1.

GREEK THEATRE

The Greek theatre history began with festivals honoring their gods. The Greek architects
built theatres on hillsides. That let them position long benches in rows, one above the
other, so that everyone could see what was happening on the stage. The stage was located
at the bottom of the hill. They could also hear. Greek theatres had great acoustics by
design.

The theatres were originally built on a very large scale to accommodate the large number of
people on stage, as well as the large number of people in the audience, up to fourteen
thousand. Mathematics played a large role in the construction of these theatres, as their
designers had to be able to create acoustics in them such that the actors' voices could be
heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greeks'
understanding of acoustics compares very favourably with the current state of the art. The
first seats in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but
around 499 BC the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create
permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the "prohedria" and
reserved for priests and a few most respected citizens.

In 465 BC, the playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, which hung or stood
behind the orchestra, which also served as an area where actors could change their
costumes. It was known as the skênê (from which the word "scene" derives). The death of a
character was always heard behind the skênê, for it was considered inappropriate to show a
killing in view of the audience. In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a paraskenia, became a
common supplement to skênê in the theatres. A paraskenia was a long wall with projecting
sides, which may have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the paraskenia
was the proskenion.

Greek theatres also had tall arched entrances called parodoi or eisodoi, through which
actors and chorus members entered and exited the orchestra. By the end of the 5th century
BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the skênê, the back wall, was two stories

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high. The upper story was called the episkenion. Some theatres also had a raised speaking
place on the orchestra called the logeion.

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Fig: Components of a Greek theatre

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Scenic elements

There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:

 mechane, a crane that gave the impression of a flying actor (thus, deus ex machina).

 ekkyklêma, a wheeled platform often used to bring dead characters into view for the
audience

 trap doors, or similar openings in the ground to lift people onto the stage

 Pinakes, pictures hung to create scenery

 Thyromata, more complex pictures built into the second-level scene (3rd level from
ground)

 Phallic props were used for satyr plays, symbolizing fertility in honour of Dionysus.

1.1 Epidaurus

The theater, discovered under a layer of earth on the Peloponnese peninsula, dating to the
4th century B.C. and arranged in 55 semi-circular rows, remains the great masterwork of
Polykleitos the Younger. Audiences of up to an estimated 14,000 have long been able to
hear actors and musicians--unamplified--from even the back row of the architectural
masterpiece. Its acoustics are extraordinary: a performer standing on the open-air stage can
be heard in the back rows almost 60 metres away. Architects and archaeologists have long
speculated about what makes the sound transmit so well.

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 Built on hill side

History of the Theatre:

As Epidaurus developed, various athletic and artistic contests, including theatrical ones,
were added to the worship of god Asklepios, through which systematic medical care was
developed in antiquity. These contests at the Sanctuary (held in the theatre, the stadium
and elsewhere) formed an integral part of the activities conducted in honour of the god of
medicine. Unlike other theatres of the Classical and Hellenistic periods, the theatre at
Epidaurus was not modified during Roman times, and thus retained its original form
throughout antiquity. The prevailing view among experts is that the theatre was built in
two distinct phases. The first dates to the 4th century BC, a period of significant

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construction activity at the Sanctuary. The second corresponds to the mid-2nd century BC.
The original layout of the Epidaurus Theatre stage shows that it was intended for the
performance of dramatic works at the level of the orchestra. During the second phase,
actors would have performed on a raised proscenium, leaving the orchestra for the chorus.

Architecture:

The theatre is the best preserved monument of the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus. It
has a perfectly executed tripartite structure characteristic of Hellenistic period theatres:
auditorium, orchestra, and stage building (skene). The orchestra is perfectly circular (19.5
m in diameter), with a floor of beaten earth bounded by a ring stones at its perimeter. An
open duct running around the outside of the orchestra collects and drains the rainwater
that runs off the auditorium. The auditorium itself nestles perfectly into the natural curve
of the northern slope of Mount Kynortio at an incline of about 26 degrees.

It consists of two sections separated by a semi-circular aisle: the lower section has 34 rows
of benches, and the upper tier, which was added during the second phase of construction,
has a further 21. Narrow flights of steps divide the two sections into 12 wedge-shaped
segments (cunei). The ground plan of the auditorium covers more than a semi-circle, and
is slightly elliptical. There is a solid retaining wall at each end. The rows of benches in the
eight central tiers were designed as circular curves centered upon the centre-point of the
orchestra, while the pairs of tiers on either side form arcs centered upon a point beyond the
centre-point of the orchestra. The theatre seats around 14,000.

The elongated stage-building adjoining the orchestra, closing it off end to end on its north
side, consisted of two parts. At the front was the raised proscenium, with a façade in the
Ionian order and projecting side-walls which faced the orchestra. At the back stood the
two-storey stage building. The façade of the second floor bore wide openings, which would
have housed paintings (backdrops). Two ramps, one on either side, led up to the level of
the proscenium. Ionian pilasters flanking the two gates architecturally linked the stage to
the retaining walls of the auditorium. The Epidaurus Ancient Theatre owes its excellent

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acoustics to its geometrically perfect design. Pausanias visited the Epidaurus Theatre in the
mid-2nd century AD, that is to say at least four centuries after the completion of the second
phase of construction, and expressed his infinite admiration for its symmetry and beauty.
Pausanias credits Polykleitos as the architect of this renowned theatre, and for the circular
tholos, or rotunda, at the Sanctuary.

Construction :

The outdoor Theatre has the three main features of a Greek theatre: the orchestra, the
skene, and the cavea. The foundation of the orchestra is beaten earth surrounded by a
complete circle (67 feet in diameter) of white The rows of seats near the edge of the
orchestra are slightly pushed back in order to provide a wider parodoi for the thousands of
visitors to leave more quickly and efficiently.

The fourth century remains had a rectangular proskenion, 64 feet long and 20 feet deep,
which was adjacent to the orchestra circle and had a smaller room on each end. It was
supported by pillars that had grooves to possibly hold painted scenery panels. On each side
of the proskenion was a ramp. The ramps leading to the proskenion suggest that during the
Hellenistic period they may have been used more frequently as a stage than as background
scenery for the orchestra. During the Hellenistic period, additional rooms were developed
behind the ramps and the proskenion. Behind the proskenion there was another
rectangular room that was supported by several columns. This structure may have been
high enough for a two-story skene. If so, the second story could have been used to create a
background for the proskenion when it was used more as a stage. On both sides of the
skene was a gateway that had two openings: one being the parodoi that led to the
orchestra, and the other to the ramp, which led to the proskenion.

The cavea is 387 feet in diameter and is sunk into a hillside. Unlike the theatre in Athens,
the Theatre of Epidaurus had no obstructions with other buildings or cliffs, so the
auditorium could be perfectly symmetrical. This symmetry is what helped create the
Theatre's well-known acoustics. The rounded cavea has two seating sections that can hold

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a total of around 14,000 spectators; the lower section has 13 stairways with 34 rows of
benches, while the upper section has 23 stairways with 21 rows of benches. The wedge-
shaped benches, made of local limestone, enveloped two-thirds of the orchestra. The
wedge-shape of the block benches, hollowed beneath the edge, gave the feet more room,
which allowed people more comfortable seating positions and the ability to tuck their feet
in to let people walk by. Spectators near the end of the auditorium had a difficult view of
the skene, but everyone could see the orchestra. The lowest seats had back supports and
were the seats of honor, called proedria. When the two-story skene was developed, the
proedria was moved to the second section to give the honored a better view. George
Izenour, Professor of Theatre Design and Technology , measured the maximum sight line
distances from the skene to the center of the orchestra to be 194 feet, and from the skene to
the center of the two-story stage to be 232 feet.

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The Theatre at Epidaurus survived many years to reach us today. It was originally built to
honor Asklepios, but its later additions, such as the two-story skene, suggest that it was
used for conventional plays that were imported from Athens. At some point, the purpose of
the Theatre changed from worshiping and celebrating Asklepios to performing standard
plays. The Theatre for Asklepios turned into another theatre for Dionysus. In modern
times, however, it is a theatre for all. Its acoustics, symmetry and beauty are still greatly
admired not just by tourists, but by patrons who visit the Theatre for performances which
continue to be held there.

A Wonder of Acoustics:

When visiting this theater, many tourists like to stand in the middle of the orchestra and
recite poems, sing songs, or even whisper to their friends sitting far up in the topmost tiers.
They are impressed by the remarkable way in which the sound is conveyed to every corner
of this large auditorium.

The amphitheatric, semicircular shape of the Epidaurus theater is credited with producing
such fine acoustics.

Moreover, the steepness of the tiers of seats at Epidaurus reduces the distance from the
stage to the topmost rows. The sound waves are hardly diminished when they reach those
upper rows.

Something else that contributes to such good acoustics is the appropriate length between
the rows. This permits sound to be diffused everywhere with the same volume and clarity.
Other factors include the reflection of the sound as it strikes the hard, compact surface of
the orchestra and the tiers of seats, the good quality of marble that was used, the noiseless
landscape, and the constant breeze that blows from the orchestra to the spectators.

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Acoustic traps:

The corrugations on the surface of the seats act as natural acoustic traps. Though this effect
would seem to also remove the low frequencies from the actors' voices, listeners actually fill
in the missing portion of the audio spectrum through a phenomenon known as virtual
pitch. The human brain reconstructs the missing frequencies, producing the virtual pitch
phenomenon, as in listening to someone speaking on a telephone with no low end.

Now, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology have discovered that the key is the
arrangement of the stepped rows of seats. They calculate that this structure is perfectly
shaped to act as an acoustic filter, suppressing low-frequency sound — the major
component of background noise — while passing on the high frequencies of performers'
voices. The limestone material of the seats provide a filtering effect, suppressing low
frequencies of voices, thus minimizing background crowd noise. Further, the rows of
limestone seats reflect high-frequencies back towards the audience, enhancing the effect.
However, experiments with ultrasonic waves and numerical models indicated that
frequencies up to 500 hertz (cycles per second) were lowered, and frequencies higher than
500 hertz went undiminished.

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 Fig: Epidaurus in present context

1.2 Priene Amphitheatre

In Hellenistic times, the main problem was capacity: some theatres became very large,
through the addition of new tiers, and it became difficult to preserve the visual and acoustic
qualities. All the more so owing to the limitation of building on a hillside. Therefore, in the
theatre of Priene, the slope of the tiers is constant, and the angle of incidence of the direct
sound may be critical for the last few tiers (only 7° for a constant slope of 21° for the tiers).
It seems that the solution generally adopted was to significantly raise the proskenion: in Priene
2.7 m. The angle of incidence was always above 10°. The stage can only be raised so far owing to
the necessity of maintaining the visibility of the first rows of the

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koilon, which were reserved for notables.

But there is another unfavourable result, concerning the acoustics only: the higher the
proskenion, the lower the angle of incidence of the reflection off the orchestra to the audience.
For the first time, there is a contradiction between the interests of sound and vision. In Priene,
the sound reflected off the orchestra reaches the back rows with an incidence lower than 3°,
and is therefore significantly absorbed by the audience sitting in the lower rows.

If we raise the proskenion, the angle e of incidence of the direct sound to the audience
increases, but the angle e’ of incidence of the reflected sound decreases

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Source on the proskenion in Epidaurus (above), then on the orchestra (below),
the reflection off the skene does not reach the audience

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2. ROMAN AMPHITHEATRE

Roman amphitheatres are amphitheatres – large, circular or oval open-air venues with
raised seating – built by the Ancient Romans. They were used for events such
as gladiator combats, venationes (animal slayings) and executions. About 230 Roman
amphitheatres have been found across the area of the Roman Empire. Early amphitheatres
date from the Republic Period, though they became more monumental during
the Imperial Era.

Amphitheater in the Roman World

It is uncertain when and where the first amphitheatres were built. There are records
attesting to temporary wooden amphitheatres built in the Forum Romanum for
gladiatorial games from the second century BC onwards, and these may be the origin of the
architectural form later expressed in stone.

In the Imperial Era, amphitheatres became an integral part of the Roman urban landscape.
As cities vied with each other for preeminence in civic buildings, amphitheatres became
ever more monumental in scale and ornamentation. Imperial amphitheatres comfortably

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accommodated 40,000–60,000 spectators, or up to 100,000 in the largest venues, and were
only outdone by the hippodromes in seating capacity. They featured multi-storeyed,
arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble and stucco cladding, statues
and reliefs, or even partially made of marble.

This is what could have happened during the Hellenistic period. In any case, the problem
must have been fairly acute since the Romans, far from their reputation as simple imitators
in this domain (although illogical, it was claimed that the orchestra lost its acoustic role in
Roman times), invented an original solution, certainly well-thought-out and, indeed, very
efficient.

Compared with their predecessors, they benefited from the advantage of no longer
depending on the slope of a hill, since they elevated the koilon (the cavea in Latin) on
horizontal ground. On the other hand, the places chosen to construct the theatres were
less privileged, despite the revealing insistence of Vitruvius on this subject, and
undoubtedly noisier. This would explain why these theatres were entirely enclosed, which
provided a certain level of insulation. The Roman cavea is generally far more sloping than
the Greek koilon, which is ofcourse beneficial.

2.1 Pula arena

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Location : Pula, Croatia

Constructed in : 27 BC – 68 AD

Pula arena amphitheatre

Pula Arena, is a rare example among the 200 Roman surviving amphitheatres, it is also the
best preserved ancient monument in Croatia. It is among the six largest surviving Roman
arenas in the World and it is the only remaining Roman amphitheatre to have four side
towers and with all three Roman architectural orders entirely preserved.

Exterior of the building

History of the amphitheatre:

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As the city of Pula became a regional centre of Roman rule, called Pietas Julia, the arena
was built between 27 BC to 68 AD. The amphitheatre was first built in timber during the
reign of Augustus (2–14 AD). It was replaced by a small stone amphitheatre during the
reign of emperor Claudias. In 79 AD it was enlarged to accommodate gladiator fights
by Vespasian and to be completed in 81 AD under emperor Titus.The amphitheatre
remained in use until 5th century an Emperor prohibited the gladiatorial combats. In the
5th century the amphitheatre began to see its stone plundered by the local populace. By
the 13th century, the patriarch of Aquileia forbade further removal from the Arena.

Construction technology:

Plan of the amphitheatre

The exterior wall is constructed in limestone. The part facing the sea consists of three
stories, while the other part has only two stories since the amphitheatre was built on a
slope. The maximum height of the exterior wall is 29.40 m (96.5 ft). The first two floors
have each 72 arches, while the top floor consists of 64 rectangular openings. The axes of the
elliptical amphitheatre are 132.45 and 105.10 m (434.5 and 344.8 ft) long, and the walls
stand 32.45 m (106.5 ft) high. It could accommodate 23,000 spectators in the cavea which
had forty steps divided into two meniani. The seats rest directly on the sloping ground; The

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field for the games, the proper arena, measured 67.95 by 41.65 m (222.9 by 136.6 ft). The
field was separated from the public by iron gates. The arena had a total of 15 gates.

Use of arches Stage of the amphitheatre

On the top of the walls is a gutter that collected rainwater. Each of the four towers had
two cisterns filled with perfumed water that fed a fountain. The amphitheatre could be
covered with velarii (large sails; fabric canopy), protecting the spectators from sun or rain
(as attested by rare construction elements).

Function:

Originally, this amphitheatre was designed to host gladiatorial contests. After the gladiator
contests were prohibited, in the middle age the interior of the Arena was used for grazing,
occasional tournaments and medieval fairs. In 1709, stone was taken from Pula arena for
the belfry foundations at Pula Cathedral. This was the last time the arena was used as a
source of stone.

In the chambers downstairs, is a small museum with a display of ancient olive-oil

equipment. The arena is used as a venue for many concerts. The arena has also been used
for cinematic works such as Titus, a 1999 film adaptation of Shakespeare's revenge tragedy
Titus Andronicus by Julie Taymor.Two professional ice hockey matches were also held in
this amphitheatre.

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Pula arena used for cinematic works Projector in the amphitheatre

Amphitheatre used for ice hockey game Construction of the ice rink

Pula arena interior

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2.2 Orange, Aspendos and Ephesus Amphitheatre

The Roman cavea is generally far more sloping than the Greek koilon, which is of
course beneficial. The slope is always increased once, as in Orange (27° before the
diazoma and 31° after) or in Aspendos (33° and 36°) and sometimes twice (as in Ephesus:
25°,28° and 30°). On the other hand, the proskenion is lowered (its height is only 2 metres
in Orange, 2.5 metres in Aspendos and 2.1 metres in Ephesus). It is also a lot deeper, but at
the same time, it is sufficient for the performance of the actors’, who do not have to go
down into the orchestra, where the scaenae frons would undoubtedly produce a somewhat
delayed echo.

As a result of these changes, the angles of incidence are much better, not only for the
direct sound, of course, but especially for the sound reflected off the orchestra (they exceed
6°and 8°, respectively, for the last few rows in Orange and Aspendos). Even in Ephesus,
where the slope of the tiers is more moderate, the angle of incidence of the reflection off
the orchestra is much higher than 4° (i.e. as in Epidaurus).

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3. DABALI

Dabali is a raised platform which is one of the prominent feature of medieval

architecture in Kathmandu valley. This space was used for different purposes
such as making announcements, different festivals, performances and also a
place for public interactions.

Still at the current time, dabali is a place for meet, social interaction and
gatherings.

Basantapur Dabali

Basantapur dabali is a space in the durbar square area which has been used for
different purposes. It is a place for meet during events such as New year, Indra
jatra, rally, concerts, etc. This place is the only open space in the core city area
after Tundikhel which can cater huge mass during different activities. The
dabali is raised to a height of 1 ft and is of brick with mortar. It is oriented
along east-west.

Marketplace on the dabali

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 Fig: Chariot of Kumari

Fig: Place for interaction

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 Fig: Concerts taking place

Acoustic insulation of clay bricks:

Acoustic Insulation: As far as acoustic insulation is concerned, brick wall

provides good sound insulation property due to its dense structure. The
thickness and density of brick will deaden noise transmission and will deflect
noise from streets, neighboring homes. The sound insulation of brick work is
generally accepted as 45 decibels for a 4 1/2 inches thickness and 50 decibels
for 9 inches for the frequency ranges from 200 to 2,000 Hz.

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Brick, stone, concrete, reflect all sound. Timber, gyprock, steel, reflect most
high frequencies and a % low frequency is absorbed by the wall. The
remaining low frequency energy that is not reflected or absorbed passes
through the wall. Nothing can be done about sound that passes through a
wall. Bass frequencies are the most difficult to absorb.

The 1/4 wave-length rule: Acoustical absorbent material must be placed away
from walls and ceiling at a distance of 1/4 wavelength of the lowest frequency
to be absorbed. This will include all higher frequencies if the absorbent
material is soft furnishing or fibre glass.

Wood absorbs low frequency sound whereas reflects high frequency sound.

Dabali in the middle of the structures, the sound produced is reflected

through the enclosures surrounding it and is passed along into the space
occupied (audience).

The traditional building (constructed of clay bricks and timber) itself is an

advantage which reflects the sound wave and reverberation produced is clear.
The low frequency sound waves are absorbed by clay bricks and timber
(which is the major cause of backgroung noise) and high frequency waves are
reflected back.

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4. CONCLUSION

It has been found that the acoustics of the ancient open theatres are
characterized by a substantial duration of the reverberation when empty, in
which case reverberation time values between 0.5s and 1.7s have been found.
When occupied, the T values will be lower, particularly in the Greek theatres
without a reflecting Skene wall or a raised building structure behind the
audience.

With extremely high clarity compared to the measured reverberation time in

different from conditions in free field as well as from normal closed rooms.

Modifications of the acoustics like installation of a stage shell or a sound

system may be used to increase levels, intelligibility and reverberance
according to the needs of each particular performance; but the large
dimensions of these spaces as well as the positioning of the natural sound
sources and loudspeakers must be given proper consideration in order to
avoid echoes or other defects.

Theatres from High Antiquity to Hellenistic and Roman times were able to
evolve in what appears to us to be a fairly logical and reasoned manner. These
are the parameters (height and width of the proscenium, height and slope of
the possible roof, radius of the orchestra and, especially, the slope of the tiers)
that still need to be optimized today, in the design of open-air theatres.

However, we should not be misled by the great simplicity of these very ancient
theatres: it was in these theatres that one of the three acoustic models of
western theatre was created for the first time, and with great awareness and
imagination. And it is this model that still attracts architects the most, and
has the greatest bearing on the contemporary design of theatres and concert
halls.

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