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Project GUISE

Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples


Chris Field and David Beams
University of Texas at Tyler
© 2005, David M. Beams

Introduction: An electric potential difference (voltage) is created between two dissimilar metals when
they are brought into contact; this phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect. The voltage is proportional to
the absolute temperature at the junction between the metals and is dependent upon the metals in contact. A
thermocouple is a temperature-sensing device constructed from wires of two dissimilar metals brought
together at a point junction. Fig. 1 shows a thermocouple composed of metals A and B whose output
voltage VO is the potential difference between the metals VAB at the junction temperature Tj.

Metal A
+ +
Junction VAB(Tj ) VO
_
-
Metal B
Fig. 1. A thermocouple formed by the connection of two dissimilar metals.

In practice the voltage VO cannot be directly measured. Connecting a measurement instrument to the
thermocouple’s terminals introduces two new junctions whose thermocouple voltages appear in series with
the thermocouple voltage VAB(Tj), producing an output voltage VO'. This is shown in Fig. 2 where a
measurement instrument (voltmeter) with input terminals composed of Metal C is connected to the
thermocouple.

VAC ( Ta )
Metal A Metal C
+ -
+ +
Measurement
Junction VAB ( Tj ) VO '
Instrument
- -
+ -
Metal B Metal C
VBC ( Ta )

Fig. 2. Additional thermocouple junctions are produced by connection of a measurement instrument to a


thermocouple.

The voltage registered by the measurement instrument VO' is given by:

( )
V O ' = V AB T j + V BC (Ta ) − V AC (Ta ) (1)

where:
Tj is the temperature of the junction of thermocouple A-B;
Ta is the ambient temperature of the measurement instrument;
VBC(Ta) is the potential difference of metal B with respect to metal C at Ta;
VAC(Ta) is the potential difference of metal A with respect to metal C at Ta;
VAB(Tj) is the potential difference of metal A with respect to metal B at Tj.
Accurate measurement of Tj with a thermocouple requires compensation for the thermocouple voltages of
the additional junctions of Fig. 2. One method (shown in Fig. 3) places a second thermocouple of the same
type in series with the original thermocouple. The second thermocouple junction is held at a constant
reference temperature Tref. Addition of the second thermocouple makes the composition of both
connections to the measurement instrument identical and their thermocouple voltages are therefore self-
canceling.

VAC (Ta)
Metal A + _ Metal C

+ Measurement +
V_AB (Tj) VAC (Ta) VO '
Instrument
+ _ -
Metal B Metal C
Metal B Metal A
VAB (Tref )
_ +

Fig. 3. Use of a second thermocouple at a constant reference temperature to compensate for the
thermocouple voltages developed at the terminals of the measurement instrument.

The voltage VO' in Fig. 3 is given by:

( ) ( )
V O ' = V AC (Ta ) − V AB (Tref ) + V AB T j − V AC (Ta ) = V AB T j − V AB (Tref ) (2)

The temperature of the reference thermocouple junction is commonly 0ºC, established by immersion in a
slurry of water and ice. The reference junction is therefore commonly known as a cold junction and the
method of Fig. 3 is called cold-junction compensation.

Maintaining a reference temperature environment for the second thermocouple is impractical for many
applications. Another method of compensation requiring neither the reference thermocouple nor the
reference-temperature environment is shown in Fig. 4. This technique depends upon a voltage source
whose output is a function of the ambient temperature.

VAC(Ta)
Metal A _
+
+
Junction + V ( ) Metal C
_ AB Tj VO '
_ -
Metal B _ +
+
VBC(Ta) VCJ(Ta)

Fig. 4. Electronic thermocouple compensation.

The voltage VO' in Fig. 4 is given by:

VO ' = VCJ (Ta ) + VBC (Ta ) + VAB (T j ) − VAC (Ta ) (3)

where VCJ(Ta) is the voltage produced by the temperature-dependent voltage source at ambient temperature
Ta. Eq. (3) may be simplified by invoking the law of intermediate metals which states that introduction of a
third metal into the circuit will have no effect upon the voltage produced as long as the junctions of the
third metal with the other two are at the same temperature. Application of the law of intermediate metals
gives:

VBC (Ta ) − VAC (Ta ) = VBA (Ta ) = −VAB (Ta ) (4)

Thus Eq. (4) may be used to re-write Eq. (3):

VO ' = VCJ (Ta ) + VAB (T j ) − VAB (Ta ) (5)

Assuming VCJ(Ta) = VAB(Ta)– VAB(Tref) in Eq. (5) gives:

VO ' = VAB (T j ) − VAB (Tref ) (6)

Thus the output voltage of the thermocouple with electronic compensation method of Fig. 4 is the same as
the cold-junction compensation method of Fig. 3. The method of Fig. 4 is known as electronic cold-
junction compensation.

Electronic cold-junction compensation requires that VCJ(Ta) have the same temperature coefficient as the
thermocouple and be zero when the ambient temperature is Tref. An implementation of this method is
available in the LT1025 Thermocouple Cold Junction Compensator (Linear Technology Corp., Milpitas,
CA). A diagram of the LT1025 is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Diagram of LT1025 Cold Junction Compensator.

The LT1025 consists chiefly of a temperature-dependent voltage source, a buffer amplifier, and a resistive
voltage divider. The voltage source has a nominal output of 10 mV ºC–1 with “bow” correction to
compensate for the slight degree of nonlinearity in thermocouple voltages with respect to temperature.
This voltage is applied to a resistive voltage divider with multiple taps, providing outputs with temperature
coefficients ranging from 60.9µV ºC–1 to 6.0µV ºC–1, matching the temperature coefficients of a number of
types of thermocouples in common use. (Thermocouple types are commonly represented by single-letter
designations, as shown in Fig. 5). Fig. 6 shows a typical application of the LT1025. (The pull-down
resistor Rp and negative supply voltage –V are required if the ambient temperature of the measurement
instrument falls below 0ºC but may otherwise be omitted).
Fig. 6. Typical application of the LT1025 Electronic Cold-Junction Compensator.

The nominal output voltage of the circuit of Fig. 6 is:

⎛ R ⎞
(
VO = ⎜⎜1 + f ⎟⎟ V TC T j − Tref ) (7)
⎝ Ri ⎠

where VTC(Tj) is the thermocouple voltage at Tj and Tref is 0ºC.

A number of standard types of thermocouples are available. Table 1 lists several types of commonly-used
thermocouples and associated thermocouple voltages (referenced to 0ºC) at certain temperatures.

Table 1. Output voltages (mV) vs. temperature for commonly-used thermocouples referenced to 0 ºC. The
positive metal is listed first. Compositions of thermocouple alloys are given below. [1]

Type T Type E Type J Type K Type S Type N


Platinum +
Temperature Copper + Chromel + Iron + Chromel + Platinum-10% Nicosil +
°C Constantan Constantan Constantan Alumel Rhodium Nisil
-150 -4.648 -7.279 -6.5 -4.913 – -1.53
-100 -3.379 -5.237 -4.633 -3.554 – -1.222
-50 -1.819 -2.787 -2.431 -1.889 -0.236 -0.698
-25 -0.94 -1.432 -1.239 -0.968 -0.127 -0.368
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
25 0.992 1.495 1.277 1 0.143 0.402
50 2.036 3.048 2.585 2.023 0.299 0.836
75 3.132 4.657 3.918 3.059 0.467 1.297
100 4.279 6.319 5.269 4.096 0.646 1.785
150 6.704 9.789 8.01 6.138 1.029 2.826
Alumel: 94% nickel, 3% manganese, 2% aluminum, 1% silicon
Chromel: 90% nickel, 10% chromium
Constantan: 55% copper, 45% nickel
Nicosil: 84% nickel, 14% chromium, 1.5% silicon
Nisil: 95% nickel, 4.5% silicon, 0.1% magnesium

Amplifiers for thermocouples: Thermocouples are capable of measurement of temperature over wider
ranges than other available temperature-measurement devices (e.g., thermistors, solid-state temperature
sensors, resistance temperature detectors). The useful range of a Type T (copper-constantan)
thermocouple, for example, extends from below –180 ºC to +260 ºC. Other types of thermocouples (e.g.,
Type K) are useful to temperatures exceeding +1000 ºC. Thermocouples have two significant drawbacks,
however. The necessity of compensation for the thermoelectric junctions formed when a thermocouple is
connected to a measurement instrument has already been mentioned. In addition, as can be seen from
Table 1, the output voltages of thermocouples are in the millivolt range, requiring high-gain amplification
for reasonable output voltages. For example, the change in the thermoelectric voltage of a Type T
thermocouple from 0ºC to +100 ºC is 4.279mV; mapping this voltage to the 0– +5.0V range of a typical
A/D converter would require a gain of almost 1200. The drift problems of high-gain dc-coupled amplifiers,
however, make them difficult to use with thermocouples.

Fig. 7. Thermocouple amplifier circuit showing chopper stabilization. Representative waveforms are
shown at points within the circuit indicated by arrows.

Figure 7 shows a means to achieve the high amplifier gain required for thermocouple applications without
the problems associated with dc-coupled amplifiers. A precision thermocouple amplifier with low-to-
moderate gain amplifies the thermocouple voltage to a level VT. An analog switch chops this signal to
produce a square wave of amplitude VT with average value VT/2 (waveform 1 above). Passage of the signal
through the first RC section removes the average dc voltage to leave a square wave with levels ±VT/2
(waveform 2). A high-gain amplifier amplifies the square-wave signal by A but also introduces dc offset
voltage Voff (waveform 3). Passage through the second RC section removes the dc offset, leaving an output
which is a square wave of A·VT with zero dc offset (waveform 4). Errors due to Voff are eliminated by this
method known as chopper stabilization.

The output voltage of the circuit of Fig. 7 is a square wave with no dc component and amplitude
proportional to the thermocouple voltage. Three possible methods for converting this square wave to a dc
value are shown in Fig. 8 below.
AVT /2
Oscillator Oscillator
AVT /2 AVT /2
0 0 0
VA (Fig. 7)
VA Full-wave Low-pass A Low-pass A Low-pass
Vo Vo Vo
(Fig. 7) rectifier filter B filter B filter
VA -1
(Fig. 7)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8. Some possible methods of converting the square wave output of the amplifier of Fig. 7 into a dc
level. The waveforms shown are those present at the inputs of the low-pass filters.

Figure 8(a) employs a precision full-wave rectifier and low-pass filter. The analog switches in Figs. 8(b)
and 8(c) are controlled by the oscillator of Fig. 7 to perform synchronous rectification. Fig. 8(b) is a half-
wave synchronous rectifier; Fig. 8(c) uses an inverting amplifier with the analog switches to form a full-
wave synchronous rectifier. (Figs. 8(b) and (c) are synchronous rectifiers because their switches are
actuated at the same frequency as the chopper switch. Fig. 8(a) does not require synchronization with the
chopper switch and is therefore an asynchronous rectifier). The nominal dc output voltage Vo of Figs. 8(a)
and (c) is A·VT/2; the dc output voltage of Fig. 8(b) is A·VT/4. The low-pass filters of Figs. 8(a) and (c) are
required for removing brief transients in the rectifier output voltages which occur as the square wave
changes polarities. The low-pass filter of Fig. 8(b) must extract the dc component of a square wave; a
greater degree of filtering is required in Fig. 8(b) than in Figs. 8(a) or (c).

The choice of the asynchronous precision full-wave rectifier or a synchronous rectifier depends upon the
application. The asynchronous precision full-wave rectifier may be used only if VT is unipolar (always
positive or always negative). The square-wave output of the amplifier with a thermocouple amplifier
output voltage of –VT will have the same peak-to-peak value but inverted in phase by comparison with a
thermocouple amplifier output voltage of +VT. The asynchronous full-wave rectifier is insensitive to phase
and therefore produces the same dc output voltage for thermocouple amplifier voltages of +VT and –VT.
The asynchronous full-wave rectifier may be used only for designs in which the polarity of VT is always
known.

Design of a thermocouple thermometer with Project GUISE

Design a thermocouple thermometer with a chopper-stabilized amplifier using the spreadsheet


GUISE Design Worksheet for Thermocouple Thermometers.xls. The temperature range and available
thermocouple types will be made known. Design includes the following steps:

1. Selection of thermocouple type:

Start Excel and open the GUISE Design Worksheet spreadsheet. Fill in the thermocouple type (J, K, T, or
E) in the appropriate box in the page named “Design worksheet.” The thermocouple-type entry is case-
insensitive. Entries other than J, K, or T are treated as type E.

Thermocouple type:
Thermocouple (J, K, T, E) K

Thermocouple V T vs. T -1.0321E-07 Cubic (T 3)


polynomial coefficients 2.7707E-05 Quadratic (T 2)
3.9247E-02 Linear (T 1)
-8.7364E-03 Constant (T 0)
The worksheet automatically computes the coefficients a3–a0 of the polynomial which relates the
thermocouple voltage VTC in mV to junction temperature Tj and reference (cold-junction) temperature Tref
(assumed to be 0º C):

(
V TC = a 3 T j − Tref )3 + a 2 (T j − Tref )2 + a1 (T j − Tref )+ a 0 (8)

2. Temperature range:

Fill in the maximum and minimum operating temperatures of the thermometer. The worksheet computes
the thermocouple voltage at maximum and minimum operating temperatures from Eq. (8). The worksheet
also computes the amplified thermocouple voltages VT at both maximum and minimum temperatures.

Temperature scale
Maximum temperature: 100 C
Minimum temperature: -100 C
Cold-junction temperature: 0 C
V TC (maximum temperature) 3.813 mV
V TC (minimum temperature) -3.830 mV
TC amplifier gain 51 V/V
V T (maximum temperature) 194.5 mV
V T (minimum temperature) -195.3 mV

3. Amplifier gain:

The design may use either or both ac/dc-coupled amplifiers of the Project GUISE hardware. Select
appropriate gains for Amplifiers 0 and 1. (The gain of an amplifier should be set to 1 if it is not to be used).
The spreadsheet computes the peak-to-peak output of the chopper-stabilized amplifier at both the maximum
and minimum operating temperature.

Amplifier
Amplifier 0 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) 50 V/V
Amplifier 1 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) 1 V/V
Amplifier output (T max) 9.72 Vpp
Amplifier output (T min) 9.77 Vpp

The worksheet displays a warning if the peak-to-peak voltage exceeds the maximal peak-to-peak output
voltage swing of the amplifier:

Amplifier
Amplifier 0 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) 50 V/V
Amplifier 1 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) 10 V/V
Amplifier output (T max) 28.00 Vpp
Amplifier output (T min) 28.00 Vpp
Amplfier output voltage exceeds peak-to-peak range

4. Rectifier selection:

Select a rectifier type from the available types. The worksheet will show the dc output of the low-pass
filter at the temperature extremes.
Available rectifier types
1 Precision full-wave rectifier 0.5 Conversion gain, V o (dc) / V in (pp)
2 Half-wave synchronous rectifier 0.25 Conversion gain, V o (dc) / V in (pp)
3 Full-wave synchronous rectifier 0.5 Conversion gain, V o (dc) / V in (pp)

Rectifier
Rectifier type (1-3) 3
Rectifier conversion gain 0.5 V/V

Low-pass filter
DC output at max temperature 4.861 V 5.0 Maximal ADC input voltage, V
DC output at min temperature -4.884 V -5.0 Minimal ADC input voltage, V

5. Calibration coefficients:

Add a quadratic polynomial to the calibration graph on the “Calibration Curve Worksheet” page of the
spreadsheet.

Thermocouple calibration curve 2


T = 3E-08V + 20.335V + 0.2265
2
R = 0.9999
Temperature, C Poly. (Temperature, C)
150

100

50
Temperature, C _

-50

-100

-150
-6.000 -4.000 -2.000 0.000 2.000 4.000 6.000
DC output voltage, V

Fig. 9. Calibration curve for a thermometer using the Project GUISE instrumentation and a type K
thermocouple designed for an operating range of –100°C to +100°C.

Construction of the thermocouple thermometer:

Construct the circuit of Fig. 10 below. The amplifier may be either comprised of either Amplifier 0 or
Amplifier 1 or both. The phase-sensitive demodulator may be a half-wave synchronous rectifier (as in
Fig. 8(b) above) of a full-wave synchronous rectifier (as in Fig. 8(c) above, or implemented with a double-
pole, double throw analog switch and a differential amplifier).

Fig. 9. Block-diagram form of the thermocouple thermometer.

Launch LabVIEW and open the Project GUISE virtual instrument program. Select the proper
thermocouple from the pull-down menu and set the power connection of the instrumentation amplifier and
thermocouple amplifier to “Non-Isolated.” Set the amplifier gain to your design value. Enter calibration
coefficients computed from the GUISE Design Worksheet for Thermocouple Thermometers into the
appropriate places on the Project GUISE virtual instrument panel. Set the Quadrature Oscillator frequency
to 1kHz. Start the Project GUISE virtual instrument.

Apply ±15V to the Project GUISE hardware. Use an oscilloscope to examine the waveforms at the points
indicated in Fig. 9; record the observed waveforms. Use a reference thermometer to measure temperature
and compare the waveforms VT and A⋅VT with the expected waveforms at three temperatures (ambient
temperature, elevated temperature, and the temperature of ice and water in equilibrium). Compare the
readings of the thermometer with a reference thermometer at these known temperatures. From your
measurements, compute the temperature coefficient of the thermocouple (in µV/°).

Submit the following:


• the Project GUISE Design Worksheet for Thermocouple Thermometers with your values;
• the connection diagram of the Project GUISE instrument;
• copies of waveforms VT and A⋅VT at the three temperatures;
• a comparison of the readings of the reference thermometer and the Project GUISE instrument at the
three temperatures;
• your estimate of the temperature coefficient of the thermocouple and a comparison with the published
value.

References:

[1] Holman, J. P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 7th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2001, p. 371.

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