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Design How-To
Rules For Handling Differential
Signals
Rules For Handling Differential Signals
Douglas Brooks NO RATINGS
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Advantages, disadvantages, assumptions and consequences

We generally think of signals propagating through our circuits in

one of three modes: single-ended, differential mode or common Most Recent Comments
mode.

Single-ended mode is the mode with which we are most familiar. It

involves a single wire or trace between a driver and a receiver. The
signal propagates down the trace and returns through the ground realjjj Interesting to look at it this
system.1 way and not as a feeble attempt to
appear strong and undervalued by
Differential mode involves a pair of traces (wires) between the
driver and receiver. We typically say that one trace carries the the Broadcom offer. Are those
positive signal and the other carries a negative signal that is both 1/26/2018
China partners even doing it
equal to, and the opposite polarity from, the first. Since the signals 3:06:50 AM willingly and for...
are equal and opposite, there is no return signal through ground;
what travels down one trace comes back on the other.

Common-mode signals are typically more difficult to understand.

They may involve either single-ended traces or two (or perhaps
even more) differential traces. The same signal travels along both
the trace and its return path (ground) or along both traces in a
differential pair. Most of us tend to be unfamiliar with common-mode
signals because we tend never to intentionally generate them
ourselves. They are usually the result of noise being coupled into
the circuit from some other (nearby or external) source. Generally,
their consequences are neutral at best, or damaging at worst.
Common-mode signals can generate noise that interrupts the
operation of our circuits, and are a common source of EMI
problems.

Advantages
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Differential signals have one obvious disadvantage over single-
ended signals. They require two traces instead of one-or twice as
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much board area. There also are several advantages to differential
signals. If there is no return signal through ground, then the Incentives, Metrics, and Their Unintended Consequences
continuity of the ground path becomes relatively unimportant. For ESD: Most Field Meters are Incorrectly Used
example, if we have an analog signal going to a digital device
Engineering Non-Celebrities Lost in 2017
through a differential pair, we don't have to worry about crossing
power boundaries, plane discontinuities, etc. Separation of power 5G: Let the Hype Commence
systems can be made easier with differential devices.2

Differential circuits can be very helpful in low signal-level Cartoon Contest

applications. If the signals are very low level, or if the signal/noise
ratio is a problem, then differential signals effectively double the
signal level (+v - (-v) = 2v). Differential signals and differential January 2018 Cartoon Caption
amplifiers are commonly used at the input stages of very low signal Contest: "Let it Snow"
level systems.

Differential receivers tend to be sensitive to the difference in the

signal levels at their inputs, but they are usually designed to be

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Rules For Handling Differential Signals | EE Times https://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1144365

insensitive to common-mode shifts at the inputs. Therefore,

differential circuits tend to perform better than single-ended ones in
high noise environments.

Switching timing can be more precisely set with differential signals-

referenced to each other-than with single-ended signals, which are
referenced to a less precise reference signal subject to noise at
some other point on the board. The crossover point for a differential
pair is very precisely defined (see Figure 1). The crossover point of
a single-ended signal between a logical one and a logical zero (for
example) is subject to noise, noise threshold, and threshold
detection problems, etc.

Key assumption "Your caption here!"

67 comments
There is one very important aspect to differential signals that is
frequently overlooked, and sometimes misunderstood, by ALL CARTOONS
engineers and designers. Let's start with the two well-known laws:
(a) current flows in a closed loop, and (b) current is a constant
everywhere within that loop. Consider the "positive" trace of a
differential pair. Current flows down the trace and must flow in a Most Commented Most Popular
loop, normally returning through ground. The negative signal on the
other trace must also flow in a loop and would also normally return
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though ground.
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This is easy to see if we temporarily imagine a differential pair with
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the signal on one trace held constant. The signal on the other trace
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would have to return somewhere, and it seems intuitively clear that
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the return path would be where the single-ended trace return would
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be (i.e., ground). We say that, with a differential pair, there is no
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return through ground-not because it can't happen but because the
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returns that do exist are equal and opposite, and therefore sum to
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zero and cancel each other out.

This is a very important point. If the return from one signal (+i) is
exactly equal to and is the opposite sign from the other signal (-i),
then their SUM (+i -i) is zero, and there is no current flowing
anywhere else (and in particular, though ground). Now assume the
signals are not exactly equal and opposite. Let one signal be +i1
and the other be -i2, where i1 and i2 are similar but not equal in Like Us on Facebook
magnitude. The sum of their return currents is: (i1 - i2). Since this is
not zero, then this incremental current must be returning
somewhere else-presumably ground.
EE Times on Twitter follow us
So what, you ask? Let's assume the sending circuit sends a
differential pair of signals that are exactly equal and opposite. Then
we assume they will still be so at the receiving end of the path. But EE Times @eetimes
what if the path lengths are different? If one path (of the differential Qualcomm in China: BFF or DOA? -
pair) is longer than the other path, then the signals are no longer Qualcomm is striving to change its business
equal and opposite during their transition phase at the receiver (see model and offer itself as a useful contributor
Figure 2). If the signals are no longer equal and opposite during to China. ow.ly/Wbwh50gg5HY
their transition from one state to another, then it is no longer true
that there is no return signal through ground. If there is a return
Qualcomm in China: BFF or 9
signal through ground, then power system integrity does become
an issue, and EMI may become a problem. Qualcomm is striving to changeP
eetimes.com
Design Rule 1

This brings us to my first design rule when dealing with differential 4h

signals: The traces should be of equal length.

Some people argue passionately against this rule. Generally, the EE Times @eetimes
basis for their argument involves signal timing. They point out in Teardowns: The Engineer's Heart and Soul -
great detail that many differential circuits can tolerate significant You can learn a great deal about how
differences in the timing between the two halves of a differential electronic products work by taking them
signal pair and still switch reliably. Depending on the logic family apart. EE Times and companion
used, trace length difference of 500 mils can be tolerated. This can publications contain a wealth of teardowns
be very convincingly illustrated with parts specs and signal timing for you to explore. ow.ly/i9G150gfOhD
diagrams. The problem is-in my opinion-that they miss the point.
The reason differential traces must be equal length has almost
nothing to do with signal timing. It has everything to do with the
assumption that differential signals are equal and opposite, and
what happens when that assumption is violated. And what happens
is this: uncontrolled ground currents start flowing that at the very
best are benign but at worst can generate serious common-mode
EMI problems.

So, if you are depending on the assumption that your differential

signals are equal and opposite, and that therefore there is no signal
flowing through ground, a necessary consequence of that
assumption is that your differential pair signal lengths should be
equal.

Differential signals and loop areas

If our differential circuits are dealing with signals that have slow rise
times, high-speed design rules are not an issue. However, when
dealing with fast rise time signals, additional issues come into play

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with differential traces.

Consider a design where a differential signal pair is routed across a

plane from driver to receiver. Let's also assume that the trace
lengths are perfectly equal and the signals are exactly equal and
opposite. Therefore, there is no return current path through ground,
but nevertheless there is an induced current on the plane.

Any high-speed signal can and will induce a coupled signal into an
adjacent trace or plane. The mechanism is exactly the same
mechanism as crosstalk. It is caused by electromagnetic coupling,
the combined effects of mutually inductive coupling and capacitive
coupling. Just as the return current for a single-ended signal trace
tends to travel on the plane directly under the trace, a differential
trace also will have an induced current on the plane underneath it.

But this is not a return current. All the return currents have
cancelled. This is purely a coupled noise current on the plane. The
question is: if current must flow in a loop, where is the rest of the
current flow? Remember, we have two traces with equal and
opposite signals. One trace couples a signal on the plane in one
direction, the other trace couples a signal on the plane in the other
direction. These two coupled currents on the plane are equal in
magnitude (assuming otherwise good design practices.) So the
currents simply flow in a closed loop underneath the differential
traces (see Figure 3). They look like eddy currents. The loop these
coupled currents flow in is defined by: (a) the differential traces
themselves, and (b) the separation between the traces at each end.
The loop "area" is defined by these four boundaries.

Design Rule 2

Now it is generally known that EMI is related to loop area.3

Therefore, if we want to keep EMI under control, we need to
minimize this loop area. The way we do that brings us to the
second design rule: Route differential traces closely together. There
are people who argue against this rule, and indeed the rule is not
necessary if rise times are slow and EMI is not an issue. But in
high-speed environments, the closer we route the differential traces
to each other, the smaller will be the loop area of the induced
currents under the traces, and the better control over EMI we will
have.

It is worthwhile to note that some engineers ask designers to

remove the plane under differential traces. Reducing or eliminating
the induced current loops under the traces is one reason for this.
Another reason is to prevent any noise that might already be on the
plane from coupling into the (presumably) low signal levels on the
traces themselves.4

There is another reason to route differential traces close together.

Differential receivers are designed to be sensitive to the difference
between a pair of inputs, but also to be insensitive to a common-
mode shift of those inputs. That means if the (+) input shifts even
slightly in relation to the (-) input, the receiver will detect it. But if the
(+) and (-) inputs shift together-i.e., in the same direction-the
receiver is relatively insensitive to this shift. Therefore, if any
external noise such as EMI or crosstalk is coupled equally into the
differential traces, the receiver will be insensitive to this common-
mode coupled noise. The more closely differential traces are routed
together, the more equal any coupled noise will be on each trace,
and the better will be the rejection of the noise in the circuit.

Rule 2 consequence

Assuming a high-speed environment, if differential traces are routed

closely to each other (to minimize the loop area underneath them)
then the traces will couple into each other. If the traces are long
enough that termination becomes an issue, this coupling impacts
the calculation of the correct termination impedance.5

Consider a differential pair of traces, Trace 1 and Trace 2. Let's say

they carry signals V1 and V2, respectively. Since they are
differential traces, V2 = -V1. V1 causes a current, i1, along Trace 1,
and V2 causes a current, i2, along trace 2. The current is derived
from Ohm's Law, I = V/Zo, where Zo is the characteristic impedance
of the trace. In the example, the current carried by Trace 1 actually
consists of i1 and also k*i2, where k is proportional to the coupling
between Trace 1 and 2. It can be shown that the net effect of this
coupling is an apparent impedance along Trace 1 equal to Z = Zo -
Z12, where Z12 is caused by the mutual coupling between Trace 1
and Trace 2.6

If Trace 1 and 2 are far apart, the coupling between them is very
small, and the correct termination of each trace is simply Zo, the
characteristic impedance of the single-ended trace. But as the
traces come closer together and the coupling between them
increases, then the impedance of the trace reduces proportional to

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this coupling-which means the proper termination of the trace (to

prevent reflections) is Zo - Z12, or something less than Zo. This
applies to both traces in the differential pair. And since no return
current flows through ground (or so it is assumed) then the
terminating resisters are connected in series between Traces 1 and
2, and the correct terminating impedance is calculated as 2(Zo -
Z12). This value is often given the name "differential impedance."7

Design Rule 3

Differential impedance changes with coupling, which changes with

trace separation. Since it is always important that the trace
impedance remain constant over the entire length, this means that
the coupling must remain constant over the entire length. And this
leads to our third rule: The separation between the two traces (of
the differential pair) must remain constant over the entire length.

Note that these differential impedance impacts are merely

consequences of Design Rule 2. There is nothing inherent about
them. The reason we want to route differential traces close together
has to do with EMI and noise immunity. The fact that this has an
impact on the correct termination of "long" traces, and this in turn
has an impact on the uniformity of trace separation, is simply a
consequence of routing the traces close together for EMI control.8

Conclusion

Differential signals have several advantages, three of which can be:

(1) effective isolation from power systems, (2) noise immunity, and
(3) improvement in S/N ratios. Isolation from power systems-and in
particular from system ground(s)-depends on the assumption that
the signals on the differential traces are truly equal and opposite.
This assumption may not be correct if the trace lengths of the
individual traces of the differential pair are not evenly matched.
Noise immunity often depends on close coupling of the traces. This
has an impact on the value of the proper termination of the traces
to prevent reflections, and also generally requires that if the traces
must be close coupled, their separation must also be constant over
their entire length.

Doug Brooks is the president of UltraCAD Design Inc. (Bellevue,

WA). His e-mail address is doug@eskimo.com.

Footnotes

1. The signal can return through either or both the ground or power
system. The singular term "ground" is used throughout this article
simply for convenience.

2. Optically coupled devices are another approach to solving this

same type of problem.

3. See "Loop Areas: Close 'Em Tight," Printed Circuit Design,

January 1999.

4. I know of no definitive studies that either support or refute this

practice.

5. There are many references throughout the industry on

impedance-controlled traces. See, for example, "PCB Impedance
Control: Formulas and Resources," Printed Circuit Design, March
1998; "Impedance Terminations: What's the Value?," Printed Circuit
Design, March 1999; and "What Is Characteristic Impedance,"
January 2000, p. 18.

6. See "Differential Impedance: What's the Difference," Printed

Circuit Design, August 1998.

7. For an interesting discussion about how to terminate both the

differential mode and common-mode components of a pair of
traces, see "Terminating Differential Signals on PCBs," Printed
Circuit Design, March 1999, p. 25.

8. The reason this doesn't happen with other closely routed traces-
those subject to crosstalk, for example-is that other traces don't
have a coupling between them that is perfectly correlated (i.e.,
equal and opposite). If the coupled signals are simply randomly
related to each other, the average coupling is zero and there is no
impact on the impedance termination.

2001 CMP Media LLC.

11/1/01, Issue # 1811, page 12.

Reproduction and distribution of material appearing in PCD and on

the www.pcdmag.com Web site is forbidden without written
permission from the editor.
Contact information for Reprints.

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NOTE: The articles presented here contain only the text originally
published in Printed Circuit Design magazine. Any accompanying
graphics and illustrations have not been recreated here. You may
view the article in its entirety in each printed issue of PCD.

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