EEL 6266

Power System Operation and Control

Chapter 9
Control of Generation
 Generation Control

Optimal dispatch and scheduling of generation establishes
the best operation point with respect to economics

The operating point must be implemented via generation
control
 local generator control for each individual generator
 energy control center for the control of a large utility and the
flow of power across interconnections to other utilities
 regional control over several utilities and the Independent
Power Produces, IPP’s

ISO - Independent System Operator

RTO - Regional Transmission System Operator

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 2
 Overview of Control Problem

Many generators supply power turbine-generator unit

to the transmission system

 consumer loads are constantly turbine-generator unit

changing the power level

control
 some control means needed signals measurements of
to allocate the load changes generator electric
power output
to the generators power
measurement of system

a governor on each unit generation system frequency
maintains mechanical speed control
measurements of
system
(electrical frequency) tie-line flows to
neighboring systems

supplementary control acts
to allocate generation
 influences the power output
 control signal usually originates at a remote control center
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 3
 Generator Model

Definition of important terms
 ω = rotational speed
mechanical turbine Tmech Telec generator electrical
 α = rotational acceleration energy energy
 δ = phase angle of a rotating machine
 Tnet = net accelerating torque in a machine
 Tmech = mechanical torque exerted on the machine by the turbine
 Telec = electrical torque exerted on the machine by the generator
 Pnet = net accelerating power
 Pmech = mechanical power input
 Pelec = electrical power output
 I = moment of inertia for the machine
 M = angular momentum of the machine
• all quantities, except for the phase angle, are expressed in per unit on the
machine base and/or the standard system frequency base
• steady-state and nominal values have a “0” subscript added
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 4
 Generator Model

Basic relationships
 acceleration principle: Tnet = I α
 momentum principle: M =ω I
 power equation: Pnet = ω Tnet = ω (I α ) = M α

Phase angle deviation
 general shaft equation: ω = ω0 + α t δ = δ 0 + ω0 t + 12 α t 2
 deviation from nominal: dtd (∆δ ) = ∆ω = α t
 relationship to torque: Tnet = Tmech − Telec = I α = I ddt (∆δ )
2
2

 deviation of power: Pnet = Pmech − Pelec = ω Tnet = ω I d2

(∆δ )
dt 2

 the resulting swing eq.: Pmech − Pelec = M d2

dt 2
(∆δ ) = M ddt (∆ω )

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 5
 Generator Model

Laplace transform of the dynamic power equation
Tmech 0 = Telec 0
Tnet = Tmech 0 − Telec 0 + ∆Tmech − ∆Telec = ∆Tmech − ∆Telec
Pnet = ω Tnet = ω ∆Tmech − ω ∆Telec = ∆Pmech − ∆Pelec
∆Pmech − ∆Pelec = M (∆ω ) d
dt

∆Pmech − ∆Pelec = M s (∆ω )

Block diagram model

1
∆Pmech ∆ω
M s

∆Pelec

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 6
 Load Model

Electrical loads consist of a variety of devices
 purely resistive devices
 power electronics
 motor loads

motor loads dominate the mix of loads

Motors exhibit a variable power-frequency characteristic
 model of the effect of a frequency change on net load drawn
∆PL ( freq ) = D ⋅ ∆ω
 D is expressed as a percentage change in load per percentage
change in frequency on the motor’s power base
 the value of D must be converted to the system power base for
system studies

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 7
 Load Model

Block diagram modeling
 basic frequency dependent load
∆ω D ∆PL(freq)

 rotating mass and load as seen by prime mover output

1
∆Pmech ∆ω
M s
1
∆Pmech ∆ω
M s+D
∆Pload D

∆Pload

the net change in the electrical power load, Pelec, is

∆Pelec = ∆PL + D ∆ω
 where ∆PL is the non-frequency-sensitive load change

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 8
 Load Model

Example
 consider an isolated power system on a 1000 MVA base

600 MVA generator
 M = 7.6 pu MW/pu frequency/sec on the machine base

400 MVA load
 the load changes by 2% for a 1% change in frequency
 suppose that the load increases by 10 MVA

what is the transient response of the system frequency
 M = 7.6 (600/1000) = 4.56 pu and D = 2.0 (400/1000) = 0.80 pu
0.01  
∆PL (s ) = → ∆ω (s ) =
0.01 1
 
s s  4.56s + 0.8 
− 0 .8 t
∆ω (t ) =
0.01 4.56 0.01
e − = 0.0125e −0.175t − 0.0125
0.8 0.8

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 9
 Load Model

Example
 the final value of ∆ω is -0.0125 pu

a drop of 0.75 Hz on a 60-Hz system

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 10
 Prime-mover Model

The prime mover drives the generating unit rotating
shaft
 steam turbine steam valve

 hydroturbine steam prime mover

Modeling must account for ∆Pvalve

control system characteristics 1
∆Pvalve ∆Pmech
 e.g., boiler and steam supply 1 + s TCH

Model of the non-reheat turbine Prime-mover model
 relates the steam valve position
to the output power ∆Pmech
1 1
“charging time” ∆Pvalve ∆ω

1 + s TCH M s+D
time constant, TCH

per unit change in valve ∆Pload
position from nominal, ∆Pvalve Prime-mover-generator-load model

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 11
 Governor Model

The governor compensates for changes in the shaft speed
 changes in load will eventually lead to a change in shaft speed
 change in shaft speed is also seen as a change in system
frequency
 simplest type of control is the isochronous governor

rotating
steam valve
shaft
steam prime mover tachometer

∆Pvalve ω
+ = open valve
– = close valve ∆Pvalve ∆ω
∫ dt KG –1 ωref

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 12
 Governor Model

The isochronous governor
 to force frequency errors to zero requires the use of an
integration of the speed error
 the isochronous governor can not be used when two or more
generators are electrically connected to the same system

fighting between generator governors for system frequency

problems with load distribution between generators

A load reference control provides settings for both the
frequency and the desired output power
 a new input, the load reference signal, controls the desired
power output
 feedback loop contains a gain R that determines a speed-droop
characteristic
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 13
 Governor Model

Load reference control
 the speed-droop function handles the load sharing between
generators

there will always be a unique frequency at which the system
loading will be shared among the generators
the gain R is equivalent to the per unit change
∆ω


in frequency for a 1.0 p.u. change in power: R = pu
rotating ∆P
steam valve
shaft
steam prime mover tachometer

∆Pvalve ω
+ = open valve
∆Pvalve ∆ω
– = close valve
∫ dt KG ωref

Pref R

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 14
 Governor Model

Simplification of the block diagram model
_ ∆ω
_
Kg
ωref Σ Σ ∆Pvalve
s +
+ _
ω
R Σ _ Pref
_ ∆ω
_ 1
1
ωref Σ R
Σ 1 + s (K g R )
−1 ∆Pvalve
+ +
ω Pref
_ ∆ω
_ 1
1
ωref Σ R
Σ 1 + s Tg
∆Pvalve
+ + 1
ω where Tg =
Pref Kg R
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 15
 Governor Characteristics

Speed-droop characteristic
frequency

f0

p.u. output power

0.5 1.0

Allocation of unit outputs with governor droop
frequency

f0
f′

P1 P1′ P2 P2′
Unit #1 output power Unit #2 output power

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 16
 Governor Characteristics

Speed-changer settings
frequency

f0

p.u. output power

0.5 1.0

load reference for nominal load reference for nominal

speed at no-load speed at 50% loading
load reference for nominal
speed at 50% loading

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 17
 Complete Generator Model

Block diagram of governor, prime mover, rotating mass, and
loads 1 ∆ω
R
rotating mass
_ governor prime mover & load
+ 1 ∆Pvalve 1 ∆Pmech + 1
Pref Σ 1 + s TG 1 + s TCH Σ M s+D
load reference _
set point
loading input ∆PL
 transfer function of generator
 −1 
 
∆ω ( s )  Ms+D 
=
∆PL ( s )  1  1  1  1 
1 +     
 R  1 + s TG  1 + s TCH  M s + D  
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 18
 Complete Generator Model

Steady state behaviors
 final value of the transfer function

using Laplace method
 −1 
  − ∆P
∆ω t = ∞ = lim [s ∆ω ( s )] = ∆PL  D  = −1 L
s →0
1 +  1  1   R + D
  R  D  

 for several generators connected within the system

− ∆PL
∆ω =
1 + 1 +L+ D
RG1 RG 2

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 19