been exposed to infected service can be:
* full pregnancy without clinical signs of infection developing.
* fail to conceive and develop an edematous condition of the endometrium.
* conceive but abort at 2 – 4 months of gestation.
* develop pyometra and become acyclic.

The organism produces a catharrhal endometritis and vaginitis with edema of the vulva, perivaginal
tissue and uterine wall. Affected animals show vulval discharge and on rectal palpation the uterus is
enlarged and flaccid. Manipulation of the uterus provoke a discharge from the vulva and motile
trichomonas can be demonstrated on it.

Diagnosis
Although clinical signs and history support the diagnosis, a positive diagnosis can be made by
identification of the organism. The best source of material are the fatal membrane or the organs of an
aborted fetus. The organism can be identified in vaginal mucus or mucopurulent discharge. In cases
of pyometra, the pus should be examined because large numbers of trichomonas will be there.
The material should be examined as soon as possible after collection.

Treatment
When more than one bull is being used in the hers, the general attitude is that all the cows are carriers
despite the fact that examination indicate that one or other of them has not been exposed to infection.

156. Campylobacteriosis (Merck 997)

Etiology
Campylobacter fetus venerealis, Campylobacter fetus fetus.
Campylobacter fetus is transmitted venereally and also by contaminated instruments or by artificial
insemination using contaminated semen. The duration of the carrier state is variable; some clear the
infection rapidly, while other can carry the bacteria for more than 2 years.
Clinical signs
A venereal disease of cattle characterized primarily by early embryonic death, infertility
and occasionally abortions.
Cows are systematically normal, but there is a variable degree of mucopurulent endometritis that
causes early embryonic death, prolonged luteal phases, and a protracted calving season.
Generally in the herd, the pregnancy percentage will be low, great variations in gestation lengths.
The first signs of genital vibriosis can be detected by the farmer by the number of cows that return to
service by a newly introduced bull. Some return regularly, some irregularly.
Bulls are asymptomatic and produce normal semen.

Diagnosis
Vibriosis is suspected when a majority of cows or heifers are returning regularly or irregularly to
service.
Campylobacteriosis and trichomoniasis are similar syndromes, and investigations should be directed
at both diseases. Vaginal culture immediately after abortion or infection but the number of organisms
may be low.
It is difficult to isolate the organism – it survives only 6-8 hours after collection, collection of smears
from the prepucial sac. Bulls should be sampled twice, ∼ 1 week apart.
Swabs from the placenta might be contaminated with the non-pathogenic fecal campylobacter sp.
Some diagnostic test can be used to diagnose Campylobacter fetus infection.

* direct smear or culture

* vaginal mucus agglutination test

Treatment
Treatment is not needed because infected cows overcome the infection, or become immune after3 – 6
months.

Vibriosis (sheep) (M 993 R&O 456)

Etiology:
Campylobacter fetus results in abortions in late pregnancy or stillbirth.

Clinical signs:
Abortion can occur in late gestation, usually in the last 6 weeks. Vulval swelling and the presence of
a reddish-colored vulval discharge occur in some animals.
Ewes may develop metritis after expelling the fetus. Placentitis occurs with hemorrhagic necrotic
cotyledons and edematous or leathery intercotyledonary areas. The fetus is outolyzed, sometimes
with necrotic foci on the liver.

Diagnosis:
Finding of organism in darkfield preparations from abomasal or placental smears or in uterine
discharge.

Treatment and control:

Strict hygiene for stopping the outbreak (isolation of the suspected animal ). Tetracycline may help
prevent exposed ewes from aborting. The disease tends to be cyclical, with epizootic occurring every
4 – 5 years, therefore, vaccination programs should be applied.

158. special investigational procedures in the gynecological practice (biopsy of endometrium,

laparoscopy, diagnostic of tubal obstructions)

Biopsy of endometrium (mare)

* luminal content may indicate presence of uterine fluid or exudate
* epithelial type is related to the hormonal status → cuboidal = estrus.
columnar ( low to tall) = breeding season
* trans-epithelial cells may indicate inflammation =
neutrophil → acute reaction
lymphocytes + plasma cells → chronic reaction
focal /diffuse cellular pattern, amount of cells, degree of infiltration → severity of inflammation.
* peri-glandular fibrosis (fibrotic nests) → may interfere with endometrial gland function and may be
a factor in early embryonic death (we can also find glandular distention – which is normally found
during pregnancy, but here it indicate that the fibrosis obstructs the gland = cystic glandular
distention)

* the endometrium is classified into 3 categories:

I – no significant changes and no treatment is required
Endometrium with any peri-glandular fibrosis will not be classified here.
The estimated foaling rate is 80 – 90 %
II – divided into 2 categories:
(broad category that includes mast mares)
II A = mare with less severe changes → estimated foaling rate is 50 – 80 %
II B = mare with more severe changes → estimated foaling rate is 10 – 50 %

Therapy may be indicated to improve the state of the endometrium by reducing the
inflammation, cystic glandular distention, and lymphatic lacunae → improvement may be
followed by re-classification (there is no effective treatment to reduce peri-glandular fibrosis)
III – endometrium with wide-spread, severe changes (including glandular fibrosis or inflammation)
Estimated foaling rate is < 10%

Laparoscopy ( T 779)
It is important to histologically evaluate the extent of normal, unaffected endometrium (not with the
presence of any particular lesions).
Indication for diagnostic Laparoscopy
* infertility
* ovarian biopsy
* biopsy of pelvic masses
* microbiologic culture of the infundibulum
* aspiration of cysts
* AI in sheep
* Exploration of genital tract in sheep

the instruments for laparoscopy include a laparoscope, a trocar with sheath to permit introduction of
the instrument through the abdominal wall, a verres needle and a light source with a fiberoptic
conduction system.
A surgical laparoscope will permit passage of a biopsy forceps, which can be utilized to obtain
samples from the ovary and other pelvic organs. Other instruments that may be introduced through a
laparoscope include probes for manipulation, swabs for obtaining samples from the infundibulum for
microbiologic culture and suction equipment for obtaining ovarian fluid.

The technique involves the insertion of a biopsy instrument through the cervix and into the uterus.
With the biopsy instrument in the uterine lumen, a gloved hand is inserted into the rectum to allow
manipulation of the instrument into the desired position. The sample is taken by closing the jaws of
the instrument and tugging sharply. To avoid damage, the tissue is carefully transferred into a
fixative solution with a fine needle. If the uterus appears normal on palpation, the sample should be
 taken from one of the areas of embryo fixation – the uterine-horn body junction on either side. If the
uterus is abnormal on palpation, the sample should be taken from both the affected area and a normal
area.

Diagnosis of tubal obstruction

1. rectal palpation = rotation of the right ovary by the left hand – in order to free it from the bursa
(opposite for other hand)
↓
held tightly between the thumb and fore-finger, while the other 3 fingers are extended into the bursa
↓
detect adhesions between the ovary and bursa
2. laparotomy → Endoscopy → direct vision of the ovary + bursa
3. starch particles = stimulate the transport of oocyte or zygote
4. phenol- sulfur – phtalein absorption ( PSP test)

20 ml of 1% PSP is placed in the uterine lumen (not absorbed there but pass-on)
↓
if the oviduct are opened, the PSP passes along them into the peritoneal cavity where it is absorbed
into the blood
↓
excreted by the kidney into the uterine ( within 30 – 60 minutes)
↓
0.2 ml of 10% trisodium ortho-phosphate buffer is added to 10 Ml urine (turn the urine to alkali)
↓
If PSP is present – the urine will become pink or red (if the oviduct is occluded → no passage of PSP
→ no discoloration of urine)

* False positive in case of endometrial erosion (due infection and inflammation ) or during
follicular phase of cycle
* a more accurate method which examine each oviduct separately:
a Foley-type embryo-flushing catheter is introduced into one horn
↓
the cuff is inflated to prevent reflux of dye to the other side
↓
a small amount of dye is infused into the tip of the horn
↓
if the duct is patent – the dye will appear in urine

159. examination schedule for a dairy reproductive program

the examination can be divided into 3 parts:

* early puerperium examination 10 – 14 days after parturition
* 30 days postpartum
* early pregnancy diagnosis
puerperium examination
involution – reduction in the size of the genital tract. The greatest change occur during the first few
days after calving. Uterine contraction continue for several days. The speed of involution of the non
gravid horn is more variable than that of the previously gravid horn, which depends upon its degree
of involvement in placentation.
The cervix constrict rapidly postpartum. After 96 hours it will admit just two fingers. The cervix also
undergo atrophy and shrinkage due to the elimination of fluid and the reduction in muscle tissue.
During the firs 7 – 10 days after parturition there is loss fluid and tissue debris.

30 days postpartum
hormonal level and return of normal ovarian activity

Early pregnancy diagnosis

Pregnancy diagnosis can be done by the determination of the progesterone concentration in the
plasma of cows. The corpus luteum persist as a result of the pregnancy – if a blood sample is taken at
21 days after the previous estrus progesterone levels remain elevated. If the cow is not pregnant and
is close to or at estrus then the progesterone level will be low. The changes in progesterone
concentration in the milk closely follow those in the blood or plasma.

Palpation of the amnionic vesicle

It is possible to identify the amnion towards the end of the first month of pregnancy. The bifurcation
of the uterine horn is located, the horn uncoiled and gently palpated along their entire length between
the thumb and middle two fingers. The amniotic sac can be felt as a distinct, round turgid, 1 – 2 cm
in diameter floating in the Allantoic fluid.

Palpation of the allantochorion (membrane slip)

In the cow, attachment of the allantochorion to the endometrium occurs only between the cotyledons
and the caruncules and the intercotyledonary part of the fatal membrane is free. (5 weeks of
gestation).
Identify the bifurcation of the uterine horns, pick up the enlarged, gravid horn between thumb and
the index finger just cranial to the bifurcation and gently squeeze the whole thickness of the horn.
The allantochorion is identified as a very fine structure as it slips between the thumb and finger
before the uterine and rectal walls are lost from grasp.

Unilateral cornual enlargement

Palpation of the early fetus ( 45 – 50 days of gestation)

163. reproductive management of large dairy herds- quality control of human factors (fertility
disturbances due to human factors)

No observed estrus = ignorance of true signs

Herd is too large to detect
Short duration of estrus + activity at night
Overcrowding
False identification of the cow.
 Too short time spent on observation
Incorrect timing of AI
Nutritional deficiency
Nutritional excess (overfeeding)
Injury to animal due to careless manipulation / examination / milking
Incorrect procedure of AI
Stress (overcrowding, careless, manipulation, rough handling)
Undetected diseases
Untreated diseases
Incorrect assistance in delivery → calf may die + ♀ can be injured, uterus prolapse
Lack of assistance during calving (the farmer didn’t recognized dystocia)
Careless handling of herd-book
Careless identification of animals (wrong numbers, unclear numbers)

164. Cervicitis – etiology and symptoms ( R&O 395 )

inflammation of the cervix occur after obstetric trauma incurred during the relief of difficult dystocia,
and in this circumstances, it usually accompanies puerperal metritis. (it occurs also after retained
placenta ). The organisms present in these infections are those normally found in the posterior vagina
: E. coli, streptococcus, staphylococcus and Campylobacter pyogenes, which is the most infective.
Third degree perineal laceration due to calving trauma result in cervicitis due to fecal contamination.
The treatment is surgical correction.
Cows were diagnosed as having urovagina. In such animals urine accumulates in the anterior vagina
penetrate into the cervix, and causes inflammation of the cervix. The inflammation than extends into
the uterus, causing endometritis. Stretching of the suspensory apparatus of the genital tract as a result
of several pregnancies may be a factor. Surgical treatment can be one.

165. collection of samples for laboratory investigation in cases of infertility (T 424, 457)

Endometrial biopsy of cow

Repeated biopsies don’t cause adverse effect of the cow’s reproductive tract. The lesions resulting
from the biopsy heal rapidly. Hemorrhages are quickly absorbed.
Specimens should be taken from the left and right horns and the body of the uterus. The instruments
should be sharp in order to avoid artifacts.
The biopsy instrument consist of 2 concentric tubes. The outer tube is made of steel, while only the
proximal portion of the inner tube is made of steel. This proximal part contains a sharp cutting edge
for cutting the endometrium. The outer tube has a small window near its tip that can be opened by
the inner tube. The instrument is placed in a cylindrical speculum.
Other biopsy instrument include alligator type forceps with a biopsy punch.
The tissue specimen should be removed and immediately immersed in a fixating solution to prevent
drying out. (10% formalin)
The biopsy specimens are cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin.
The bovine endometrium can be evaluated for periglandular fibrosis and cystic glandular changes.
They are considered pathologic lesions of the uterus.
Periglandular cysts is the most frequent abnormality found in cows.
The severity is based on the visibility and clarity of the fibroblast surrounding the endometrial glands
in the connective tissue stroma.
Varying degrees of fibrosis between each horn and body of the uterus may exist simultaneously.
As the number of normal sections in a cow’s uterus decreases and the degree of fibrosis increases,
there is a trend toward poorer conception.
The occurrence of cystic glands show no significant relationship to breeding performance.
Mild chronic endometritis is one of the most common causes of repeat breeders. The majority of
cows with clinical deviations of the reproductive tract show endometritis in varying degrees. Some
cows with mild endometritis are able to conceive and maintain a pregnancy.

Bacteriological swab (bitch)

blood or milk can be evaluated for progesterone level→ identify the luteal tissue
serum → specific serologic tests (mucus agglutination test, fluorescent –AB test for campylobacter
fetus)

semen evaluation
166. Freemartinism, Hermaphroditism, Infantilism ( M 987, T 900 )
Hermaphroditism
May occur in all species but it is most common in goats and pigs. True hermaphrodites have both
ovarian and testicular tissue and exhibit anomalies of the external genitalia. Pseudohermaphroditism
are more common; they have one or the other type of gonad and an anatomy of the external genitalia
that resembles, that of the opposite sex. The male hermaphrodite I more common, with testes in the
abdominal cavity or beneath the skin in the scrotal region, and external genital organs that resemble
those of females.
The müllerian ducts are paired embryonic ducts that develop into the anterior vagina, cervix, uterus
and oviducts. Segmental aplasia of the müllerian ducts leads to various anomalies of the vagina,
cervix , uterus and oviducts. The ovaries develop normally. Developmental obstruction of the tubular
tract mat lead to accumulation of secretions anterior to the obstruction. The most common aberration
is a variable degree of persistence of the hymen. Segmental aplasia of the uterus may involve one
horn ( uterus unicornis ), both horns, or only part of one horn (which may result in cystic dilatation
of the uterine horn anterior to the area of dilatation ).

Freemartins
Sterile females born twin to a male. In cattle with multiple conception, the placental blood vessels
usually fuse so that a common circulation develops between the fetuses, which allows the
antimüllerian ducts hormone and testosterone secreted by the male to inhibit development of the
female tract. The tubular genital organs in affected animals range from cord-like bands to near
normal uterine horns. Freemartins have a short vagina that ends blind and does not communicate
with the uterus. The cervix is absent. The ovaries fail to develop and remain small. In calves(1 – 4
weeks old ) the normal vaginal length is 13 – 15 cm, while in a freemartin it is only 5 – 6 cm.
Vaginal length is measured by a well-lubricated probe with a blunt end. The interchange of cells that
occur in the placental circulation between the two fetuses can be demonstrated by detecting two
different blood types in a single animal.

Infantilism
A common abnormality in pigs and is generally associated with confinement-reared gilts. The
presence of a very small vulva and the absence of estrus are suggestive of this condition. The
infantile tract is 30% of the size of a tract from a normally cycling gilt. The ovaries are hypoplastic
and nonfunctional, with numerous small follicles and no corpora lutea. This condition is common in
gilts with delayed puberty or gilts less than 6 months of age.
167. ovarian hypoplasia

Hypoplasia of the ovaries

This defect is conditioned by a single recessive autosomal gene with incomplete penetration. This
Gene affects both cows and bulls in equal proportions. The affected ovary may be partially or totally
hypoplastic. Depending on the severity of the hypoplasia and whether the condition is unilateral or
bilateral, infertility or sterility will result. In the latter instance the affected heifer is an-estrous.
This condition can be recognized in affected heifers by rectal examination as early as 9 months of
age. The incidence of partial or transitional hypoplasia occurred in about the same percentage as the
total hypoplasia of the ovaries or testes. These intermediate conditions can be evaluated only by
repeated rectal examinations of the ovaries over a period of time or at the time of slaughter. The
hypoplastic ovary undergoes incomplete development and a part or the whole ovary lacks a normal
number or complement of primordial follicles. Both ovaries of normal heifers contained a total of
50,700 primordial follicles, range 6,800 to 100,000. Both ovaries, in affected heifers in which one
ovary was totally or partially hypoplastic averaged 19000 to 23000 primordial follicles. In affected
heifers with bilateral hypoplasia there were fewer than 500 primordial follicles in partially affected
ovaries and no follicles were present in the heifers with totally hypoplastic ovaries. In heifers the
hypoplastic ovary is so small that it may be difficult to locate. It is a thin, narrow, structure of firm
consistency, or in severe cases only a cord-like thickening, in the cranial border of the ovarian
ligament. The ovary has a shriveled or shrunken appearance affecting the entire ovary in total
hypoplasia or usually the medial half or two-thirds of the ovary in partial hypoplasia. In other cases
one-half of the ovary feels slightly raised and firm like a pea. In other cases the ovary of an adult
cow may feel like a kidney bean with the surface smooth and stretched. If the surface of the ovary is
rough due to luteal scars the ovary can be considered functional. In one-sided hypoplasia the tubular
portion of the genital tract develops normally. In bilateral total hypoplasia the genital tract remains
very small and infantile; estrus does not occur and there is no development of the secondary sex
characteristics due to a lack of estrogens.

In ovarian hypoplasia treatment with hormones is useless. The condition of hypoplasia should be
differentiated from nonfunctional or atrophic ovaries in cows and small, inactive ovaries in heifers
associated with a delayed onset of puberty due to inanition or underfeeding.
168. Dairy herd management system (T385)
170. mastitis-metritis-agalactia syndrome ( B 618 )

The MMA syndrome occurs in sows between 12 – 48 h after farrowing.

Etiology
The precise etiology has not yet been determined. The list of proposed causes include infectious
mastitis, metritis, overfeeding during pregnancy, nutritional deficiency and endocrine dysfunction.
The disease occur most commonly in sows which are farrowed indoors and only occasionally in sows
farrowed outdoors.
The predisposing factors include overfeeding during pregnancy, a drastic change of feed at farrowing,
insufficient time for the sow to adjust to the farrowing crate after being transferred from the gestation
unit and constipation of the sow at farrowing. The incidence of the disease is higher in sows with
large litters.
Sows that had high-level feeding during pregnancy are more susceptible to the disease, especially if
the food was changed immediately prior to parturition.

Clinical signs
The sow is usually normal with a normal milk flow for the first 12 –18 h after farrowing. One of the
first indication of the disease is the failure of the sow to suckle her piglets. She is interested in the
piglets, generally lies in sternal recumbency and is unresponsive to the suckling demands. Litters of
affected sows are more noisy and search for alternative food supply. The piglets may drink surface
water or urine and infectious diarrhea may occur. Many piglets may die from starvation and
hypoglycemia. Some sows are initially restless and stand up and lie down frequently which contribute
to a high mortality from crushing and tramping.
Affected sows do not eat, drink very little and are generally lethargic. The body temperature is
usually elevated from 39.5 to 41Oc. mild elevation in body temperature of sows in the first 2 days
after parturition occur also in normal healthy sows.
In the mammary gland there is swelling and inflammation. There may be extensive subcutaneous
edema around and between each section which result in a ridge of edema on the lateral aspect of the
udder. The teats are usually empty and may be slightly edematous.

Treatment
Most affected sows will recover within 24 – 48 h if treated with a combination of antimicrobials,
oxytocin and corticosteroid. Antimicrobials are indicated in most cases because infectious mastitis is
one of the most common causes of the disease. The choice is determined by previous experience in
the herd. The antibiotic should be given daily for at least 3 days. If there is a beneficial response to
oxytocin treatment, the piglets should be placed on the sow if she is willing to allow them to suck.
This will assist in promoting milk flow. Massage of the mammary gland with warm water may assist
in reducing the swelling and inflammation and promote the flow of milk. The piglets must be given a
supply of milk and/or balanced electrolyte and dextrose until the milk flow of the sow is resumed.
171. failures of estrus cycle (R&O 356, 523)

True anestrus
The ovaries are quiescent with an absence of cyclic activity. The reasons may be insufficient release
or production of gonadotrophins to cause folliculogenesis.
The clinical signs are a cow or heifer which has not been seen in estrus. rectal palpation reveals small
ovaries which are flat and smooth, especially in heifers. The main feature is the absence of corps
luteum (mature, developing or regressing). Old cows frequently have roughened irregular ovaries
because of the presence of old regressed corpora lutea and corpora albicantia.
It may be difficult to differentiate between a small developing or regressing corpus luteum and
anestrus ovaries. Confirmation can be obtained by reexamination of the cow per rectum after 10 days.
In each case the cow in true anestrus will have virtually unchanged ovaries whilst a cow in late
diestrus or early diestrus will have a distinctly palpable corpus luteum.
Milk or blood progesterone determination are helpful in confirming the diagnosis.

Treatment
Improved feeding, particularly increasing the food intake. Temporary weaning and restricted suckling
together with the use of progesterone during the time of calf removal can result in reducing the time
to first ovulation postpartum.
Equine Chorionic Gonadotrophin (eCG) can be used to stimulate ovarian activity. If the cow is not
inseminated there is a possibility that she will relapse into anestrus.
Progesterone treatment, together with estrogen, has been used to induce ovarian activity postpartum.
These are effective because they stimulate the short luteal phase that usually precedes the first normal
estrus cycle or cause an accumulation of gonadotrophin by exerting a negative-feedback effect on the
anterior pituitary.

Ovarian cystic degeneration

3 ovarian structures in cattle include the term: cyst. Follicular cyst, luteal cyst and cystic corpus
luteum.
cystic corpus luteum are known to be a normal stage or variation of corpus luteum development
because they are found in normally cycling and pregnant cows without concurrent abnormal
reproductive performance. Cystic corpus luteum have a soft, mushy core area, due to presence of
fluid from a degenerating blood clot. Cystic corpus luteum are most often detected 5 – 7 days after
estrus when the structure is nearing the end of the corpus hemorrhagicum or growth phase.

Etiology
Hereditary predisposition has been implicated as an etiological factor.
During normal prestrus, regression of the corpus luteum coincides with development of a selected
follicle, while the growth of any additional follicles is inhibited. In animals developing cystic ovary
disease, ovulation fails to occur and the dominant follicle continues to enlarge. Other follicles may
grow and form multiple cyst bilaterally or unilaterally. Follicular cyst resemble enlarged follicles 2.5
– 6 cm in diameter. Th size and form of an affected ovary depends on the number and size of cysts
present. The cystic ovary is capable of steroidogenesis and its products can be estrogen, progesterone
and androgen.

Clinical signs
Relaxation of the vulva, perineum, and the large pelvic ligaments, which causes the tail to be
elevated, is common in chronic cases. Some affected cows show these signs, but other may not. This
variation is due to the condition and the nature of the hormone signals
During the first week, the uterine wall is thickened and edematous as an extension of the preceding
estrus. toward the end of the first week, the uterine wall develops a sponge-like consistency.
In chronic cases, atony and atrophy of the uterine wall are common. Some degree of mucoid to
mucopurulent vaginal discharge is common.

Diagnosis
The larger, multiple cysts are easily identified by rectal palpation. History, conformation and uterine
changes, when present, provide supplemental diagnostic evidence. Palpation of the uterus is helpful
for differentiation between a single follicular cyst and a mature graafian follicle. Only the estrus cow
has a coiled, extremely turgid uterus. Ultrasound is also helpful in diagnosing cyst type (follicular /
luteal) and in differentiating cysts from corpora lutea.

Treatment
The oldest treatment s manual rupture – the ovary is grasped and moderate pressure is applied until
the cyst burst. After successful rupture, it is recommended that the ovary is compressed to minimize
hemorrhage. Hemorrhage probably occurs most often when the condition is misdiagnosed, and
rupture of a corpus luteum or corpus hemorrhagicum is attempted.
Hormonally, Human Chorionic Gonadotropin is available and commonly used. Gn-RH are equally
effective but less antigenic than HCG. The two products may be alternated when retreatment is
necessary.

Prolonged prestrus / estrus (bitch)

The normal interval between the onset of prestrus and ovulation varies from 5 – 30 days. Most
bitches ovulate by day 14 after the onset of prestrus, and those with ovulate later than this are often
considered to have prolonged estrus. these animals do not require treatment but careful assessment of
the optimal mating time. Cases in which prestrus or estrus persist longer than 30 days require
treatment. the induction of ovulation may be attempted by the administration of hCG (20 IU / kg)
Estrogen-secreting follicular cyst are very rare in the bitch, but these may produce persisting estrus.
similar clinical signs may be seen with estrogen-secreting ovarian tumors where high concentration of
estrogen may lead to bone marrow suppression resulting in anemia. In such cases, treatment is by
unilateral ovariectomy.

173. Luteolysis – mechanism ( T 120, 481, 914 )

Cow
Estrogen, produced primarily by a developing large antral follicle, initiate the process of luteal
regression during late diestrus via induction of uterine PGF2α production. Administration of
exogenous estrogens initiate luteolysis in cattle and has been shown to stimulate uterine PGF2α
production during late diestrus.
Uterine involvement in the luteolytic processes is supported, since prolonged maintenance of CL
function results after surgical removal of the uterus during mid-diestrus.
In cow and sheep, ovarian oxytocin is released during luteolysis. Oxytocin increase uterine PGF2α
release and ensure rapid and complete luteal regression.
Bitch
PGF2α can be used to induce abortion in healthy bitches from mid-gestation to term, and a dosage of
25 to 250 μg / kg, I.M can be used. The effect is faster as the pregnancy progress.

Sow
The porcine CL remains unresponsive to the acute administration of PGF2α until days 12 – 14 after
ovulation. Prior to this time, treatment with prostaglandins causes no decline or only a transient
decline in circulating levels of progesterone.

174.Fat cow syndrome (fatty liver disease of cattle ) as a cause of reproductive failure (M 731, B
1356)

fatty liver is most common in periparturient cattle. It usually develop before and during parturition.
Endocrine changes associated with parturition and lactogenesis contribute to the development of fatty
liver.

Etiology
Fatty liver occurs during periods when blood concentration of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) are
increased. The most dramatic increase occurs at calving. Uptake of NEFA by the liver is proportional
to the concentration in the blood. NEFA taken up by the liver can be oxidized or esterified. The
primary esterification product is triglyceride, which can be exported or stored. In ruminants export
occurs at a very low rate; therefore, under condition of increased hepatic NEFA uptake and
esterification, triglyceride accumulation occurs. Oxidation of NEFA leads to the formation of co2 and
ketones. Ketone formation is favored when blood glucose concentrations are low. Conditions that
lead to low blood glucose also contribute to fatty liver because insulin suppresses fat mobilization
from adipose tissue.
The greatest increase in liver triglyceride occurs at calving. The extent to which feed intake is
depressed before and after calving or during disease moderate the degree of infiltration of
triglyceride. Because of the slow rate of triglyceride export, once fatty liver has develop, it will
persist for an extended period of time.

Clinical signs
 In dairy cattle, the fat cow syndrome occurs within the first few days following parturition and
precipitated by parturient hypocalcemia, retained fatal membrane or dystocia. The affected cow does
not respond to treatment and become totally anorexic. The cow mat become recumbent and develop a
secret form of ketosis, which does not respond to the usual form of therapy. There is marked
ketonuria. The affect cow doesn’t eat and gradually become weaker, totally recumbent and die in 7 -
10 days.
In cattle with moderately severe fatty liver the clinical finding are much less severe and most cows
recover within several days.

Diagnosis
The disease must be differentiated from other diseases like left-sided abomasum displacement,
downer cow syndrome and parturition syndrome.

Treatment
Cows with fat cow syndrome which are totally anorexic for more than 3 days will die; those which
continue to eat (even a small amount) will recover with supportive therapy and nutrition. The
parenteral treatment is glucose, calcium and magnesium salts.

175. Nonsurgical collection and nonsurgical transfer of embryos ( T 59 )

the most commonly used equipment for non-surgical embryo transfer in the cow is Cassou AI gun
and 0.25 ml French straw. With this equipment, each embryo is loaded into a straw with an air bubble
on either side of the fluid containing the embryo itself. The air bubble act as barriers to prevent the
indiscriminate movement of the embryos.
The recipient is examined for the presence of an appropriate CL and a normal uterus, and an epidural
anesthetic is given to eliminate rectal contraction. The straw is loaded into the Cassou syringe, and
the sheath is placed over it. The vulvar area is cleaned and wiped dry. The Cassou gun is inserted to
the external cervical os, punched through the protective sheath and threaded through the cervix into
the uterine horn.
A rapid atraumatic placement more caudal in the horn is preferable to a prolonged, difficult
placement extremely cranial into the horn. The actual deposition of the fluid and embryo is
accomplished with a slow motion similar to that of deposition semen.
Advantage of nonsurgical techniques include the reduced amount of time required, the need for little
or no special facilities and the reduced cost to the cattle breeder.
176. computer programs for evaluating reproductive performance in dairy herds
individual cow records
insemination date (+ name of sire)
pregnancy + -
calving date
milk yield
culling
medical records + treatment + vaccines
body weight

herd management
list of cows for insemination (seen in heat, synchronized)
list of cows seen in heat (pedometers)
list of cows to dry
list of cows about to calve
list of cows for reproductive examination (pregnancy diagnosis,, repeated breeding)
list of cows illness, injury, an-estrus, retained placenta
inventory list
programs for evaluating of ratios
data on milk content (fat, protein )from laboratory

178. surgical collection and surgical transfer of embryos. ( T 59 )

the surgery can be done through a flank approach or the mid-ventral technique. In mid-ventral
technique the cow is placed in dorsal recumbence (after general anesthesia ). Incision is made just
anterior to the mammary gland into the abdominal cavity. Once the uterus has been located and a
suitable corpus luteum has been confirmed in one of the ovaries, a small puncture is made into the
lumen of the uterine horn in the same side of the CL. Thee pipette loaded with the embryo is
introduced through the puncture and the embryo is deposited. Routine closure and post-operative
recover follow.
For surgical transfer, the flank approach is used. Palpation of the recipients is used to identify the site
of the CL, which must correspond with the side of the flank incision. Paravertebral and local
anesthesia is accomplished with a local anesthesia. Routine opening is accomplished, and the site of
the CL is confirmed. The uterine horn is grasped and gently retracted to the incision. Transfer is
similar to that in the mid-ventral approach, and closure is as usual.