Electronics Chapter 5

ECE 1231
Electronics
Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

International Islamic University Malaysia
Chapter 5
Basic BJT Amplifiers
The Bipolar Linear Amplifier 1-3
 Bipolar transistors have been traditionally used in linear amplifier

circuits because of their relatively high gain.
 To use the circuit as an amplifier, the transistor needs to be
biased with a dc voltage at a quiescent point (Q-point) such that
the transistor is biased in the forward-active region.
vI = vs + VBB
© Electronics ECE 1231

 If a time-varying signal is superimposed on the dc input voltage, VBB, the

output voltage will change along the transfer curve producing a time-
varying output voltage.
 If the time-varying output voltage is directly proportional to and larger
than the time-varying input voltage, then the circuit is a linear amplifier.
vI = vs + VBB

 If the transistor is not biased in the active region (biased

either in cutoff or saturation), the output voltage does not
change in the input voltage. Thus, it is no longer been an
amplifier.
vI = vs + VBB

Graphical Analysis and ac Equivalent Circuit 1-6
 The sinusoidal signal source, vs, will produce time-varying

or ac base current superimposed on the quiescent base
current.

 The time-varying base current will induce an ac collector

current superimposed on the quiescent collector current.

 The ac collector current then produces a time-varying

voltage across RC, which includes an ac collector-emitter
voltage.

 The ac collector-emitter voltage or output voltage, in general, will

be larger than the sinusoidal input signal - that is, the circuit is an
amplifier.

 The relation between base-

emitter voltage and base
current can be written as:

 If vBE is composed of a dc term with a sinusoidal

component superimposed, i.e., vBE = VBEQ + vbe, then:
VBEQ = the B-E turn-on voltage, VBE (on)

IS / (1+βF).exp(VBEQ/VT) = the quiescent
base current, IBQ, then:

 If vbe « VT, then it can expand the exponential term in a

Taylor series and then:
where ib is the time-varying (sinusoidal)

base current given by:
The sinusoidal base current, ib, is

linearly related to the B-E voltage, vbe.
 From the concept of small signal, all the time-varying

signals are superimposed on dc values. Then:
and

 If the signal source, vs, is zero, then the base-emitter

and collector-emitter loop equations are:
and

 Taking into account the time-varying signals,

the B-E loop equation is:
or
Rearranging terms, we find:
Since VBB = IBQRB + VBEQ, then we can write:
which is the B-E loop equation with

all dc term set equal to zero.

 Taking into account the time-varying signals,

the C-E loop equation is:
Rearranging terms, we find:
Since VCC = ICQRC + VCEQ, then:

which is the C-E loop equation with
all dc term set equal to zero.

 The above equations are related the ac parameters in the circuit.

 These equations can be obtained
directly by setting all dc currents and
voltages equal to zero, so the dc
voltage sources become short
circuits and any dc currents sources
would be open circuit.
 The resulting BJT circuit is called the
ac equivalent circuit.

Small-Signal Hybrid-π Equivalent 1-18
Circuit of the Bipolar Transistor
 The Bipolar Transistor as a small-signal, two-port network:
 A simplified small-signal hybrid-
π equivalent circuit for the npn
transistor.
 BJT small-signal equivalent

circuit using the common-
emitter current gain.

 The small-signal input base current can be related to the small-
signal input voltage by:
where 1/rπ (conductance) is equal to

the slope of the iB – vBE curve. Inverse
of this conductance is the small-signal
resistance, rπ, can be found from:

or
Then
The resistance rπ is called diffusion

resistance or B-E input resistance.
 Considering the case in which the collector current is independent
of collector-emitter voltage, then the collector current is a function
only of the base-emitter voltage:
or

Since
Then
The term αIS exp(vBE / VT) is just the

quiescent collector current. The term
ICQ / VT is called a transconductance:

 It can relate the small-signal collector current to the small-signal
base current as:
or
where
and is called an incremental or ac

common-emitter current gain. Then:

 Common-Emitter Current Gain:

If multiply the small-signal hybrid parameters rπ & gm,
then:
In general, it will assume that the common-emitter

current gain β is a constant for a given transistor. β
may from one device to another and that β does vary
with the collector current.

 Small-Signal Voltage Gain: Av = Vo / Vs
The dependent current gmVbe flows through RC, producing a

negative collector-emitter voltage:
From the input portion of the circuit:

The small-signal voltage gain is then:

 Example
Calculate the small-signal voltage gain of the
bipolar transistor circuit.
Consider the transistor and circuit parameters:
β = 100, VCC = 12 V, VBE = 0.7 V, RC = 6 kΩ, RB
= 50 kΩ, and VBB = 12 V.

Small-Signal
Hybrid-π Equivalent
Circuit of the
Bipolar Transistor



Common-Emitter Amplifier
Common-Emitter Amplifier Circuit 1-32
 Basic common-emitter circuit with voltage divider biasing:

● The signal from the signal source is coupled into the base of
the transistor through the coupling capacitor CC, which
provides dc isolation between the amplifier and the signal
source.
● If the signal source is a sinusoidal voltage at frequency f, then
the magnitude of the capacitor impedance is |ZC| = [1/(2πfCC)]
● For example, assume CC = 10 μA
and f = 2 kHz. The magnitude of
the capacitor impedance is then:

● The magnitude of this impedance is much less than the Thevenin

resistance at the capacitor terminals, which in this case is
R1║R2║rπ.
● Therefore assume that the capacitor is essentially a short circuit
to signals with frequencies greater than 2 kHz.
● It is also neglecting any capacitance effects within the transistor.
● Assume that the signal is sufficiently
high that any coupling capacitor acts as
a perfect short circuit.
● Such frequencies are in the mid-
frequency range, or simply the
midband of the amplifier.

● Sketch the hybrid-π equivalent circuit between the three terminals

of the transistor and then sketch in the remaining circuit elements
around these three terminals.
● The following loop equation can be written:

● The input resistance Rib is then defined as, and found to be:
The small-signal input resistance into the base of the transistor is

rπ plus the emitter resistance multiplied by the factor (1 + β). This
effect is called the resistance reflection rule.

● The input resistance to the amplifier:
● It can relate Vin to Vs through a voltage-divider equation as:

● The small-signal voltage gain:

● If Ri » Rs and if (1 + β)RE » rπ, then the small-signal voltage gain:
It shows that the voltage gain is less dependant on the current

gain β, which means that there is a smaller change in voltage
gain when the transistor current changes.

Example
Determine the small-signal voltage gain and input resistance of a
common-emitter circuit with an emitter resistor.
Consider the transistor parameters: β = 100 and VBE (on) = 0.7 V


 Circuit with Emitter Bypass Capacitor

● There may be times when the emitter resistor must be large
for the purpose of dc design, but degrades the small-signal
gain too severely.
● An emitter bypass capacitor can be used to effectively short
out a portion or all of the emitter resistance as seen by the ac
signals.
● Both emitter resistors RE1 and RE2

are factors in the dc design of the
circuit, but only RE1 is part of the ac
equivalent circuit, since CE provides
a short circuit to ground for the ac
signal.
Example
Design a bipolar amplifier to meet the following specifications:
The circuit is to amplify a 12 mV sinusoidal signal from a
microphone to a 0.4 V sinusoidal output signal. The output
resistance of the microphone is 0.5 KΩ as shown.
Choices: The transistor used in the

design has nominal values of β = 100
and VBE (on) = 0.7 V.


AC Load Line Analysis 1-44
● The dc load line is found by writing a Kirchhoff voltage law

equation around the collector-emitter loop, as follows:
or
since IE = [(1 + β)/β]IC.
For the parameters and standard

resistor values (RC = 10 kΩ, RE1 = 240 Ω
and RE2 = 20 kΩ) found in the last
Example, the dc load line can be plotted.
If β » 1, then it can approximate (1 + β)/β
≈ 1.
● The KVL equation around the collector-emitter loop:
or, assuming ic ≈ ie, then
The equation is the ac load line. The

slope is given by:

Example
Determine the dc and ac load lines for the circuit, assuming the
transistor parameters are: VEB (on) = 0.7 V and β = 150.


Common-Collector (Emitter-Follower)
Amplifier
Small-Signal Voltage and Current Gain 1-49
● The hybrid-π model of the bipolar

transistor can be used in small-
signal analysis of this circuit,
assuming the coupling capacitor
CC acts as a short circuit.
● The collector terminal is at signal
ground and the transistor output
resistance ro is in parallel with the
dependent current source
Small-signal equivalent circuit

of the emitter-follower amplifier

Small-Signal Voltage Gain 1-50
 Small-signal equivalent circuit of the emitter follower with all

signal grounds connected together.
● We see that
● The output voltage can

be written as:

● Writing a KVL equation around the base-emitter loop, we obtain:
or
● We can also write:
where Ri = R1║R2║Rib

● Combining Equations, we obtain:
which is the small-signal voltage gain.

Small-Signal Current Gain 1-53
● The small-signal current gain is defined as:
● Using a current divider equation, the base current

in terms of the input current as:
● Then:
● The load current in terms of Io produces:

● Combining Equations, the small-signal current gain is as follows:
● If we assume that R1║R2 » Rib and ro » RE, then:
which is the current gain of the transistor.

Common-Base Amplifier
Small-Signal Voltage and Current Gain 1-56
● The basic common-base circuit,

in which the base is at signal
ground and the input signal is
applied to the emitter.
● Assume a load is connected to
the output through a coupling
capacitor CC2.
Small-signal equivalent
circuit of the common-base
amplifier, including hybrid-π
model of the transistor, with
the output resistance ro
assumed to be infinite.

● The small signal output voltage:
● Writing a KCL equation at the

emitter node, we obtain:
● Since β = gmrπ, Equation can be written:

● Then:
● We find the small signal voltage

gain as follows:
● As Rs approaches zero, the small-signal voltage gain becomes:

● The current gain is defined as

Ai = Io / Ii. Writing KCL equation at
the emitter node, we have:
● Solving for Vπ, we obtain:
● The load current is given by:

● Then the small-signal current

gain, as follows:
● If we take the limit as RE approaches infinity and RL approaches

zero, then the current gain becomes the shot-circuit current gain
given by:
where α is the common-base

current gain of the transistor.

Input and Output Impedance 1-61
● The input resistance looking into

the emitter is defined as:
● If we write a KCL equation at the input, we obtain:
● Therefore,

Output Impedance 1-62
● The independent source vs has

been set equal to zero. Writing a
KCL equation at the emitter, we
find:
● This implies that Vπ = 0, which means that the independent

source gmVπ is also zero. Consequently, the output resistance
looking back into the output terminal is then:

Characteristics of the 3 BJT Amplifier Configurations 1-63

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ECE 1231

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

 Bipolar transistors have been traditionally used in linear amplifier

© Electronics ECE 1231

 If a time-varying signal is superimposed on the dc input voltage, VBB, the

© Electronics ECE 1231

 If the transistor is not biased in the active region (biased

© Electronics ECE 1231

 The sinusoidal signal source, vs, will produce time-varying

© Electronics ECE 1231

 The time-varying base current will induce an ac collector

© Electronics ECE 1231

 The ac collector current then produces a time-varying

© Electronics ECE 1231

 The ac collector-emitter voltage or output voltage, in general, will

© Electronics ECE 1231

 The relation between base-

© Electronics ECE 1231

 If vBE is composed of a dc term with a sinusoidal

VBEQ = the B-E turn-on voltage, VBE (on)

© Electronics ECE 1231

 If vbe « VT, then it can expand the exponential term in a

where ib is the time-varying (sinusoidal)

The sinusoidal base current, ib, is

 From the concept of small signal, all the time-varying

© Electronics ECE 1231

 If the signal source, vs, is zero, then the base-emitter

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Taking into account the time-varying signals,

Since VBB = IBQRB + VBEQ, then we can write:

which is the B-E loop equation with

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Taking into account the time-varying signals,

Rearranging terms, we find:

Since VCC = ICQRC + VCEQ, then:

© Electronics ECE 1231

 The above equations are related the ac parameters in the circuit.

© Electronics ECE 1231

 BJT small-signal equivalent

© Electronics ECE 1231

where 1/rπ (conductance) is equal to

© Electronics ECE 1231

The resistance rπ is called diffusion

© Electronics ECE 1231

The term αIS exp(vBE / VT) is just the

© Electronics ECE 1231

and is called an incremental or ac

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Common-Emitter Current Gain:

In general, it will assume that the common-emitter

© Electronics ECE 1231

The dependent current gmVbe flows through RC, producing a

From the input portion of the circuit:

© Electronics ECE 1231

The small-signal voltage gain is then:

© Electronics ECE 1231

© Electronics ECE 1231

© Electronics ECE 1231

© Electronics ECE 1231

© Electronics ECE 1231

 Basic common-emitter circuit with voltage divider biasing:

© Electronics ECE 1231

● The magnitude of this impedance is much less than the Thevenin

© Electronics ECE 1231