CICIND

Model Code for

Steel Chimneys
(Revision 1 – December 1999)
Amendment A – March 2002

Commentaries and Appendices

(December 2000)

Copyright CICIND 2000, 2002

ISBN 1-902998-17-0

Office of The Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 0DZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 e-mail: secretary@cicind.org
 CICIND
Model Code for Steel Chimneys
REVISION 1 – DECEMBER 1999
COMMENTARIES AND APPENDICES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Appendix 2 – Insulation, Linings and Protective Coatings . . .30

Commentary 1 – Glossary of commonly used words . . . . . . . . .3
Commentary 2 – Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Commentary 3 – Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1. Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1.1. BasicWind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1.2. Wind Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1.3. The Influence of Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.2 The Gust Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
C3.3 Vortex Shedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
C3.4 Movements in the second mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
C3.5 Ovalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
C3.5.1 Static effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
C3.5.2 Dynamic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
C3.6 Interference effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Commentary 4 – Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Commentary 5 – Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Commentary 6 – Chemical Effects and Internal Corrosion . .26
C6.1. Chemical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.1.1. Attack Due to Sulphur Oxides . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desuphurisation . . . . . . .26
C6.1.3. Attack Due to Chlorine, Chlorides
and Fluorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.2. Internal Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.3 Selection of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Appendix 1 – Base Plate Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
A1.1 Simple base plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
A1.2 Base plates with gussets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
A1.3 Baseplates with gussets and compression rings . . . . .28
A1.4 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
A2.1. Insulation
A2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
A2.1.2. Insulation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
A2.1.3. Aluminium Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
A2.1.4. Mineral Wool or Foam Insulation . . . . . . . . .31
A2.1.5. Lined and Multiflue Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2. Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2.3. Design of Linings Attached
Continuously to the Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
A2.3. Recommended Start-up Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
A2.4. Protective and Decorative Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Appendix 3 – Guyed Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A3.1. Guyed Chimney expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A3.2. Guyed Chimney calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A3.3 Guy Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Appendix 4 – Access Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.2. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.3. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.4. Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.5. Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.6. Rungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.7. Safety Hoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.8. Rest Platforms and Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
A4.9. Attachment to Chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
A4.10. Access Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

DISCLAIMER
This CICIND document is presented to the best of the knowledge of its members as a guide only. CICIND is not, nor are any of its
members, to be held responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of information
published by the association in a Model Code or in any other way.
CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-8001, Zurich, Switzerland
Copyright by CICIND, Zurich
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices
FOREWORD
In December 1999 the Second Edition of the Model Code for Steel
Chimneys was published. This is now expanded by the publication of
the Commentaries and Appendixes to this Model Code.
The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the
principles set out in the Model Code. It is divided into two parts. The
Commentaries cover the theoretical derivation of the formulae and
the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices relate to
more practical considerations.
COMMENTARY No. 1
GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TERMS
The numbers in brackets are given in figures C.1.1 and C.1.2.,
showing typical chimney designs.
Access door (2.01) – A door for the entry of personnel or other means
of inspection.
Aerodynamic stabilizer (2.03) – A device fitted to the structural shell
to reduce wind excited oscillations by modifying vortex shedding
Anchor bolts – See Holding down bolts
Base cone (2.04) – A truncated cone incorporated immediately above
the baseplate of a chimney.
Baseplate (2.05) – A horizontal plate fixed to the base of a chimney.
Also called a bearing plate.
Base stool (2.07) – A construction comprising two vertical plates,
welded to the chimney shell and to the baseplate, supporting a
compression ring (2.14) through which a holding down bolt passes.
Blanking off plate (2.08) – An imperforate plate fitted immediately
beneath the inlet of a chimney to prevent the waste gases reaching the
lower portion of the chimney. Also known as a false bottom.
Boiler mounted chimney – A chimney supported by a boiler and its
foundation.
Bracket (2.10) – A construction providing resistance to lateral
displacement of the chimney and/or supporting part or all of the
weight of the chimney.
Bracketed chimney (2.11) – A chimney in which not all external
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
shell and for which brackets, attached to an adjacent structure, are
provided to ensure stability. Also known as a braced chimney.
Breeching – see inlet (2.28)
Cap plate (2.12) – A sloping or convex plate fitted to the top of the
structural shell, covering the area between it and the liners and
incorporating cravats through which the liners protrude.
Cleaning door (2.13) – A door, normally at the base of the chimney,
to permit the remova! of flue dust.
Compression ring (2.14) – A steel plate welded to the shell which
transfers the forces acting upon the chimney to the holding down
bolts. Also known as a base ring.
Cope band (2.15) – A steel section attached to the top of the chimney
around its perimeter to give added strength and corrosion resistance
at this level.
Cope hood (2.16) – A hood fitted externally to the top of a liner,
covering the upstand of the cap plate, to prevent the ingress of
rain water.
Corrosion test piece (2.17) – A fixed or removable steel plate insert,
generally of lesser thickness than the shell of the chimney, in contact
with the waste gases and fitted at strategic points where maximum
corrosion is expected to occur.
Cowl (2.18) – A conical or dished cap fitted to the top of the chimney
to reduce the ingress of rain water. Also known as a rain cap.
page 3
Cravat (2.19) – An upstand fixed to the roof, roofplate or cap plate
to prevent the ingress of rain water (see cope hood). Also known as
counter flashing.
Cross-section – The section of the load bearing steel shell including
the corrosion allowance.
Damping device (2.20) – A device fitted to the structural shell to
increase its structural damping.
Doubling plate (2.21) – A plate fixed to the shell to reinforce it
where increased stresses occur.
Double skin chimney (2.22) – A chimney consisting of an outer
load-bearing steel shell and an inner liner which carries the flue
gases. Also known as a dual wall chimney.
Drag coefficient – see wind force coefficient
Drain pipe (2.23) – A pipe which connects a tundish to a point
outside the structural shell and used to remove condensate.
Flue – see liner
Guy (2.24) – A wire rope attached at one end to a chimney and
anchored at the other so as to provide tensile resistance to the lateral
displacement of the chimney
Guy band (2.25) – A steel section fitted around the outside of a
chimney with provision for the attachment of guys.
Guyed chimney (2.26) – A chimney in which not all externally
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
shell and for which guys are provided to ensure stability.
Holding down bolts (2.27) – Bolts built into a concrete foundation,
brick base or supporting framework to provide anchorage at the base
of the chimney.
Hoops – Horizontal rings forming a cage around ladders.
Inlet (2.28) – A short duct fixed to the shell or baseplate of a chimney
for the entry of flue gases.
Intermediate cone (2.29) – A truncated cone incorporated in the
chimney shell at an intermediate level.
Jointing flange (2.30) – A steel section fitted to the end of a chimney
section to enable sections to be connected together.
Ladder boss – A boss welded to the chimney shell into which an access
hook or eye can be screwed to provide fixing for temporary ladders.
Lateral supports (2.31) – Supports positioned at appropriate levels
within the structural shell to locate the liners, allowing independent
expansion of the shell.
Lightning protection system – System to provide electrical
continuity between the chimney and earth.
Liners (2.32) – Flue gas ducts contained within the structural shell.
Liner base (2.33) – A suitable support positioned at a convenient
height above the baseplate of the structural steel shell to carry the
weight of the liners.
Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2) – A material applied to the internal
face of the chimney to prevent the flue gases contacting the inner
surface of the steel shell.
Multiflue chimney (2.35) – A group of two or more chimneys within
a structural framework or a chimney comprising a group of two or
more liners within a structural shell.
Nett section – The section of the load bearing steel shell without
corrosion allowance.
Reinforcement – Structural shapes or plates at or near to shell
aperatures to strengthen the shell.
Roofplate (2.36) – A plate which follows the contour of the roof
round the chimney where it passes through the roof of a building.
Also known as flashing.
Rungs – Horizontal bars in ladders.
page 4 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

Safety system – Proprietary fall arrest system fixed to ladder rungs Stayed chimney (2.40) – A chimney in which not all externally
or beside the ladder to give a safe fixing for attachment of operatives’ applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
safety harnesses. shell and for which stays, connected to another structure, are
provided to ensure stability.
Self supporting chimney (2.37) – A chimney in which externally
applied loads (e g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural Stiffening ring – Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to
shell and which, together with the foundation, will remain stable maintain the chimney shell circular during fabrication and
under all design conditions without additional support. transportation.
Splitter plate (2.38) – A vertical plate welded to the interior of the Strakes – see aerodynamic stabilisers
shell between two horizontally opposed inlets to divert the flow of the
Stringer – Vertical member of a ladder to which the rungs are attached.
flue gases into a vertical direction and to inhibit the passage of flue
gases from one inlet into the other.
Stay (2.39) – A rigid member providing both tensile and compressive
resistance to the lateral displacement of the chimney. Also known as
a lateral brace.

Typical general arrangement of three types of self supporting steel chimney.

The numbers are related to the text

2.03

2.08

Figure C1.1
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 5

Structural shell (2.41) – The main external structure of the chimney, Vanes – See Aerodynamic stabilizers
excluding any reinforcing or flanges.
Venturi. – See Top cone
Top cone (2.42) – A truncated cone or other device fitted at the top
Weatherhood (2.44) – A hood designed to shed rain water clear of
of a chimney to increase the gas exit velocity.
the cravat and prevent its entry into the building. Also known as
Tundish (2.43) – A conical or sloping blanking off plate provided counter flashing.
with facilities for drainage. Also known as a false bottom.
Wind force coefficient – The ratio between the wind pressure on the
Tuned mass damper – A form of damping device which employs a chimney and the equivalent pressure on the same area normal to the
pendulum, tuned to the chimney’s natural frequency. The moving wind direction.
part of the pendulum is connected to the chimney by an energy
absorbing device.

Typical general arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys.

The numbers are related to the text

2.11

Figure C1.2
page 6 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

The principal load is due to wind. The moment is proportional to the

COMMENTARY No. 2
SAFETY
The safety of a chimney is ensured by the use of partial safety factors
at the ultimate limit state. These partial safety factors are listed in
paragraph 5.3 of the code. A chimney is thus deemed safe if the
maximum stress due to the characteristic load, increased by the
appropriate partial load factor, is less than the allowable stress,
divided by the partial material safety factor. The level of wind load
factor chosen ensures that premature failure due to low cycle fatigue,
caused by wind gusts in the wind direction, can not occur.
wind pressure, the extreme values of which follow a Fisher-Tippett
Type 1 (FT1) distribution as described in reference 3.
This distribution has a Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
given by P(q)
exp(exp((q  u)))
in which the constants are the mode u and the dispersion 1/. In
temperate climates the product u.
5; other values may obtain
elsewhere (see ref.2)
Now, the characteristic wind is defined as having annual probability
of being exceeded
0.02

Derivation Of The Partial Load Factor In The Wind It follows that the characteristic pressure qk
q 1 
In(50)
u 
Direction (Temperate Zones)
This is converted to standard measure by substituting q
x. u
The partial load factor for wind load in the wind direction is derived
as follows by considering the social and economic consequences of then Ps1(x)
exp(exp(u(x1)))
failure or damage requiring the chimney’s repair or replacement. This The probability distribution function (pdf)
involves deriving the acceptable probability of failure (P) during the
d
chimney’s lifetime, using the following expression given in CIRIA
P (x)
 u exp (  u(x1)) Ps1(x)
(U.K.) Report No. 63, entitled “Rationalisation of Safety and dx s1
Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes”[1] : In(50)
The 50-year wind pressure is xs50
1 
u
P
104  Ks  nd / nr ... (C2.1)
The resistance is assumed normally distributed with mean xr and
Where standard deviation r
nr
average number of people near the structure during the The characteristic value is xr5%
xr  1.645r
period of risk
xr5% xr  1.645 r
nd
design life of structure (assumed to be 20 years for a The load factor F


xs50 In(50)
steel chimney) 1
u
Ks
a social criterion factor, given in table C2.1

Table C2.1 - Social Criterion Factor

xr
F 1
u 
In(50)
 1.645r

xx
 
2
Nature of structure Ks 1 1 r
the pdf of the resistance is pr (x)
exp 
Places of public assembly, Dams 0.005
r 
2 2 r

Domestic, Office or Trade and Industry 0.05

Bridges 0.5
Towers, Masts, Offshore Structures 5 The effect of altering the period of exposure from 1 to T years is to
In order to use equation C2.1 it is necessary to estimate the value of
nr. It is suggested [1, 2] that allowance be made for the number of
people likely to be close to the structure at the time that maximum
loading can be expected. Since maximum loading is most likely to
occur under extreme wind conditions, it can be assumed that no-one
will be climbing the chimney and no-one will be nearby, except
through necessity.
If we assume nd
20 years and Ks as 0.05 for “normal” chimneys
and 0.005 for critical chimneys, acceptable probabilities can be
estimated as summarised in table C2.2:
Table C2.2 Typical failure probabilities for
environmental economic risk
Environment nr Ks
Chimney industrial area (“normal” chimney) 0.1 .05
Chimney in urban area or hospital (“Critical chimney”) 1 .05
Chimney serving critical plant (“Critical chimney”) 0.1 0.005
It follows that safety factors should be chosen to give probabilities of
failure of 103 for a “Normal” chimney and 104 for a “Critical”
chimney.
The probability of failure depends upon the statistical distributions of
resistance and loading.
The resistance of a steel chimney may be taken as normally
disributed with a coefficient of variation (ratio of standard deviation
to mean value) approximately 10%.
The CDF for the wind pressure in period T years is PsT(q)
(Ps1(q))T
In(T)
shift the mode from 1 to 1 without altering the shape of
u
the distribution.
Hence the CDF is PsT(x)
exp(exp(u(x1)In(T)))

The probability of failure is given by PFT
 (1PsT(x))·pr(x)dx
0
Now the factor F
w · m where w is the wind load factor and m
the material factor.
Assuming m
1.1, then
if w
1.4 PF20
8·104
if w
1.5 PF20
3·104
When failure is ductile, additional safety against collapse is derived
P from the chimney’s residual strength, after mobilisation of its
103
allowable (yield) strength at one point of its periphery (i.e., at the
ultimate limit state).
104
104 When failure is by buckling, additional safety is implicit in the
relationship used between the allowable (critical buckling) strength
and the yield strength of the material. This relationship includes an
additional partial safety factor to ensure that the critical buckling
stress is sufficiently below the lower bound of experimental curves
used as a basis for the design (see ref. 5 ). For normal steel chimneys,
this additional partial safety factor lies between 1.2 and 1.33,
depending upon the diameter/ thickness ratio.
It is, therefore, proved that wind load factors of 1.4 and 1.5, will
ensure failure (collapse) probabilities of 103 and 104, required by
“Normal” and “Critical” chimneys, respectively.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 7

References
(1) Report 63 “Rationalisation of safety and serviceability factors
in structural codes” — CIRIA (U.K.), 1977
(2) BS 8100 Part 2, British Standards Institution, 1996
(3) Bierrum, N.R. — Letter to the Editor,
CICIND REPORT Vol. 5, No. 1, 1989
(4) ENV 1991-2-4, CEN, 1995
(5) ‘European Recommendations for steel construction’ —
European Convention for Construction Steelwork (ECCS), 1978.
page 8 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY 3
WIND LOAD
At the time of publication of the revised CICIND Model Code for
Steel Chimneys (1999), the wind load model currently used in ENV
1991-2-4 (eventually intended to form the basis of Eurocode 1, Part
2–4: Actions on Structures — Wind Actions) has been shown by
calibration studies by CICIND and others to be unacceptable. In view
of the time expected to elapse before an acceptable model for 30 1
Eurocode 1 is agreed by all parties, CICIND have decided for the time t (secs)
being to retain the wind load model described in the 1988 version of
this Model Code. A recent paper[1] has shown that this model gives Fig. C3.2 – Relationship between windspeed
safe and reasonably accurate estimates of the wind load on chimneys. and its averaging time

C3.1 Wind-speed Table C3.1 – Relationship between commonly quoted

windspeeds at 10m height above grade for
As the basis for the wind-load, the hourly mean windspeed has been
“open ground” situations
retained. The wind-load is calculated after estimating a turbulence
intensity, by a “gust factor” method[2]. Hourly 10-minute 5-second 3-second
mean mean gust gust
C3.1.1. Basic wind-speed
Hourly mean 1.0 1.05 1.45 1.5
The basic wind-speed used in deriving wind-loads is the wind-speed
10-minute mean 0.95 1.0 1.4 1.45
averaged over one hour and measured at 10m above open ground at
the chimney location, which has a probability of exceedence of once 5-second gust 0.7 0.75 1.0 1.05
in 50 years. 3-second gust 0.65 0.7 0.95 1.0

The value of the basic wind-speed for a given location should be

Note:- To convert “Fastest mile” windspeed to the above time-
obtained from data collected by meteorological stations.
averaged windspeeds, use the relationship (velocity
distance /
When wind speeds have been measured over periods less than 50 time) to determine the time taken to traverse one mile. This time
years, the value of the basic windspeed must be extrapolated using should then be entered in fig. C3.2.
the Fisher-Tippett Type 1 expression for the statistical distribution of
extreme values, as follows: C3.1.2 Wind Maps
When no results of wind-speed measurements are available an
P(V)
exp {-exp [(V  u)]}
indication of the basic wind-speed is given in the figures C3.3, C3.4,
Where: C3.5, C3.6, C3.7 and C3.8 for Europe, USA, Asia, Australia, Africa
and Brazil.
P(V)
probability of excedence of velocity V during
the relevant period Some countries have not published wind velocity maps, chosing
1 instead to specify wind pressure maps or wind velocities at specific

slope of curve in Fig. C3.1 locations. In such cases the customer should specify the wind
 velocity (vb) to be used in the design. The map showing isopleths for
u
intercept on vertical axis of curve in Fig. C3.1 Africa is unofficial and should be used with caution.

For a probability of exceedence, once in 50 years, P(V) = 0.02
1 The increase of the wind-speed with height is in accordance with the
In some cases lower values for u and are found (see lit. [3] ).
 power law:
The relationship between the wind-speed and the return period is
given in figure C3.1
If the averaging time of the measurement is shorter than one hour, the
hourly mean at 10m height may be determined using figure C3.2. In
this figure the ratio between the hourly mean and shorter averaging
periods of the wind-speed is given for various types of terrain. Table
C3.1 gives a quick reference for “Open country” terrain situations.
Fig. C3.1 – Relationship between wind-speed
and its return period
C3.1.3. The influence of the height
Vz
Vb · kp,z0 · (z / 10)
Vb is the basic windspeed (i.e. measured at 10m above open, level
terrain, without obstructions). The scale factor “kp,z0” and exponent
“” depend on the terrain roughness around the chimney. The values
kp,z0
1 and 
0.14 have been chosen in the Model Code. This is
assumed to cover the most common case when the chimney is not in
the centre of cities and not at the sea shore, but somewhere in
between and clear above the surrounding buildings.
When structures such as buildings are being designed, it is normal to
assume different values of  and kp,zo, relevant to the terrain
considered. This, for instance, would give lower wind velocities in
town centres than in open country. When tall structures, such as
chimneys, are concerned, however, the wind velocity gradient
continues to be influenced by the terrain over which it previously
travelled. In some cases, the previous terrain continues to be of
influence after the wind has travelled by as much as 5km over
rougher terrain. In addition, the gust factor is a function of the
turbulence, so that in town centres, even though the wind velocity
may be less than in open country, the gust factor could be
considerably higher, partially cancelling out the reduction in dynamic
pressure. As a result of these considerations, it was decided to keep
the Model Code simple and use just one terrain category.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 9

Fig. C3.3 Wind speeds in m/s for Europe (10 min. mean)
(note – to convert to Vb – hourly mean, divide by 1.05)
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

90(40)
90(40)
85(38)
100(40)
110(49)
120(54)
90(40)
130(58)
140(63)
130(58)
140(63) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
150(67)
90(40) Location V mph (m/s)
100(45) 130(58) Hawaii 105 (47)
Puerto Rico 145 (65)
110(49) 120(54)
Guam 170 (76)
Special Wind Region
Virgin Islands 145 (65)
American Samoa 125 (56)
Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour
(m/s) at 33ft (10m) above ground. To derive Vb divide by 1.5.
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Island and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind
speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind
regions shall be examined for unusal wind conditions.
page 10
Fig C3.4 – Wind Speeds in USA
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 11

Fig C3.5 – Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean)

CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

Basic windspeed Vb
(hourly mean)
Regions m/s
A 25
B 29
C 34
D 41
page 12
Fig 3.6 – Basic Windspeeds for Australia
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 13

Fig C3.7 – Basic wind speed Vb in m/s for Africa. Isopleths shown dotted should be used with caution. For final designs local
regulations should be used in all cases.
page 14 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

70° 65° 60° 55°

50°

45°
40°

35°

0°

5°

10°

15°
35

45

40 20°

35
25°

30°

35°

Fig. C3.8 – Windspeeds in m/s for Brazil (3-second gusts)

Note – To convert to basic windspeed (hourly mean), divide by 1.5
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 15

C3.2 The gust factor
The proposed method for the calculation of the bending moments in
the chimney is based on the gust factor method (see lit. [4])
This conventional approach is:
response induced by the chimney’s own motion. The aerodynamic
parameters Ka and L incorporate the effects of the motion-induced
response by means of aerodynamic damping:
– The first term {Ka ·  · d2 / mo} introduces negative
aerodynamic damping

wg (z)
G · wm (z) – The second term {1  [y / (L · d)]2} gives the positive
aerodynamic damping — important for large amplitudes and
where: ensuring that the response is self-limiting.
For small amplitudes of up to approx. 5% of the diameter, the
wg (z)
the load at level z aerodynamic damping is described sufficiently accurately by the first
term only.
G
the gust factor — a function of wind turbulence and the
chimney’s natural frequency, damping and height It can be seen that, when the structural damping
is much greater
than the negative aerodynamic damping, y is quite small. As the two
wm (z)
the load due to the mean wind velocity values converge, however, the increase in y becomes dramatic, until
the self limiting amplitude is approached and increases become
An extension of this method has been proposed by B.J. Vickery (see smaller (see Fig. C3.9).
lit. [5]) to account for the inertial response of a chimney and give
The maximum value “y” of the top deflection amplitude is calculated
more accurate values of the bending moments at levels above the
by multiplying the standard deviation y with a peak factor kp,
base. This method has been adopted in the CICIND Model Code for
i.e. y
kp · y. For small amplitudes below approx. 1–2% of the
Concrete Chimneys, Part (a) for the design of concrete shells, where
diameter, the peak-factor is approx. 4, corresponding to a stochastic
steel reinforcement as well as shell thickness, varies often over the
type of vibration. For large amplitudes, the peak-factor is equal to
chimney height. In the case of steel chimneys however, which are
about 1.5, corresponding to sinusoidal vibrations with constant
lighter and shorter than concrete chimneys (giving a smaller inertial
amplitude. For intermediate amplitudes, the peak-factor increases
response) and for which there is less scope for changes of thickness
gradually with decreasing amplitude. However, for the sake of
with height, it was decided to use the simpler conventional method.
simplicity, the Model Code assumes a sudden change at a value of
y
4% of diameter.
C3.3 Vortex shedding
Large vortex-induced vibrations perpendicular to the wind direction
may occur when the vortex shedding frequency coincides with a
natural frequency f of the chimney. This occurs at a mean wind
y
velocity “V” equal to the critical wind velocity “Vcr” determined by:

V
Vcr
f · d / St ... (C3.3.1)

in which d is the predominant chimney diameter over the top third

and St is Strouhal number.
Vortex-induced vibrations depend strongly on mass and damping of
the chimney. The risk of large vibrations is judged by the Scruton
number Sc defined as:

4 · ·
· mo Fig. C3.9 – Relationship between
y and Structural Damping ()
Sc
... (C3.3.2)
 · d2 for given values of Ka, mo and d
in which
is the structural damping ratio, mo is the effective mass
per unit height of the chimney as defined in the model code and  is Solving equation (C3.3.3) for the standard deviation shows that the
the density of air. maximum value y of the top deflection amplitude (i.e. zero to
maximum) can be expressed by (see Model Code equation 7.9):
The risk of large vortex-induced vibrations depends on a combination
of Scruton number and large-scale turbulence intensity of the y/d  kp · {c1  (c12  c2)0.5}0.5 ... (C3.3.4)
incoming wind field. High intensity of large-scale turbulence or high
Scruton numbers reduces the risk of large vortex-induced vibrations. where the constants c1 and c2 are equal to:
A structure with a given Scruton number may be stable in the kind of
turbulence flow normally encountered but become unstable in rare
cases with low turbulence occurring under stable atmospheric c1
0.5 · L2 · {1  [
· mo / (Ka ·  · d2)]} ... (C3.3.5)
stratification.

C3.3.1 Structural Amplitudes or c1
0.5 · L2 · {1  [Sc / (4 · · Ka)]}

The standard deviation “y” of the top structural deflection is given

L2 ·  · d2 · Ca2 · d
by, see ref. [6]: c2
... (C3.3.6)
Ka · mo · St4 · h
y 1 Ca d2 d In smooth flow conditions, L
approximately 0.4 (see table 1),

2 · · ·
d St
 {Ka ·  · d2 / mo} · {1  [y / (L · d)]2} mo h which gives the following expressions for c1 and c2 (see Model Code,
7.2.4.2):
... (C3.3.3)
c1  0.08 · {1  [ · mo / (Ka ·  · d2)]}
in which Ca, Ka and L are aerodynamic parameters. The
aerodynamic parameter Ca is found from the generalised vortex- 0.16 ·  · d3 · Ca2
c2 
induced wind load on structures without any significant additional Ka · mo · St4 · h
page 16 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

For most non-heavily damped chimneys with Scruton numbers less

than 4· ·Ka, the influence of the constant c2 is negligible and the
amplitude of the structural deflection (0 - max.) can be found from:

y / d
kp · (2 · c1)0.5
0.4 · kp · {1  [Sc / (4 · · Ka)]}0.5 ... (C3.3.7)

In the present simplified and approximate approach, the aerodynamic

damping parameter Ka is estimated for smooth flow cases as a
function of Reynolds number (Re) only. A function of longitudinal
turbulence intensity, “I” gives the reduction in turbulent flow, i.e.:

Ka (Re, I)
Ka,max (Re) · K(I) ... (C3.3.8)

The aerodynamic damping parameter, Ka,max for smooth flow at

various values of Re is given in Table 1.

The function K may approximately be determined by:-

K(I)
1-31 for 0 I 0.25 and

K(I)
0.25 for I  0.25.

For terrain category 1 (i.e. within 5km of open sea), the minimum
turbulence intensity, Imin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities
less than or equal 10m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than
10m/s. For all other terrain categories the minimum turbulence
intensity, Imin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than
or equal to 7 m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 7m/s.
Further studies are needed to clanfy the influence of turbulence more
accurately.

Table C3.2. Aerodynamic parameters in smooth flow. For

Reynolds numbers between the limits given, the aerodynamic Figure C3.10. Vortex-induced vibrations as function of
parameters are determined by linear interpolation using turbulence intensity and Reynolds number. It is assumed that
ln(Re) as argument m0 / d2  50 and h/d  30, which influence the low amplitude
part of the curves shown.

Aerodynamic parameter Re < 105 Re = 5 · 105 Re > 106

The amplitude should be limited to ensure that stresses are within
permissible limits, both from the point of view of failure and fatigue
Ca,max 0.02 interpolation 0.01
life. In addition, the amplitude should not be large enough to alarm
Ka,max 1.5 1.0 1.0 bystanders. This limit is difficult to define in general terms as
L 0.4 0.4 0.4 bystanders’ alarm is subjective, depending upon how often the
response occurs, its frequency, the visibility of the chimney and the
bystanders’ perception of the risk. Definition of the limiting
Figure C3.10 shows the vortex-induced vibrations as a function of amplitude for this aspect is, therefore left to the owner and the
turbulence intensity for Reynolds numbers equal to 105 designer to agree for each individual case. Some guidance for highly
and 106, respectively. visible chimneys with low values of Vcr ( 10m/s within 5km of sea
or lake-shore,  7m/s in inland locations) is given below:
C3.3.2 Bending Moments Critical Chimneys – Top double amplitude (peak to peak)
should be not more than 10% top diameter
The bending moments in the chimney can be calculated from the
inertial load per unit length (Fw) corresponding to the relevant mode Normal Chimneys – Top double amplitude (peak to peak)
shape (i), where: should be not more than 25% top diameter

These limits may be increased for less noticeable chimneys and/or

Fw
m · (2 ni)2 · i · ymax
where ni
relevant natural frequency
ymax
maximum amplitude at the relevant natural frequency
or from the bending moment due to a force at 1/6 of the chimney
height from the top, causing the same deflection ymax.
... (C3.3.9) those with higher values of Vcr (i.e. those which rarely see large
amplitude response).
C3.4 Movements in the second mode
Just as in the case of cross-wind response in the fundamental mode,
a response to excitation in the second mode, giving a top amplitude
exceeding about 4% of the top diameter, triggers an increased
response, initiated by the chimney’s own movement.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 17

In the case of fundamental mode movements, response is only top amplitude in the first mode. The stresses, however, will be about
important to vortices shed over a length near to the chimney top, equal the same in each case.
to about 5 top diameters, as demonstrated by Fig. C.3.11.

2.0000

[M/S r.m.s.]2
REAL
Hz

0.0
10.000 HZ 100.00

Vcr  5.9 m/s, Scr  4.8, f  40 hz

Fig. C3.13 – Stresses and energy levels in first and second mode

This is partly demonstrated by measured values in a full-scale

chimney — see fig. C.3.14. The measured values in this trace are of
stresses at the base and it can be seen that many of the stress cycles
in that part of the response in the second mode are much the same as
[M/S r.m.s.]2
Hz
REAL those in the first mode. The second mode amplitudes were, however,
only about 15% of the first mode amplitudes.
0.0
10.000 HZ 100.00

Vcr  4.2 m/s, Scr  18.7, f  29.5 hz

Base Stress

Fig. C3.11 – Auto-Spectra of the anemometer signal

(velocity signal), measured at Vcr in the wake of the model,
measured over top half

The maximum ampltude in the second mode will occur at the top (see
fig. C.3.12). The amplitude reduces to zero over a length of H / 4. Second Mode

This steep reduction means that the length over which vortex First Mode
shedding is important will be much smaller in the case of second
mode response. Time (secs)
ƒ1 = 0.7 Hz ƒ2 = 2.6 Hz

Fig. C3.14

The proposal for determining the top amplitudes in the second mode is
given in fig. C.3.15. The stresses in both the first and second modes
should be taken into account when dealing with the effects of fatigue.

Fig. C3.12 – Mode shapes, first and second mode

In the second mode, the energy due to fluctuating wind pressures will
be applied at the middle part of the chimney. The top amplitude of a
chimney responding in the second mode will never be as great as that
reached by the same chimney responding in the primary mode. This
is because much more wind-induced energy would be required in the
second mode. This is illustrated in Fig. C.3.13, which shows the
bending moment causing the same amplitude in the second mode as
in the first mode would require about 50 times more energy. On the
other hand, the energy required to cause the same base stress in the
second mode is almost the same as that in the first mode, even though
top deflection in 2nd mode is much smaller.
The proposed calculation method is based upon the assumption that
more or less the same energy is applied in bending, whether the
chimney is in the first or the second mode. It therefore follows that Fig. C3.15 – Relationship between Scruton Number
the top amplitude in the second mode would only be about 1/6 of the and top amplitude
page 18
C3.5 Ovalling
The static as well as the dynamically fluctuating pressure causes a
varying pressure over the circumference of the chimney. The varying
wind pressure around a circular cylinder causes a “static” ovalling
deformation of the cicle. The dynamics in the wind, including vortex
shedding can cause a vibration of the circular shape, the lowest order
mode and most likely to occur being that of ovalling.
C3.5.1 Static ovalling load
The distribution of the wind pressure around the circumference of the
shell can be written as:
p
p0 · {0.823  0.448cos  1.115cos2  0.400cos3
 0.113cos4  0.027cos5} ... (C.3.5.1)
where: p0
the wind pressure
0.5 ·  · v2

Angle between wind direction and point on
circumference under consideration
The first term (0.823 · p0) is an overall suction and causes a small
uniform tensile force on vertical cross sections of the shell.
The second term (0.448 · p0 · cos) is the pressure in the wind
direction (fig. C.3.16) and provides the derivation of the force
coefficient (shape factor) of 0.7, to give a total load. It causes no
departure from a circular cross-section.
Fig. C.3.16 – Wind pressure and deflected
shape due to p0cos term
The third term (1.115 · p0 · cos — fig. C.3.17) causes ovalling.
Fig. C.3.17 – Wind pressure and deflected
shape due to p0cos2 term
The remaining terms have little influence.
C3.5.1.1 Unstiffened shells
C3.5.1.1.1 – Effect on vertical moments
(stresses on horizontal sections)
An analysis of the deformation and stresses in an unstiffened shell
(assuming a rigidly fixed circular base) due to the ovalling load has
been given elsewhere in the literature[8]. This considered stresses on
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices
horizontal sections of an unstiffened shell due to the total wind
distribution, involving mainly the cos and cos2 terms (fig. C.3.18)
A major part of the stresses on horizontal sections is due to the
transition from a circular shape at the base to an oval shape.
Fig. C.3.18 – Circumferential wind pressure and deflected shape
Derivation of the increase in tensile stress is fairly straight-forward,
as the maximum tensile stresses due to both beam flexure and
restraint of ovalling deformation occur at the base at 180° to the wind
direction (i.e. on the up-wind side). Clause 8.2 of the Model Code
gives the expression:-
{tensile shell stress
tensile beam sress  (1  {6 / [(l/r)2 · (t/r)]}.
Therefore, for t/r
0.008 and l/r
50, the increase in tensile
stress
30%. This is probably unimportant in the design of chimney
shells, which are usually governed by compressive stresses, but it is
important in designing the base joint and holding-down bolts. The Model
Code, therefore, calls for shell theory (or the above approximation) to be
used for unstiffened chimneys with aspect ratio  25.
The position regarding compressive stresses is not so simple. Ref. (8)
limited itself to consideration of stresses at the base, at 0° to the wind
direction. Here, the compression due to beam flexure is reduced or
even reversed by the shell stresses induced locally by restraint of
ovalling deformation. However, increases in compressive stress are
possible elsewhere. Increases in compressive stress are due to either
of two effects:
1) At the base and between values of  about 60° and 120° to the
wind, the reduced compression stress due to beam flexure (function
of ) has to be added to the compressive shell stress due to restraint
of ovalling (function of 2) — see fig. C3.19. Significant increases
in total compressive stress only occurr at relatively small values of
t/r for l/r ratios less than 30 — see table C3.5.1
2) For relatively thick shells at low l/r ratios, increases of
compression stress occurr on the down-wind side at 0° to the wind
direction, at heights about 6 diameters above the base — see table
C3.5.2. This is due to contraflexure effects, associated with
restraint of ovalling, causing compressive stresses at this height.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 19

t/r l/r beam stress  beam stress shell stress total stress ratio
max. at  at 
MPa degrees MPa MPa MPa
0.004 20 2.3 90 0.0 7.3 7.3 3.18
30 6.0 70 2.0 6.0 8.0 1.35
40 11.5 70 4.0 6.0 10.0 0.87
0.005 20 1.9 90 0.0 4.8 4.8 2.63
30 4.8 70 1.7 3.7 5.4 1.13
40 9.2 70 3.2 3.7 6.9 0.75
0.006 20 1.6 90 0.0 3.3 3.3 2.13
30 4.0 70 1.4 2.5 3.9 0.98

Table C3.5.1 – Max. Compression Stresses at

Base of Unstiffened Chimney

t/r l/r max. comp. height (z) beam stress total stress ratio
shell stress at z at z
MPa (x dia.) MPa MPa
0.011 20 0.9 6.2 1.3 2.2 1.64
30 0.9 6.2 8.8 9.7 1.11
0.010 20 0.9 6.2 1.5 2.3 1.57
30 0.9 6.2 8.8 9.7 1.10
40 0.9 6.2 23.1 24.0 1.04
0.008 20 0.8 6.2 1.8 2.7 1.43
30 0.8 6.2 11.0 11.8 1.03
0.006 20 0.4 7.4 1.2 1.6 1.32
30 0.4 7.8 11.0 11.4 1.03

Table C3.5.2 – Increases in compressive stress at 0o to wind (downwind side),

about 6 diameters above base of an unstiffened chimney.

Oval 3.0
l
= 20
R
Wind CT 2.0

CB
1.0
l
Circle = 30
R
Flexure Ovalling
.004 .006 .008 .01 .011
t/R
Net
Compression Max Compression
Fig. C3.20 – Increases in compressive stress over lower 6
Total Tension
diameters of an unstiffened chimney, due to shell effects
0° 90° 180°
Down
Upwind
Wind
C.3.5.1.1.2 – Effect on horizontal moments (stresses on
vertical sections)
The distribution of ovalling pressure
1.115 · p0 · cos 2
Fig. C3.19 – Stresses at chimney base Where p0 is the wind pressure, averaged over 5 seconds.
Away from the ends of a long, unstiffened shell, the consequent
Therefore, combining both tables it can be seen that consideration of bending moment at position  is m0, where:
shell stresses leads to significant increases in compressive stresses, 1.115
m0
· R2 · p0 · cos 2 ... (C3.5.2)
either at the base or at a height about 6 diameters above the base for l/r 4
ratios  30. Guidance regarding these increases is given by fig. C3.20 and m0 (max)
0.07 · p0 · d2(Nm/m)
page 20 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

(Note: 0.07 increased to 0.08 in Model Code (equation 7.11), to allow This must be much less than w0, say 1/5.
for effect of initial curvature)
Therefore, Ir must be, say, greater than 5 times (0.06 · d1.5 · t2.5). This
The associated deflection of an unstiffened shell at point  is w0, will ensure ovalling stresses in the shell are reduced to about 20% of
where: those in an unstiffened shell.
12 · R4 · 1.115 · p0 i.e The spacing (L) of stiffening rings should be 0.56 · d · (d/t)0.5
w0
· cos 2 ... (C3.5.2)
16 · E · t3 and the moment of inertia (Ir) of the stiffening ring (including
and w0 (max)
0.06 · p0 · d4 / (E · t3) participating shell (see Model Code Fig. 7.4) should be:
Ir  0.3 · d1.5 · t2.5 when L
0.56 · d · (d/t)0.5 ... (C.3.5.7)
C3.5.1.2 Stiffened shells
The addition of correctly sized circumferential stiffeners at the top and Ir  0.3 · d1.5 · t2.5 · L / 0.56 · d · (d/t)0.5 ... (C.3.5.8)
at the correct spacing will reduce shell stresses due to ovalling to when L  0.56 · d · (d/t)0.5
negligible values. In considering the effect of stiffeners the following
approach is used: C3.5.2 Dynamic component of ovalling
Based upon the theory of shells[9],
the deformation (w) at a distance
C.3.5.2.1 - Unstiffened shells
(height) x from the stiffener is (with a small approximation) given by
the following function: The resonance frequency of the fundamental (ovalling) vibrations for
an unstiffened cylinder is given by:
w
w0 · {1  ex/2 · [cos(x/2)sin(x/2)]} ... (C3.5.4)

where:  / 2

2
· (t/R)0.5
f1

1
2
· 
7.2 · E · I
·A·R 4
0.49 ·
d
t
· 
2
E

... (C3.5.9)
(3)0.25 · R
where E

Young’s modulus of the shell
Substituting /2
1.52 · (t)0.5 / (R)1.5, the deformation of the 

Density of the shell
stiffened shell becomes close to that of an unstiffened shell at a A

Cross-section area of shell (
t m2/m)
distance 1.58 · R · (R/t)0.5, or 0.56 · d · (d/t)0.5 The deformation of the I

Moment of inertia of shell about its vertical axis
shell above and below the stiffener is shown in fig. C3.21.
t3 4
(
m /m)
12
R, d and t
Radius, diameter and thickness of shell
In the case of steel:

f
2560 · t / d2 ... (C3.5.11)

w
Deformation with rings The frequency of vortex shedding relevant to ovalling
2 · St · V / d

wo
R
at distances x = 1.32R Therefore large scale resonant movemements can occur if:
t

2560 · t/d2
2 · St · V / d

For St
0.2, therefore, Vcr
6500 · t / d ... (C3.5.12)

To ensure that ovalling vibrations do not occur, it is necessary to
increase the moment of inertia of the shell to give a value of Vcr
Ring Saffener (Deformation Zero)
1·52x sufficiently high to avoid a build up of periodic excitation. Assuming
R R
t
that Vcr
30 m/s is high enough to achieve this, the required value
of I is then given by:
Fig. C3.21 – Ovalling deformation of a cylinder
with a stiff ring at x  0
f
2 · St · Vcr / d

1
2

7.2 · E · I
·A·R 4

Giving:
It can be seen that the ovalling deformations and, therefore stresses,
remain low (about 0.03w0) if the distance between stiffeners of 4 2 St2 Vcr2  · A · R4
infinitely high stiffness is smaller than 0.56 · d · (d/t)0.5. I
· ... (C3.5.13)
R2 7.2 · E
The maximum bending moment in the stiffener at this spacing is
obtained after integration of the shear forces in the shell:-
For Vcr  30m/s, St
0.2, 
7850 kg/m3 and
E
210 · 109 N/m2, therefore
M
0.028 · p0 · d3 · (d/t)0.5 (Nm) ... (C3.5.5) I  7.4 · 106 · A · R2
1.8 · 106 · d2 · t (m4/m height)

In order to be effective, the deformation of the stiffener under this For an unstiffened shell, this means t3 / 12  1.85 · 106 · d2 · t
moment must be much smaller than w0 — this requirement being ... (C3.5.14)
more important than its strength.
i.e. t/d must be  0.004, otherwise stiffening rings will be required
The deformation of the ring (with spacing
L) is obtained by to avoid the risk of ovalling vibrations.
integration of the bending moment M. The result is:
C.3.5.2.2 – Stiffened shells
When L
1.58 · R · (R/t)0.5:
Assuming the top of the chimney is stiffened by a ring satisfying
0.19 · p0 · R5.5 equation (C3.5.8), ovalling vibrations can still occur at lower levels
w
· cos 2 ... (C3.5.6)
E · Ir · (t)0.5 if the t/d ratio is  0.004. These vibrations are defined by:
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 21

Literature
x 2

w  ER· t x w 
Et3 2 4 4
w

12(12) 2 y2 2 4 [1] B.J. Vickery — “Wind loads and Design for Chimneys” —
CICIND REPORT, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998
2
x 2

w
0
2 2
·t·  ... (C3.5.15) [2] A.G. Davenport — “Wind structure and wind climate” —
T2 2 y2 Seminar on Safety of Structures, Trondheim, 1977.
Where w
deformation [3] P.J. Rijkoort and J. Wieringa — “Extreme wind-speeds by
x
coordinate along the shell (i.e. vertical direction) compound Weibull analysis of exposure-corrected data”.
y
coordinate along the circumference Journal of Wind Engineering, no. 13, 1983.
T
Time [4] A.G. Davenport — “Gust loading factors” — Proc. ASCE
Journal Struct. Div., Vol. 93, No, ST 5, June, 1967.
The solution is approximated by:
[5] B.J. Vickery — “Wind-induced loads on reinforced concrete
w
w0 · cos t · cos (2y/R) · cos ( · x / L) ... (C3.5.16) chimneys” — Nat. Seminar on Tall Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys, New Delhi, 1985.
Where L
distance between stiffening rings
[6] S. O. Hansen — “Vortex Induced Vibrations of Line-Like
w0
deformation of unstiffened shell
Structures” — CICIND REPORT, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 1999

2· ·f
f
frequency [7] Shoei-Sheng Chen — “Flow-induced vibration of circular
cylindrical structures”. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 1987.
Substituting in equation (C3.5.12) gives:
[8] H. van Koten — “The Stress Distribution in Chimneys due to
E · t2 {( /L)2  (2/R)2}4  { 4 / (R2 · L4)} Wind Pressure” — CICIND REPORT Vol. 11, No. 2, 1995
2
· ... (C3.5.17)
12 ·  {( /L)2  (2/R)2}2 [9] H.van Koten — “Structural analysis of shells” — Technical
An approximation is: University of Delft.


(E / )0.5 · {1 / [R  (4 · L2) / ( 2 · R)]} ... (C3.5.18)

Therefore L2
( /2)2 · {[(R / 2 · f) · (E / )0.5]  R2}
Assuming that Vcr  30m/s is high enough to avoid oscillations and
f
0.2·Vcr/R and substituting E
210·109 N/m2 and 
7850
Kg/m3:

L  18 · R, or 9 · d ... (C3.5.19)

From equation (C3.5.14), we have seen that the minimum value of I

per unit height to avoid oscillations is:

I  1.85 · 106 · d2 · t (m4/m height)

Assuming the stiffener to provide the equivalent I of a length of

shell
9 · d, Ir of stiffener (including participating shell — see Model
Code, Fig. 7.4) ) must be:

Ir > 1.75 · 105 · d3 · t ... (C3.5.20)

C3.6 Interference Effects

In considering the effect of aerodynamic interference by an upstream
cylindrical structure on the cross-wind response of a chimney, it is
generally accepted that the value of lift coefficient increases with the
localised small-scale turbulence associated with wake buffetting[1].
In Reference [1], however, Vickery acknowledges in paragraph 5.2
that this does not explain the full increase in cross-wind response. He
states that: “Across-wind response of the downstream structure is
enhanced but the mechanism is not completely clear”. He assumes
that a second contribution comes from reinforcement of the
movement by buffeting at a similar frequency to that of vortex
shedding by the downwind chimney. Presumably this reinforcement
can be expressed by an increase in negative aerodynamic damping.
Unfortunately little research data is yet available to define the way in
which the increase in negative aerodynamic damping is affected by
spacing, Scruton Number, or large-scale atmospheric turbulence.
Therefore, for spacings between chimney and interfering structure
less than 10 diameters, the Model Code merely recommends addition
of structural damping to increase the chimney’s Scruton Number to
more than 25. At this point it is unlikely that excessive response will
be experienced. When research data is available, more definite design
guidance can be given.
page 22 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY No. 4 – FATIGUE

When we consider the long term history of movement of a chimney
subject to cross-wind movement in response to vortex excitation, we
must take into account the following phenomena:

(1) Movement is subject to a “start-up” and a “wind-down” phase at

the beginning and end of each response excursion (see Fig. C4.1)

(2) The stress at a point on the chimney tends to vary, reducing as the
wind direction changes and its speed departs from its critical
value, all due to atmospheric turbulence. The degree of reduction
depends upon the level of turbulence.

Fig. C4.1 Typical trace of cross-wind oscillations

Fig. C4.2 – Histograms of long term response of
four full-scale chimneys
Further, in inland locations and at relatively high critical windspeeds,
atmospheric turbulence is high enough to ensure that the maximum
amplitude rarely occurs. This was demonstrated by a series of long
term measurements (varying between 93 days and 322 days) of the
response of four steel chimneys in Germany[1] — see fig. C4.2. It can
be seen from these histograms that amplitudes exceeding 90% of
maximum occurred only rarely, varying from about 10 cycles during
93 days at Aachen to about 100 cycles during 264 days at Cologne.

The method in the Model Code takes these facts into account and
develops a spectrum of response, using the Miner Rule to determine
fatigue life. The Miner sum is:

M
(max / wn)k · (loge n)k ... (4.1)

Where max
the maximum stress, per section 7.2.4 of the

Model Code Fig. C4.3 Load/cycle collectives for various values of 

wn
the stress causing cracks after n cycles
(per Wohler curve)
k
3 in the case of fatigue in steel

a function (dependent upon Vcr) defining the
shape of the load/cycle collective curve
(Fig. C4.3) as follows:-

max · {1  (log n / logn1)}
To determine the number of load cycles(n), it is first necessary to
know the number of occasions the wind will blow at its critical
velocity (Vcr). This is determined from considerations of the
probability of their occurrence — P(Vcr):
Vcr (Vcr / V )2
P(Vcr)
2 · ·e 0 ... (4.4)
V02
Where Vo
wind velocity averaged over one year
... (4.2)
approx. Vb(h) / 4

Vb(h)
hourly mean velocity at chimney top, with


(Vcr / 8)1.2 ... (4.3) exceedance probability of once in 50 years.

n
Number of load cycles due to cross-wind excitation It is assumed that the chimney responds at wind velocities between
during the lifetime T 1.1Vcr and 0.9Vcr.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 23

Also a reduction has to be introduced to account for changes in the
wind direction, so that the point of maximum stress is moved away
from the point under consideration. The stress at a given point is
proportional to cos2 and the total effect is roughly:-
The load/cycle collective predictions over 20 years, calculated by
equations (3) & (5) are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. C4.2.
Because the spectrum was derived from long term measurements on
relatively few chimneys, a modelling safety factor
1.4 is

 cos  d
0.5
2 introduced in the expression for the Miner Number.
(1 / 2 ) · 2
0 Literature
As a result,
[1] W. Langer, H. Ruscheweyh & C. Verwiebe — “Untersuchungen
des Querschnittverhalten von Original Stahlschornstein” —
n
3.15 · 107 · T · f · 4 · 2 · 0.5 · 0.1 · A · eA2
Forschungsbericht P. 230
n  1.26 · 107 · T · f · A · eA2 ... (5) (see Model Code 8.5.2) [2] H. van Koten — “A Calculation Method for the Cross-Wind
Vibrations of Chimneys” — CICIND REPORT Vol. 14, No. 1,
Where A
4 · Vcr /Vb(h) June 1998
f
Resonance frequency
page 24 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

placed normal to the shell {see Figures C5.2 & C5.3) and
COMMENTARY No. 5 – OPENINGS concentrated along the edge of the opening.
Openings have to be strengthened to prevent local reduction of:
However, sudden ending of of the reinforcement above and below the
Strength opening can cause stress concentrations. These can treble stresses
Resistance against — fatigue locally and lead to fatigue damage such as local cracks. To avoid this,
— instability in the case of openings with width greater than 40% of the chimney
diameter locally, the vertical stiffeners should connect at each end
The strength of the cross-section with openings is the same as the with a horizontal stiffener extending around the full circumference
strength of an undisturbed section if the section modulus is the same. (see fig. C5.2).
This equality of section moduli is sufficient to fullfill the first
condition of strength.
2 = M
The moment of inertia of a circle with an opening subtended by the W2
°
angle 2 is: ° t
R

I
d3  t / 8  {    sincos  [(2sin2) / (  )]}
2 2 2 M
1 =
I W1 W2 W1
Derivation formulae for cross section properties of chimneys (both R3t 1 R2t 1 R2t 1
unreinforced and reinforced) and of chimneys with more than one
opening at the same elevation are given in Table C5.1



2 2 2
° ° °
If  is small then the value of I is close to that of the complete circle
(0.125  d3  t). As  increases, however, the value of I drops Fig C5.1 – Reduction of inertia at openings
rapidly (see Fig. C.5.1). The same holds for section modulus. To
replace the lost material, reinforcing stiffeners are welded vertically
to the chimney on each side of the opening. To be effective, the cross- When the width of opening is less than 40% of the chimney’s diameter
section area (A) of each of the reinforcing stiffeners should be at least locally, it is not necessary to provide a horizontal stiffener extending
equal to A
1.25  R  t  (sin)0.5. around the full circumference and a more local arrangement may be
used (see fig.. C5.3). Vertical reinforcement should be continued
A cross section with an opening is sensitive to the effects of buckling. above and below the opening to a point where the added stress is
This is due to the stiffness of the weakened cross-section being unimportant. The code deems that continuing the reinforcement
reduced by the possibility of the shell bending in or out at the edges beyond horizontal stiffeners above and below the opening a distance
of the opening. To prevent this the reinforcement stiffeners have to be at least 0.5 times the width of the opening will suffice.

G G 0
G G
a a a
1 1 1 1
G
1
 G
1
G
1
 G
1
G
1 2  G G
1 2  G
 e e
a a a

G G 0
G G

A
2tr (  2) A
2tr (  2)  4a A
2tr (  ) A
2tr (  )  2a

e
rsin / ( ) tr2 sin  arcos
e

tr ( )  a
I00
tr3 (   sin cos)
 2ar2cos2

IGG
2tr3 ( /2sincos)
ZGG
IGG / rcos
IGG
2tr3 ( /2sincos) IGG
tr3 { sincos IGG
I00  Ae2
 4ar2cos2 [2sin2/( )]} Z1GG
IGG / (ercos)
ZGG
IGG / rcos Z GG
IGG / (ercos)
1 Z2GG
IGG / (re)
Z2GG
IGG / (re)

IG1G1
2tr3 ( /2sincos) IG1G1
2tr3 ( /2sincos) IG1G1
tr3 ( sincos) IG1G1
tr3 ( sincos)
ZG1G1
IG1G1/r  4ar2sin2 ZG1G1
IG1G1/r 2ar2sin2
ZG1G1
IG1G1/r ZG1G1
IG1G1/r

Fig. C5.1 – Derivation formulae for section properties of chimneys with openings (a  reinforcement area)
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 25

Fig. C5.3 – Suggested detail of reinforcement for

narrow openings (< 0.4D)

Even though it is reinforced to ensure the section complies with

strength requirements, the presence of an opening can reduce locally
Fig. C5.2 – Suggested detail of reinforcement for the stiffness of the chimney and affect its natural frequencies. This
wide openings (> 0.4D) reduced stiffness should therefore be taken into account when
deriving the chimney’s dynamic response. This is done by taking
If the vertical height of the opening is more than twice its horizontal account of the reduced local stiffness at the opening when calculating
width, a stability check is needed. Guidance on such checks is given “x” for each section in equation 7.16 of the Model Code.
in the chapter on bending of plates under lateral loads in “Plates and
shells”, by Timoshenko.
When the duty of the chimney requires flue gas inlets whose width
exceeds two-thirds of the structural shell’s diameter, a possible
solution would be to provide a large number of small circular
openings, giving a total area equivalent to that required.
Reinforcement could then be threaded between the small holes and
around the whole group, as required.
page 26 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

C6.1.3. Attack due to chlorine, chlorides and fluorides

COMMENTARY 6 –
CHEMICAL EFFECTS AND INTERNAL Chlorides are found in most solid fuels, including refuse and in many
liquid fuels. It is also sometimes found as a pollutant in some FGD
CORROSION processes. Upon combustion chlorides are transformed into free
chloride ions which, on contact with water vapour are transformed
C6.1. Chemical effects into hydrochloric acid. The highest condensation temperature at
which hydrochloric acid has been found is 60°C. Thus, when any flue
C6.1.1. Attack due to sulphur oxides surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious corrosion will
occur. This dew point is close to the water and sulphurous acid dew
The most common form of internal chemical attack is due to acids point. Even very small amounts of chlorides in combination with
formed by the condensation of sulphur oxides in the flue gas. Sulphur other condensed acids can cause serious corrosion problems.
is found in all solid and liquid fuels to varying degrees and can also
be found in gaseous fuels. During the combustion process, nearly all Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and free chlorine in flue gases
sulphur in the fuel is oxidised to sulphur dioxide (SO2) which can be also become corrosive in their vapour stage. Stainless steels are
absorbed by condensing water vapour to form sulphurous acid. attacked at temperatures above 320°C. Fluoride vapours are
corrosive to stainless steels at temperature above 250°C.
A small quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is further converted to
sulphur trioxide (S03). The quantity depends in a complex manner C6.2. Internal Corrosion
upon the sulphur content of the fuel, the amount of excess air
available during combustion, temperature in the combustion chamber The internal corrosion allowances in table 8.2 of the Model Code are
and the presence of catalysts such as iron oxides. This small based upon limited exposure to condensing sulphuric acid per Fig
concentration of S03 (usually measured in PPM), gives rise to most C6.1. They are derived from the relationship between “Peak
of the acid corrosion problems encountered in chimneys. This is corrosion rate” and “S03 concentration” shown in figure C6.3. This,
because on condensation, the S03 ions combine with water vapour to in turn, was derived from the upper bound of a family of curves
form sulphuric acid whose concentration can be as high as 85%. which show the same relationship observed in practical situations.
See lit. [2] and [3]. A safety factor of 4 has been used in arriving at
Condensation of these acids takes place when the temperature of the the corrosion allowances.
flue gas falls below their respective acid dew point temperatures
(ADP), or when the flue gas comes into contact with a surface, at or
below the relevant acid dew point temperature.
The acid dew point temperature of sulphuric acid depends upon the
concentration of S03 in the flue gas (see Fig C6.1). Provided the
temperature of the flue gas and the surfaces with which it can come
into contact are maintained 10°C above the acid dew point estirnated
from Fig. C6.1, there is no danger of acid corrosion due to this cause.
Alternatively, suitable acid resisting coatings can be applied to
protect the steel. Guidance on suitable coatings and their
performance is given in “CICIND Manual for Chimney Protective
Coatings”.
The acid dew point of sulphurous acid is about 65°C, a little above
the water dew point. If the fuel is contaminated, other acids, such as
hydrochloric and nitric acid can be expected to condense in the same
temperature range. Thus, even if fuel and combustion processes are
chosen to minimise production of S03, or if flue gases are scrubbed
to remove most of the S03 and SO2, severe corrosion can be expected
if the temperatures of the flue gas or the surfaces with which it can
come into contact fall below 65°C, or the acid dew point temperature
relevant to the reduced S03 concentration, if this is higher. Again, a
safety margin is recommended of 10°C above the acid dew point
temperature estimated from figure C6.1. Fig. C.6.2 – Phase diagram: sulphuric acid – water vapour

C.6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)

Despite the removal of most of the sulphur oxides during FGD, a
severe corrosion risk remains. This is because, downstream of a
scrubber, the flue gas is usually very wet and its temperature is often
very low — low enough to be below the (low) value of acid dew
point temperature (ADP) associated with the reduced sulphur oxide
content. Fig. C6.2 shows the relationship between temperature and
acid concentration to be expected and demonstrates that flue gas
condensing at temperatures as low as 80°C can end up as quite
concentrated acid. Also the flue gas often contains chlorides, carried
over from the scrubbing materials.
All steels except the very expensive high nickel alloys and titanium
would deteriorate very quickly in this environment. To minimise the
expense, methods have been developed to apply very thin sheets of
alloy or titanium to the inner face of carbon steel or other vulnerable
liners. Some organic coating materials have also been developed for
this duty.
C6.3 Guideline to choice of liner metallic materials
Guidelines on the suitability of various metals and alloys for the
range of chemical risks to be found in chimneys will be given in
CICIND’s “Metallic Materials Manual” (to be published in 2001).
Literature
[1] “Desulphurisation Systems and their Effect on Operational
Conditions in Chimneys”, Henseler, F., CICIND REPORT,
Vol. 3, No. 2, 1987
[2] “Influence of fuel oil characteristics and combustion
conditions on the gas properties in water tube boilers” Bunz
G., Diepenberg H, and Rundle A. — Jnl of the Institute of
Fuel Sept 1967
[3] “Prevention of cold end corrosion in industrial boilers”. Lech
and Landowski — “Corrision” — March 1979
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 27

Fig. C6.1 – Relationship between ADP and SO3 concentration

peak corrosion
rates
(micron/
1000 hours)

SO1 concentration (ppm by vol) *)

*) ppm = part per million (10–6)

Fig. C6-3 – Relationship between peak internal corrosion rates and SO3 concentration
page 28 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices Amendment A – March 2002

APPENDIX 1 – The maximum baseplate stress (*) is given by the following

expression:
DESIGN OF CHIMNEY BASE PLATES
*
1 . *c . l2 / tb2  fk / 1.1 ... (A1.4)
This appendix is intended to give guidance on rationalising baseplate
details. In the following calculations, base plate bearing stress (*c)
where 1 is given by:
and maximum bolt tension (Pb*) are calculated for factored load and
overturning moment. In the case of bases with a compression ring l/b 1
and/or gussets the values of *c and Pb* are calculated using elastic 0 3.00
analysis as a reinforced concrete ring assuming the modular ratio of 0.2 2.68
12 [1],[2]. The area of steel bolts is taken as the thread root cross 0.3 2.30
section area of the bolts. In chimneys requiring an increase in design 0.4 1.85
tensile stress at the base on account of clause 8.2 of the Model Code, 0.6 1.25
the value of Pb* should be factored accordingly. 0.8 0.83
1.0 0.51
A.1.1 Simple baseplates, with no gussets or compression 1.25 0.30
rings (Fig. A.1.1) 1.5 0.22

and l
the outstand of the basplate from the chimney shell

b
distance between gussets

The baseplate stresses (*) on the tension side may be calculated using
the method described in lit. [1]. For the particular case of l
4 · D:

*
2 · Pb* / tb2 fk / 1.1 ... (A1.5)

Where 2 is obtained as follows:

l/b 2
0.2 2.38
Fig. A1.1 – Simple Baseplate 0.3 2.28
0.4 2.07
On the compression side, the vertical shell force is distributed over a 0.5 1.87
strip of width (2.l3  ts), where l3 is chosen to limit the pressure on 0.6 1.65
the grout (*c) to no greater than fkg / 1.5. 0.8 1.33
1.0 1.06
The maximum baseplate stress (*)is then given by:
1.25 0.81
1.5 0.62
*
3 . *c . (l3 / tb)2 fk / 1.1 ... (A1.1)
Both equations A1.4 and A1.5 must be satisfied.
where fk
characteristic strength of the bottom plate steel
The height of the gussets (h) should be sufficient to maintain
*c
pressure on the grout
acceptable shell stresses. The stress in the shell (*s) is given by the
ts
thickness of shell following expression:
fkg
characteristic compressive strength of the grout
*s
w* . [( / ts)  (3 . Rs / ts2)] fk / 1.1 ... (A1.6)
On the tension side, the values of l1 and l4 should be adjusted to give
Where:  and 3 are given by:
vertical and rotational equilibrium. The active circumferential length
of the baseplate may be taken as 3 · l2 or the bolt spacing, whichever No. of gussets
3
is the lesser. (equally spaced)
6 1.00 0.53
The bolt tension (Pb*) then
p* · (l1  l2) / l1 ... (A1.2)
12 1.93 0.26
Where p* is the vertical tensile force in the shell per bolt. 16 2.50 0.20
Assuming a distribution of baseplate stress over a length of 3 · l2: 20 3.20 0.16
24 3.83 0.13
*
2 · p* / tb2  fk / 1.1 ... (A1.3)
28 4.47 0.11
Both equations A1.1 and A1.3 have to be satisfied. 32 5.10 0.098
40 6.37 0.079
A1.2 Baseplates with Gussets (Fig. A1.2) 60 9.55 0.052
80 12.74 0.039
100 15.92 0.031
and Rs
shell radius
w*
the radial force on the shell per unit height of gusset
at the top of the gussets, given by the following
expression:
w*
3 . M* / h2
Where M* is the bending moment at the base of each gusset
plate due to out of balance forces under the baseplate.
M*
P* . 2D per gusset on the tension side
Fig. A1.2 – Baseplate with gussets
*c . 6 . D2 . b per gusset on the compression side
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices Amendment A – March 2002 page 29

Allowance should be made for stress concentrations that may occur A1.4 Grouting
at the top of the gussets.

A1.3 Baseplate with gussets and compression ring

(See Fig. A1.3)

Fig. A1.3 – Baseplate with gussets & compression ring

The baseplate stresses are calculated in the same way as in section

A1.2 above using equation A1.4.
The compression ring bending stresses (*) are calculated in the
same way as in section A1.2 above, using equation A1.5, substituting
tc (thickness of compression ring) for tb (baseplate thickness). Added
to this is a direct circumferential stress arising from the out of balance
moment caused by the eccentricity of the bolts, giving a total stress: Note – If the chimney is intially levelled using a nut placed on the
holding down bolt under the baseplate, this nut should be loosened
after packers are introduced.
*
2 · Pb* / tc2  Pb* · N / (30 · · D · tc)  fK / 1.1
Fig. A1.4 provides guidance on the grouting procedure to be
where N
number of bolts
used under chimney baseplates.
A gusset plate thickness of 0.25D will suffice if it is of a steel whose
yield strength at least equals that of the bolts. References:
Notes regarding the derivation of
1 and
2 [1] Brownell & Young — “Process Equipment Design”,
Chapter 10
Stress coefficients 1 and 2 were obtained as follows:
[2] Pinfold, G.M. — “Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers”
1 is the coefficient applicable to the compression side and is derived
from Timoshenko’s work on a rectangular plate fixed on three sides
and free on the fourth. This is a reasonable assumption because
pressure under the base inside the shell will produce fixity. At the
gussets there is fixity by virtue of the continuity of the basplate.
2 is the coefficient applicable to the tension side. In the literature [1]
this is taken from a model comprising a rectangular plate simply
supported on all sides, with a patch load at the centre representing the
bearing of the nut. This is not a true reflection of the boundary
conditions which are more truly fixed on two opposite sides (at the
gusstes), one side being pinned (at the shell) and the fourth side free.
Neither is the effect of the holding down bolt hole considered. In this
Appendix, therefore, the values of 2 have been derived from plate
element FE analysis, using the more realistic above boundary
conditions and allowing for the bolt hole in the plate.
page 30
APPENDIX 2 – INSULATION AND PROTECTIVE
LININGS AND COATINGS
A.2.1 Insulation
A2.1.1 General
In order to minimise loss of heat from a chimney and to maintain the
temperature of the shell or liner(s) above flue gas acid dewpoint
level, insulation may be fitted. But it should be appreciated that,
however effective the insulation, acid will condense if the flue gas
temperature entering the chimney is at or below its acid dewpoint
temperature.
Even if metal in contact with flue gas is generally at temperatures
above its acid dewpoint, rapid local corrosion can occur at cold spots.
In order to eliminate cold spots careful attention should be given to
the following details:
– Potential air leaks should be eliminated by properly sealing
flanged joints, inspection/cleaning doors, expansion joints and
instrumentation apertures. The long-term effectiveness of sealing
materials at the relevant service temperatures should be
demonstrated.
– Direct metal/metal contact between steel liners and the structural
shell should be avoided. Liner support should incorporate a
thermal isolation device.
– Attachments such as guy ropes, aerodynamic stabilizers, ladders,
platforms and pipes can act as cooling fins. Their attachment to
metal in contact with flue gas should incorporate a thermal
isolation device.
A2.1.2. Insulation design
Insulation should be designed to maintain the surface in contact with
the flue gas above acid dew point temperature everywhere, when the
flue gas is at normal operating condition and at abnorrnal conditions
if they can last for more than 25 hours per year (see table 7.1 of the
Model Code). For design purposes, the following parameters should
be used:
– Theoretical acid dewpoint, calculated taking account of sulphur
content and excess combustion air should be increased by a
safety margin of 10°C. If data is not available to permit
calculation of the flue gas acid dew point temperature, the
following values should be used for minimum metal temperature
in contact with flue gas:
• When fuel is oil and/or gas, containing more than 0.5% by
weight of sulphur, 175°C
• When fuel is coal containing more than 0.5% by weight of
sulphur, 135°C
• When fuel contains less than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 100°C
– Ambient air temperature should be the minimum winter air
temperature at the chimney location, obtained by averaging the
mean temperature each night over a period of one month.
– Wind velocity should be assumed to be 5m/s.
The temperature of the metal in contact with flue gas should be
checked for the condition of highest anticipated flue gas temperature.
For this check the following design parameters should be assumed:
– Ambient air temperature should be maximum anticipated air
temperature at the chimney location.
– Zero wind velocity.
The design of insulation thickness to satisfy the requirements of this
clause should be based upon the conductivity value of the insulation
material, provided by the insulation manufacturer. If such data is not
available, typical values listed in table A3.1 may be used.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices
overall average U
type of insulation thickness values W / (m2 K)
aluminium 6mm air gap 4.5
aluminium 18mm air gap 4.0
mineral wool 25mm 2.3*
mineral wool 50mm 1.15*
mineral wool 75mm 0.7*
mineral wool 100mm 0.5*
expanded mineral 50mm 1.15*
expanded mineral 75mm 0.7*
expanded mineral 100mm 0.5*
expanded mineral 150mm 0.35*
* These values apply for a mean insulation temperature of 40°C. They should be
increased by 5% for each 50°C increase in mean insulation temperature.
Table A2.1 Typical insulation conductivities
Mineral wool or foam insulation exposed to weather should be
protected by weather proofed cladding. Design of this cladding and
its fixings should ensure its integrity under the action of wind at a
velocity of 1.5  basic wind-speed at the relevant height (per
paragraph 7.2.2.of the Model Code). The design should take account
of the variation of wind pressure around the surface of the chimney
at a given elevation.
A2.1.3 Aluminium cladding
Aluminium cladding enclosing a narrow airspace is an effective form
of insulation, due to its high thermal reflectivity. (Note — Sheet steel
or other forms of cladding may be suitable in certain cases.)
The exterior of the steel shell beneath the cladding should be coated
with heat resisting paint.
The cladding should consist of aluminium sheet not less than 1.0mm
thick with symmetrical flange covers made in halves frorn aluminium
sheet which also shall not be less than 1.0mm thick.
The cladding should be made in strakes, using a number of equal
plates per strake. All seams should be connected by aluminium alloy
rivets at not more than 100mrn centres. Vertical seams of each strake
should be set at the midpoint of the strake beneath.
The cladding should be fitted with its internal face the required distance
away from the external face of the chimney shell, this distance being
maintained by continuous circumferential spacers of the required
thickness low conductivity tape coincident with the horizontal joints of
the aluminium. The tape should be cemented into position by means of
sodium silicate or other suitable adhesive. The ends of the horizontal
rivets in the aluminium sheets serve to retain the tape in position after
erection. The circumferential spacers divide the airspace between the
steel shell and the aluminium cladding into sections not more than
1.5m high, thus reducing convection heat losses.
When the length of the prefabricated sections of shell between
flanges is not a whole multiple of the strake width, only one make-up
strake per section of chimney should be used.
All projections should be clad. Cleaning doors and other points
where access is required should be “boxed in” with removable
aluminium panels.
The airspace at the top of the chimney should be completely sealed to
prevent ingress of moisture between the steel shell and the cladding.
Each upper strake of aluminium should lap over the lower strake by
a minimum of 25mm, The vertical seams similarly should have a
minimum lap of 25mm.
To permit examination of the steel shell of the chimney without
removing the cladding, 150 mm square openings, located at carefully
seiected points and covered by removable panels approximately
230mm square, may be provided. Suitable positions are:
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices
– diametrically opposite any inlet
– approximately 1,25m from the top of the chimney
Great care should be taken to ensure that dissimilar metals do not
come into contact with each other. If it is essential in the design that
two dissimilar metals have to be connected, a suitable non-conductive
and impervious film or agent should be placed between them.
A2.1.4. Mineral wool or foam Insulation
Wrapping the steel shell with a suitable grade insulation material of
sufficient thickness provides more effective insulation than
aluminium cladding with the usual 6mm air gap.
Thicknesses of over 50mm are applied in two separate layers, the
outer layer being fitted so that the vertical and horizontal joints are
staggered from the joints of the inner layer. If a stiffener or flange of
the chimney section projects past the outer face of the insulation, it
should be wrapped with an additional layer of the same thickness for
at least 75mm on each side of the flange or stiffener. Insulation has to
be protected from the weather, a convenient way of doing this is to
cover it with metal cladding, designed as descibed above.
The insulation should be fixed to the steel shell by wrapping it around
so that the ends butt. It can be secured in place by steel strapping. At
least two bands of strapping should be used for each strake of
insulation. Insulation tends to compact and slip down the surface of
the steel during transportation and erection thus leaving bare patches
of steel which are potential “cold spots”. The slipping of the
insulation may be prevented by welding steel pins to the shell. On
low chemical load chimneys the pins can project through the
insulation and have spring retaining washers fitted.
On medium chemical load chimneys it is advisable to use short pins
which only project half the thickness of the insulation so as to prevent
“cold spots” forming.
Usually an interval of 600mm is used between the pins.
A2.1.5. Lined and multiflue chimneys
The sapce between the outer shell and the liner of a double skin
chimney can be filled with mineral wool, expanded mineral, or other
suitable insulator.
When expanded mineral is used as insulation, the design and
fabrication of the chimney must ensure that there are no voids or
openings out of which the expanded mineral can leak. A suitable
drain off position must be provided at the lowest point of the
expanded mineral area to ensure that the expanded mineral can be
drawn off if access to the interior of the chimney shell is required.
Notices should be fitted to the exterior of the chimney warning that
the chimney has been filled with expanded mineral.
After 6 to 12 months, expanded mineral insulation compacts by about
10% thus leaving areas of the liner exposed. It is essential that this
void is “topped up” with more expanded mineral and that adequate
provision is left in the cap plate for topping up to take place.
Sometimes a second “topping-up” is necessary after a further 12
month period.
A2.2 Protective linings
A2.2.1 General
Linings may be required in steel chimneys for one or more of the
following purposes:
– To maximise the strength of the structural shell by keeping it cool
– As fire protection
– To protect an externally insulated structural shell from
excessively hot flue gases. These could be generated by an
operational upset or occur when an energy conservation system
is by-passed.
– Corrosion protection
page 31
– To act as insulation to maintain the flue gas temperature above its
acid dew point.
– Reduce potential for aerodynamic instability.
Chimney linings may be:
a) Separate liners, with a space between the liners and the outer
structural shell. More than one liner may be accomodated within
the structural shell, to form a “multi-flue” chimney.
b) Attached continuously to the inner face of the structural shell.
Such linings may be either cast against the structural shell, or be
applied by spray, trowel or brush. Such linings may be:
– castable refractory
– solid grade diatomaceous concrete
– chemical resistant coatings
– fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
A2.2.2 Design of separate liners
A2.2.2.1. General considerations
For information on the design of separate liners see the “CICIND
Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, Part C - Steel Liners”.
Lateral support should be provided between the liner and the
structural shell as near as possible to the top of the chimney.
Additional lateral supports may be required at intermediate elecations
between the top of the liner and its base, depending upon considerations
of stability and dynamic response, but their number should be
minimised as far as possible. The lateral restraints should be designed
to permit the linings to expand freely both vertically and radially.
A gap between the liner and its lateral restraint(s) of between 3mm
and 6mm (the larger gap being appropriate for larger diameter liners)
will ensure that impact damping enhances the structural damping
sufficiently to avoid problems of cross-wind oscillation in most cases.
The liner should be designed to resist stresses due to loads imposed
by the lateral restraints, as the structural shell moves under the effect
of wind or earthquake.
The presence of horizontal restraints between the liner and structural
shell may prevent the liner from adopting a distorted shape in response
to differential expansion. As a result, bending stresses may be
introduced in both the liner and the structural shell, These stresses can
be very high when a single liner carries flue gases from two or more
sources with different temperatures. In addition, the resulting
differential liner temperature will introduce secondary thermal stresses.
A cover should be provided at the top of the structural shell to give
weather protection to the airspace between liner and shell. The design
of this cover should permit free expansion of the liner. Sufficient
radial clearance should be incorporated to permit any relative
movement, between liner and shell, that may be allowed by the
lateral restraint system. In the design of this cover, special attention
should be paid to the integrity of its fastenings, bearing in mind the
risk of acid corrosion, stress corrosion and fatigue cracking which
may be caused by aerodynamic “flutter”.
A2.2.2.2 Steel liners
Unprotected steel liners should not be used in conditions of high
chemical load (see table 7.1 of Model Code). In conditions of low or
medium chemical load, internal corrosion allowances listed in table 8.2
of the model code may be used. In conditions of high chemical load
(such as downstream of FGD), unprotected steel can be replaced by (or
protected by “Wallpapered” coatings of) high nickel alloys, titanium or
other metals. Guidance on choice of these materials is contained in
CICIND’s “Metallic Materials Manual”, to be published in 2001.
Liner supports and lateral restraints should incorporate thermal
insulation so as to avoid formation of localised cold spots on the
lining surfaces due to conduction of heat to the structural shell.
page 32 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

Consideration should be given to the risk of fire and/or high when wet and when dry. Only coatings should be used that have been
temperature excursions described in paragraphs 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 of the proved capable of retaining their protective properties in these
model code. If the risk is significant, consideration should be given conditions throughout the life of the chimney. Also, the chosen
to the provision of fire protection. coating material should have expansion characteristics compatible
with those of the shell throughout the relevant temperature range.
A2.2.2.3. Plastic liners
A2.3 Recommended start-up procedures for new
Plastic and FRP liners are suitable for conditions of “high chemical
castable refractory in steel chimneys or liners.
load” (see table 7.1 of the Model Code), combined with low
temperatures. In order to prevent material degrading, the temperature The start-up procedures should follow the refractory manufacturer’s
of these linings should not be allowed to exceed 100°C. Short term instructions. If none are available, the following procedures may be
excursions to 150°C can be tolerated if the right type of plastic is used:
chosen, but the life is reduced.
– Hold gas temperature in the range of 70°C– 90°C for at least
In order to ensure liner temperature is maintained below 100°C, an 3 hours.
automatically controlled quenching system may be installed
– Control subsequent increases in temperature and gas flow so that
upstream of the chimney, which is activated when the flue gas
no part of the liner is exposed to a gas temperature increase
temperature exceeds 100°C.
exceeding 50°C/hr. All parts of the lining should be exposed to gas
temperature at least 75% of design temperature for at least 6 hours.
A2.2.3 Design of linings attached continuously to the shell
These requirements also apply to old refractory linings which have
A2.2.3.1 General been left exposed to weather and have become soaked with water.
Lining or coating selection criteria and quality standards to be used
A2.4 Protective and decorative treatments
during surface preparation and lining installation are detailed in the
CICIND “Chimney Protective Coatings Manual”. Treatment selection criteria and quality standards to be used during
surface preparation and coating application are detailed in the
A2.2.3.2 Castable refractory linings (including CICIND “Chimney Protective Coatings Manual”.
diatomaceous concrete linings)
Stainless steel is normally supplied in its mill finish condition, which is
Castable refractory should be insulating type with a minimum bulk a matt, light grey. Polishing to achieve a shiny finish involves extra cost.
density, after drying, of 1000kg/m3. Diatomaceous concrete should
Weathering steel, unless grit blasted, may not oxidise evenly.
be of the “solid” grade. They should be single layer construction,
installed without vapour stops. They may be cast against the inner
face of the steel shell or they may be applied by a gunning process.
Mixing procedures and water quantities shall follow the
manufacturers’ recommendations.
The minimum thickness of lining shall be 50mm. Linings 50mm to
65mm thick shall be reinforced by electric welded wire mesh. The
mesh should be 50  50mm with wire of minimum diameter 2mm, or
it may be 100  100mm with minimum wire diameter 3mm.
The mesh should be positioned 20mm from the surface of the steel shell
and should be anchored to it by steel studs, welded at 450mm spacing.
Linings thicker than 65mm shall be reinforced by arc welded “V”
studs, randomly orientated and at a minimum spacing of 16 per
square metre.
A corrosion resistant metal cap should be provided at the top of the
refractory to protect its horizontal surface from the weather.
Providing its surface in contact with flue gas is above acid dew point,
this type of lining provides corrosion protection to the steel chimney
or liner to which it is applied. Application of such a lining would
convert a steel chimney, classed as being under “High chemical load”
when unprotected, to a “Low chemical load” classification.

A2.2.3.3 Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) linings

The use of plastic and FRP for linings applied to steel chimneys is
severly restricted by their tendency to separate from the steel, due to
differential expansion. To minimize this problem, lining temperatures
should not exceed the following values:
– epoxy resins, 80°C – polyesters, 60°C
It is essential that the FRP linings adhere firmly to the inside face of
the chimney shell so that the surface does not crack or spall. If the
acid flue gas penetrates the FRP it will attack the steel shell.

A2.2.3.4 Chemical resistant coatings

Guidance on the selecion and application of chemical reisistant
coatings is given in the CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual.
In the selection of a coating for internal use, consideration should be
given to the maximum temperature to which it will be subjected, both
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices
APPENDIX No. 3 – GUYED CHIMNEYS
A3.1. Thermal expansion effects
Steel chimneys are subject to thermal expansion when the shell is
heated by the flue gases and, to a small extent by strong sunlight and
by large variations in ambient temperature. The vertical expansion
can be considerable on tall chimneys with reasonably high flue gas
temperatures, especially if they are externally insulated.
For example, the vertical expansion of a steel chimney with a guy
band 80m above ground level and with a shell temperature of 250°C,
would be 280mm.
This vertical expension expansion can greatly affect the tension in the
guy wires and the consequent compressive load on the chimney shell.
The stresses in guy ropes and shell should be checked under both
“hot” and “cold” conditions. For instance, if the guy wires are
correctly tensioned when the chimney is “cold”, the vertical
expansion when the chimney goes on load will increase the tension
in the guy ropes, it will also increase the vertical component in the
shell plate, when it could in extreme cases produce buckling.
However, if the guy wires are tensioned when the chimney is “hot”,
when it goes off load the chimney will reduce in height and the guy
wires will lose part of their tension. This could cause more movement
under wind load than is desirable. In order to avoid these problems,
a compromise initial guy rope tension under cold conditions may be
necessary i.e. a tension that allows some lateral deflection of the
chimney under design wind and “cold” conditions, while increasing
the vertical load in the chimney by a significant but safe margin under
“hot” conditions.
Alternatively, if a chimney is used on a constant load 24 hours a day
for long periods and maintenance resources permit, the guys can
initially be correctly tensioned when the chimney is cold. When the
chimney starts up and is heated to its operating temperature, the guys
can be readjusted to the correct tension after the chimney has
expanded. As soon as the heat load is reduced and the chimney
resumes its “cold” height, however, the guys must be retensioned.
A3.2. Calculations
A3.2.1 Normal conditions
The guyed chimneys shall be calculated taking into the consideration
second order effects. The decisive winddirections which should be
taken into account are given in figure A3.1
Fig. A3.1 – Wind directions for guyed chimneys
The stability of the structure and foundation as a whole or any part of
it should be investigated.
Weight of anchorage should be provided such that:
M
1.4 Mw  1.35 Mm  0.9 Me  0.9 Ma
in which:
M
combined moment
Mw
overturning moment produced by the design wind and
imposed loads
page 33
Mm
overturning moment produced by dead-weight or other
permanent loads which may act to increase combined
moment
Me
overturning moment produced by permanent loads which
act at all times to reduce combined moment
Ma
restoring moment produced by the foundation (including
guy rope anchorages) without exceeding allowable material
stresses or the foundation allowable bearing pressure.
In determining the support provided by the windward guy ropes, the
relative stiffnesses of the chimney (acting as a cantilever) and the guy
ropes, including their non-linear behaviour, should be taken into
account. Many modern structural computer programs have routines
for analysing guyed structures, which do this automatically. If
calculations are made by hand, however, guy rope tensions should
first be calculated, assuming the chimney is pinned at its base.
Horizontal deflections at the rope attachment points should then be
determined. The stack shell should then be analysed as a cantilever,
propped by springs at the rope attachment points. The stiffness of
these springs is determined by the deflections and horizontal
components of tension in the ropes, previously calculated. Second
order effects should be considered.
A3.2.2 Abnormal conditions
The stability of the chimney should be checked at 0.1  Design
Windspeed, assuming one of the guy ropes to be broken.
A3.3 Guy ropes
Guy ropes should be provided in at least 3 vertical planes. T he angle
between any two planes should not exceed 130°. Guy ropes should
not slope more than 60° to the horizontal.
Guy ropes shall be of galvanized steel wire, with steel cores,
complying with ISO/R346. The wires should have a minimum tensile
strength of 1450 N/mm2, A completed rope should be evenly laid and
free from loose wires, disturbed strands or other irregularities and
should remain in this condition when properly unwound from the reel
or coil. Fittings should be of galvanized steel. Prior to erection,
completed guy ropes should be greased and subjected to a tensile
force amounting to 20% of their minimum breaking load for a period
of 30 minutes.
Guy ropes and fittings should be designed so that their minimum
breaking strength exceeds 3  maximum calcuiated load, due to the
sum of pretension, design wind and chimney expansion.
After erection and while the chimney is cold, the guy ropes should be
pretensioned so as to minimise top deflection of the chimney. The
pretension may be measured by the use of a suitable instrument and
should be not less than 15% nor more than 30% of the calculated
maximum tension due to design wind under the hot condition.
Attachments of the guy ropes should be positioned sufficiently far
below the chimney top to avoid corrosive effects of the flue gases.
A minimum distance of 3m is recommended.
page 34
APPENDIX No. 4 – ACCESS LADDERS
A4.1. General
This section specifies the requirements for steel ladders, permanently
fixed to steel chimneys, to provide means of access. They are to be
fixed to the chimney in a continuous vertical length interspersed with
landings and/or rest platforms as required.
There may be relevant local requirements or standards which are
more stringent than those detailed below and, in these cases, they
must be followed.
An alternative to the caged ladder system is an open ladder with a
proprietary safety system, either running beside the ladder or
centrally between the stringers.
Rest platforms as described in A5.8 should still be incorporated at the
relevant levels.
A4.2. Definitions
For the purpose of this appendix the following definitions shall apply:
1) Stringers. The side members of the ladder to which the rungs
are fitted.
2) Safety hoop. A bar fixed to the stringers to enclose the path of
persons climbing the ladder, to prevent them falling outwards.
3) Rest platform. A platform provided to enable the person
climbing the ladder to rest.
4) Landing. A platform provided to enable access to part of or the
whole of the circumference of the chimney.
A4.3. Materials
The materials used for the construction of ladders, hoops, platforms
and rest platforms shall be of carbon steel and conform to Euronorm
28–32, except those components within 3 diameters of the chimney
top which, in the case of chimneys carrying flue gas with high SO2/SO3
content, should be of high molybdenum stainless steel (ASTM 316L or
similar) or should be protected by an acid-resistant coating.
A4.4. Finish
All burrs, weld-flash, sharp edges and other imperfections likely to
cause injury to the hands of a person using the ladder, shall be
removed and made smooth before the finishing treatment.
Depending on the situation and atmospheric conditions in which the
ladders are to be used, they shall be given a suitable protective finish.
Hot dip galvanizing is not recommended for ladder components or
connections manufactured by a cold forming process. Galvanizing
may only take place after drilling, bending, sawing, etc.
A4.5. Stringers
Stringers shall be of flat bar of minimum dimensions 65  10mm.
The stringers shall be parallel and straight throughout the rung
portion and the distance between the stringers measured from the
inside faces shall not be less than 300mm and not more than 450mm.
The stringers shall extend upwards, to a height of not less than
1075mm above the upper platform and shall be securely fastened at
their extremities. Such extension of the stringers shall not encroach
on the clear width of the platform passageway.
Where, in order to step from the ladder into a landing platform, it is
necessary to pass between the extended portion of the stringers, these
shall be opened out from platform level to provide a clear width of
600–675mm between them at handrail level.
Where access to an upper platform is from the side or front of a
ladder, the ladder itself shail be extended above the platform level for
a distance of not less than 1075mm or equivalent handholds shall
be provided.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices
Stringers should, if possible, be in a continuous length, but where they
are in more than one length they shall be joined by fishplates on the
insides of the stringers, either welded or bolted. If bolts are used they
shall be countersunk on the stringer and not less than 12mm in diameter.
There shall be not less than two bolts on each side of the joint.
A4.6. Rungs
Rungs shall be of round bar not less than 20mm diameter. If the bar
is reduced in diameter at the ends for welding, the reduced diameter
shall be 6 mm less than the diameter of the bar and there shall be a
1.5mm radius at the root of the shoulder.
The rungs in a ladder or flight of ladders, shall be uniformly spaced
throughout at centres of 225mm minimum to 300mm maximum. The
top rung shall be on the same level as the platform which shall be
extended, if necessary, to limit, to not more than 75mm, the gap
between the rung and platform. Alternatively the platform may be
extended to replace the top rung.
Rungs shall be fitted into holes drilled in the stringers and secured by
welding. Rungs shall be welded to the stringers with or without
shouldering. Holes in the stringers shall be drilled to give a 1mm
clearance and where shouldered rungs are used, holes shall be
countersunk 1.5mm to clear the root radius (see figure A4.1).
Fig. A4.1 – Attachment of ladder rungs to stringers
A4.7. Safety hoops
If safety hoops are fitted to the ladder, the following provisions
shall apply.
All ladders rising 2300mm or more from a lower platform or ground
level to the top rung shall be fitted with safety hoops, the spacing of
which shall be uniform and at intervals not exceeding 1000mm
measured along the stringer. The lowermost hoop shall be fitted to the
stringers at a height of 2300  0  75mm from a lower platform or
ground in order to give sufficient overhead clearance when getting on
to the ladder. The uppermost hoop shall be fixed in line with any
guard rail to the upper platform but in any case shall be at a height of
not less than 1075mm above the level of this platform.
A4.7.1. Size of hoops
Circular pattern. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to 760mm.
The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of the back
of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall be 760 to
850mm (see figure A4.2).
Rectangular pattern. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to
760mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of
the back of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall
be 690 to 760mm. The radius of the corners shall be not less than
150mm (see figure A4.2).
The minimum dimensions of the hoop and strap material shall be
50  8mm. At least three vertical straps shall be fitted internally to
brace the hoops; one of these straps shall be at the centre back of the
hoop, and the others spaced evenly between the centre back of the
hoop and the ladder stringers.
CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices page 35

The hooks are to be used for the temporary attachment of ladders

only except as noted below.
A pulley is sometimes rigged from the top of a steeplejacks’ ladder
for the purpose of lifting small loads for maintenance of the chimney.
It is important that such loads shall be kept as light as possible and in
no circumstance should any single load exceed 50kg. If a hook is
used directly for lifting purposes, the weights of the lifting device
suspended from it and of the load to be lifted should together not
exceed 50kg.

Fig. A4.2 – Ladder hoops
Hoops and straps shall be fixed by bolting or welding. If bolts are
used they shall be countersunk, inserted from the inside of the strap
or hoop and shall he not less than 12mm diameter. The assembly of
hoops and straps shall be suitably braced unless secured to the
stringers by double bolting, or welding.
A4.8. Rest platforms and landings
A4.10.3. Materials
Hooks shall be made from steel complying with the requirements of
Euronorm 25–72. In a normalised condition the steel shall have a
minimum tensile strength of 430N/mm2 and a maximum tensile
strength of 500N/mm2. The sockets shall be made from round steel
bar complying with the requirements of Euronorm 25–72.
A4.10.4. Design
The design shall be as shown in figure A4.3 for the welded hooks.
The design shall be as shown in figure A4.4 for the screwed hooks
and sockets.

When required, rest platforms shall be provided at intervals of not
greater than 20m. Landing places, other than working platforms,
which are provided specifically at rest platforms shall be at least
825mm square and shall have a guardrail at a height of 1075mm
above the platform level with an intermediate rail and toeboards.
When required, landings shall be provided at suitable levels to provide
access to sampling points etc. These landings are to be adequately
supported from the chimney shell and shall have a minimum width of
825mm. They are to be fitted with a guardrail at 1075mm above the
platform level, with an intermediate rail and toeboards.
It is recommended that the screwed type of hook be used on insulated
chimneys i.e., those with mineral wool or aluminium cladding as the
hook does not project through the insulation. This projection could
cause “cold spots” on the chimney shell.
An insulating spacer should be attached to the face of the socket to
minimise heat conduction between the face of the socket and the
surface of the aluminium cladding.

A4.9. Attachment to chimney

The ladder shall be vertical except where it follows the slope of a
cone section.
Stringers shall be attached to the chimney by suitable connections
which shall be firmly attached to the stringers and the chimney and
be sufficiently close together to make the ladder rigid throughout its
length. The connections shall be of sufficient length to give a
clearance of not less than 200mm behind the rungs. Suitable
provision shall be made at fixing points for any differential expansion
(except at platforms and landings) .

A4.10. Access hooks

A4.10.1. General
Fig. A4.3 – Welded ladder hooks
This section specifies requirements for hooks which are intended to
provide means of access for inspection and maintenance only by
steeplejacks and members of similar trades who normally fit their
own ladders.
The hooks may be of two types:
a) Those welded permanently to the steel shell
b) Those which are screwed into sockets welded to the. shell of the
steel chimney

A4.10.2. Use of access hooks

The hooks shall be in a vertical line on the exterior of the structure.
The use of access hooks inside chimneys exposed to corrosive gases
is not recommended. The first hook should be 1.2m  50  0mm
above access level.
The hooks should be spaced at multiples of 1.5m vertical centres with
a local tolerance of 50mm which will accommodate the majority of
the various lengths of ladders used by steeplejacks. Fig. A4.4 – Screwed ladder hooks and bosses
page 36 CICIND Model Code – Commentaries and Appendices

A4.10.5. Construction be carried out by suspending from the hook a mass of 200kg when no
fracture, crack or visible deformation shall occur. The socket of the
The hooks shall be hot forged by hand out of solid bar. The hooks shall
screwed-type hook shall be fixed to the chimney by means of a fillet
pass visual examination to ensure freedom from surface defects and
weld of 6mm leg size for the whole of the perephery of the socket.
shall be cleanly forged in such a manner that the microscopic flow
lines follow the body outline of the hook. The whole of the shank shall For new chimneys the welding should be carried out in the
be forged in one piece, integral with the hook. The hooks shall be fabrication shop.
normalised after the completion of all forging operations by heating
It is normal practice for the steeplejack firm to supply the screwed
them uniformly in a furnace until the whole of the metal has attained
type hooks for their own use when they ladder the chimney.
a temperature between 880°C and 910°C and then cooled in still air.

A4.10.6. Method of fixing

The welded type hook shall be fixed to the chimney by means of a
fillet weld of 6mm leg size on each side of the shank and returned
across the top and bottom. After welding to the structure, a test shall