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Air Conditioning

Introduction
- Page 1 - Introduction
- Page 2 - Central Plant systems
- Page 3 - Room Air conditioning units
- Page 4 - Fan Coil units
- Page 5 - Choosing an A/C system
Air Flow Rates

Heat Gains
- Page 1 - Introduction
- Page 2 - Calculating Heat Gains
- Page 3 - Example 1
- Page 4 - Example 2
- Page 5 - Example 3
Heating & Cooling Coils
- Page 1 - Types of Heating and Cooling Coils
- Page 2 - Heat Transfer in Cooling Coils
Psychrometrics
- Page 1 - Introduction
- Page 2 - Psychrometrics for Air Conditioning
- Page 3 - The Psychrometric Chart
- Page 4 - Psychrometric Properties
- Page 5 - Air Conditioning Plant for Summer and Winter
- Page 6 - Processes – Mixing
- Page 7 - Processes – Cooling and Heating
- Page 8 - Processes – Cooling with Dehumidification
- Page 9 - Processes – Cooling Coil Contact factor
- Page 10 - Processes – Humidification
- Page 11 - Typical Air Conditioning processes.
- Page 12 - Annotation for Psychrometric Chart
- Page 13 - Summer Cycle Psychrometrics
- Page 14 - Winter Cycle Psychrometrics
- Page 15 - Duct and Fan Gains
- Page 16 - Example 1 – Summer Cycle
- Page 17 - Example 2 – Winter Cycle
- Page 18 - Example 3 – Summer Cycle, cooling coil contact factor
- Page 19 - Example 4 – Winter Cycle, humidifier
- Page 20 - Example 5 – Summer Cycle, Lecture Theatre
- Page 21 - Example 6 – Summer Cycle and Winter Cycle, Concert Hall
- Page 22 - Example 7 – Summer Cycle, duct and fan gains, Computer Suite

Displacement Ventilation

Other Ways to Cool Buildings

Example – Computer Suite


Problems in AC systems

Air Conditioning
Introduction to Air Conditioning
Air conditioning may be required in buildings which have a high heat gain and as a
result a high internal temperature.
The heat gain may be from solar radiation and/or internal gains such as people,
lights and business machines.
The diagram below shows some typical heat gains in a room.

If the inside temperature of a space rises to about 25oC then air conditioning will
probably be necessary to maintain comfort levels.
This internal temperature (around 25oC) may change depending on some variables
such as:
 type of building
 location of building
 duration of high internal temperature
 expected comfort conditions.
 degree of air movement
 percentage saturation
In some buildings it may be possible to maintain a comfortable environment with
mechanical ventilation but the air change rate will tend to be high (above about 8 air
changes per hour) which can in itself cause air distribution problems.
Since air conditioning is both expensive to install and maintain, it is best avoided if
possible.
This may possibly be achieved by careful building design and by utilising methods
such as:
o window blinds or shading methods
o heat absorbing glass
oheat reflecting glass
o openable windows
o higher ceilings
o smaller windows on south facing facades
o alternative lighting schemes.
The diagram below shows some of these methods.
If air conditioning is the only answer to adequate comfort in a building then the
main choice of system can be considered.
Full comfort air conditioning can be used in summer to provide cool air (approx.
13oC to 18oC) in summer and warm air (approx. 28oC to 36oC) in winter.
Also the air is cleaned by filters, dehumidified to remove moisture or humidified to
add moisture.
Air conditioning systems fall into three main categories, and are detailed in the
following pages;
1. Central plant systems.
2. Room air conditioning units.
3. Fan coil units.
Central plant systems have one central source of conditioned air which is
distributed in a network of ductwork.
Room air conditioning units are self-contained package units which can be
positioned in each room to provide cool air in summer or warm air in winter.
Fan coil units are room units and incorporate heat exchangers piped with chilled
water and a fan to provide cool air.
There are other forms of air conditioning such as;
 Chilled beams
 Induction units
 Variable Air Volume units
 Dual duct systems
 Chilled ceiling,
but we will consider the more commonly used methods first.
1.0 Central Plant Systems
A typical central plant air conditioning system is shown below.
Cooling coil Heater Battery

Supply fan

Fresh air Supply air


- +

Room
Recirculated air

Exhaust air Return air

Return air fan


Schematic Diagram of Central Plant Air Conditioning System

The system shown above resembles a balanced ventilation system with plenum
heating but with the addition of a cooling coil.
For information on balanced ventilation see VENTILATION section.
In winter the heater battery will be on and the cooling coil will probably be switched
off for the majority of buildings.
In summer the heater battery will not need to have the same output and the cooling
coil will be switched on.
A humidifier may be required to add moisture to the air when it is 'dry'.
This is when outdoor air has a low humidity of around 20% to 30%.
In the U.K. low humidities are rare and therefore humidification is sometimes not
used.
In dryer regions humidification is required through most of the year whereas in
tropical air conditioning one of the main features of the system is the ability to
remove moisture from warm moist air.
Dampers are used in air conditioning central plant systems to control the amount of
air in each duct.
It is common to have 20% fresh air and 80% recirculated air to buildings.
In buildings with high occupancy the fresh air quantity should be calculated based
on C.I.B.S.E. data. This may require a higher percentage of fresh air (i.e. more than
20%).
See Ventilation section for examples of fresh air rates. Filters are required to
remove particles of dust and general outdoor pollution.
This filter is sometimes called a coarse filter or pre-filter.
A removable fibreglass dust filter is positioned in the fresh air intake duct or in
larger installation oil filled viscous filter may be used.
The secondary filter, after the mix point, is used to remove fine dust particles or
other contaminant picked up in the rooms and recirculated back into the plant. A
removable bag filter is generally used for this where a series of woven fibre bags are
secured to a framework which can be slid out of the ductwork or air handling unit
(A.H.U.) for replacement.
Air Handling Units
Air handling units (A.H.U.) are widely used as a package unit which incorporates all
the main plant items as shown below.
Pipework, ductwork and electrical connections are made after the unit is set in place
on site.
Since air conditioning plant rooms tend to be at roof level, the larger A.H.U.'s are
lifted into place by crane before the roof is fixed.
In some cases it is usual
to place the fan in front
of (that is upstream of)
the heater battery and
cooling coil.
This is because fans
operate best if the
system resistance is at
the outlet rather than
the inlet of the impeller.
This is shown on the
schematic diagrams
above.
The photograph below shows a typical air handling unit with handles on the doors
for access to equipment.

2.0 Room Air Conditioning Units


These units use refrigerant to transfer cooling effect into rooms.
Room air conditioning units fall into two main categories:
1. Split type
2. Window/wall units.

Split Air Conditioners


Split air conditioners have two main parts, the outdoor unit is the section which
generates the cold refrigerant gas and the indoor unit uses this cold refrigerant to
cool the air in a space.
The outdoor unit uses a compressor and air cooled condenser to provide cold
refrigerant to a cooling coil in the indoor unit.
A fan then blows air across the cooling coil and into the room.
The indoor unit can either be ceiling mounted (cassette unit), floor mounted or duct
type.
The drawing below shows a ceiling mounted (cassette unit).
The photographs below show a ceiling mounted cassette and an outdoor unit.

Window / Wall Units


Window or wall units are more compact than split units since all the plant items are
contained in one box.
Window units are installed into an appropriate hole in the window and supported
from a metal frame.
Wall units like the one shown below are built into an external wall and contain all
the necessary items of equipment to provide cool air in summer and some may even
provide heating in winter.

A small hermetically sealed compressor is used to provide refrigerant gas at the


pressure required to operate the refrigeration cycle.
The condenser is used to condense the refrigerant to a liquid which is then reduced
in pressure and piped to the cooling coil.
3.0 Fan Coil Units
These are room air conditioners but use chilled water instead of refrigerant.
Units can be floor or ceiling mounted.
The chilled water is piped to a finned heat exchanger as in a fan convector.
A fan blows room air across the heat exchanger and cool air is emitted into the
room, as shown below.
Outlet louvre

Finned pipe heat


exchanger Cool Air

Chilled water pipes


Drip tray and
condensate drain
Centrifugal fans

Dust filter
Cabinet

T
Room Air
Thermostat

FAN COIL UNIT


Fan coil units may be looked upon as being small air handling units located in rooms
and they can be piped with chilled water for cooling and low temperature hot water
(LTHW) for heating if necessary.
The room temperature can be controlled with low, medium and high fan speeds and
chilled water flow is varied with a two-port or three-port motorised valve.
Two-pipe, three-pipe and four-pipe systems have been used.
The four-pipe system has two heating and two cooling pipes and may have a single
heat exchanger or two separate heat exchangers for heating and cooling.
It is useful to have a summer/winter changeover switch in the main control system
to avoid both heat exchangers being on at the same time.
A three-pipe system used heating flow, cooling flow and common return pipework.
Choosing an A/C System
Generally central plant systems are used in large prestigious buildings where a high
quality environment is to be achieved. Cassette units and other split systems can be
used together with central plant systems to provide a more flexible design.

Each system has its own advantages and the following is a summary of some of the
main advantages and disadvantages.

Central Plant Systems - Advantages:

1. Noise in rooms is usually reduced if plant room is away from occupied spaces.
2. The whole building can be controlled from a central control station.
This means that optimum start and stop can be used and a weather compensator
can be utilised. Also time clocks can bring air conditioning on and off at appropriate
times.
3.Maintenance is centralised in the plant room. Plant is easier to access.

Central Plant Systems - Disadvantages:

1. Expensive to install a complete full comfort air-conditioning system


throughout a building.
2. Space is required for plant and to run ductwork both vertically in shafts and
horizontally in ceiling spaces.
3. Individual room control is difficult with central plant.
Many systems have been tried such as Variable Air Volume (VAV), dual duct
systems and zone re-heaters.
Zone re-heaters are probably more successful than the rest.

Room Air Conditioning Units - Advantages:


1. Cheaper to install.
2. Individual room control.
3. Works well where rooms have individual requirements.
4. No long runs of ductwork.
5. Can be used to heat as well as cool if a reversing valve is fitted.
Room Air Conditioning Units - Disadvantages:
1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy.
2. Noisy compressor in outdoor unit.
3. Each unit or group of units has a filter, compressor and refrigeration pipework
that needs periodic maintenance and possible re-charging.
Units have course filters therefore filtration is not as good as with AHU’s.
4. The installation may require long runs of refrigerant pipework which, if it leaks
into the building, can be difficult to remedy.
5. Not at robust as central plant.
6. The majority of room air conditioners just recirculate air in a room with no
fresh air supply although most manufacturers make units with fresh air
capability.
7. Cooling output is limited to about 9 kW maximum per unit; therefore many
units would be required to cool rooms with high heat gains.

Fan coil units are similar is some respects to Room Air Conditioners.

Fan Coil Units - Advantages:

1. Cheaper to install than all air central plant system.


2. Individual room control.
3. Works well where rooms have individual requirements.
4. No long runs of ductwork.
5. Can be used to heat as well as cool if 3 or 4-pipe system is used.

Fan Coil Units - Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy, especially when the speed is
changing with in-built controls.
2. Each unit requires maintenance.
3. Long runs of pipework are required.
4. A chiller is still required to produce chilled water therefore they do not save as
much in plant and plant room space as room air conditioners. Also
boilers will be required if heating mode is installed.
5. Fresh air facility may not be installed.
6. Cooling output is limited to about 5 kW.
Example 6 Summer Cycle and Winter Cycle
A Concert Hall measures 40 m x 20 m x 8 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer and winter.
Determine the following:
o Air flow rates
o Supply air temperature by calculation in summer and winter.
o Cooling coil contact factor.
o Cooling coil and reheater outputs in summer
o Humidifier output in litres/hour.

The plant schematic is as shown below.

DATA:
Indoor condition all year - 22oC dB temperature, 50% saturation.
Outdoor condition summer - 28oC dB temperature, 80% saturation.
Outdoor condition winter - -3oC dB temperature, 80% saturation.
Maximum occupancy - 1000 people.
ADP of the cooling coil - 8oC
Fresh air requirement - 12 l/s/person
Supply air rate - 8 air changes per hour.
Frost off coil temperature - 7oC.
Latent heat gain - 40 W/person
Sensible heat gain in summer - 100 W/person + 20.5 kW fabric, lights,
solar & ventilation gains.
Sensible heat loss in winter - 20 W/m3 air volume (estimated)
Fresh Air Flow Rate
Fresh air rate = 12 l/s/p x 1000 people = 12,000 l/s = 12.0 m3/s
The specific volume at the outside condition may be determined from a
psychrometric chart.
It is approximately 0.88 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate = Volume flow rate / specific volume
Mass flow rate (Fresh Air) = 12.0 / 0.88 = 13.64 kg/s.
Supply Air Flow Rate
The ventilation supply air rate is taken from table B2.3 and is given as 8 air
changes per hour; the mass flow rate can be calculated.
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = Volume of room (m3) x air change rate
(ac/h)
Volume of room (m3) = 40 x 20 x 8 = 6400 m3
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = 6400 (m3) x 8 (ac/h)
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = 51,200 m3/h
Volume flow rate (m3/s) = 51,200 / 3600 = 14.22 m3/s.
Mass flow rate = Volume flow rate / specific volume
The specific volume at the supply condition may be approximated at this
stage from a psychrometric chart. It can be taken as 0.834 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate (Supply Air) = 14.22 / 0.834 = 17.05 kg/s.
Recirculation Air Flow Rate
Recirculation air rate = Supply air rate - fresh air rate
Recirculation air rate = 17.05 - 13.64 = 3.41 kg/s
Fresh Air and Recirc. Ratio.
The ratio by mass is therefore;
Fresh air rate = 13.64 kg/s
Supply air rate = 17.05 kg/s
The ratio of fresh air to total supply air is;
13.64 / 17.05 = 0.8, i.e. 80% fresh air and therefore 20% recirculated air.

It is not unusual to have a high percentage of fresh air in a high


occupancy room such as a Concert Hall.
The air flows are shown on the schematic diagram below.
Heat Gains
The heat gains are given as:
Latent heat gain - 40 W/person
Sensible heat gain - 100 W/person + 20.5 kW fabric, lights, solar &
ventilation gains.
Latent gain = 40 W x 1000 people = 40,000 W = 40 kW
Sensible gain = 100 W x 1000 people = 100,000 W = 100 kW
+ 20.5 kW
= 120.5 kW.
Total heat gain = 120.5 + 40 = 160.5 kW
Summer Heat ratio = sensible / total = 120.5 / 160.5 =
0.75
Heat Loss
The heat loss in winter is given as 20.0 W/ m3.
Volume of room (m3) = 40 x 20 x 8 = 6400 m3
Total heat loss = 20 x 6400 = 128,000 Watts = 128 kW
Total heat (winter) = 128 + 40 (Latent) = 168 kW
Winter Heat ratio = sensible / total = 128 / 168 = 0.76
Summer Calculations & Process
Supply Air Temperature by Calculation
In this example the supply air temperature will be found by rearranging the
following formula:
Hs = ma x Cp ( tr - ts )
where:
Hs = Sensible heat gain to room (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air (approx.1.01 kJ/kg degC)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)

Rearranging the above formula gives:


( tr - ts ) = Hs / ( ma x Cp )
( tr - ts ) = 120.5 / ( 17.05 x 1.01 )
( tr - ts ) = 7.0 deg.C, since tr = 22oC, ts = 22 - 7.0 = 15.0
o
C
ts = 15 oC

The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.


1. Points O, M and R can be shown on the chart.
2. Point ADP can be indicated and lines drawn between these points as
shown.
3. The room ratio line can be drawn.
4. Point S is then shown on the chart, on the room ratio line at 18oC.
5. A horizontal line is then drawn from point S towards the line O – ADP.
6. Point W can then be found where the horizontal line W - S intersects the
line O - ADP.
Cooling Coil Contact Factor

On a full size psychrometric chart the


length of the line from point M to point
ADP is 116mm.
The distance from point M to point W is
107mm.
The cooling coil contact factor is
therefore:

The specific enthalpies are shown below.


Cooling Coil Output in Summer

The cooling coil output is as follows:

H cooling coil = ma ( hM - hADP)

where:
H cooling coil = Cooling coil output (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
hM = specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart.
hADP = specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart

The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the


psychrometric Chart above.

H cooling coil = 17.05 (71 - 25)


H cooling coil = 784.3 kW
NOTE:
The cooling coil output is very high and a lot of energy would be required
to provide this amount of cooling.
The cooling coil load would probably be spread over several air handling
units but it could be examined with a view to some reduction.
The coil output is high because the mass flow rate of supply air is high
(17.05 kg/s) and the proportion of fresh air is also high (80%).
The mix point M is at approximately 27oC dry-bulb so there is little
advantage in recirculation in this instance.
It would be advantageous to consider the supply airflow rate to see if a
lower rate would be acceptable for this building.
If 6 air changes per hour are used as the ventilation rate then this would
reduce the mass flow rate of supply air.
Also the engineer may consider other methods of air-conditioning a hall
with a large volume such as using partial radiant cooling where surfaces
are cooled rather than air.

Reheater Battery Output in Summer

The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:

H heater battery = ma ( hS - hW)


where:
H heater battery = Heater battery output (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
hS = specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart.
hW = specific enthalpy at condition W (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart.

The specific enthalpies at points W and S are shown on the


psychrometric Chart above.
H heater battery = 17.05 ( 34 - 28)
H heater battery = 102.3 kW

Winter Calculations & Process


Winter Cycle Psychrometrics

The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.


1. Points O, M, P and R can be shown on the chart.
2. Join points O and P and P and R.
3. Find the mix point M
The line measures 81mm long.
81 x 0.8 = 65 mm , the distance from point M to R is 65mm.
4. The room ratio is 0.76 from previous calculation. Draw RRL.
5. Find the supply air dry bulb temperature by calculation.
Supply Air Temperature by Calculation

The temperature of supply air is calculated from the following formula:

Hs = ma x Cp ( ts - tr )

where:
Hs = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s) same as summer rate for
constant volume systems.
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air (approx.1.01
kJ/kg degC)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature(oC)

( ts - tr ) = Hs / ma x Cp
( ts - tr ) = 128 / 17.05 x 1.01
( ts - tr ) = 7.43 deg.C
ts = 22 + 7.43 deg.C
ts = 29.43 oC say 29.5 oC.

6. Plot the condition H at 29.5oC dB. on a horizontal line from M.


7. Plot condition S on a vertical line from H on the RRL.
Assume the humidity process is vertical.

Preheater Battery Output (or frost coil)

The preheater battery output is as follows:

H preheater battery = maf ( hP - hO)

where:
H preheater battery = Preheater battery output (kW)
maf = mass flow rate of fresh air (kg/s)
hP = specific enthalpy at condition P (kJ/kg)
hO = specific enthalpy at condition O (kJ/kg)
H preheater battery = 13.64 ( 13 - 3)
H preheater battery = 136.4 kW

Reheater Battery Output in Winter

The reheater battery output is as follows:

H reheater battery = ma ( hH - hM)

where:
H reheater battery = Reheater battery output (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of supply air (kg/s)
hH = specific enthalpy at condition H (kJ/kg)
hM = specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)

H reheater battery = 17.05 ( 39 - 19)


H reheater battery = 341 kW

NOTE:

The heater battery load may be reduced by using other forms of heating
for some of the load, e.g. perimeter convectors or radiators.

Humidifier Output in Winter

The amount of moisture added to the air may be calculated from the following
formula:

m moisture added = ma (msS - msH)

where: m moisture added = The amount of moisture or added or steam flow rate
(kg/s)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
msS = moisture content at condition S (kg/kg d.a.)
msH = moisture content at condition H (kg/kg d.a.)
m moisture added = 17.05 (0.0074 - 0.0035)
m moisture added = 17.05 (0.0039)
m moisture added = 0.0665 kg/s
m moisture added = 0.0665 litre/s
m moisture added = 0.0665 litre/s x 3600 = 239.4 litres/hour
HEAT GAINS
Introduction
Heat gains from the sun can lead to increases in internal temperatures beyond the
limits of comfort.
This is usually above 24oC dry bulb temperature in the UK.
A software programme such as Hevacomp is often used to determine the internal
summertime temperatures for a building.
It is therefore necessary to determine the amount of solar radiation that is
transmitted into buildings through; windows, walls, roof, floor and by admitting
external air into the building.
Several measures can be adopted to reduce solar radiation in buildings.
These are external and internal shading and by careful building design.
Natural vegetation such as tall trees can also reduce solar heat gains.
Window areas can be reduced although natural day lighting is important in northern
latitudes in winter so there is a limit to glass reduction.
Buildings can be orientated so that there is less window area facing directly south.
These are just some of the ways to reduce solar radiation.

Calculating Heat Gains


The load on an air-conditioning system can be divided into the following sections:
1. Sensible Transmission through glass.
2. Solar Gain through glass.
3. Internal Heat gains
4. Heat gain through walls.
5. Heat gain through roof.
6. Ventilation and/ or infiltration gains.
The heat gain through the glass windows is divided into two parts since there is a
heat gain due to temperature difference between outside and inside and another
gain due to solar radiation shining through windows.

The method adopted uses the CIBSE guide A (2006) and CIBSE Guide J (2002) .
The Tables that are referred to are CIBSE guide A (2006) Solar cooling loads in Tables
5.19 to 5.24.
CIBSE Guide J (2002) Air and Sol-air temperatures in Table 5.36 (London), Table 5.37
(Manchester) and Table 5.38 (Edinburgh)
This set of Tables is in Appendix A6 at the end of the guide. Table 5.36 (London)
starts at page A6-121.
If internal gains are to estimated then CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 6.4 to 6.17 are
also required.
It would be helpful to have these Tables close by, to complete the calculations.
An example of a heat gain claculation is given in CIBSE Guide A (2006) section 5.8.2
example 5.3.
Heat gains through solid ground floors are minimal and can be neglected.
1.0 Sensible Transmission Through Glass

This is the Solar Gain due to differences between inside and outside temperatures.
In very warm countries this can be quite significant.
This gain only applies to materials of negligible thermal capacity i.e. glass.
Qg = Ag . Ug (to- tr) ........ eqn. 1
Where;
Qg = Sensible heat gain through glass (W)
Ag = Surface area of glass (m2)
Ug = 'U' value for glass (W/m2 oC) (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.23
to 3.32).
to = outside air temperature (oC). Can be obtained from CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Tables 5.36 to 5.38 for various months and times in the day.
tr = room air temperature (oC)

2.0 Solar Gain Through Windows

This gain is when the sun shines though windows.


The cooling loads per metre squared window area have been tabulated in CIBSE
guide A (2006) Tables 5.19 to 5.24 for various; locations, times, dates and
orientations.
These figures are then multiplied by correction factors for; shading and air node
correction factor. Heat load is found from;
Qsg = Fc . Fs . qsg . Ag ........ eqn. 2
where Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.19 to 5.24 (W/m2)
Fc = Air node correction factor from Table below.
Fs = Shading factor from Table below.
Ag = Area of glass (m2)
The Air point control factors (Fc) and Shading factors (Fs) are given in the Table
below for various types of glass, building weights and for open and closed blind

Air node correction factors (Fc)


Single Glazing Double glazing
Building Weight
Horizontal blind Horizontal blind
Light 0.91 0.91
Heavy 0.83 0.90
Shading factors (Fs)

Building Single Glazing Double glazing


of glass Open horizontal blind Closed horizontal blind Open Horizontal blind Closed horizontal
Weight
6mm Light 1.00 0.77 0.95 0.74
Heavy 0.97 0.77 0.94 0.76
e tinted Light 0.86 0.77 0.66 0.55
Heavy 0.85 0.77 0.66 0.57
e tinted Light 0.78 0.73 0.54 0.47
m Heavy 0.77 0.73 0.53 0.48
ting Light 0.64 0.57 0.48 0.41
Heavy 0.62 0.57 0.47 0.41
The CIBSE guide method of calculating solar gains through glazing in Guide A (2006),
section 5.8.1.1 uses a slightly different formula as follows;
Qsg = S . qsg . Ag
where Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.19 to 5.24 (W/m2)
S = Mean solar gain factor at the environmental node or air node from
CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.7.
Ag = Area of glass (m2)

3.0 Internal Heat Gains - CIBSE Guide A (2006)

Internal gains can account for most heat gain in buildings in the U.K.
These gains are from occupants, lights, equipment and machinery, as detailed
below.

Sensible LatentHeat
Conditions Typical building Heat Gain Gain
(Watts) (Watts)
Seated very light work Offices, hotels, apartments 70 45
Moderate office work Offices, hotels, apartments 75 55
Standing, light work; walking Department store, retail store 75 55
Walking standing Bank 75 70
Sedentary work Restaurant 80 80
Light bench work Factory 80 140
Athletics Gymnasium 210 315
OCCUPANTS - Sensible and latent heat gains can be obtained from CIBSE Guide A
(2006) - Table 6.3.
Typical gains are shown below.
LIGHTING – Average power density from CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Tables 6.4.
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT - PC’s and Monitors - CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Tables 6.7 and
6.8.
Laser Printers and Photocopiers - CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Tables 6.9 and 6.10
Electric Motors – CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.13 and 6.14.
Lift Motors – CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.15.
Cooking equipment – CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.17.

Heat load is found from;

Q int. = Heat from Occupants + Heat from Lighting + Heat from Electrical
Equipment + Heat from Cooking

4.0 Heat Gain Through Walls

This is the unsteady-state heat flow through a wall due to the varying intensity of
solar radiation on the outer surface.

4.1 Sol-Air Temperature

In the calculation of this heat flow use is made of the concept of sol-air
temperature, which is defined as;

the value of the outside air temperature which would, in the absence of all radiation
exchanges, give the same rate of heat flow into the outer surface of the wall as the
actual combination of temperature difference and radiation exchanges.
SOL-AIR TEMP,

 . I . cos a . cos n +  Is
hso
teo = ta + ( ) ........ eqn. 4.1

where
teo = sol-air temperature (oC)
ta = outside air temperature (oC)
 = absorption coefficient of surface
I = intensity of direct solar radiation on a surface at right angles to the rays
2
of the sun. (W/m )
a = solar altitude (degrees)
n = wall-solar azimuth angle (degrees)
2
Is = intensity of scattered radiation normal to a surface (W/m )
2
hso = external surface heat transfer coefficient (W/m oC)

The U.K. values of sol-air temperature are found from CIBSE Guide J (2002) Table 5.36
(London), Table 5.37 (Manchester) and Table 5.38 (Edinburgh).
Table 5.36 (London) starts at page A6-121.
4.2 Thermal Capacity

The heat flow through a wall is complicated by the presence of thermal capacity, so
that some of the heat passing through it is stored, being released at a later time.
Thick heavy walls with a high thermal capacity will damp temperature swings
considerably, whereas thin light walls with a small thermal capacity will have little
damping effect, and fluctuations in outside surface temperature will be apparent
almost immediately.

The thermal capacity will not affect the daily mean solar gain but will affect the
solar gain at a particular time.
The particular time  of a solar gain is normally the time of the maximum gain.
The heat gain arrives at the inside of a thick wall some time after the sun hits the
outside surface of the wall.
This time lag is .

The calculation is, therefore, again split into two components.


1. Mean gain through wall,

Q = A . U ( tem - tr) ........ eqn. 4.2

where, Q = heat gain through wall at time 


2
A = area of wall (m )
2
U = overall thermal transmittance (W/m oC) (See Thermal Transmission
in Science section of the notes) or (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall
constructions.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 to 5.38.
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). In practice room dry bulb is
used.

2. The variation from the mean solar gain is subject to both a decrement factor and
time lag.

Q = f ( teo - tem) ........ eqn. 4.3

where Q = Heat gain through wall at time ()


 = time lag in hours (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for
typical wall constructions.
teo = sol-air temperature at time ( (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 to 5.38.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 to 5.38.
f = decrement factor (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for
typical wall constructions.

Therefore the Solar Gain through a wall at time () is;


Q = A . U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)] ........ eqn. 4.4

where, Q = heat gain through wall at time  (Watts)


 = time lag in hours (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for
typical wall constructions.
2
A = area of wall (m )
2
U = overall thermal transmittance (W/m oC) (see CIBSE guide A (2006)
Table 3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 to 5.38.
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC) In practice room dry bulb is
used.
f = decrement factor (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for
typical wall constructions.
teo = Sol-air temperature at time () (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 to 5.38
5.0 Heat Gain Through Roof

The heat gain through a roof uses the same equation as for a wall as shown below.
Q+Roof = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)] ........ eqn. 5
6.0 Ventilation and/or Infiltration Gains

Heat load is found from;


Qsi = n . V (to- tr) / 3 ........ eqn. 6

where Qsi = Sensible heat gain (W)


n = number of air changes per hour (h-1) (see note below)
V = volume of room (m3)
to = outside air temperature (oC) Can be obtained from CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Tables 5.36 to 5.38 for various months and times in the day.
tr = room air temperature (oC)

Infiltration gains should be added to the room heat gains.


Recommended infiltration rates are 1/2 air change per hour for most air-
conditioning cases or 1/4 air change per hour for double glazing or if special
measures have been taken to prevent infiltration.

Ventilation or fresh air supply loads can be added to either the room or central plant
loads but should only be accounted for once.

Total Room Load From Heat Gains

Q total =Qg+Qsg+Qint.+Q+Wall+Q +Roof+Qsi


Q total = Ag . Ug (to - tr) 1. Sensible Glass

+ Fc . Fs . qsg . Ag 2. Solar Glass.

+ Qint. 3. Internal

+ A.U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)] 4. Walls

+ A.U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)] 5. Roof

+ n . V (to - tr) / 3 6. Ventilation ........ eqn. 7


In the majority of cases, by far the greatest external fluctuating component is the
solar heat gain through the windows.
Therefore, it will be this gain which determines when the total heat gain to the room
is a maximum.

Heat gains may be calculated and displayed in table form as shown below.
Heat Gain from Watts %
1. Sensible transmission through glass
2. Solar gain through glass
3. Internal
4. External walls
5. Roof
6. Ventilation
Total 100%
2
Heat gain per m floor area =
Heat gain per m3 space =
Latent Gains
Latent heat gains are calculated so that the Total heat gain can be determined to
complete a psychrometric chart.
Total heat gain = Sensible heat gain + Latent heat gains
Also Latent heat gains are required to size Chillers.

Latent heat gains are comprised of latent gain from occupants and from natural
infiltration fresh air.
Latent heat gains from occupants can be obtained from CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.3
shown above.

The following formula gives the infiltration latent heat gain.


Qli = 0.8 . n . V ( mso –msr )
Where;
Qli = Infiltration latent heat gain (W)
n = Number of air changes per hour (h-1)
V = Room volume (m3)
mso = Moisture content of outside air (g/kg d.a.) from psychrometric chart.
msr = Moisture content of room air (g/kg d.a.) from psychrometric chart.

Example 1
The room shown below is to be maintained at a constant environmental
temperature of 21oC for a plant operation of 12 hours per day.
The room is on the intermediate floor of an Library located in London latitute
51.7oN.
The internal construction is lightweight demountable partitions, lightweight slab
floors and suspended acoustically treated ceilings, shading is intermittent.
Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load in the room in July
The outside air temperature (to) may be found from CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Tables
5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th).
The maximum value ocurrs at 16.00 hrs. and is 25.4oC.

DATA:
Occupants = 100
Infiltration = 0.5 air changes per hour
Building classification = lightweight,
Building response = fast.
External wall 'U' value = 0.45 W/m2oC, internal insulation, neglect time
lag through wall.
External wall colour = light.
External wall decrement factor f = 0.65
Glass type & 'U' value = clear 6mm, double glazing, U = 2.80 W/m2oC
Window blinds = internal blind..
Lighting = 30 Watts / m2 floor area
Heat gain from machinery and equipment = 4000 Watts
NOTE: It should be noted that this total heat gain is used to size central plant items
such as Chillers, Condensers and Cooling Towers.
Cooling coils are sized usually with a pschrometric chart.

Answer

Areas:
Area of window = 1.2 x 1.7 = 2.04 m2.
Total area of glass = 2.04 x 12No. windows = 24.48 m2.
Area of glass facing South = 12.24 m2.
Area of wall facing South = 22.0 m x 4.0 m high = 88 m2 less glass =
88 - 12.24 = 75.76 m2.
Floor area = 22 x 14 = 308m2.
Room volume = 308 x 4 = 1232 m3.
Gains:
1. Sensible transmission through glass Qg = Ag Ug (to - tr)
Qg = 24.48 x 2.8 (25.4 – 21)
Qg = 301.6 Watts

2. Solar Gain through glass Qsg = Fc Fs qsg Ag


where:
Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)
Fc = Air node correction factor from Table in page 2 – internal blind, fast response - 0.91.
Fs = Shading factor from Table in page 2 - for blind/clear/clear, fast response – 0.95.
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.20 Intermittent shading for July
4th , orientation South, 12.30 hours gives maximum of 238 W/m2
2
Ag = Area of glass facing South (m )

(Maximum is at 12.30 hrs) Qsg = 0.91 x 0.95 x 238 x 12.24


Qsg = 2,518.4 Watts

3. Internal Qint. = Qint.


Qint. = Lights (30 W/m2 x 308) + 4000 W + People (100 x
100)
Qint. = 9,240 + 4,000 + 10,000
Qint. = 23,240.0 Watts

4. External wall Q Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]


where,
Q = heat gain through wall at time q+f (Watts)
2
A = area of wall facing South (m )
2o
U = overall thermal transmittance given in question as 0.45 W/m C.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 at 12.30 hrs, light wall facing South – 22.6oC
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). Room dry bulb of 21oC is
given.
f = decrement factor for wall is given as 0.65.
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at 13.00
hrs. CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, light wall, South facing gives 38.8oC.
Q+Wall = 75.76 x 0.45 [( 22.6 – 21) + 0.65 ( 38.8 – 22.6)]
Q+Wall = 34.092 [ 1.6 + 10.53 ]
Q+Wall = 413.5 Watts

5. Roof Q+Roof = Nil for intermediate floor.

6. Ventilation Qsi = n V (to - tr) / 3


Qsi = 0.5 x 1232 (25.4 – 21) / 3
Qsi = 903.5 Watts

7. Q total = Qg + Qsg + Qint. + Q+Wall + Q +Roof + Qsi


Q total = 301.6 + 2,518.4 + 23,240.0 + 413.5 + 0 + 903.5
Q total = 27,377 Watts

The results are shown in the table below.

Heat Gain from Watts %


1. Sensible transmission through glass 301.6 1.1
2. Solar gain through glass 2,518.4 9.2
3. Internal 23,240.0 84.9
4. External walls 413.5 1.5
5. Roof 0 0
6. Ventilation 903.5 3.3
Total 27,377 100%
Heat gain per m2 floor area = 88.9 W/m2
Heat gain per m3 space = 22.2 W/m3

Example 2

The room shown below is to be maintained at a constant environmental


temperature of 21oC for a plant operation of 12 hours per day.
The room is on the intermediate floor of an Office Block located in London.
The internal construction is lightweight partitions, concrete hollow slab floors and
suspended ceilings.

Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load in the room in July.


The outside air temperature (to) may be found from CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Tables
5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th).
The maximum value ocurrs at 16.00 hrs. and is 25.4oC.

DATA:
Occupants = 80
Lighting = 35 Watts / m2 floor area
Infiltration = 0.4 air changes per hour
Building classification = lightweight with fast response.
External wall surface texture = dark.
External wall thickness = 300mm,internal insulation, decrement
factor is 0.27, neglect time lag through wall.
Blinds = Internal
Heat gain from machinery and equipment = 3000 Watts
External Walls - ‘U’ value = 0.35
W/m2oC.

Windows - Double Glazing,

Each 1.2 m wide x 1.7 m high,


Answer
‘U’value = 2.6 W/m2oC.
Areas:
Area of window = 1.2 x 1.7 = 2.04 m2.
Total area of glass = 2.04 x 10No. windows = 20.4 m2.
Area of glass facing South West = 10.2 m2.

Area of wall facing South West = 18.0 m x 3.0 m high = 54 m2 less glass = 54 -
10.2 = 43.8 m2.
Floor area = 18 x 16 = 288m2.
Room volume = 288 x 3 = 864 m3.
Gains:

1. Sensible transmission through glass Qg = Ag Ug (to - tr)


Qg = 20.4 x 2.6 (25.4 – 21)
Qg = 233.4 Watts

2. Solar Gain through glass Qsg = Fc Fs qsg Ag


where:
Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)
Fc = Air node correction factor from Table in page 2; internal blind, fast response - 0.91.
Fs = Shading factor from Table in page 2; for blind/clear/clear, fast response – 0.95.
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.20 Intermittent shading for July
4th , orientation South West, 12.30 hours gives maximum of 328 W/m2
2
Ag = Area of glass facing South (m )

(Maximum is at 16.00 hrs) Qsg = 0.91 x 0.95 x 328 x 10.2


Qsg = 2892.3 Watts

3. Internal Qint. = Qint.


Qint. = Lights (35 W/m2 x 288) + 3000 W + People (80 x 100)
Qint. = 10,080 + 3,000 + 8,000
Qint. = 21,080.0 Watts

4. External wall Q  Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]


where,
Q  = heat gain through wall at time  (Watts)
2
A = area of wall facing South West (m )
2o
U = overall thermal transmittance given in question as 0.35 W/m C.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 at 13.00 hrs, dark wall facing South West– 26.7oC
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). Room dry bulb of 21oC is
given.
f = decrement factor for wall is given as 0.27.
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at 13.00
hrs. CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, dark wall, South Westfacing gives 47.1oC.

(dark façade) Q  Wall = 43.8 x 0.35 [( 26.7 – 21) + 0.27 ( 47.1 – 26.7)]
Q  Wall = 15.33 [ 5.7 + 5.51 ]
Q  Wall = 171.9 Watts

5. Roof Q  Roof = Nil for intermediate floor.

6. Ventilation Qsi = n V (to - tr) / 3


Qsi = 0.4 x 864 (25.4 – 21) / 3
Qsi = 506.9.0 Watts

7. Q total = Qg + Qsg + Qint. + Q  Wall + Q  Roof + Qsi


Q total = 233.4 + 2,892.3 + 21,080.0 + 171.9 + 0 + 506.9
Q total = 24,884.5 Watts

The results are shown in the table below.

Heat Gain from Watts %


1. Sensible transmission through glass 233.4 0.9
2. Solar gain through glass 2,892.3 11.6
3. Internal 21,080.0 84.7
4. External walls 171.9 0.7
5. Roof 0 0
6. Ventilation 506.9 2.1
Total 24,884.5 100%
Heat gain per m2 floor area = 86.4 W/m2
Heat gain per m3 space = 28.8 W/m3

The heat gain in the previous example was 88.8 W/m2 floor area and the total was
27,377 Watts .
The heat gain in this example is 86.4 W/m2 floor area and the total is 24,884.5
Watts.
The value of sensible heat gain can be used in a psychrometic chart to determine
the cooling coil size in an Air Handling Unit (AHU).

Roof pitch = 300

South
Example 3
The Restaurant shown below is to be maintained at a constant environmental
temperature of 22oC for a plant operation of 12 hours per day.
The Restaurant area is on the ground floor of an Single storey building located at
51.7oN.
The internal construction is lightweight partitions, concrete hollow slab floors and
suspended ceilings.
Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load in the Restaurant area in July.

7.7 m

14.0 m

Male Female
Toilet Toilet

9.5 m

Lobby
Restaurant

Reception

Entrance
PLAN

Scale: 1:100 All Restaurant Windows Height of


ridge = 5
DATA: 1.4 m wide x 2.0 m high, South
Occupants = 70 double glazed.
Lighting = 22 Watts / m2 floor area
Infiltration = 1.0 air changes per hour
Outside air temperature (to) = 28oC.
Building classification = lightweight, fast response building.
External wall surface texture = dark.
External wall - use information from CIBSE guide A (2006) section
8(e) in Table 3.49, 105mm Brick, internal 50mm EPS insulation, 100mm lightweight
aggregate concrete block, 13mm dense plaster, cavity wall.
Windows - Double glazed internal shade, clear 6mm glass, light
slatted blinds, intermittent shading.
Roof - use information from CIBSE guide A (2006) section 2(d) in
Table 3.50.
Heat gain from equipment = 2000 Watts
Answer

Areas:
Area of window = 1.4 x 2.0 = 2.8 m2.
Total area of glass = 2.8 x 10No. windows = 28.0 m2.
Area of glass facing South = 14.0 m2.

Area of wall facing South = 14.0 m x 3.0 m high = 42 m2 less glass = 42 - 14 =


28.0 m2.

Floor area = 14 x 10 = 140 m2.


Ceiling area = Length x 2(Rafter length inside)
Rafter length inside = 0.5 x room width / cos
roof pitch
= Rafter length inside = 0.5 x
0
5 / cos 30 .
= Rafter length inside = 0.5 x
5 / 0.866 = 5.774 metres
Ceiling area = 14 x 2 (5.774) = 161.7 m2.
2
Room volume = 140m x 3 + ( 14 x 5 x 2.9 ) = 623 m3.

Gains:

1. Sensible transmission through glass Qg = Ag Ug (to - tr)


Qg = 28.0 x 2.8 (28 – 22)
Qg = 470 Watts
2. Solar Gain through glass Qsg = Fc Fs qsg Ag
where:
Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)
Fc = Air node correction factor from Table in page 2 – internal blind, fast response - 0.91.
Fs = Shading factor from Table in page 2 - for blind/clear/clear, fast response – 0.95.
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.20 Intermittent shading for
July 4th , orientation South, 12.30 hours gives maximum of 238 W/m 2
2
Ag = Area of glass facing South (m )
(Maximum is at 12.30 hrs) Qsg = 0.91 x 0.95 x 238 x 14.0
Qsg = 2,880 Watts

3. Internal Qint. = Qint.


Qint. = Lights (22 W/m2 x 140) + 2000 W + People (70 x 100)
Qint. = 3080 + 2,000 + 7,000
Qint. = 12,080 Watts

4. External wall
Find information from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table A3.49.
Wall is type 8(e) and the decrement factor is 0.42, time lag  is 8.8 hours, ‘U’
value 0.52 W/m2oC.
If the maximum solar heat gain is at 12.30 pm and the time lag is 8.8 hours then the
time of the relevant sol air temperature is;
12.50 - 8.8 = 3.7 say  is at 4.00 am.
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at 04.00 hrs. CIBSE
Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, dark wall, South facing gives 10.4 oC.
A correction can be applied to this since we are using outside air temperature
(to) of 28oC.
The tabulated maximum outside air temperature (to) from CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Table 5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th) ocurrs at 16.00 hrs. and is 25.40C.
The difference in outside temperatures is; 28 – 25.4 = 2.6 oC.
The actual sol air temperature (teo) to use in this example is; 2.6 oC + 10.4 oC
= 12.8 oC

External wall Q+Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]


Therefore the Solar Gain through a wall at time () is;

Q  = heat gain through wall at time  (Watts)


 = time lag in hours (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for
typical wall constructions.
2
A = area of wall facing South (m )
U = overall thermal transmittance given in CIBSE guide A (2006) section
2o
8(e) in Table 3.49 = 0.52 W/m C.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table
5.36 at 13.00 hrs, dark wall facing South – 25.8oC
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). Room dry bulb of 21oC is
given.
f = decrement factor for wall is given in CIBSE guide A (2006) section
8(e) in Table 3.49 = 0.42.
teo = sol-air temperature at time () (oC) from above is 12.8oC.
(dark façade) Q  Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]
Q  Wall = 28 x 0.52 [( 25.8 – 22) + 0.42 ( 12.8 – 25.8)]
Q  Wall = 14.56 [ 3.8 + - 5.5 ] - this - 5.5 is a heat
loss since it happens so early in the morning and will be neglected.
Q  Wall = 14.56 [ 3.8 ]
Q  Wall = 55 Watts
5. Roof
Find decrement factor (f) from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 3.50, use
information from section 2(d).
The decrement factor is 0.88, time lag is 3.0 hours, ‘U’ value 0.23 W/m2oC.
If the maximum solar heat gain is at 12.30 pm and the time lag is 3.0 hours then the
time of the relevant sol air temperature is;
 is at 12.30 hrs - 3.0 = 9.30 hrs
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at 10.00 hrs. CIBSE
Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, dark wall, South facing gives 40.4 oC.
A correction can be applied to this since we are using outside air temperature
(to) of 28oC.
The tabulated maximum outside air temperature (to) from CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Table 5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th) ocurrs at 16.00 hrs. and is 25.40C.
The difference in outside temperatures is; 28 – 25.4 = 2.6 oC.
The actual sol air temperature (teo) to use in this example is; 2.6 oC + 40.4 oC
= 43 oC

Q  Roof = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]


Q  Roof = 161.7 x 0.23 [(25.8 – 22) + 0.88 (43 – 25.8 )]
Q  Roof = 37.19 [ ( 3.8 + 15.1 ) ]
Q  Roof = 703 Watts

6. Ventilation Qsi = n V (to - tr) / 3


Qsi = 1.0 x 623 (28 – 22) / 3
Qsi = 1,246 Watts

7. Q total = Qg + Qsg + Qint. + Q  Wall + Q  Roof + Qsi


Q total = 470 + 2,880 + 12,080 + 55 + 703 + 1,246
Q total = 17,434 Watts

The results are shown in the table below.

Heat Gain from Watts %


1. Sensible transmission through glass 470 2.7
2. Solar gain through glass 2,880 16.5
3. Internal 12,080 69.3
4. External walls 55 0.3
5. Roof 703 4.0
6. Ventilation 1,246 7.2
Total 17,434 100%
Heat gain per m2 floor area = 125 W/m2
Heat gain per m3 space = 28 W/m3

Types of Heating And Cooling Coils


Fin & Tube Heat Exchangers
Fin and tube heat exchangers are used extensively for heating and cooling air. They
consist of one or more rows of finned tubes connected to headers and mounted within
a sheet metal casing with flanged ends suitable for duct mounting.

The heating elements are normally manufactured with copper tubes, with the
extended surfaces, or fins, being of aluminium or sometimes copper. The most
common type of finning arrangements are the spirally wound and the rectangular fin.

Heating coils may be used with hot water or steam as the heat transfer media whilst
frost pre-heaters usually have electric heating elements. Cooling coils are classified
as being either of the water or the direct expansion type depending on the media
flowing through the tubes.
A heating coil is shown below.

In water coils, hot or chilled water or brine circulates through the tubes of the coil
either emitting or absorbing sensible heat as the air flows over the fins attached to the
outside surfaces. Usually the flow of water and air are in opposite directions to each
other, this being known as counter-flow heat exchanger. This configuration gives
maximum heat transfer.

Direct Expansion Coils (Evaporator Coils)


In the direct expansion coil (DX), or evaporator, a refrigerant evaporates inside the
tubes of the coil, as shown below.
Heat Rejection

Expansion Condenser Compressor


valve.

Air Off Coil

Refrigeration
pipework
Evaporator

DX coil as
Latent heat is absorbed by the air stream
Airfrom
On the refrigerant as the
refrigerant
evaporator
evaporates. With this type of coil, as with steam, there is no distinction made

REFRIGERATION CYCLE WITH DIRECT


EXPANSION COIL
between parallel and counter-flow since the surface temperature is more uniform
owing to the refrigerant in the tubes boiling at a constant temperature.

When direct expansion coils are used they become the evaporator of the refrigeration
cycle, and may be termed either ‘dry’ or ‘flooded’. In the ‘dry’ DX coil only a
sufficient quantity of refrigerant is introduced to operate in the predominantly vapour
state. In the ‘flooded’ DX coil most of the coil is filled with liquid refrigerant and
although this is more efficient, it is not used so much in air-conditioning since the
additional refrigerant is expensive.

Evaporator coils come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on the type of
installation, the amount of cooling capacity needed, and the manufacturer. They are
constructed of aluminium finned copper tubing. The copper tubing runs perpendicular
to the aluminium fins, making U-turns back and forth until the desired coil size is
achieved. Added cooling capacity without an increase in length and width is
accomplished by adding more rows of copper tubing.

All evaporator coils must have a drain pan to collect the water that condenses as the
air flowing across the coil cools. The water can drain away by gravity or be pumped
away.

The cooling effect that takes place inside the coil requires a pressure drop in the
refrigerant. This drop can be accomplished in a number of ways: capillary tube,
piston or orifice, or thermostatic expansion valve.

A capillary tube is a thin copper tube of predetermined length into which the
compressed liquid refrigerant is pumped. The length of the tubing causes the pressure
drop and subsequent cooling effect of the refrigerant.

A piston or orifice blocks the flow of refrigerant and forces it through a tiny hole,
creating the needed pressure drop.
A thermostatic expansion valve meters the flow of refrigerant to meet the cooling
demand of the coil. It determines this demand by way of a sensing bulb attached to
the outlet tube on the coil. Because it can meter the flow to meet demand, the
expansion valve can keep the coil at optimum cooling potential.

Because the cooling coil is an integral part of the air distribution system, its geometry
— size, number of rows, fin spacing, and fin profile — contributes to the airside
pressure drop and affects the sound power level of the fans. (Fan power needed to
circulate air through the duct system may warrant extra sound attenuation at the air
handler.)
Water Removal
Moisture in air can condense in the air stream or when the air impinges upon a solid
cool surface. This can happen at sharp bends where water collects in a puddle at the
lower surface on the ductwork. A drain can be fitted on vertical sections of
ductwork to remove water that has collected. Ducts can also be insulated in areas
where condensing moisture is likely to occur.

In hospitals and other situations water in ducts is to be avoided since bacteria can
multiply in warm moist conditions.

Droplet separators have been developed to


remove water droplet carry-over from
cooling coils. They consist of a media that
can absorb the water droplets and transport
them down through the material to the
drainage section.
The system shown below uses a glass-
fibre-based material and the droplet
separator works best with air velocities
between 0 and 4 m/s.
The media is so efficient that it can arrest
100 litres of water per cubic metre of
media.
Some droplet separators are produced as
cassettes to ensure easy handling. several
cassettes can be linked together to achieve the
desired surface area.

Psychrometrics
Introduction

The aim of this section of the notes is to allow students to size air conditioning
plant such as;
cooling coil, heater battery and humidifier.
The notes are divided into several sections as follows:
PSYCHROMETRY FOR AIR CONDITIONING
THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
EXAMPLES OF PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
AIR CONDITIONING PLANT FOR SUMMER & WINTER
BASIC PROCESSES
TYPICAL AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES
ANNOTATION AND ROOM RATIO
SUMMER AND WINTER CYCLES
EXAMPLES
The first section deals with Psychrometry for air conditioning and discusses
some properties of moist air.
A simplified psychrometric chart is shown for familiarisation, and some examples
of how to find air properties are provided.
A diagram of an air conditioning system is shown in schematic form in the
section entitled AIR CONDITIONING PLANT FOR SUMMER & WINTER.
Before sizing takes place the student should also understand the processes that
take place in air conditioning systems.
There are four basic processes for summer and winter air conditioning systems.
The following basic processes are explained:
1. Mixing
2. Sensible Cooling and Heating
3. Cooling with Dehumidification

4. Humidification
The section on Typical Air Conditioning Processes shows winter and summer
schematic diagrams and psychrometric charts.
There are some more details that may be useful to the designer of air
conditioning systems.
Further information is as follows: Annotation, Room ratio
When the processes have been superimposed onto a psychrometric chart then
calculations may commence.
These are as detailed in the following sections of the notes.
Summer and Winter Cycles
1. Summer cycle psychrometrics
2. Summer cycle calculations
3. Winter cycle psychrometrics
4. Winter cycle calculations
5. Duct and Fan gains.
The final section is seven examples of plant sizing using psychrometric charts.

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