WG A2.

38
technical brochure 659
Transformer thermal modelling

Members
J. Lapworth, Convenor (UK), P. Picher, Secretary & Task Force leader (CA)
Task Force leaders:
J. Channet (FR), J. Kranenborg (SE), H. Nordman (FI), Z. Radakovic (RS), O. Roizman (AU),
K. Spoorenberg (NL), D. Susa (NO)

F. Berthereau (FR), H. Campelo (PT), S. Chen (FR), M. Cuesto (ES), V. Davydov (AU),
G. Fleck (AT), T. Gradnik (SI), N. Gunter (ZA), W. Guo (AU), J.-K. Kim (KR), J. Lee (KR),
A. Portillo (UY), N. Schmidt (DE), E. Simonson (UK), S. Tenbohlen (DE), F. Torriano (CA),
F. Trautmann (DE), W. Van der Veken (BE), Z. Wang (UK), J. Wijaya (AU), G. Wilson (UK),
W. Wu (UK), S. Yamamura (JP).

Introduction
In recent years, there has been renewed interest in thermal
aspects of transformers, perhaps because of experiences of
some transformers failing prematurely, new failure modes
which appear to be strongly temperature dependent, e.g.
corrosive sulphur, and concerns about the thermal designs
of new manufacturers.
Transformers are expected to operate for 30 or more years,
and some specifications ask for this, but this requirement
cannot easily be checked during the procurement process.
In transformer specifications, maximum winding
hotspot temperature rises above coolant inlet temperature
are specified to secure acceptable insulation lives, but
experimental verification is somewhat problematic. Average
winding temperature rises are to be measured by resistance
measurements during factory heat run tests. The hot-spot
temperature rise is to be derived by design calculations or
directly measured using specially installed temperature
sensors at the expected hot-spot location.
Previously, CIGRE Working Group A2.24 published a wide
ranging review of thermal aspects of transformers, concentrating
mainly on insulation ageing (CIGRE Brochure 393, 2010), but
also provided an introduction to thermal design.

identify any fundamental differences between ON and
OF/OD cooling;

review experience of direct measurements of hot-spot
temperatures and recommend best practice;

review various ‘Loading Guide’ algorithms for
calculating transient temperatures, and determination
of basic thermal parameters from heat run tests and
operational thermal data.
Initial discussions concentrated on modern ‘zig-zag’
directed oil flow cooling for the disc type windings of core
form transformers, but it was agreed that the scope needed
to be widened to include other winding and cooling types,
and that shell type transformers should also be considered.
It was also agreed that the modelling of hot-spots in the
core and structural steelwork should also be reviewed.
Brochure content
Chapter 1: Introduction discusses the importance of
thermal design and the development of thermal modelling.
The limitations of the basic thermal model, based on
overall oil temperature rise, average winding rise above
oil and a hot-spot factor H are discussed. The objectives
of the Working Group are summarised and definitions of
common terms are given.

Working Group A2.38 (Transformer Thermal Modelling)
was set up in 2008 to continue this work, its main focus
was to concentrate on the determination of hot-spot
temperatures, in particular:

determine the ‘state of art’ for calculation of winding
hot-spot temperature;
Chapter 2: Temperature rises in steady state describes
the process and methods used to arrive at a calculated
winding temperature distribution, starting with
calculations of losses and then detailed descriptions of the
two main thermal modelling methods: Thermal Hydraulic
Network (THN) and Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD). •••

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Figure 1 - Overheating of conductors at top of the LV winding of the modelled transformer
Chapter 3: Benchmark of numerical tools In an attempt
to arrive at a realistic assessment of transformer thermal
modelling it was decided to ask members to calculate
detailed winding temperatures for a transformer which had
suffered a turn-to-turn fault because of overheating of the
discs at the top of the LV winding (Figure 1).
The LV winding is of a simple disc type arrangement
with ‘zig-zag’ ON cooling, with 20 discs per pass. Details of
winding geometry and basic heat run data (inlet and outlet oil
temperatures and average winding gradient) were provided.
Eddy losses at the ends of the winding due to leakage
fluxes were calculated. For this design, values of loss factor
Q for the top disc of around 2.2 were obtained. Perhaps
not surprisingly for this extreme case, there was significant
variation of calculated eddy losses about the average (Figure
2), which was attributed to different degrees of calculation
sophistication, both in the discretisation used to calculate
leakage fluxes and the formula used to calculate eddy loss
from radial leakage field.
Calculations of temperature distributions were made
using a variety of THN and CFD models. Some common
Figure 2 - Calculated eddy losses for the end discs
WG A2.38
technical brochure 659
boundary conditions (inlet oil temperature, flowrate and
winding loss distributions) were specified, but otherwise
members used their own proprietary methods for
representing key factors such as friction pressure losses and
heat transfer coefficients. Examples of calculated flow and
temperature distributions are shown in Figure 3. Further
details of modelling assumptions are given in the Brochure.
There was reasonable agreement between calculated
flow distributions, ‘U’ shaped profiles being predicted
with minimum flows just above the middle of each pass.
Not surprisingly there was also universal agreement that
the hot-spot would be in the top disc with an average
calculated temperature of 132°C within a range of ± 5°C,
corresponding to a hot-spot factor H of just over 2, largely
due to the high loss factor Q. Interestingly, similar hot-spot
factors were calculated for local temperature maxima at
minimum flow locations, due to high local cooling factor
S. Another interesting observation was that although
THN and CFD models predicted similar oil flow profiles
in the parallel ducts of the passes, the predicted max disc
temperature profiles are noticeably different, CFD models
predicting a much flatter profile. This is attributed to a
combination of ‘hot streak’ phenomenon predicted by •••
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 WG A2.38
technical brochure 659

Figure 3 - Calculated flow and temperature distributions.

CFD for the low ON flows, and the significant impact on
the disc temperature of a small difference in the minimum
mass flow rate.
Chapter 4: Dynamic thermal modelling
‘Loading Guide’ type equations provide a simplified
method of calculating how winding temperatures vary
with loading and cooling conditions. The hot-spot
temperature rise is calculated from two components: the
top oil temperature rise above coolant temperature and
the hot-spot temperature rise above top oil temperature,
called the hot-spot gradient. It is assumed that values for
these two component temperature rises at a reference rated
loading are available from heat run tests. In a transient
calculation, the two components are continuously updated
by multiplying by factors to take into account the effects of
loading, temperature and thermal inertia (time constant)
in varying degrees of complication, depending on the
formulation. For instance, in the latest version of the IEC
Loading Guide (IEC 60076-7:2005) a new ‘over-shoot’
function is included to take into account the fact that, at
least for ON cooling, after a load increase it takes some
time for new oil flows appropriate to the new loading to
be established, resulting in a temporary ‘over-shoot’ of
winding gradient.
accepted, but there are still uncertainties about reliability of
the sensors and best practice.
Recommendations are made based on experience about
the number of fibre optic probes that should be used, where
these probes should be installed, and practical advice on how
the sensors should be installed in various types of winding,
for shell as well as core type transformers (Figure 5).
The measurement of top oil and winding exit oil
temperatures are also discussed.
Recommendations are also made for local temperature
measurements in the core and structural parts using
thermocouples.
Chapter 6: Shell-type transformer thermal modelling
Worldwide, shell type transformers are much less
common than core type but are very popular in certain
countries, e.g. US, Japan, France, Spain and Belgium, with
important applications, so must be considered. They have
a very different winding geometry with conductors being
wound into rectangular pancakes stacked one above each •••

The differences between the three main formulations:

IEC 60354 (1991), IEC 60076-7 (2005) and IEEE C57.91
(2011) are discussed.

Predicted hotspot and top oil temperatures are compared

against measured values from sensors installed in a 66 MVA,
225/26.4kV transformer (Figure 4).

The use of dynamic thermal models for rating calculations

is discussed, as is the derivation of model exponents and
constants from proposed extended heat run tests.

Chapter 5: Direct measurements

Nowadays the use of fibre optic temperature sensors to
Figure 4 - Predicted hotspot temperatures
measure hotspot temperatures in transformer windings is

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other, rather than cylindrical coils. The winding is cooled
by oil flows between the pancakes with a labyrinth of flow
direction blocks designed to achieve even cooling over the
pancake surface. As for core type transformers, leakage
fluxes cause additional eddy losses in certain parts of the
pancakes, but 3D field calculations are required due to the
asymmetric nature of the winding geometry around the
coil periphery. Eddy losses are greatest in the pancakes next
to the High to Low space.
CFD has now been used extensively to calculate flow and
temperature distributions and hotspot location is usually
at the top inside edge (Figure 6) of pancakes next to the
gap, because of high eddy losses and local flow stagnation.
The Brochure provides a comprehensive survey of
modern modelling practices for such transformers, with
examples of direct measurements.
WG A2.38
technical brochure 659
Conclusions and recommendations
Modelling tools are now available to calculate detailed
flow and temperature distributions, but are still too labour
intensive to be used on a routine basis. Therefore, detailed
CFD models are being used to build simpler models and
modelling correlations, e.g. for estimating pressure and
heat transfer coefficients.
Some unexpected variations in calculated losses need to
be investigated.
The case studies have shown that there can be
fundamental differences between ON and OD flows, which
need to be further investigated.
The three main algorithms for dynamic thermal
modelling give similar results. Some further development is
suggested for sub-zero ambient conditions, where viscosity
is dominant.

Recommended practice for installing fibre optic

temperature sensors is described. When fitted they should
be used to obtain a range of thermal characteristics, not
just hotspot temperature rise.

Thermal modelling for shell type transformers has been

described in detail. It is important to translate detailed
CFD calculations into simpler models. 

Figure 5 - Fibre-optic sensor installed in spacer

BROCHURE N° 659

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(in English only)

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Figure 6 - Calculated winding and oil temperatures

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