Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Vocational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb

Who benefits from independent careers? Employees,

organizations, or both?
Ricardo Rodrigues a,⁎, David Guest a, Teresa Oliveira b, Kerstin Alfes c
a
Department of Management, King's College, London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
b
University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
c
ESCP Europe, Heubnerweg 8-10, 14059 Berlin, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The traditional organizational career has been depicted as the classic example of how employers
Received 24 July 2015 and employees can develop a mutually beneficial relationship; but changes in the competitive
Received in revised form 11 September 2015 landscape and in individual work values have challenged its viability. Commentators have argued
Accepted 12 September 2015
that a ‘new career’ deal, encapsulated by the notions of the protean and the boundaryless career,
Available online 14 September 2015
has emerged suggesting a shift in control of careers from organizations to individuals. Research
has explored the implications for individuals' careers while largely neglecting consequences for
Keywords: organizations. Our paper seeks to remedy this by exploring both the individual and the organiza-
Protean and boundaryless careers
tional outcomes of independent career orientations and the extent to which organizations can
Human resource management
manage these through high commitment human resource management (HRM) practices. Our
Individual and organizational outcomes
study, conducted with 655 employee–supervisor dyads, indicates that a protean career orienta-
tion results in gains for both employees and organizations, whereas a boundaryless career orien-
tation is associated with mutual losses. In addition, our findings suggest that high commitment HR
practices play an important role in managing the outcomes of employees seeking traditional ca-
reers but have only a limited impact on those with a boundaryless career orientation.
© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The traditional organizational career is an example of a mutually beneficial long-term relationship whereby good performance and
displays of loyalty by employees are rewarded with job security, steady increases in pay and prospects of hierarchical promotion
(Dries, Van Acker, & Verbruggen, 2012). However there is now a widespread view that in the highly uncertain and unpredictable
contemporary competitive environment, organizations are no longer in a position to promise a traditional career (Arthur, 1994). To
navigate successfully in this changing landscape, employees are advised to decouple their identities from their organizational settings
and take ownership of their careers by developing marketable skills and adopting idiosyncratic benchmarks of career success (Arthur,
Khapova, & Wilderom, 2005). This contemporary career has been characterized as protean (Hall, 1976) and boundaryless (Arthur,
1994).
There is some uncertainty about the extent to which independent career orientations have taken hold among employees (Clarke,
2013). However if they are widespread, and individuals are viewing their careers as independent from their employers, they pose a
challenge to organizations seeking to develop and retain highly valued employees. These concerns are reflected in the importance or-
ganizations attach to talent management (Collings & Mellahi, 2009) and what has been termed the ‘war for talent’ (Michaels,
Handfield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001). One organizational response that has been advocated in the face of the risk of losing talented

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ricardo.rodrigues@kcl.ac.uk (R. Rodrigues), david.guest@kcl.ac.uk (D. Guest), tcarla@fe.uc.pt (T. Oliveira), kalfes@escpeurope.eu (K. Alfes).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.09.005
0001-8791/© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
24 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

staff is to adopt high commitment HR practices in the belief that they will be better able to ensure their motivation, commitment and
retention (Jiang, Lepak, Hu & Baer, 2012). However there is no information about how far such practices are able to influence the at-
titudes and behavior of those who have adopted an independent career orientation. Given the uncertainties about the extent to which
these independent career orientations have been embraced by employees, the paucity of research exploring how these orientations
affect organizationally-relevant outcomes and the extent to which organizations are able to influence the association between inde-
pendent career orientations and both individual and organizational outcomes, this paper has two main aims. First, it explores the im-
pact of independent career orientations on individual and organizational outcomes to determine whether or not there are mutual
benefits. In so doing, the paper also contributes to teasing out the distinction between the outcomes of protean and boundaryless ca-
reer orientations which are often used interchangeably in the literature (Uy, Chan, Sam, Ho, & Chernyshenko, 2015). Second, it exam-
ines how far organizations are able to influence the relationship between orientations and outcomes by exploring the moderating role
of high commitment HRM.

2. Theoretical framework

2.1. The concept of career orientations

There is some lack of clarity about the way in which the concepts of protean and boundaryless career have been operationalized
raising questions about their precise nature, derivation and stability. In the opening page of a recent paper about protean and bound-
aryless careers, Briscoe, Henagan, Burton & Murphy (2012: 308), refer to ‘mindset’ and ‘attitudes’. Other contributions refer to protean
and boundaryless career ‘orientations’ (Baruch, 2014; Direnzo, Greenhaus, & Weer, 2015; Gubler, Arnold, & Coombs, 2014). These
concepts have differing implications for stability and suggest that further conceptual work is necessary to determine their status
more clearly. The assumption in adopting the term ‘orientation’ is that preferences for a protean or boundaryless career exist indepen-
dently of any specific organization and persist over time. However, like related career orientations, they are potentially influenced by
experiences outside and inside an organization (Rodrigues, Guest, & Budjanovcanin, 2013). We will therefore adopt the term ‘orien-
tation’ to describe these independent career concepts.

2.2. The impact of independent career orientations on individual outcomes

Protean and boundaryless careers have been depicted as alternative lenses to capture contemporary careers. Though often used
interchangeably in the literature (Uy et al., 2015) these are fundamentally different concepts. The protean career, a term initially
coined by Hall (1976), describes a career “in which the person, not the organization, is in charge” (Hall, 2004: 4). The boundaryless
career depicts a career that “moves across the boundaries of separate employers” (Arthur, 1994: 296). While enacting a boundaryless
career may require the proactivity that underpins the notion of the protean career, the reverse is not necessarily true. Career control
may be used to develop a career within the boundaries of a single employer. As a result it is important to establish the individual and
organizational correlates of both orientations.
Research suggests that a protean career orientation is associated with psychological and career resources such as proactivity
(Porter, Woo, & Tak, 2015), career adaptability (Chan et al., 2015) and effective coping with uncertainty (Baruch & Quick, 2007). It
also leads to positive employee outcomes. Employees who take ownership of their careers are more confident in their ability to
find a new job and report higher levels of career satisfaction (De Vos & Soens, 2008; Grimland, Vigoda-Gadot, & Baruch, 2012) and
psychological well-being (Briscoe et al., 2012). We would therefore expect individuals with a protean career orientation to display
higher levels of satisfaction with their jobs and careers than those relying more on their organizations to manage their careers.
Since a protean career orientation has also been associated with a higher priority for a better work-life balance (Briscoe & Hall,
2006) we would also expect a positive spill-over to satisfaction with life as a whole.

Hypothesis 1: A protean career orientation will be associated with higher levels of job satisfaction, career satisfaction and life
satisfaction.

The second dimension of independent careers, a boundaryless career orientation, has received less research attention and studies
have reported mixed results. The wider literature about boundaryless careers strongly implies that those who pursue them should
be both more successful and more satisfied with their jobs and careers (Arthur, 1994; Peiperl & Baruch, 1997). In a qualitative
study, Culié, Khapova, and Arthur (2014) found that individuals who expressed higher levels of ‘psychological career mobility’
were more satisfied with their careers. Briscoe et al. (2012) found that a boundaryless career ‘mindset’ was positively associated
with external support seeking and active coping with uncertainty in the job market. In a study among unemployed workers in
Belgium, Vansteenkiste, Verbruggen, and Sels (2013) reported that individuals with higher levels of psychological mobility spent
more time searching for a new job and were more likely to be invited to a selection interview.
There is, however, counter-evidence challenging the dominant argument in the boundaryless career literature. In a study in twelve
international organizations in Belgium, Dries et al. (2012) found that employees who were viewed as ‘talent’ by their organizations
were more likely to have traditional career arrangements. In addition, their research showed that organizational career features
such as job security, organizational support, promotion opportunities and salary increases yielded higher career satisfaction than
boundaryless career features. The study by Vansteenkiste et al. (2013) also showed that unemployed individuals with higher psycho-
logical mobility received fewer job offers and were less successful in transitioning into employment when compared with individuals
 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34 25

with a stronger preference for organizational careers. This was partly explained by the fact that they more frequently applied for jobs
for which they were not a good match.
The evidence available shows that we know little about how far contemporary workers have adopted a boundaryless career ori-
entation and, if they have, whether they also report more positive outcomes. Nevertheless, based on the limited evidence and the
common assumptions, we offer the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2: A boundaryless career orientation will be associated with higher levels of job satisfaction, career satisfaction and life
satisfaction.

2.3. The impact of an independent career orientation on organizational outcomes

Research on protean and boundaryless career orientations has generally neglected organizational outcomes. There is a clear impli-
cation that these attitudes reflect a shift in power from organization to individual resulting in an increased risk to organizations of los-
ing key personnel or at least losing the ability to manage their careers in the way they were able to in the past.
The kind of organizational outcomes that are likely to be most relevant to career management include individual performance and
retention. Task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) have been identified as core components of perfor-
mance at the individual level (Dunlop & Lee, 2004). Various dimensions of OCB have been identified (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). Here we focus on discretionary behaviors oriented towards organizations.
There is no reason to expect that a boundaryless career orientation will affect task performance. For those with a high boundaryless
career orientation, who may be considering a move to another organization, good task performance is likely to improve their market-
ability. However, those seeking an organizational career will equally believe that good performance enhances their chances of internal
promotion. Preliminary support for this has been provided by Briscoe et al. (2012) who found no direct association between a higher
or lower boundaryless mindset and self-rated job performance. We therefore offer no hypothesis about the relation between a bound-
aryless career orientation and job performance.
Hall (2004) argues that a protean career orientation will lead to increased performance. Support for this association stems largely
from the literature showing a link between the display of proactive behaviors towards one's career, coworkers and employer and pos-
itive employee and organizational outcomes (Belschak & Hartog, 2010). Briscoe et al. (2012) and Baruch (2014) have provided initial
empirical evidence and reported an association between protean career preferences and self-report measures of individual perfor-
mance. We extend this research by exploring linkages with supervisor ratings of performance.

Hypothesis 3: A protean career orientation will be positively associated with job performance.

As organizations require greater flexibility of response and greater use of initiative reflecting the need to respond to a range of con-
tingencies, engaging in OCBs has become an increasingly important performance indicator. While the boundaryless and the protean
careers have been associated with proactivity and a relationship between proactive behaviors and OCBs has been proposed on the
grounds that proactive employees are more motivated to contribute to organizational improvement initiatives (Crant, 2000; Li,
Liang, & Crant, 2010), the response may differ according to orientation.
Individuals may engage in OCBs for a variety of reasons, including impression management (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Those seeking
advancement within an organization will be more likely to seek to impress influential individuals within their organization while
those with a boundaryless career orientation will be more likely to engage in external impression management and display fewer
OCBs oriented towards their current employer.

Hypothesis 4: There will be a positive association between a protean career orientation and organizational citizenship behaviors.

Hypothesis 5: There will be a negative association between a boundaryless career orientation and organizational citizenship
behaviors.

Attitudinal outcomes of independent career orientations that will be of particular interest to organizations include organizational
commitment and intention to quit. Research demonstrates a consistent association between reduced commitment and higher inten-
tion to quit as well as an association with actual quits (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolyntsky, 2002) which justifies a concern
about these attitudes in those organizations concerned about retention of key staff. There is also a significant albeit weak association
between organizational commitment and performance (Riketta, 2002). A protean career orientation does not imply any specific pat-
tern of career mobility and the evidence supports a positive association with organizational commitment (Baruch, 2014; Çakmak-
Otluoğlu, 2012; Porter et al., 2015). This may be explained by the fact that individuals with a strong protean career orientation are
better equipped to control their work environment. We do not advance any hypotheses regarding the relationship between a protean
career orientation and intention to quit. While there is evidence suggesting that individuals who take ownership of their careers en-
gage in more job search behaviors (De Vos & Soens, 2008) it is also likely that they are able to experience higher levels of person-job
and person-organization fit which would motivate them to stay with their employers (Direnzo & Greenhaus, 2011).
In contrast, we can expect that, other things being equal, those with a boundaryless career orientation will display lower commit-
ment to their current organization and a higher intention to quit. The literature has shown a consistent association between intention
to quit and actual turnover (Hom, Mitchell, Lee, & Griffeth, 2012). This reflects the likely association between what Sullivan and Arthur
(2006) describe as the psychological and behavioral forms of career boundarylessness.
26 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

Hypothesis 6: A protean career orientation will be associated with higher organizational commitment.

Hypothesis 7: A boundaryless career orientation will be associated with lower organizational commitment and higher intention to
quit.

2.4. Organizational influence on independent career orientations: the role of human resource management

There are sound reasons why organizations might wish to influence the behavior typically associated with protean and boundary-
less career orientations. A protean career orientation indicates a desire for personal control over a career that may run counter to the
organization's career management plans for the individual. On the other hand, it could complement organizational career manage-
ment resulting in mutual benefits (Baruch, 2014). a boundaryless career orientation implies an increased propensity to move across
organizational boundaries. Organizations will be more concerned about this if it leads to the loss of talented, highly marketable and
hard to replace staff and will wish to minimize this risk.
Research has shown that greater use and effective implementation of bundles of what are variously termed ‘high commitment’,
‘high involvement’ and ‘high performance’ HRM practices, such as selectivity in hiring, extensive training and development, job secu-
rity and work flexibility can result in enhanced individual and organizational outcomes including higher job satisfaction, higher com-
mitment to the organization, higher job performance and reduced intention to quit (Van de Voorde, Paauwe, & van Veldhoven, 2012).
The higher levels of autonomy implied in this approach to HRM may engage those with a protean career orientation and also reduce
the likelihood of labor turnover among those with a boundaryless career orientation, particularly if it enhances their human capital
and thereby increases employability. Given the evidence about the impact of HRM on individual and organizational outcomes, we pro-
pose that its presence will moderate the relationship between independent career orientations and outcomes such that higher levels
of HRM result in more positive individual and, in particular, more positive organizational outcomes.

Hypothesis 8: High commitment HR practices will moderate the relationship between protean and boundaryless career orientations
and outcomes such that greater experience of these HR practices will be associated with higher task performance, OCBs and organi-
zational commitment and lower intention to quit.

3. Methods

3.1. Context of the research, sample, and procedure

Data were collected in 2014 through a questionnaire survey of a sample of workers in 19 private organizations in Portugal who
responded to an invitation to participate in our study. At the time of the data collection Portugal was concluding an austerity program
to address its sovereign debt crisis. The economic austerity has had a strong impact on unemployment which rose from 7.6% in 2008 to
16.3% at the time of the data collection (OECD, 2015).
Organizations were contacted via a university's MBA alumni network. Participant organizations ranged in size from under 50 to
over 3000 employees. Data from 655 subordinate-supervisor dyads were collected. Participants were informed of the aims of the
study and the procedure for data collection. Those who agreed to participate in the study were asked to identify their immediate su-
pervisor. The supervisors received a questionnaire informing them that their subordinates were participating in the study and were
asked to provide information about their performance. Confidentiality was assured to all participants. Subordinates and supervisors
were told they would not have access to each other's answers. All questionnaires were collected personally by a research assistant
and information from subordinates was paired with that provided by their respective supervisor. The mean age of respondents
was 36.4 years (SD = 10.3). 369 (56.1%) participants were men and 368 (55.9%) had partners. Mean job tenure was 5.7 years
(SD = 6.3). 496 (79.7%) respondents were permanent workers and 50 (8.1%) worked part-time.

3.2. Measures

Validated measures of all constructs were used. Unless otherwise stated, responses to all items were obtained using a five-point
Likert scale ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “5 = strongly agree”. items were translated from English to Portuguese by the
first author and then back-translated independently by the third author of the paper. Both authors are bilingual. The translation
was subsequently analyzed by a university translator. The questionnaire was analyzed by a panel of 10 individuals who indicated
that all items were clear. All measures present good reliability (see Table 1).

3.3. Control variables

3.3.1. Demographic variables

Information was collected about participants' age in years, gender (0 = men; 1 = women), marital status (0 = married; 1 = sin-
gle), and education (1 = basic education; 2 = high school diploma; 3 = higher education). These are relevant control variables as
evidence suggests they are predictors of independent career orientations (Segers et al., 2008).
Table 1

R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

Means, standard deviations, correlations and reliabilities between study variables.

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1 Gender (1 = women) 1.42 .49

2 Age (in years) 36.47 10.34 .00
3 Marital status (1 = single) .41 .49 −.02 −.42**
4 Employer tenure (in months) 69.56 76.04 .27** .34** −.22**
5. Emp. contract (1 = temporary) .20 .40 −.01 −.27** .26** −.29**
6. Emp. contract (1 = part-time) .08 .27 −.03 −.34** .28** −.20** .32**
7. Income 2.35 1.97 −.17** −.05 −.06 −.07 −.08* .00
8. Education 2.17 .73 −.13** −.28** .13** −.28** .10* .08 .25**
9. Organization size 386.01 777.29 −.01 .09* −.13** .21** −.12** −.11** .08* .16**
10. Job satisfaction 4.05 .63 .08* −.08 .10* .00 .10* .16** −.01 .02 .02 (.70)
11. Life satisfaction 3.21 .80 .13** .02 −.04 .05 −.02 .20** .05 .02 .06 .29** (.79)
12. Career satisfaction 3.61 .80 .13** .05 .03 .11** −.04 .18** .05 −.12** −.02 .47** .50** (.91)
13. Intention to quit 2.04 .89 −.24** −.07 .02 −.18** .03 −.02 .04 .08* −.05 −.55** −.32** −.46** (.86)
14. Organizational commitment 3.81 .77 .03 −.05 −.02 .04 −.07 .10* .13** .16** −.01 .58** .25** .34** −.47** (.74)
15. Task performance 3.93 .64 .03 −.11** −.04 .01 −.02 .22** .02 −.02 −.02 .11** .09* .12** −.06 .06 (.91)
16. OCBs 3.57 .75 −.01 −.06 −.10* −.07 −.03 .18** .08* .05 −.02 .14** .07 .10** −.10** .13** .66** (.86)
17. HR practices 3.27 .50 .08* −.11** .12** −.05 .11** .34** .08* .09* −.03 .49** .36** .45** −.46** .51** .14** .20**
18. Boundaryless C. orientations 2.76 .71 −.17** −.25** .10* −.26** .07 .14** .07 .20** −.02 −.33** −.22** −.40** .46** −.27** .01 .04 −.24** (.77)
19. Protean C. orientations 3.61 .61 .15** −.17** .15** −.11** .13** .23** −.03 .00 −.19** .34** .30** .42** −.24** .26** .16** .17** .41** −.13** (.73)
*
p b .05.
**
p b .01.

27
28 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

3.3.2. Employment experience variables

Information was collected about participants' employment contract and whether this was permanent or temporary (0 = tempo-
rary; 1 = permanent) and full time or part-time (0 = full time; 1 = part-time); and monthly salary (six categories ranging from
under €500/month to over €3000/month). These are important control variables to consider as they may influence outcomes over
and above the role of career orientations.

3.3.3. Organizational variables

Information was collected about organization size (number of workers). This is a relevant control as organization size may influ-
ence the number of HR practices adopted and their formalization.

3.3.4. Supervisor rated performance

Task Performance was measured using 7 items developed by Williams and Anderson (1991) addressing employee in-role behav-
iors. Sample items are “This employee adequately completes assigned duties” and “This employee neglects aspects of the job he/she is
obliged to perform (R)”.
Organizational citizenship behaviors were measured with 4 items developed by Lee and Allen (2002) to capture organizationally-
directed OCBs. This measure is particularly relevant for our study as it places the organization as the beneficiary of the citizenship be-
haviors. Sample items are “This employee attends functions that are not required but that help the organizational image” and “This
employee defends the organization when other employees criticize it”.

3.3.5. Self-report data

Intention to quit was measured with 3 items adapted from Price (1997). A sample item is “If I could I would quit today”.
Organizational commitment was measured using 3 items from Meyer and Allen's (1997) measure of affective commitment. A sam-
ple item is “I do not feel a strong sense of ‘belonging’ to my organization (R)”.
High commitment human resource management practices were measured with 25 items covering eight main areas: job security
(a sample item is “My organization offers me job security”); recruitment and selection (a sample item is “In recruiting, my company
emphasizes the potential of new hires to learn and grow with the company”); training and development (a sample item is “I receive
sufficient training in areas directly related to my job”); performance appraisal (a sample item is “I have a formal performance appraisal
at least once a year”); flexibility (a sample item is “My company offers flexible work opportunities); two-way communication (a sam-
ple item is “I have opportunities to express my views to my superiors”); job design (a sample item is “My organization tries to make
my job as interesting as possible”); and career management (a sample item is “I have clear career paths within my organization”).
Protean and boundaryless career orientations were measured with two scales capturing career preferences. These are better suited
to address career orientations than behavioral measures.
Boundaryless career orientation was measured with four items from Briscoe, Hall, and DeMuth's (2006) career mobility preference
scale. Sample items are “I like the predictability that comes with working continuously for the same organization (R)” and “I would
feel very lost if I couldn't work for my current organization (R)”. A decision was made not to use the boundaryless mindset scale.
This measure focuses on people's attitudes towards working across organizational boundaries (e.g. with people in different depart-
ments, functions and organizations) and is arguably less relevant to capture the core meaning of the boundaryless career as defined
by Arthur (1994). In addition, it is not clear how it resonates among people working in SMEs where boundaries between jobs and de-
partments are often unclear.
Protean career orientation was measured with four items from Briscoe et al.’s (2006) self-directed career management scale. Sam-
ple items are “Overall, I have a very independent, self-directed career” and “Ultimately, I depend upon myself to move my career for-
ward”. The values driven scale was not used as evidence suggests that it is problematic in non-US samples (Baruch, 2014; Chan et al.,
2015).
Job satisfaction was measured using 3 items adapted from Kim, Price, Mueller, and Watson (1996). A sample item is “Most days I
am enthusiastic about my job”.
Career satisfaction was measured with 4 items adapted from Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990). A sample item is
“Overall I am satisfied with my career so far”.
Life satisfaction was measured with 4 items from Pavot, Diener, Colvin, and Sandvik (1991) satisfaction with life scale. A sample
item is “In most ways, my life is close to ideal”.

4. Analyses and results

4.1. Analyses

All the variables used were inspected for distribution characteristics, missing values and outliers. Since the data were cross-
sectional and part of the analysis relies on self-report data we conducted Harman's single-factor test to assess whether common meth-
od variance threatened the validity of our findings (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). The single common factor accounts
for 23.7% of the variance which is below the 25% average found in the literature (Williams, Cote, & Buckley, 1989). The decision was
made to test all hypotheses using multiple regressions so as to control for relevant variables potentially affecting the outcomes.
 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34 29

4.1.1. Means, standard deviations and zero-order correlations

The means, standard deviations, reliabilities and correlations of the study variables are presented in Table 1. Overall, participants
report moderate protean career orientations (Mean = 3.61; SD = .71) and somewhat low boundaryless career orientations
(Mean = 2.76; SD = .61). As expected, boundaryless career orientations are negatively correlated with organizational commitment
(r = −.27; p b .01) and employer tenure (r = −.26; p b .01) and positively correlated with intention to quit (r = .46; p b .01). No
significant correlations with task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors were found. In contrast, protean career orien-
tations are positively correlated with task performance (r = .16; p b .01), OCBs (r = .16; p b .01) and organizational commitment
(r = .26; p b .01) and negatively associated with intention to quit (r = −.24; p b .01). HR practices are positively correlated with pro-
tean (r = .41; p b .01) and negatively associated with boundaryless career orientations (r = −.14; p b .01).

4.2. Results

Hypothesis 1 and 2 explore direct links between career orientations and employee outcomes. To test them we have regressed
boundaryless and protean career orientations on job satisfaction, career satisfaction and life satisfaction controlling for the effect of
demographic, employment experience, organizational characteristics and HR practices. Data are presented in Table 2.
Hypothesis 1 argues that people with high protean career orientations will be more satisfied with their career, their job and their
lives in general. Results in Table 2 support our hypothesis and show that individuals with a protean career orientation report higher
levels of career (β = .27; p b .00), job (β = .41; p b .00) and life (β = .24; p b .00) satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2 suggests that people with a high boundaryless career orientation will report lower attitudinal outcomes. Results in Table
2 support the hypothesis and indicate that those with a boundaryless career orientation report lower career (β = −.29; p b .00),
job (β = −.24; p b .00) and life (β = −.16; p b .01) satisfaction. Our evidence therefore shows that, other things being equal, protean
career orientations result in positive outcomes for employees and boundaryless career orientations lead to poorer outcomes.
Hypothesis 3 to 7 address linkages between career orientations and organizational outcomes. To test these hypotheses we have
regressed task performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, organizational commitment and intention to quit on career orien-
tations controlling for the effect of demographics, employment experience, organizational characteristics and HR practices. Results are
presented in Table 3.
Hypothesis 3 posits that individuals with a protean career orientation will have higher task performance. Results in Table 3 show a
positive association between protean career orientations and task performance (β = .10; p b .05) supporting our hypothesis.
Hypothesis 4 and 5 address the links between independent career orientations and OCBs. Hypothesis 4 proposes that individuals
with a high protean career orientation will display more OCBs. Results in Table 3 show a positive association between career self-
directedness and supervisor ratings of OCBs (β = .11; p b .05) confirming the hypothesis. Hypothesis 5 suggests that boundaryless
career orientations are negatively associated with OCBs. The evidence in Table 3 does not support our hypothesis (β = .07; ns).
Hypothesis 6 and 7 explore the links between independent career orientations and attitudes of interest to organizations.
Hypothesis 6 proposes that protean career orientations will be associated with higher organizational commitment while
Hypothesis 7 suggests that individuals with high boundaryless career orientations will display lower levels of commitment and report
higher intention to quit. Results in Table 3 confirm our hypotheses indicating that a more proactive career orientation is associated
with higher organizational commitment (β = .10; p b .01) and a higher boundaryless career orientation is associated with significant-
ly lower organizational commitment (β = −.16; p b .01) and a higher intention to leave (β = .31; p b .00).
Finally, Hypothesis 8 proposes that high commitment HR practices will moderate the link between independent career orienta-
tions and outcomes of interest to organizations, such that a higher presence of HR practices will lead to more positive outcomes.

Table 2
Hierarchical regression of independent career orientations on career, job and life satisfaction.

Career satisfaction Job satisfaction Life satisfaction

Independent variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Gender (1 = women) .09* .04 .05 .02 .08 .05

Age .05 .02 .06 .03 .11* .09
Marital status (1 = single) .03 .03 .06 .06 −.07 −.08
Employer tenure .08 .07 .05 .03 .04 .03
Employment contract (1 = temporary) .02 .01 .00 .00 −.08* −.09*
Employment contract (1 = part-time) −.03 −.01 −.02 −.00 .01 .02
Salary .03 .07 −.07 −.04 −.00 .01
Education −.15** −.11* .04 .07 .04 .07
Organization size .06 .08* .08* .09* .06 .07
Human resource management practices .43*** .24*** .54*** .41*** .35*** .24***
Protean career orientation .27*** .15*** .14**
Boundaryless career orientation −.29*** −.24*** −.16**
Δ R2 .24*** .14*** .30*** .07*** .17*** .04***
R2 .38 .37 .21
*
p b .05.
**
p b .01.
***
p b .001.
 30
Table 3

R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

Hierarchical regression of independent career orientations and interactions between career orientations and human resource management practices on task performance, OCB, organizational commitment and intention to quit.

Task performance OCB Organizational commitment Intention to quit

Independent variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Gender (1 = women) .05 .02 .02 .07 .02 .03 .10* .00 −.00 −.26*** −.16*** −.16***
Age −.09 −.06 −.04 −.01 .00 .01 −.05 −.06 −.08 −.03 .00 .00
Marital status (1 = single) −.15** −.16** −.16** −.21*** −.22*** −.22*** −.02 −.04 −.05 .03 .04 .04
Employer tenure .06 .09 .08 −.01 .02 .02 .10* .10** .10** −.09 −.06 −.06
Employment contract (1 = temporary) .03 .03 .02 .08 .07 .06 .10* .10** .09** −.04 −.04 −.04
Employment contract (1 = part-time) −.02 −.04 −.05 .01 −.01 −.00 .07 .03 .04 −.02 .00 .00
Salary −.02 −.06 −.06 .06 .01 .01 .31*** .19*** .19*** −.11* −.01 −.01
Education −.00 −.00 .00 .05 .05 .06 .04 .10** .10** .10 .03 .03
Organization size .05 .02 .00 −.17*** −.13** −.12** .05 .02 .04 .06 .07 .07
Human resource management practices .08 .08 .10* .08 .40*** .38*** −.39*** −.39***
Protean career orientation .11* .10* .14** .11* .11** .10** −.01 −.01
Boundaryless career orientation .07 .06 .09 .07 −.16*** −.16*** .31*** .31***
Int. HRM & protean career orientation −.05 −.11* −.05 .01
Int. HRM & boundaryless career orientation −.15** −.13** .12** −.03
Δ R2 .03* .02* .02** .08*** .04*** .02** .12*** .26*** .02*** .11*** .31*** .00
R2 .07 .14 .40 .14
*
p b .05.
**
p b .01.
***
p b .001.
 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34 31

Fig. 1. Interaction effect of boundaryless career orientations and HR practices on task performance.

Results in Table 3 show significant interactions for task performance, OCBs and organizational commitment. No significant interac-
tions were found for intention to quit. We have plotted the significant interactions to facilitate interpretation (see Figs. 1 to 4) and
followed the interaction probing procedure recommended by Hayes (2013).
Fig. 1 shows the interaction pattern of boundaryless career orientation and HRM on task performance. The interaction is significant
only at low levels of HRM (b = .19, t = 2.34, p = .02, LLCI = .03, ULCI = .35) indicating that in organizations adopting fewer high
commitment HR practices individuals with high boundaryless career orientations will perform better than those seeking a traditional
career.
Fig. 2 shows the interaction pattern of boundaryless career orientation and HRM on OCB. The analysis of slopes shows that the in-
teraction is significant at low (b = .18, t = 3.14, p = .00, LLCI = .06, ULCI = .30) and mean (b = .10, t = 2.43, p = .01, LLCI = .02,
ULCI = .19) levels of HRM. These results indicate that when organizations adopt low levels of HRM, employees with a low boundary-
less career orientation display fewer OCBs compared with those with a high boundaryless career orientation.
Fig. 3 shows the interaction between protean career orientations and HRM on OCBs. Additional exploration of the slopes
shows that the interaction is significant at low (b = .14, t = 2.36, p = .01, LLCI = .02, ULCI = .26), mean (b = .14, t = 2.63, p =
.00, LLCI = .03, ULCI = .25) and high (b = .14, t = 2.03, p = .04, LLCI = .00, ULCI = .28) levels of HRM. This suggests that a strong
presence of HR practices minimizes the differences in the display of OCBs between individuals with high and low protean career ori-
entations. In contrast, when organizations adopt fewer HR practices, those with a low protean career orientation display significantly
fewer OCBs.
Finally, Fig. 4 shows the interaction effect of boundaryless career orientations and HR practices on organizational commitment.
Slope analysis indicates that the interaction is significant at low (b = −.29, t = −5.75, p = .00, LLCI = −.39, ULCI = −.19) and
mean (b = −.18, t = − 4.74, p = .00, LLCI =−.25, ULCI = −.10) levels of HRM. This indicates that when organizations invest
strongly in HR practices there are no significant differences in commitment between individuals seeking organizational and bound-
aryless careers. In contrast, where there is low investment in HRM, those with high boundaryless career orientations display lower
levels of commitment.
Overall, though interesting and relevant, results do not broadly support Hypothesis 8. With the exception of OCB, the role of HR
practices in shaping the attitudes and behaviors of individuals with protean career orientations is modest. In contrast, HRM is impor-
tant in shaping the outcomes of individuals with differing levels of boundaryless career orientation, albeit not the direction hypoth-
esized. Findings indicate that in organizations adopting more high commitment HR practices there are no clear differences in
performance, commitment and retention between individuals with high and low boundaryless career orientations. However,
where there is low adoption of high commitment HR practices, those with a low boundaryless career orientation display poorer per-
formance outcomes compared with employees displaying higher boundaryless career orientations.

Fig. 2. Interaction effect of boundaryless career orientations and HR practices on OCBs.

32 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34

Fig. 3. Interaction effect of protean career orientations and HR practices on OCBs.

5. Discussion and conclusion

Since the mid-1990s the careers literature has extensively discussed the changing nature of careers and in particular the argument
that they are becoming increasingly inter-organizational, individually driven, and subjectively assessed (Arthur, 1994; Arthur et al.,
2005). Commentators have argued that the demise of the traditional career deal reflects both changes in the competitive environ-
ment, driven by factors such as global competition, organizational restructuring and downsizing, which have challenged the stability
and the role of internal labor markets as devices to attract and retain talent (Cappelli, 1999), as well as changes in individuals' career
preferences and work values (Smola & Sutton, 2002). A ‘new career’ deal, grounded on low mutual loyalty and short-term employ-
ment relations, is said to have emerged. Irrespective of the debate about the prevalence of independent career patterns and prefer-
ences (Rodrigues & Guest, 2010), the impact of protean and boundaryless career orientations on individual and more particularly
on organizational outcomes remains an underdeveloped area of research. This paper aimed to progress research by empirically ex-
ploring links between independent career orientations and both individual and organizational outcomes. In addition, it aimed to ex-
plore the role of organizations in managing the outcomes of employees with high protean and boundaryless career orientations
through the adoption of high commitment HR practices. Three key issues have been explored empirically among a sample of 655
worker-supervisor dyads in 19 organizations in Portugal.
First, we explored the implications for individuals of independent career orientations. Our findings showed that protean career ori-
entations were associated with positive experiences for workers and are in line with other studies (Baruch & Quick, 2007; De Vos &
Soens, 2008). In addition, our study showed that, all things being equal, employees with high boundaryless career orientations report-
ed lower levels of career, job and life satisfaction. This challenges the key assumption underpinning the ‘new career’ literature that
boundarylessness is more satisfying for employees. Additional research is needed to clarify the conditions under which psychological
boundarylessness can lead to positive employee outcomes. The role of relevant moderators and mediators at the context level, such as
unemployment rates or the state of the economy, and at the individual level, such as perceptions of employability, proactive person-
ality as well as the interaction between gender, family responsibilities and life stage needs to be further explored.
Second, our study is one of the first to explore the implications of independent career orientations for organizations. Our findings
showed that protean career orientations were positively associated with task performance, OCBs and organizational commitment. In
contrast, the evidence showed that employees seeking boundaryless careers were less committed and more willing to leave their em-
ployers. The adaptable nature of protean careers seems to result in mutual gains for employees and organizations. In contrast, bound-
aryless career orientations are associated with poorer outcomes for both parties. Our findings highlight the distinction between
protean and boundaryless career orientations cautioning against using them interchangeably. Further research is needed, in different
contexts, to tease out the differences in antecedents and outcomes between protean and boundaryless career orientations.

Fig. 4. Interaction effect of boundaryless career orientations and HR practices on organizational commitment.
 R. Rodrigues et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 91 (2015) 23–34 33

Finally, we have explored the extent to which organizations can influence the outcomes of individuals with independent career
orientations through high commitment HRM. The key finding is that HRM has an important role in shaping the outcomes of individ-
uals with low protean and low boundaryless career orientations. Our study shows that in organizations adopting fewer HR practices,
individuals with a low boundaryless career orientation have lower job performance and display fewer OCBs than those preferring
boundaryless careers. This suggests that individuals seeking more traditional career arrangements have a greater interest in being
well-managed in their current organization and may be more sensitive to relevant organizational policy and practice. An investment
in the organization is likely to result in greater ‘exchange sensitivity’ (Morrison & Robinson, 2004) and therefore in a stronger reaction
to a greater or lesser presence of HR practices. Variations in the presence of HR practices also have an important impact on individuals
with low protean career orientations. This may be explained by the fact that these individuals seek to take ownership and control of
their careers and do not appreciate organizational career management practices. Though relevant, the impact of HR practices on the
outcomes of individuals with protean and boundaryless career orientations was not the one expected. Future research should explore
the role of other moderators such as HR attributions, supportive leadership and organizational support in managing the performance
and retention of individuals pursuing independent careers. In addition, it is important to stress that these findings do not necessarily
mean that organizations can ignore employees' career orientations when designing HR practices. At the same time, given the wider
evidence that independent career orientations may not have taken hold among contemporary employees, there would appear to
be a strong case for retaining traditional organizational career management practices including career and succession planning, inter-
nal promotion, and extensive employee training and development since it is those who display low independent career orientations
and, by implication, a preference for a more traditional organizational career, that these practices have the greatest impact. Among
those with protean orientations, the policy challenge is to provide a balance of organizational career management practices alongside
encouragement for career self-management. For those with a stronger boundaryless career orientation the challenge is to provide the
kind of development and advancement opportunities that demonstrate that employability is more likely to be enhanced by staying
with rather than leaving the organization.
Our study also has three relevant limitations. First, our study is cross-sectional. Longitudinal research is needed, ideally following
the career orientations of individuals over time to explore how they are shaped by HR practices and by contextual changes as well as
major changes in their personal lives. Second, the social and economic context in which the data were collected may have affected the
outcomes of individuals seeking boundaryless careers. The context of economic crisis and high unemployment in Portugal may en-
courage workers to reduce physical and psychological career mobility. This may also explain the positive association between career
boundedness and career, job and life satisfaction. It is therefore important to replicate the study under different economic circum-
stances. Finally, our data were collected in private organizations only. Public sector organizations tend to traditionally offer higher
job security and stability. This may reflect both on their ability to attract and retain employees with high protean and boundaryless
career orientations as well as on the outcomes of employees with independent career orientations. This is an aspect to be explored
in future research.
In summary, this study offers an empirical exploration of the outcomes of independent career orientations for individuals and for
organizations. It suggests that protean career orientations can result in mutual gains for organizations and employees and that career
boundarylessness seems to result in mutual losses, even though these may be more significant for individuals than for organizations.

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