Body Composition Assessment

By Len Kravitz, Ph.D. and Vivian, Heyward, Ph.D.

Excessive body fat has been demonstrated to be associated with such health-related
problems as coronary artery disease, hypertension, adult-onset diabetes, hyperlipidemia,
obstructive pulmonary disease and osteoarthritis. Too little fatness, as seen in individuals
with eating disorders, exercise addition, and certain diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, can
also lead to serious physiological dysfunction (Heyward & Stolarczyk, 1996) . Considering
the profoundness of the health problems associated with too much or too little body fat, it is
no surprise that the assessment of body composition has become a widespread and
meaningful evaluation used by personal trainers. This assessment series article will
specifically focus on the practical application of the skinfold (SKF) method for the
assessment of body composition.

Body Composition Essentials

The assessment of body composition involves using the most appropriate, and accessible,
method possible to ‘estimate‘ a person’s body composition (an actual assessment of body
composition would be by cadaver analysis). One prevalent system of body composition
assessment is the two-compartment model introduced by Brozek, Grande, Anderson, &
Keys (1963) and Siri (1961) , which assumes the body is made up of fat and fat-free
compartments. The terms fat-free mass and lean body mass are often incorrectly used
interchangeably. Fat-free mass contains no lipids whereas lean body mass includes
approximately 2% to 3% and 5% to 8%, for men and women, respectively (Heyward &
Stolarczyk, 1996).
The percent body fat (%BF), referred to as relative body fat, is obtained by dividing the fat
mass by the total body weight. The average %BF is 15 for men and 23 for women (Table
1). Obesity, which may be defined as an excessive amount of total body fat for a given
body weight, is identified as body fat in excess of 25% for men and 32% for women.

Practical Uses of Body Composition Assessments for Personal Trainers

Heyward and Stolarczyk (1996) suggest the following ways the personal trainer can use
body composition measures:
1. To identify the client’s health risk associated with excessively low or high levels of total
fat
2. To identify the client’s health risk associated with excessive accumulation of intra-
abdominal fat
3. To promote the client’s understanding of health risks associated with too little or too
much body fat
4. To assess the effectiveness of nutrition and exercise interventions in altering body
composition
5. To estimate ideal body weight of clients and athletes
6. To formulate dietary recommendations and exercise prescriptions
7. To monitor growth, development, maturation, and age-related changes in body
composition

Skinfold Method
The accuracy of the SKF method is affected by the skill of the SKF technician, the type of
SKF calipers used, the prediction equation used for the measurement, and subject factors
(Lohman, Pollock, Slaughter, Brandon, & Boileau, 1984) . An improperly trained
technician will introduce considerable measurement error. It is recommended that you
practice your SKF technique on 50 to 100 individuals to develop a high level of skill and
proficiency (Jackson & Pollock, 1985) . Additionally, it is important to follow standardized
guidelines and testing procedures when using the SKF technique. The personal trainer is
referred to the Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual (Harrison et al., 1988)
for detailed descriptions in identifying and measuring SKF sites. However, with the
popularly used generalized equations by Jackson and Pollock (1978) and Jackson, Pollock
and Ward (1980), follow the guidelines presented in Table 2.

In regards to the SKF calipers, plastic calipers have less scale precision, a smaller
measurement scale, nonconstant tension throughout the range of measurement, and show
less consistency when used by inexperienced SKF technicians, as compared to high-quality
calipers (Heyward & Stolarczyk, 1996) . For consistency with your clients‘ measurements,
make sure you monitor your their changes using the same calipers.
Most SKF measurements use two to three SKFs to predict body density (Db), from which
body fat can be derived using the appropriate equation. Generalized equations, which take
into account the effect of age and distribution of body fat, have been developed and
validated for persons varying considerably in body fatness (up to 45 %BF) and age (18 to
60 yr) (Jackson & Pollock, 1978; Jackson, Pollock, & Ward, 1980) (Tables 3 & 4).
However, for higher precision, SKF prediction equations that take into account a client’s
age, gender, ethnicity, and physical activity level are recommended. Heyward and
Stolarczyk (1996) provide specific SKF equations based on the factors cited above. Also, to
save time, several computer software programs are available to calculate Db and %BF (See
Personal Trainer, March/April 1997).

Your clients will have variation in skin thickness, compressibility of adipose tissue, and
hydration level, which will affect the SKF measurement. Keep a record of these
observations for follow-up assessements. Exercise also increases the extracellular water
accumulation in the subcutaneous tissue and thus will increase skinfold thickness.
Therefore, SKFs should not be measured immediately after exercise, especially in warmer
environments.
Skinfold Measurement Procedures

The following procedures will increase your reliability and precision when doing SKF
measurements (Harrison et al., 1988) :
1. Take all SKF measurements on the right side of the body.
2. Carefully identify, measure and mark the SKF site.
3. Grasp the SKF firmly between the thumb and index finger of your hand. The fold is
lifted 1 cm above the site to be measured.
4. Lift the fold by placing the thumb and index finger 8 cm (~3 inches) apart on a line that
is perpendicular to the long axis of the skinfold. The long axis is parallel to the natural
cleavage lines of the skin. For individuals with extremely large skinfolds, the thumb and
finger will need to be separated more than 8 cm in order to lift the fold.
5. Keep the fold elevated while the measurement is taken.
6. Place the jaws of the caliper perpendicular to the fold, approximately 1 cm below the
thumb and index finger, and release the jaw pressure slowly.
7. Take the SKF measurement 4 seconds after the pressure is released.
8. Open the jaws of the caliper to remove it from the site. Close the jaws slowly to prevent
damage or loss of calibration.
9. Take a minimum of two measurements at each site. If values vary from each other by
more than 10%, take additional measurements.
10. Take SKF measurements in a rotational order rather than consecutive readings at each
site.
11. Take the SKF measurements when the client’s skin is dry and lotion- free.
12. Do not measure SKFs immediately after physical activity because of fluid shifts to the
skin.

Final Thoughts
Becoming a highly skilled SKF technicians takes careful practice and precise adherence to
measurement procedures. With some obese or heavily muscled clients the SKF method may
not work satisfactorily and alternative measures such as bioelectical impedance may be
indicated. One of the greatest values for clients, in doing and explaining body composition
measures, is the supplementary educational information the personal trainer can provide
them about attaining optimal health.

Table 1. Percent Body Fat Standards for Men and Women

Men Women
At riska&Mac178;5%&Mac178;8%
Below average 6-14% 9-22%
Average 15% 23%
Above average 16-24% 24-31%
At riskb&Mac179;25%&Mac179;32%
Chart adapted from Heyward and Stolarczyk (1996) .
aAt risk for diseases and disorders associated with malnutrition
bAt risk for diseases associated with obesity

Table 2. Skinfold Sites for the Jackson et al Generalized Skinfold Equations

Site Anatomical reference Direction of fold Measurement
Chest Axilla and nipple Diagonal Fold is taken 1/2 the distance between the anterior
axillary line and nipple for men and 1/3 of this distance for women
Subscapular Vertical border and inferior angle of scapula Oblique Fold is taken on diagonal
line coming from the vertebral border, 1-2 cm below the inferior angle
Midaxillary Xiphoid process of sternum Vertical Fold is taken at level of xiphoid process
along the midaxillary line
Suprailiac Iliac crest Diagonal Fold is taken diagonally above the iliac crest along the
anterior axillary line
Abdominal Umbilicus Vertical Fold is taken vertically 2 cm lateral to the umbilicus
Thigh Inguinal crease and patella Vertical Fold is lifted on anterior aspect of thigh midway
between inguinal crease and proximal border of patella. Body weight is shifted to left foot.
Note: Adapted from Jackson and Pollock (1978), Jackson et al. (1980) and Harrison et al.
(1988).

Table 3. Generalized Prediction Skinfold Equation for Women (18-55 yr)

Triceps + suprailiac + thigh Body Density (Db) =1.0994921 - 0.0009929 (&Mac183;3SKF)
+
0.0000023 (&Mac183;3SKF)2 - 0.0001392 (age)
To convert to %BF using Siri (1961) equation %BF = [(4.95/Db) - 4.50] x 100
Source: (Jackson et al., 1980)
Note:&Mac183;3SKF = Sum of three skinfolds (triceps, suprailiac, thigh)

Table 4. Generalized Prediction Skinfold Equation for Men (18-61 yr)

Chest + abdomen + thigh Body Density (Db) =1.109380 - 0.0008267 (&Mac183;3SKF) +
0.0000016 (&Mac183;3SKF)2 - 0.0002574 (age)
To convert to %BF using Siri (1961) equation %BF = [(4.95/Db) - 4.50] x 100
Source: (Jackson & Pollock, 1978)
Note:&Mac183;3SKF = Sum of three skinfolds (chest +abdomen + thigh)

References:
Brozek, J., Grande, F., Anderson, J. T., & Keys, A. (1963). Densitometric analysis of body
composition: Revision of some quantitative assumptions. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences, 110, 113-140.
Harrison, G. G., Buskirk, E. R., Lindsay Carter, J. E., Johnston, F. E., Lohman, T. G.,
Pollock, M. L., Roche, A. F., & Wilmore, J. H. (1988). Skinfold thickness and
measurement technique. In T. G. Lohman, A. F. Roche, & R. Martorell (Eds.),
Anthropometric standardization reference manual (pp. 55-70). Champaign: Human
Kinetics.
Heyward, V. H., & Stolarczyk, L. M. (1996). Applied body composition assessment.
Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Jackson, A. S., & Pollock, M. L. (1978). Generalized equations for predicting body density
of men. British Journal of Nutrition, 40, 497-504.
Jackson, A. S., & Pollock, M. L. (1985). Practical assessment of body composition. The
Physician and Sportsmedicine, 13, 76-90.
Jackson, A. S., Pollock, M. L., & Ward, A. (1980). Generalized equations for predicting
body density of women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 12, 175-182.
Lohman, T. G., Pollock, M. L., Slaughter, M. H., Brandon, L. J., & Boileau, R. A. (1984).
Methodological factors and the prediction of body fat in female athletes. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise, 16, 92-96.
Siri, W. E. (1961). Body composition from fluid space and density. In J. Brozek & A.
Hanschel (Eds.), Techniques for measuring body composition (pp. 223-244). Washington,
DC: National Academy of Science.
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Body Density Equations: Jackson &
Pollock
Percent bodyfat (%BF) can be calculated from body densty using the Siri Equation.

Males
Equation 1:

Body Density = 1.0990750 - 0.0008209 (X2) + 0.0000026 (X2)2 - 0.0002017 (X3) -

0.005675 (X4) + 0.018586 (X5). Where X2 = sum of the chest, abdomen and thigh
skinfolds in mm, X3 = age in years, X4 = waist circumference in cm, and X5 = forearm
circumference in cm.

Equation 2:

Body Density = 1.10938 - (0.0008267 x sum of chest, abdomen and thigh skinfolds in
mm ) + (0.0000016 x square of the sum of chest, abdomen and thigh) - (0.0002574 x
age),
(reference: Jackson, A.S. & Pollock, M.L. (1978), based on a sample aged 18-61)

Females
Equation 1:

Body Density = 1. 1 470292 - 0.0009376 (X3) + 0.0000030 (X3)2- 0.0001156 (X4) -

0.0005839 (X5), Where: X3 = sum of triceps, thigh and suprailiac skinfolds, in mm, X4 =
age in years and X5 = gluteal circumference in cm.

Equation 2:

Body Density = 1.0994921 - (0.0009929 x sum of triceps, thigh and suprailiac skinfolds)
+ (0.0000023 x square of the sum of triceps, thigh and suprailiac skinfolds) - (0.0001392
x age in years)
(reference: Jackson, et al. (1980), based on a sample aged 18-55)

References
• Jackson, A. S., & Pollock, M. L. (1978). Generalized equations for predicting
body density of men. British Journal of Nutrition, 40, 497-504.
 • Jackson, A. S., Pollock, M. L., & Ward, A. (1980). Generalized equations for
predicting body density of women. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 12, 175-182.

Siri Equation
Many body composition equations derive their measure of percent body fat from first
determining body density. Once body density is determined, percent bodyfat (%BF) can
be calculated using the Siri equation below :

% Body Fat = (495 / Body Density) - 450.

Derivation
The Siri Equation is based on the two compartment model, that is the body is made up of
essentially two components: fat mass (the total fat of an indiviual) and fat-free mass
(everything else: bone, water, lean tissue etc). Studies have determined that the denisities
of these two components are:

fat mass = 0.9 grams per cc

fat-free mass = 1.10 grams per cc.

As density = mass / volume, and the mass of a human is made up of the total of fat mass
and fat-free mass, therefore density = (fat mass + fat-free mass) / volume. Following this
through and substituting mass/density for volume, and using the values for density above,
eventually you get to the Siri Equation as listed.

References
• Siri, W. E. (1961). Body composition from fluid space and density. In J. Brozek &
A. Hanschel (Eds.), Techniques for measuring body composition (pp. 223-
244). Washington, DC: National Academy of Science.

Similar Equation
Brozek Equation: Percent Fat = (4.57 / body density – 4.142) x 100

Brozek, J., Grande, F., Anderson, J. T., & Keys, A. (1963). Densitometric analysis of
body composition: Revision of some quantitative assumptions. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences, 110, 113-140.