Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
0-1
April 2016
Sheet 01 001
Contents
Power Distribution
Systems
i
Power Distribution Systems Suggested Ground
System Design Fault Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-6 ii
Basic Principles. . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-1 Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
Modern Electric Power Grounding—Equipment,
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-1 System, MV System, 1
Goals of System Design . . . 1.1-2 LV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-9
Voltage Classifications; BILs— Ground Fault Protection . . . . 1.4-11
Basic Impulse Levels . . . . . 1.1-3 Lightning and Surge 2
Three-Phase Transformer Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-14
Winding Connections . . . . 1.1-5 Grounding Electrodes . . . . . 1.4-14
Types of Systems—Radial, MV Equipment Surge 3
Loop, Selective, Two-Source, Protection Considerations . 1.4-14
Sparing Transformer, Spot
Network, Distribution . . . . 1.1-6
Surge Protection . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-14 4
Types of Surge
Health Care Facility Protection Devices . . . . . . . 1.4-15
Design Considerations . . . 1.1-15
Generator Systems . . . . . . 1.1-18
Power Quality 5
Terms, Technical Overview . . 1.4-18
Generator System Design SPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-19
Types of Generators. . . . . . . 1.2-1 Harmonics and 6
Generator Systems . . . . . . . 1.2-2 Nonlinear Loads . . . . . . . . . 1.4-21
Generator Grounding. . . . . . 1.2-3 UPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-25
Generator Controls. . . . . . . . 1.2-4 Other Application Considerations
7
Generator Short-Circuit Secondary Voltage . . . . . . . . 1.4-31
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 1.2-4
Generator Protection . . . . . . 1.2-5
Energy Conservation . . . . . . 1.4-32 8
Building Control Systems . . 1.4-33
System Analysis Distributed Energy
Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . 1.3-1 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-33 9
Short-Circuit Currents . . . . . 1.3-2 Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-33
Fault Current Waveform PV System Design
Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3-3 Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-34 10
Fault Current Calculations Emergency Power. . . . . . . . . 1.4-35
and Methods Index . . . . . . 1.3-4
Determine X and R from
Peak Shaving. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-36 11
Sound Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-36
Transformer Loss Data . . . 1.3-19
Reference Data
Voltage Drop
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 1.3-20
IEEE Protective Relay 12
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-1
System Application Considerations
Codes and Standards . . . . . . 1.5-6
Capacitors and
Motor Protective 13
Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-1
Device Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-7
Overcurrent Protection Chart of Short-Circuit
and Coordination . . . . . . . . 1.4-3 Currents for Transformers . . 1.5-9 14
Protection of Conductors. . . 1.4-5 Transformer Full Load
Circuit Breaker Cable
Temperature Ratings . . . . . 1.4-5
Amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-10
Impedances Data . . . . . . . . . 1.5-11
15
Zone Selective Interlocking . 1.4-5 Transformer Losses . . . . . . . 1.5-12
Ground Fault Protection . . . 1.4-6 Power Equipment Losses . . . 1.5-13 16
NEMA Enclosure Definitions. . 1.5-13
Cable R, X, Z Data . . . . . . . . . 1.5-15
Conductor Ampacities . . . . . 1.5-17 17
Conductor Temperature
Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-17
Formulas and Terms. . . . . . . 1.5-20
18
Seismic Requirements . . . . . 1.5-21
19
20
Designing a Distribution System
21
ii
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Basic Principles The basic principles or factors requiring Modern Electric Power i
consideration during design of the
The best distribution system is one power distribution system include: Technologies
that will, cost-effectively and safely,
supply adequate electric service to
■ Functions of structure, present Several new factors to consider in
modern power distribution systems
ii
and future
both present and future probable
■ Life and flexibility of structure result from two relatively recent
loads—this section is included to aid
in selecting, designing and installing ■ Locations of service entrance and
changes. The first recent change is 1
utility deregulation. The traditional
such a system. distribution equipment, locations
dependence on the utility for problem
and characteristics of loads,
The function of the electric power locations of unit substations
analysis, energy conservation mea- 2
distribution system in a building or surements and techniques, and a
■ Demand and diversity factors simplified cost structure for electricity
an installation site is to receive power
of loads
at one or more supply points and
Sources of power; including
has changed. The second change is less 3
to deliver it to the individual lamps, ■ obvious to the designer yet will have
motors and all other electrically normal, standby and emergency an impact on the types of equipment
operated devices. The importance (see Tab 40) and systems being designed. It is the 4
of the distribution system to the ■ Continuity and quality of diminishing quantity of qualified build-
function of a building makes it almost power available and required ing electrical operators, maintenance
imperative that the best system be (see Tab 33) departments and facility engineers. 5
designed and installed. ■ Energy efficiency and management Modern electric power technologies
Distribution and utilization voltages may be of use to the designer and
In order to design the best distribution
system, the system design engineer
■
■ Bus and/or cable feeders building owner in addressing these
6
must have information concerning the ■ Distribution equipment and new challenges. The advent of micro-
processor devices (smart devices)
loads and a knowledge of the various
types of distribution systems that are
motor control
into power distribution equipment has
7
■ Power and lighting panelboards
applicable. The various categories of expanded facility owners’ options and
and motor control centers
capabilities, allowing for automated
buildings have many specific design
challenges, but certain basic principles ■ Types of lighting systems communication of vital power system
8
are common to all. Such principles, ■ Installation methods information (both energy data and
if followed, will provide a soundly ■ Power monitoring systems system operation information) and
electrical equipment control.
9
executed design. ■ Electric utility requirements
These technologies may be grouped as:
10
■ Power monitoring and control
■ Building management systems
interfaces 11
■ Lighting control
Automated energy management
■
12
■ Predictive diagnostics
Various sections of this guide cover
the application and selection of such 13
systems and components that may be
incorporated into the power equipment
being designed. See Tabs 2, 3, 4, 23 14
and 41.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
20
21
5. Maximum Electrical Efficiency 7. Maximum Power Quality: Coupled with this information, a
(Minimum Operating Costs): The power input requirements knowledge of the major types of electric i
Electrical efficiency can generally of all utilization equipment has power distribution systems equips the
be maximized by designing to be considered including the engineers to arrive at the best system
systems that minimize the losses acceptable operating range of design for the particular building. ii
in conductors, transformers and the equipment and the electrical
utilization equipment. Proper distribution system has to be It is beyond the scope of this guide to
voltage level selection plays a designed to meet these needs. present a detailed discussion of loads 1
key factor in this area and will For example, what is the required that might be found in each of several
be discussed later. Selecting input voltage, current, power types of buildings. Assuming that the
equipment, such as transformers, factor requirement? Consider- design engineer has assembled the 2
with lower operating losses, ation to whether the loads are necessary load data, the following
generally means higher first cost affected by harmonics (multiples pages discuss some of the various
and increased floor space require- of the basic 60 Hz sine wave) or types of electrical distribution systems 3
ments; thus, there is a balance generate harmonics must be taken that can be used. The description of
to be considered between the into account as well as transient types of systems, and the diagrams
owner’s utility energy change voltage phenomena. used to explain the types of systems 4
for the losses in the transformer on the following pages omits the
or other equipment versus the The above goals are interrelated location of utility revenue metering
owner’s first cost budget and and in some ways contradictory. equipment for clarity. A discussion of 5
cost of money. As more redundancy is added to short-circuit calculations, coordination,
the electrical system design along voltage selection, voltage drop, ground
6. Minimum Maintenance Cost: with the best quality equipment fault protection, motor protection and 6
Usually the simpler the electrical to maximize service continuity, other specific equipment protection
system design and the simpler flexibility and expandability, and is also presented.
the electrical equipment, the less power quality, the more initial 7
the associated maintenance costs investment and maintenance
and operator errors. As electrical are increased. Thus, the designer
Voltage Classifications
systems and equipment become must weigh each factor based ANSI and IEEE® standards define 8
more complicated to provide on the type of facility, the loads various voltage classifications for
greater service continuity or to be served, the owner’s past single-phase and three-phase systems.
flexibility, the maintenance costs experience and criteria. The terminology used divides voltage 9
and chance for operator error classes into:
increases. The systems should be Summary
designed with an alternate power It is to be expected that the engineer ■ Low voltage 10
circuit to take electrical equipment will never have complete load infor- ■ Medium voltage
(requiring periodic maintenance) mation available when the system is ■ High voltage
out of service without dropping designed. The engineer will have to ■ Extra-high voltage
11
essential loads. Use of drawout expand the information made avail-
type protective devices such as ■ Ultra-high voltage
able to him on the basis of experience
breakers and combination starters with similar problems. Of course, it Table 1.1-1 presents the nominal system
12
can also minimize maintenance is desirable that the engineer has as voltages for these classifications.
cost and out-of-service time. much definite information as possible
Utilizing sealed equipment in concerning the function, requirements,
13
lieu of ventilated equipment may and characteristics of the utilization
minimize maintenance costs and devices. The engineer should know
out-of-service time as well. whether certain loads function
14
separately or together as a unit, the
magnitude of the demand of the loads
viewed separately and as units, the rated
15
voltage and frequency of the devices,
their physical location with respect
to each other and with respect to the
16
source and the probability and possi-
bility of the relocation of load devices
and addition of loads in the future.
17
18
19
20
21
Table 1.1-1. Standard Nominal System Table 1.1-4. Pad Mounted and Overhead Table 1.1-6. Dry-Type Transformers Voltage
i Voltages and Voltage Ranges Distribution Switchgear, Voltage and and Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation
(From IEEE Standard 141-1993) Insulation Levels Levels (BIL)—From ANSI/IEEE C57.12.01-1998)
Voltage Nominal System Voltage Rated Maximum Impulse Nominal BIL (kV Crest) 2
ii Class Three-Wire Four-Wire Voltage Level (kV rms) Withstand (kV) System
Pad Mount Switchgear (per IEEE C37.74-2014) Voltage
Low 240/120 208Y/120 (kV rms)
1 voltage 240
480
240/120
480Y/277
15.5
27
95
125 1.2 — 10 20 30
38 150 2.5 — 20 30 45
600 —
Overhead Switchgear (per IEEE C37.60-2012) 5.0 — 30 45 60
2 Medium
voltage
2400
4160
4160Y/2400
8320Y/4800 15 95
8.7 — 45 60 95
21
DELTA-DELTA Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources. ii
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram:
1
H1 H3 X1 X3 2
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0
DELTA-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources. 3
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire grounded service with
Phasor H2 X2 XO grounded.
Diagram:
3. With XO grounded, the transformer acts as a ground source for the 4
secondary system.
X1 X0
4. Fundamental and harmonic frequency zero-sequence currents in the secondary
H1 H3
lines supplied by the transformer do not flow in the primary lines. Instead the 5
X3 zero sequence currents circulate in the closed delta primary windings.
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 30 5. When supplied from an effectively grounded primary system does not see load
unbalances and ground faults in the secondary system. 6
WYE-DELTA Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire delta service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor
Diagram:
H2 X2 3. Grounding the primary neutral of this connection would create a ground source 7
for the primary system. This could subject the transformer to severe overloading
during a primary system disturbance or load unbalance.
X1
4. Frequently installed with mid-tap ground on one leg when supplying 8
combination three-phase and single-phase load where the three-phase
H1 H3 load is much larger than single-phase load.
X3
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 30 5. When used in 25 kV and 35 kV three-phase four-wire primary systems,
ferroresonance can occur when energizing or de-energizing the transformer
9
using single-pole switches located at the primary terminals. With smaller kVA
transformers the probability of ferroresonance is higher.
WYE-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
10
2. Suitable for a three-wire service only, even if XO is grounded.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. This connection is incapable of furnishing a stabilized neutral and its use may
result in phase-to-neutral overvoltage (neutral shift) as a result of unbalanced 11
phase-to-neutral load.
X0
4. If a three-phase unit is built on a three-legged core, the neutral point of the
H1 H3 X1 X3
primary windings is practically locked at ground potential. 12
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0
13
GROUNDED WYE-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for four-wire effectively grounded source only.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or for four-wire grounded service with
Phasor
Diagram:
H2 X2 XO grounded. 14
3. Three-phase transformers with this connection may experience stray flux tank
heating during certain external system unbalances unless the core configuration
H0 X0 (four or five legged) used provides a return path for the flux.
4. Fundamental and harmonic frequency zero-sequence currents in the secondary
15
H1 H3 X1 X3
lines supplied by the transformer also flow in the primary lines (and primary
neutral conductor).
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0
5. Ground relay for the primary system may see load unbalances and ground
16
faults in the secondary system. This must be considered when coordinating
overcurrent protective devices.
6. Three-phase transformers with the neutral points of the high voltage and low 17
voltage windings connected together internally and brought out through an
HOXO bushing should not be operated with the HOXO bushing ungrounded
(floating). To do so can result in very high voltages in the secondary systems. 18
DELTA-DELTA Connection with Tap 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor
Diagram:
H2 X2 3. When using the tap for single-phase circuits, the single-phase load kVA should 19
X4 not exceed 5% of the three-phase kVA rating of the transformer. The three-phase
rating of the transformer is also substantially reduced.
20
H1 H3 X1 X3
i Types of Systems Low voltage feeder circuits run from A fault on the secondary low voltage
the switchgear or switchboard assem- bus or in the source transformer will
In many cases, power is supplied by blies to panelboards that are located interrupt service to all loads. Service
the utility to a building at the utilization closer to their respective loads as cannot be restored until the necessary
ii voltage. In these cases, the distribution shown in Figure 1.1-1. repairs have been made. A low voltage
of power within the building is achieved feeder circuit fault will interrupt service
Each feeder is connected to the switch- to all loads supplied over that feeder.
through the use of a simple radial
1 distribution system.
gear or switchboard bus through a
circuit breaker or other overcurrent A modern and improved form of the
In cases where the utility service voltage protective device. A relatively small conventional simple radial system
2 is at some voltage higher than the number of circuits are used to distribute distributes power at a primary voltage.
utilization voltage within the building, power to the loads from the switch- The voltage is stepped down to
the system design engineer has a choice gear or switchboard assemblies and utilization level in the several load
3 of a number of types of systems that panelboards. areas within the building typically
may be used. This discussion covers through secondary unit substation
Because the entire load is served from transformers. The transformers are
several major types of distribution
a single source, full advantage can be
4 systems and practical modifications
taken of the diversity among the loads.
usually connected to their associated
of them. load bus through a circuit breaker, as
This makes it possible to minimize the shown in Figure 1.1-2. Each secondary
installed transformer capacity. However,
5 1. Simple radial
the voltage regulation and efficiency
unit substation is an assembled unit
2. Loop-primary system— consisting of a three-phase, liquid-
of this system may be poor because filled or air-cooled transformer, an inte-
radial secondary system of the low voltage feeders and single
6 3. Primary selective system— source. The cost of the low voltage-
grally connected primary fused switch,
and low voltage switchgear or switch-
secondary radial system feeder circuits and their associated circuit board with circuit breakers or fused
7 4. Two-source primary—
breakers are high when the feeders are
long and the peak demand is above
switches. Circuits are run to
secondary selective system the loads from these low voltage
1000 kVA. protective devices.
8 5. Sparing transformer system
6. Simple spot network
Primary Fused Switch
9 7. Medium voltage distribution
system design Transformer
Because each transformer is located In addition, if only one primary fuse on sectionalizing switches and primary
within a specific load area, it must a circuit opens, the secondary loads are load break fused switch as shown i
have sufficient capacity to carry the then single phased, causing damage to in Figure 1.1-4 or utilizing three
peak load of that area. Consequently, low voltage motors. on-off switches or a four-position
if any diversity exists among the load sectionalizing switch and vacuum ii
area, this modified primary radial Another approach to reducing costs fault interrupter (VFI) internal to the
system requires more transformer is to eliminate the primary feeder transformer saving cost and reducing
capacity than the basic form of the breakers completely, and use a single footprint. 1
simple radial system. However, primary main breaker or fused switch
because power is distributed to the for protection of a single primary When pad-mounted compartmental-
load areas at a primary voltage, losses feeder circuit with all secondary unit ized transformers are used, they are 2
are reduced, voltage regulation is substations supplied from this circuit. furnished with loop-feed oil-immersed
improved, feeder circuit costs are Although this system results in less ini- gang-operated load break sectionaliz-
reduced substantially, and large tial equipment cost, system reliability is ing switches and Bay-O-Net expulsion 3
low voltage feeder circuit breakers reduced drastically because a single fuses in series with partial range back-
are eliminated. In many cases the fault in any part of the primary conductor up current-limiting fuses. By operating
interrupting duty imposed on the would cause an outage to all loads the appropriate sectionalizing switches, 4
load circuit breakers is reduced. within the facility. it is possible to disconnect any section
of the loop conductors from the rest
This modern form of the simple radial 2. Loop Primary System— of the system. In addition, it is possible 5
system will usually be lower in initial Radial Secondary System to disconnect any transformer from
investment than most other types of the loop.
primary distribution systems for build- This system consists of one or more
“PRIMARY LOOPS” with two or more A key interlocking scheme is normally
6
ings in which the peak load is above
1000 kVA. A fault on a primary feeder transformers connected on the loop. recommended to prevent closing all
circuit or in one transformer will cause This system is typically most effective
when two services are available from
sectionalizing devices in the loop. Each
primary loop sectionalizing switch and
7
an outage to only those secondary
loads served by that feeder or trans- the utility as shown in Figure 1.1-3. Each the feeder breakers to the loop are
former. In the case of a primary main primary loop is operated such that one interlocked such that to be closed they
require a key (which is held captive
8
bus fault or a utility service outage, of the loop sectionalizing switches is
service is interrupted to all loads until kept open to prevent parallel operation until the switch or breaker is opened)
the trouble is eliminated. of the sources. When secondary unit and one less key than the number of
key interlock cylinders is furnished.
9
substations are used, each transformer
Reducing the number of transformers may have its own duplex (2-load break An extra key is provided to defeat the
per primary feeder by adding more
primary feeder circuits will improve
switches with load side bus connection) interlock under qualified supervision. 10
the flexibility and service continuity
of this system; the ultimate being one
secondary unit substation per primary
11
Primary Main Breaker 1 52 52 Primary Main Breaker 2
feeder circuit. This of course increases
the investment in the system but
minimizes the extent of an outage Tie
52
12
Breaker Loop Feeder Breaker
resulting from a transformer or 52 52 52 52
primary feeder fault.
Loop A 13
Primary connections from one secondary Loop B
unit substation to the next secondary
unit substation can be made with NC NO NC NC 14
Fault Sensors
“double” lugs on the unit substation
primary switch as shown, or with
separable connectors made in 15
manholes or other locations.
Depending on the load kVA connected 16
to each primary circuit and if no ground
fault protection is desired for either the
primary feeder conductors and trans- 17
NC NC NO NC NC NC
formers connected to that feeder or
the main bus, the primary main and/or
feeder breakers may be changed to 18
primary fused switches. This will sig-
nificantly reduce the first cost, but also
decrease the level of conductor and 19
equipment protection. Thus, should
a fault or overload condition occur,
downtime increases significantly and 20
Secondary Unit Substations Consisting of:
higher costs associated with increased Duplex Primary Switches/Fused Primary Switches/
damage levels and the need for fuse Transformer and Secondary Main Feeder Breakers
replacement is typically encountered. 21
Figure 1.1-3. Loop Primary—Radial Secondary System
In addition, the two primary main cable has been faulted, the loop sec-
i Loop
Feeder
Loop
Feeder
breakers, which are normally closed, tionalizing switches on each side of the
and primary tie breaker, which is faulted conductor can be opened, the
Load Break normally open, are either mechanically loop sectionalizing switch that had
ii Loop Switches or electrically interlocked to prevent been previously left open then closed
paralleling the incoming source lines. and service restored to all secondary
For slightly added cost, an automatic unit substations while the faulted
1 throw-over scheme can be added conductor is replaced. If the fault
between the two main breakers and should occur in a conductor directly
Fused tie breaker. During the more common on the load side of one of the loop
2 Disconnect
Switch event of a utility outage, the automatic feeder breakers, the loop feeder
transfer scheme provides significantly breaker is kept open after tripping and
reduced power outage time. the next load side loop sectionalizing
3 switch manually opened so that the
The system in Figure 1.1-3 has higher faulted conductor can be sectionalized
costs than in Figure 1.1-2, but offers and replaced.
4 increased reliability and quick restora-
tion of service when 1) a utility outage Note: Under this condition, all secondary
occurs, 2) a primary feeder conductor unit substations are supplied through the
5 Figure 1.1-4. Secondary Unit Substation fault occurs, or 3) a transformer fault other loop feeder circuit breaker, and thus
all conductors around the loop should be
Loop Switching or overload occurs.
sized to carry the entire load connected to
Should a utility outage occur on one of the loop. Increasing the number of primary
6 the incoming lines, the associated pri- loops (two loops shown in Figure 1.1-8)
Main Source Alternate Source will reduce the extent of the outage from a
mary main breaker is opened and the
3-Position conductor fault, but will also increase the
7 Selector Switch
tie breaker closed either manually or
through an automatic transfer scheme.
system investment.
Vacuum Fault
When a primary feeder conductor fault When a transformer fault or overload
8 Interrupter (VFI)
occurs, the associated loop feeder occurs, the transformer primary fuses
breaker opens and interrupts service open, and the transformer primary
to all loads up to the normally open switch manually opened, disconnecting
9 primary loop load break switch the transformer from the loop, and
(typically half of the loads). Once it is leaving all other secondary unit
determined which section of primary substation loads unaffected.
10
11 Primary Metal-Clad
Figure 1.1-5. VFI /Selector Switch Switchgear Lineup
Combination 52 52 Primary Main Breaker
12 Bus A 52 Bus B
15 Bay-O-Net
Expulsion Fuse
Switch
NC
NO
18 Figure 1.1-6. Pad-Mounted Transformer
Loop Switching NC
19
Figure 1.1-7. Basic Primary Selective—Radial Secondary System
20
21
The primary selective-secondary radial Each transformer secondary is If the loss of voltage was due to a
i system, however, may be less costly or arranged in a typical double-ended failure of one of the transformers in
more costly than a primary loop— unit substation arrangement as shown the double-ended unit substation, then
secondary radial system of Figure 1.1-3 in Figure 1.1-11. The two secondary the associated primary fuses would
ii depending on the physical location main breakers and secondary tie open taking only the failed transformer
of the transformers while offering breaker of each unit substation are out of service, and then only the sec-
comparable downtime and reliability. again either mechanically or electrically ondary loads normally served by the
1 The cost of conductors for the two interlocked to prevent parallel operation. faulted transformer would have to be
types of systems may vary greatly Upon loss of secondary source voltage transferred to the opposite transformer.
depending on the location of the on one side, manual or automatic In either of the above emergency
2 transformers and loads within the transfer may be used to transfer the conditions, the in-service transformer
facility and greatly override primary loads to the other side, thus restoring of a double-ended unit substation
switching equipment cost differences power to all secondary loads. would have to have the capability of
3 between the two systems. serving the loads on both sides of the
This arrangement permits quick tie breaker. For this reason, transform-
4. Two-Source Primary— restoration of service to all loads when ers used in this application have equal
4 Secondary Selective System
a primary feeder or transformer fault kVA rating on each side of the double-
occurs by opening the associated ended unit substation and the normal
This system uses the same principle secondary main and closing the operating maximum load on each
5 of duplicate sources from the power secondary tie breaker. If the loss transformer is typically about 2/3 base
supply point using two primary main of secondary voltage has occurred nameplate kVA rating. Typically these
breakers and a primary tie breaker. because of a primary feeder fault with transformers are furnished with
6 The two primary main breakers and the associated primary feeder breaker fan-cooling and/or lower than normal
primary tie breaker being either opening, then all secondary loads temperature rise such that under
manually or electrically interlocked normally served by the faulted feeder emergency conditions they can carry
7 to prevent closing all three at the same would have to be transferred to the on a continuous basis the maximum
time and paralleling the sources. Upon opposite primary feeder. This means load on both sides of the secondary tie
loss of voltage on one source, a manual each primary feeder conductor must be breaker. Because of this spare trans-
8 or automatic transfer to the alternate sized to carry the load on both sides of former capacity, the voltage regulation
source line may be used to restore all the secondary buses it is serving provided by the double-ended unit
power to all primary loads. under secondary emergency transfer substation system under normal
9 . conditions is better than that of the
systems previously discussed.
10 The double-ended unit substation
arrangement can be used in conjunction
52 52 Primary Main Breakers
with any of the previous systems
11 52 discussed, which involve two primary
sources. Although not recommended,
52 52 52 52 Primary Feeder Breakers if allowed by the utility, momentary
12 re-transfer of loads to the restored
source may be made closed transition
To Other Substations To Other Substations (anti-parallel interlock schemes would
13 Typical
have to be defeated) for either the
Double-Ended
primary or secondary systems. Under
Unit this condition, all equipment interrupt-
14 Substation ing and momentary ratings should be
suitable for the fault current available
from both sources.
15
For double-ended unit substations
equipped with ground fault systems
16 special consideration to transformer
neutral grounding and equipment
operation should be made—see
17 Primary Fused Switch Transformer Tie Breaker Secondary Main Breaker
“Grounding” and “Ground Fault
Protection” in Section 1.4. Where
two single-ended unit substations are
Figure 1.1-11. Two-Source Primary—Secondary Selective System
18 connected together by external tie
conductors, it is recommended that
a tie breaker be furnished at each end
19 of the tie conductors.
20
21
5. Sparing Transformer System Referring to Figure 1.1-12, it is apparent The sparing transformer system
The sparing transformer system concept
that the sparing concept backs up operates as follows: i
primary switch and primary cable
came into use as an alternative to the failure as well. Restoration of lost or ■ All main breakers, including
capital cost intensive double-ended
secondary unit substation distribution
failed utility power is accomplished the sparing main breaker, are
normally closed; the tie breakers
ii
similarly to primary selective scheme
system (see Two-Source Primary— previously discussed. It is therefore are normally open
Secondary Selective System). It essen- important to use an automatic thro- ■ Once a transformer (or primary 1
tially replaces double-ended substations wover system in a two source lineup cable or primary switch/fuse) fails,
with single-ended substations and one of primary switchgear to restore utility the associated secondary main
or more “sparing” transformer substa- power as discussed in the “Two-Source breaker is opened. The associated 2
tions all interconnected on a common Primary” scheme—see Figure 1.1-11. tie breaker is then closed, which
secondary bus (see Figure 1.1-12). restores power to the single-ended
Generally no more than three to five
A major advantage of the sparing
transformer system is the typically
substation bus 3
single-ended substations are on a ■ Schemes that require the main to
lower total base kVA of transformation. be opened before the tie is closed
sparing loop. In a double-ended substation design,
each transformer must be rated to
(“open transition”), and that allow 4
The essence of this design philosophy any tie to be closed before the
is that conservatively designed and carry the sum of the loads of two busses substation main is opened,
loaded transformers are highly reliable and usually requires the addition of
cooling fans to accomplish this rating.
(“closed transition”) are possible 5
electrical devices and rarely fail. There-
fore, this design provides a single com- In the “sparing” concept, each trans- With a closed transition scheme, it is
mon backup transformer for a group of former carries only its own load, which
is typically not a fan-cooled rating. Major
common to add a timer function that 6
transformers in lieu of a backup trans- opens the tie breaker unless either
space savings is also a benefit of this main breaker is opened within a
former for each and every transformer.
This system design still maintains a
system in addition to first cost savings. time interval. 7
high degree of continuity of service. This closed transition allows power
to be transferred to the sparing
transformer without interruption, such 8
as for routine maintenance, and then
back to the substation. This closed
transition transfer has an advantage in 9
some facilities; however, appropriate
K K K interrupting capacities and bus bracing
must be specified suitable for the 10
momentary parallel operation.
In facilities without qualified electrical 11
power operators, an open transition
Sparing Transformer
with key interlocking is often a
prudent design. 12
K K
Note: Each pair of “main breaker/tie breaker”
key cylinders should be uniquely keyed to
prevent any paralleled source operations. 13
Careful sizing of these transformers
Typical Secondary Busway Loop as well as careful specification of the 14
transformers is required for reliability.
Low temperature rise specified with
continuous overload capacity or 15
K K
upgraded types of transformers
should be considered.
Typical Single-Ended Substation 16
One disadvantage to this system is
the external secondary tie system,
Figure 1.1-12. Sparing Transformer System
see Figure 1.1-12. As shown, all single- 17
ended substations are tied together
on the secondary with a tie busway or
cable system. Location of substations 18
is therefore limited because of voltage
drop and cost considerations.
19
20
21
Routing of busway, if used, must be The network relay is usually a solid- The optimum size and number of
i carefully layed out. It should also be state microprocessor-based compo- primary feeders can be used in the
noted, that a tie busway or cable fault nent integrated into the protector spot network system because the
will essentially prevent the use of the enclosure that functions to automati- loss of any primary feeder and its
ii sparing transformer until it is repaired. cally close the protector only when the associated transformers does not
Commonly, the single-ended substa- voltage conditions are such that its result in the loss of any load even
tions and the sparing transformer associated transformer will supply for an instant. In spite of the spare
1 must be clustered. This can also be power to the secondary network loads, capacity usually supplied in network
an advantage, as more kVA can be and to automatically open the protec- systems, savings in primary switch-
supported from a more compact tor when power flows from the sec- gear and secondary switchgear costs
2 space layout. ondary to the network transformer. often result when compared to a radial
The purpose of the network protector system design with similar spare
6. Simple Spot Network Systems is to protect the integrity of the net- capacity. This occurs in many radial
3 The AC secondary network system work bus voltage and the loads served systems because more and smaller
is the system that has been used for from it against transformer and pri- feeders are often used in order to
mary feeder faults by quickly discon- minimize the extent of any outage
4 many years to distribute electric power
in the high-density, downtown areas necting the defective feeder- when a primary fault event occurs.
of cities, usually in the form of utility transformer pair from the
network when backfeed occurs. In spot networks, when a fault occurs
5 grids. Modifications of this type of
system make it applicable to serve
on a primary feeder or in a transformer,
The simple spot network system the fault is isolated from the system
loads within buildings. resembles the secondary-selective through the automatic tripping of the
6 The major advantage of the secondary radial system in that each load area primary feeder circuit breaker and all
network system is continuity of is supplied over two or more primary of the network protectors associated
service. No single fault anywhere feeders through two or more trans- with that feeder circuit. This operation
7 on the primary system will interrupt formers. In network systems, the does not interrupt service to any loads.
service to any of the system’s loads. transformers are connected through After the necessary repairs have been
Most faults will be cleared without network protectors to a common made, the system can be restored to
8 interrupting service to any load. bus, as shown in Figure 1.1-13, from normal operating conditions by closing
Another outstanding advantage that which loads are served. Because the the primary feeder breaker. All network
the network system offers is its flexibil- transformers are connected in parallel, protectors associated with that feeder
9 ity to meet changing and growing load a primary feeder or transformer fault will close automatically.
conditions at minimum cost and does not cause any service interrup-
tion to the loads. The paralleled The chief purpose of the network bus
minimum interruption in service to
10 other loads on the network. In addition transformers supplying each load normally closed ties is to provide for
the sharing of loads and a balancing
to flexibility and service reliability, the bus will normally carry equal load
currents, whereas equal loading of of load currents for each primary
secondary network system provides
11 exceptionally uniform and good the two separate transformers supply- service and transformer regardless of
the condition of the primary services.
voltage regulation, and its high ing a substation in the secondary-
efficiency materially reduces the selective radial system is difficult to Also, the ties provide a means for
12 costs of system losses. obtain. The interrupting duty imposed isolating and sectionalizing ground
on the outgoing feeder breakers in the fault events within the switchgear
Three major differences between the network will be greater with the spot network bus, thereby saving a portion
13 network system and the simple radial network system. of the loads from service interruptions,
system account for the outstanding yet isolating the faulted portion for
advantages of the network. First, corrective action.
14 a network protector is connected in
the secondary leads of each network
transformer in place of, or in addition
15 to, the secondary main breaker, as Typical Feeder
shown in Figure 1.1-13. Also, the Primary Circuit
secondaries of each transformer in To Other
16 a given location (spot) are connected Network Transformer
Networks
19
20
21
C. Multiple Sources with Tie Breaker, In Figure 1.1-17, closing of the tie Summary
i Figure 1.1-16 and Figure 1.1-17 breaker following the opening of a The medium voltage system configura-
This configuration is similar to configu- main breaker can be manual or auto- tions shown are based on using metal-
ration B. It differs significantly in that matic. However, because a bus can clad drawout switchgear. The service
ii both utility sources normally carry the be fed through two tie breakers, the continuity required from electrical
loads and also by the incorporation control scheme should be designed systems makes the use of single-source
of a normally open tie breaker. The to make the selection. systems impractical.
1 outage to the system load for a utility The third tie breaker allows any bus In the design of a modern medium
outage is limited to half of the system. to be fed from any utility source.
Again, the closing of the tie breaker can voltage system, the engineer should:
2 be manual or automatic. The statements 1. Design a system as simple as
Caution for Figures 1.1-15, 1.1-16 and
made for the retransfer of scheme B 1.1-17: If continuous paralleling of possible.
apply to this scheme also.
3 sources is planned, reverse current,
2. Limit an outage to as small a
reverse power and other appropriate
portion of the system as possible.
Utility #1 Utility #2 relaying protection should be added.
4 When both sources are paralleled for 3. Provide means for expanding the
any amount of time, the fault current system without major shutdowns.
available on the load side of the main
5 device is the sum of the available 4. Relay the system so that only the
faulted part is removed from
fault current from each source plus
the motor fault contribution. It is service, and damage to it is mini-
6 52 NC 52 NC required that bus bracing, feeder mized consistent with selectivity.
breakers and all load side equipment 5. Specify and apply all equipment
NO is rated for the increased available within its published ratings and
7 Bus #1
52
Bus #2
fault current. national standards pertaining to
the equipment and its installation.
8 52 52
16
17
18
19
20
21
Health Care Facilities ■ NFPA 101-2009—Life Safety Code The electrical system requirements for
i
■ NFPA 110-2010—Standard for Emer- the essential electrical system (EES)
Health care facilities are defined by gency and Standby Power Systems vary according to the type of health
NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency) ■ NFPA 111-2010—Standard on Stored
care facility. Health care facilities are
as “Buildings or portions of buildings Electrical Energy Emergency and categorized by NFPA 99 as Type 1, ii
in which medical, dental, psychiatric, Standby Power Systems Type 2 or Type 3 facilities. Some
nursing, obstetrical, or surgical care example health care facilities, classified
are provided.” Due to the critical nature These NFPA guidelines represent the by type, are summarized in the 1
of the care being provided at these most industry recognized standard following Table 1.1-8.
facilities and their increasing depen- requirements for health care electrical
dence on electrical equipment for pres- design. However, the electrical design Table 1.1-8. Health Care Facilities 2
ervation of life, health care facilities engineer should consult with the Description Definition EES Type
have special requirements for the authorities having jurisdiction over
design of their electrical distribution the local region for specific electrical
Hospitals NFPA 99 Chap. 13 Type 1
Nursing homes NFPA 99 Chap. 17 Type 2
3
systems. These requirements are distribution requirements. Limited care
typically much more stringent than facilities NFPA 99 Chap. 18 Type 2
commercial or industrial facilities. Health Care Electrical System Ambulatory 4
The following section summarizes Requirements surgical
some of the unique requirements facilities NFPA 99 Chap. 14 Type 3 1
of health care facility design. Health care electrical systems usually Other health 5
consist of two parts: care facilities NFPA 99 Chap. 14 Type 3 1
There are several agencies and organi- 1 If electrical life support or critical care areas
zations that develop requirements 1. Non-essential or normal are present, then facility is classified as Type 1. 6
for health care electrical distribution electrical system.
system design. The following is a 2. Essential electrical system.
Type 1 Essential Electrical
listing of some of the specific NFPA Systems (EES) 7
(National Fire Protection Agency) All electrical power in a health care
standards that affect health care facility is important, though some Type 1 essential electrical systems
facility design and implementation: loads are not critical to the safe opera- (EES) have the most stringent require-
ments for providing continuity of
8
tion of the facility. These “non-essential”
■ NFPA 37-2010—Standard for or “normal” loads include things such electrical service and will, therefore,
Stationary Combustion Engines
and Gas Turbines
as general lighting, general lab equip- be the focus of this section. Type 1
EES requirements meet or exceed
9
ment, non-critical service equipment,
■ NFPA 70-2011—National patient care areas, etc. These loads are the requirements for Type 2 and
Electrical Code not required to be fed from an alternate Type 3 facilities. 10
■ NFPA 99-2005—Health Care Facilities source of power.
11
Normal Source Normal Source Normal Source Emergency Power Supply
G
12
13
14
15
16
Non-Essential Loads Non-Essential Loads
17
Manual Transfer Switch 18
Equipment Life Safety Critical
Delayed Automatic Transfer Switch System Branch Branch
Emergency System
19
Automatic (Non-Delaying)
Transfer Switch Essential Electrical System
20
Figure 1.1-18. Typical Large Hospital Electrical System—Type 1 Facility
21
Sources: Type 1 systems are required Table 1.1-9. Type 1 EES Applicable Codes B. Critical branch—supplies power
i to have a minimum of two independent Description Standard Section for task illumination, fixed equip-
sources of electrical power—a normal ment, selected receptacles and
source that generally supplies the Design NFPA 99 4.4.1.1.1 selected power circuits for areas
ii entire facility and one or more alter- Sources NFPA 99 4.4.1.1.4 thru
4.4.4.1.1.7.2
related to patient care. The
nate sources that supply power when Uses NFPA 99 4.4.1.1.8 (1-3) purpose of the critical branch
the normal source is interrupted. The Emergency is to provide power to a limited
1 alternate source(s) must be an on-site Power Supply number of receptacles and loca-
generator driven by a prime mover Classification NFPA 110 4 tions to reduce load and minimize
unless a generator(s) exists as the Distribution NFPA 99 4.4.2 the chances of fault conditions.
2 normal power source. In the case NEC 517.30 The transfer switch(es) feeding the
where a generator(s) is used as the critical branch must be automatic
normal source, it is permissible for the Systems and Branches of Service: The type. They are permitted to have
3 alternate source to be a utility feed. Type 1 EES consists of two separate appropriate time delays that will
Alternate source generators must be power systems capable of supplying follow the restoration of the life
classified as Type 10, Class X, Level 1 power considered essential for life safety branch, but should have
4 gensets per NFPA 110 Tables 4.1(a) and safety and effective facility operation power restored within 10 seconds
4.2(b) that are capable of providing during an interruption of the normal of normal source power loss.
power to the load in a maximum of power source. They are the emergency The critical branch provides power
5 10 seconds. Typically, the alternate system and the equipment system. to circuits serving the following
sources of power are supplied to the areas and functions:
1. Emergency system—consists of
loads through a series of automatic
6 and/or manual transfer switches (see
circuits essential to life safety and 1. Critical care areas.
critical patient care.
Tab 25). The transfer switches can 2. Isolated power systems in
be non-delayed automatic, delayed The emergency system is an electrical special environments.
7 automatic or manual transfer depending sub-system that must be fed from an 3. Task illumination and selected
on the requirements of the specific automatic transfer switch or series of receptacles in the following
branch of the EES that they are feeding. automatic transfer switches. This
8 It is permissible to feed multiple emergency system consists of two
patient care areas: infant
nurseries, medication prep
branches or systems of the EES from mandatory branches that provide power areas, pharmacy, selected
a single automatic transfer switch to systems and functions essential to
9 provided that the maximum demand life safety and critical patient care.
acute nursing areas, psychiatric
bed areas, ward treatment
on the EES does not exceed 150 kVA. rooms, nurses’ stations.
This configuration is typically seen A. Life safety branch—supplies
10 in smaller health care facilities that power for lighting, receptacles 4. Specialized patient care task
must meet Type 1 EES requirements and equipment to perform the illumination, where needed.
(see Figure 1.1-19). following functions: 5. Nurse call systems.
11 6. Blood, bone and tissue banks.
1. Illumination of means of egress.
Normal Source 2. Exit signs and exit direction signs. 7. Telephone equipment rooms
12 3. Alarms and alerting systems.
and closets.
Alternate 8. Task illumination, selected
4. Emergency communications
Source receptacles and selected power
13 systems.
circuits for the following: general
G 5. Task illumination, battery care beds (at least one duplex
chargers for battery powered receptacle), angiographic labs,
14 lighting, and select receptacles cardiac catheterization labs,
at the generator. coronary care units, hemodialysis
6. Elevator lighting control, com- rooms, selected emergency
15 munication and signal systems. room treatment areas, human
7. Automatic doors used for egress. physiology labs, intensive care
units, selected postoperative
16 Non-Essential
Loads These are the only functions recovery rooms.
permitted to be on the life safety 9. Additional circuits and single-
branch. Life safety branch equip-
17 Entire Essential
Electric System ment and wiring must be entirely
phase fraction motors as needed
for effective facility operation.
(150 kVA or Less) independent of all other loads
and branches of service. This
18 Figure 1.1-19. Small Hospital Electrical includes separation of raceways,
System—Single EES Transfer Switch boxes or cabinets. Power must be
supplied to the life safety branch
19 from a non-delayed automatic
transfer switch.
20
21
Table 1.1-10. Type 1—Emergency System The following equipment must be and must be shed in the event the
Applicable Codes arranged for delayed automatic or generator enters an overload condition. i
Description Standard Section manual transfer to the emergency
power supply: Ground fault protection—per NFPA 70
General NFPA 99 4.4.2.2.2 NEC Article 230.95, ground fault ii
NEC 517.31 1. Select heating equipment. protection is required on any feeder or
Life safety NFPA 99 4.4.2.2.2.2 2. Select elevators. service disconnect 1000 A or larger on
branch NEC 517.32
3. Supply, return and exhaust
systems with line to ground voltages 1
Critical branch NFPA 99 4.4.2.2.2.3 of 150 V or greater and phase-to-phase
NEC 517.33 ventilating systems for surgical, voltages of 600 V or less. For health care
obstetrical, intensive care,
Wiring NFPA 99 4.4.2.2.4
coronary care, nurseries and
facilities (of any type), a second level of 2
NEC 517.30(C) ground fault protection is required to
emergency treatment areas. be on the next level of feeder down-
2. Equipment system—consists of 4. Supply, return and exhaust stream. This second level of ground 3
major electrical equipment necessary ventilating systems for airborne fault is only required for feeders that
for patient care and Type 1 operation. infectious/isolation rooms, labs and serve patient care areas and equipment
The equipment system is a subsystem
medical areas where hazardous intended to support life. 100% selective 4
materials are used. coordination of the two levels of ground
of the EES that consists of large electrical fault protection must be achieved with a
equipment loads needed for patient 5. Hyperbaric facilities.
care and basic hospital operation. 6. Hypobaric facilities.
minimum six-cycle separation between 5
the upstream and downstream device.
Loads on the equipment system that 7. Autoclaving equipment.
are essential to generator operation are New in the 2011 NEC, ground fault
required to be fed by a non-delayed 8. Controls for equipment listed above. protection is now allowed between
6
automatic transfer switch. 9. Other selected equipment in the generator(s) and the EES transfer
kitchens, laundries, radiology
The following equipment must be rooms and central refrigeration
switch(es). However, NEC 517.17(B) pro-
hibits the installation of ground fault
7
arranged for delayed automatic transfer as selected. protection on the load side of a transfer
to the emergency power supply:
Table 1.1-11. Type 1—Equipment System
switch feeding EES circuits (see Figure
1.1-20—additional level of ground fault).
8
1. Central suction systems for medical Applicable Codes
and surgical functions. Careful consideration should be used in
Description Standard Section
2. Sump pumps and other equipment
applying ground fault protection on the
essential electrical system to prevent
9
required for the safe operation of General NFPA 99 4.4.2.2.3
NEC 517.34 a ground fault that causes a trip of the
a major apparatus.
3. Compressed air systems for
Equipment NFPA 99 4.4.2.2.3 (3-5) normal source to also cause a trip on
the emergency source. Such an event
10
NEC 517.34(A)-(B)
medical and surgical functions. could result in complete power loss of
4. Smoke control and stair Any loads served by the generator that both normal and emergency power
sources and could not be recovered
11
pressurization systems. are not approved as outlined above as
part of the essential electrical system until the source of the ground fault
5. Kitchen hood supply and exhaust
systems, if required to operate must be connected through a separate was located and isolated from the
system. To prevent this condition,
12
during a fire. transfer switch. These transfer switches
must be configured such that the loads NEC 700.26 removes the ground fault
will not cause the generator to overload protection requirement for the 13
Normal Source Normal Source(s)
G
14
Generator Breakers are
Typically Supplied with
480/277V ¿ 480/277V 1 480/277 V 1 Ground Fault Alarm 15
1000 A Service 1000 A Service 1000 A Service Only. (NEC 700.26)
GF GF GF
or Larger Entrance or Larger Entrance or Larger Entrance
Ground Fault 16
is Permitted
Additional Level Between Generator
GF GF GF GF GF of Ground Fault
Protection
GF GF GF GF GF GF and EES Transfer
Switches.
17
(NEC 517.17(B))
19
GF = Ground Fault Protection Required Additional Level of Ground Fault is
not Permitted on Load Side of EES
Essential Electrical System Transfer Switches. (NEC 517.17a(2)) 20
Figure 1.1-20. Additional Level of Ground Fault Protection
1 Ground fault protection is required for service disconnects 1000 A and larger or systems with less than 600 V phase-to-phase and greater than 150 V to 21
ground per NEC 230.95.
emergency system source. Typically, Maintenance and Testing trained in development and execution
i the emergency system generator(s) Regular maintenance and testing of of annual preventative maintenance
are equipped with ground fault alarms the electrical distribution system in procedures of health care facility
that do not automatically disconnect a health care facility is necessary to electrical distribution systems.
ii power during a ground fault. ensure proper operation in an emer-
gency and, in some cases, to maintain Paralleling Emergency Generators
Table 1.1-12. Ground Fault Protection
government accreditation. Any health
1 Applicable Codes
care facility receiving Medicare or Without Utility Paralleling
Description Standard Section In many health care facilities (and
Medicaid reimbursement from the
government must be accredited by other large facilities with critical
2 Services
Feeders
NEC
NEC
230.95
215.10 the Joint Commission on Accreditation loads), the demand for standby
Additional level NEC 517.17 of Health Care Organizations (JCAHO). emergency power is large enough
JCAHO has established a group of to require multiple generator sets to
3 Alternate source
NFPA 99
NEC
4.3.2.5
700.26 standards called the Environment of power all of the required essential
NEC 701.26 Care, which must be met for health electrical system (EES) loads. In many
care facility accreditation. Included in cases, it becomes more flexible and
4 Wet procedure locations—A wet these standards is the regular testing easier to operate the required multiple
procedure location in a health care of the emergency (alternate) power generators from a single location using
facility is any patient care area that system(s). Diesel-powered EPS instal- generator paralleling switchgear.
5 is normally subject to wet conditions lations must be tested monthly in Figure 1.1-21 on Page 1.1-19 shows
while patients are present. Typical wet accordance with NFPA 110 Standard an example of a typical one-line for a
procedure locations can include oper- for Emergency and Standby Power paralleling switchgear lineup feeding
6 ating rooms, anesthetizing locations, Systems. Generators must be tested the EES.
dialysis locations, etc. (Patient beds, for a minimum of 30 minutes under
A typical abbreviated sequence of
toilets and sinks are not considered
7 wet locations.) These wet procedure
the criteria defined in NFPA 110.
operation for a multiple emergency
One method to automate the task of generator and ATS system follows.
locations require special protection
monthly generator tests is through the Note that other modes of operation
to guard against electric shock. The
8 ground fault current in these areas use of Power Xpert® communications. such as generator demand priority and
With the Power Xpert integrated meter- automated testing modes are available
must be limited to not exceed 6 mA.
ing, monitoring and control system, a but are not included below. (Reference
9 In areas where the interruption of power facility maintenance director can initiate Tab 41 for complete detailed
is permissible, ground fault circuit a generator test, control/monitor sequences of operation.)
interrupters (GFCI) can be employed. loads, meter/monitor generator test
10 GFCIs will interrupt a circuit when points and create a JCAHO compliant
1. Entering emergency mode
ground fault current exceeds 5 mA report automatically from a central PC. a. Upon loss of normal source,
(±1 mA). The report contains all metered values, automatic transfer switches
11 test results, date/time information, etc. send generator control system
In areas where the interruption of necessary to satisfy JCAHO require- a run request.
power cannot be tolerated, protection ments. This automated generator testing
12 from ground fault currents is accom- procedure reduces the labor, training
b. All available generators are
plished through the use of an isolated started. The first generator up
and inaccuracies that occur during to voltage and frequency is
power system. Isolated power systems manual emergency power system tests.
13 provide power to an area that is iso- (See Power Monitoring Tab 2.)
closed to the bus.
lated from ground (or ungrounded). c. Unsheddable loads and load
This type of system limits the amount Table 1.1-14. Maintenance and Testing shed Priority 1 loads are pow-
14 of current that flows to ground in Applicable Codes ered in less than 10 seconds.
the event of a single line-to-ground Description Standard Section d. The remaining generators are
fault and maintains circuit continuity.
synchronized and paralleled
15 Electronic line isolation monitors (LIM) Grounding NFPA 99 4.3.3.1
to the bus as they come up to
are used to monitor and display leakage Emergency power NFPA 99 4.4.4.1.1
system JCAHO EC.2.14(d) voltage and frequency.
currents to ground. When leakage
16 current thresholds are exceeded, visible Generator NFPA 110 8.4 e. As additional generators are
and/or audible alarms are initiated to Transfer switches NFPA 110 8.3.5, 8.4.6 paralleled to the emergency
alert occupants of a possible hazardous bus, load shed priority levels
Breakers NFPA 99 4.4.4.1.2
17 condition. This alarm occurs without NFPA 110 8.4.7 are added, powering their
interrupting power to allow for the associated loads.
safe conclusion of critical procedures. Routine maintenance should be f. The system is now in
18 Table 1.1-13. Wet Procedure Location
performed on circuit breakers, transfer emergency mode.
switches, switchgear, generator equip- 2. Exit from emergency mode
Applicable Codes
ment, etc. by trained professionals
19 Description Standard Section to ensure the most reliable electrical a. Automatic transfer switches
General NFPA 99 4.3.2.2.9 system possible. See Tab 41 for Eaton’s sense the utility source is
NEC 517.20 Electrical Services & Systems (EESS), within acceptable operational
20 Isolated power NFPA 99 4.3.2.6 which provides engineers, tolerances for a time duration
systems NEC 517.160 set at the automatic transfer
switch.
21
b. As each automatic transfer With Utility Paralleling Many health care facilities are taking
switch transfers back to utility Today, many utilities are offering their advantage of these utility incentives i
power, it removes its run customers excellent financial incen- by adding generator capacity over
request from the generator tives to use their on-site generation and above the NFPA requirements.
plant. capacity to remove load from the utility Figure 1.1-22 on Page 1.1-20 shows ii
c. When the last automatic trans- grid. These incentives are sometimes an example one-line of a health care
fer switch has retransferred to referred to as limited interruptible facility with complete generator
the utility and all run requests rates (LIP). Under these incentives, backup and utility interconnect. 1
have been removed from the utilities will greatly reduce or eliminate NFPA 110 requirements state that the
generator plant, all generator kWhr or kW demand charges to their
circuit breakers are opened. customers with on-site generation
normal and emergency sources must 2
be separated by a fire-rated wall.
d. The generators are allowed capabilities. In exchange, during times
of peak loading of the utility grid, the The intent of this requirement is so that
to run for their programmed
utility can ask their LIP rate customers a fire in one location cannot take out 3
cool-down period.
to drop load from the grid by using both sources of power. To meet this
e. The system is now back in their on-site generation capabilities. requirement, the paralleling switchgear
automatic/standby mode. must be split into separate sections
4
Health care facilities are ideally suited with a tie bus through a fire-rated wall.
to take advantage of these programs For more information on generator
because they already have significant paralleling switchgear, see Tab 40.
5
on-site generation capabilities due to
the code requirements described.
6
Utility
7
Transformer Generators X = Number of Units
8
Utility G1 G2 Gx
Metering
9
Typical
Generator
Service Main
Breaker
10
14
Equipment Life Safety Critical Load Shed/Load
ATS # 1 ATS # 2 ATS # X Add ATS Units
Non-Essential
Loads
15
Optional Closed
EP1 EP2 Typical
Panelboards
EPX Transition 16
Paralleling of
Generators and
Utility
17
Figure 1.1-21. Typical One-Line for a Paralleling Switchgear Lineup Feeding the Essential Electrical System (EES)
18
19
20
21
ii Transformer
Generators X = Number of Units
Utility
1 Metering
G1 G2 Gx
Utility
Closed
Protective
2 Relay
Transition
Paralleling of
Typical
Generator
Generators and Breaker
Utility, Plus
3 Service Main
Soft Loading/
Unloading
Normal Bus Emergency Bus
4 TIE Optional TIE
Optional Electrically Operated
Electrically Stored Energy
5 Operated
Field Installed
Cable or Busway
Breakers
Stored F1 F2 Fx EF1 EF2 EFx
Energy
6 Breakers
Figure 1.1-22. Typical One-Line Health Care Facility with Complete Generator Backup and Utility Interconnect
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
21
Generator Systems Multiple Isolated Standby Generators Multiple generator systems have a
i The second type of generator system more complex control and protection
Emergency Standby Generator System is a multiple isolated set of standby requirement as the units have to be
There are primarily three types of generators. Figure 1.2-2 shows synchronized and paralleled together.
ii generator systems. The first and multiple generators connected to The generators are required to share
simplest type is a single generator a paralleling bus feeding multiple the load proportionally without swings
that operates independently from transfer switches. The utility is the or prolonged hunting in voltage or
1 the electric utility power grid. normal source for the transfer switches. frequency for load sharing. They may
This is typically referred to as an The generators and the utility are never also require multiple levels of load
emergency standby generator continuously connected together in this shedding and/or load restoration
2 system. Figure 1.2-1 shows a single scheme. Multiple generators may be schemes to match generation capacity.
standby generator, utility source required to meet the load requirements Multiple Generators Operating in
and a transfer switch. In this case, the (N system). Generators may be applied
3 load is either supplied from the utility in an N+1 or a 2N system for improved
Parallel with Utility System
or the generator. The generator and system reliability. The third type of system is either one
the utility are never continuously with a single or multiple generators
4 connected together. This simple radial that operate in parallel with the utility
system has few requirements for Utility system. Figure 1.2-3 shows two
protection and control. It also has the
G1 G2 generators and a utility source feeding
5 least impact on the complete electric a switchgear lineup feeding multiple
power distribution system. It should Switchgear
loads. This system typically requires
be noted that this type of generator generator capacity sufficient to carry
6 system improves overall electrical the entire load or sophisticated load
reliability but does not provide the ATS-1 ATS-2
shedding schemes. This system will
require a complete and complex
7 redundancy that some facilities require
if the generator fails to start or is out protection and control scheme. The
for maintenance. electric utility may have very stringent
and costly protection requirements
8 Load 1 Load 2
for the system. IEEE standard 1547
Utility describes the interconnection require-
Figure 1.2-2. Multiple Isolated Set of ments for paralleling to the utility.
9 G1 Standby Generators
In an N system, where N is the number Utility
of generators required to carry the
10 load; if a generator fails or is out for
G1 G2
16
17
18
19
20
21
Generator Fundamentals The application of generators requires derived system and a four-pole transfer
A generator consists of two primary
special protection requirements. switch is required or ground fault relays i
The size, voltage class, importance could misoperate and unbalanced neu-
components, a prime mover and an and dollar investment will influence tral current may be carried on ground
alternator. The prime mover is the
energy source used to turn the rotor
the protection scheme associated with conductors. ii
the generator(s). Mode of operation An IEEE working group has studied the
of the alternator. It is typically a will influence the utility company’s practice of low resistance grounding
diesel combustion engine for most
emergency or standby systems.
interface protection requirements. of medium voltage generators within 1
Paralleling with the electric utility is the general industry. This “working
In cogeneration applications, the the most complicated of the utility group” found that, for internal generator
prime mover may come from a steam
driven turbine or other source. On
inter-tie requirements. IEEE ANSI 1547 ground faults, the vast majority of the 2
provides recommended practices. damage is done after the generator
diesel units, a governor and voltage
breaker is tripped offline, and the field
regulator are used to control the speed
and power output.
Generator Grounding and Bonding and turbine are tripped. This is due to 3
(Ref. NEC 2011, Article 250.30(A)(1) the stored energy in the generator flux
The alternator is typically a synchro- that takes several seconds to dissipate
nous machine driven by the prime and (2)) 4
after the generator is tripped offline.
mover. A voltage regulator controls its Generator grounding methods need It is during this time that the low
voltage output by adjusting the field. to be considered and may affect the resistance ground allows significant
The output of a single generator or distribution equipment and ratings. amounts of fault current to flow into 5
multiple paralleled generator sets is Generators may be connected in delta the ground fault. Because the large fault
controlled by these two inputs. The or wye, but wye is the most typical currents can damage the generator’s
alternator is designed to operate at a connection. A wye-connected generator winding, application of an alternate 6
specified speed for the required output can be solidly grounded, low impedance protection method is desirable during
frequency, typically 60 or 50 Hz. The grounded, high impedance grounded this time period. One of the solutions
voltage regulator and engine governor or ungrounded. Section 1.4 discusses set forth by this “working group” is 7
along with other systems define the general grounding schemes, benefits a hybrid high resistance grounding
generator’s response to dynamic of each and protection considerations. (HHRG) scheme as shown in
load changes and motor starting A solidly grounded generator may have Figure 1.2-4. In the HHRG scheme, 8
characteristics. a lower zero sequence impedance than the low resistance ground (LRG)
its positive sequence impedance. In this is quickly tripped offline when the
Generators are rated in power and
case, the equipment will need to be rated generator protection senses the 9
voltage output. Most generators are
for the larger available ground fault ground fault. The LRG is cleared
designed to operate at a 0.8 power
current. The generator’s neutral may at the same time that the generator
factor. For example, a 2000 kW
generator at 277/480 V would have a be connected to the system-neutral; if breaker clears, leaving the high 10
it is, the generator is not a separately resistance ground portion connected
kVA rating of 2500 kVA (2000 kW/
derived system and a three-pole transfer to control the transient overvoltages
08 pf) and a continuous
··· current rating
of 3007A 2500 kVA 480V 3 . switch is used. If the generator’s neutral during the coast-down phase of the 11
is bonded to ground separate from the generator, thereby all but eliminating
Typical synchronous generators system-neutral, it is a separately generator damage.
for industrial and commercial 12
power systems range in size from
100–3000 kVA and from 208 V–13,800 V.
Other ratings are available and these HRG 13
discussions are applicable to those 51G
ratings as well. Gen
86
R 59G
14
Generators must be considered in the R LRG
Phase 87GN
short-circuit and coordination study Relays
as they may greatly impact the rating 15
of the electrical distribution system.
This is especially common on large
installations with multiple generators 16
and systems that parallel with the
utility source. Short-circuit current
contribution from a generator 17
typically ranges from 8 to 12 times
full load amperes. Figure 1.2-4. Hybrid High Resistance Grounding Scheme
18
19
20
21
Generator Controls A synch-scope is typically supplied The subtransient reactance Xd” will
i The engine generator set has controls
on paralleling gear. The synch-scope range from a minimum of approxi-
displays the relative relationship mately 9% for a two-pole, wound-rotor
to maintain the output frequency between voltage phasors on the machine to approximately 32% for a
ii (speed) and voltage. These controls
consist of a governor and voltage
generator to be paralleled and the low-speed, salient-pole, hydro-generator.
bus. If the generator is running slower The initial symmetrical fault current
regulator. As loads change on the than the bus (less than 60 Hz) then the can be as much as 12 times full
1 system, the frequency and voltage needle on the scope will spin in the load current.
will change. The speed control will counterclockwise direction. If it is
then adjust the governor to correct running faster, then it will rotate in Depending on the generator type,
2 for the load (kW) change. The the clockwise direction. The greater the zero sequence impedance may be
voltage regulator will change the the frequency difference, the faster less than the subtransient reactance
field current to adjust the voltage is the rotation. It is important that the and the ground fault current substan-
3 to the desired voltage value. These generators are in phase before they tially higher than the three-phase
are the basic controls found on all are paralleled. Severe damage will short-circuit current. For example, a
synchronous generators. occur if generators are paralleled 2500 kVA, 480/277 V, four-pole, 2/3
4 Multiple generator systems require out-of-phase. pitch standby generator has a 0.1411
per unit subtransient reactance Xd”
more sophisticated controls. Generators and a 0.033 per unit zero sequence Xo
5 are paralleled in a multi-generator
system and they must share the load.
Generator Short-Circuit reactance. The ground current is
These systems often have a load shed Characteristics approximately a third larger than the
three-phase fault current. The ground
scheme, which adds to the complexity.
6 If a short circuit is applied directly to fault current can be reduced to the
Multiple generator schemes need a the output terminals of a synchronous three-phase level by simply adding a
master controller to prevent units from generator, it will produce an extremely small reactance between the generator
7 being connected out-of-phase. The high current initially, gradually decaying neutral and ground while still being
sequence of operation is to send a to a steady-state value. This change considered solidly grounded.
start signal to all generators simulta- is represented by a varying reactive
8 neously. The first unit up to frequency impedance. Three specific reactances
The electric power system analysis
must be performed based on the worst-
and voltage will be permitted to close are used for short-circuit fault currents. case operating conditions. Typically
its respective breaker and energize the They are:
9 paralleling bus. Breakers for the other
this is when all sources are paralleled.
If the system can operate with both
generators are held open, not permit- ■ Subtransient reactance Xd”, which is
used to determine the fault the utility supply and generators in
ted to close, until certain conditions
10 are met. Once the paralleling bus is current during the first 1 to 5 cycles parallel, then the equipment must be
rated for the combined fault current
energized, the remaining generators ■ Transient reactance Xd’, which is
used to determine the fault current plus motor contribution. If the generator
must be synchronized to it before
11 the generators can be paralleled. during the next 5 to 200 cycles and utility will not be paralleled, then
both cases will need to be looked at
Synchronization compares the voltage ■ Synchronous reactance Xd”, which is
independently and the worst case used
phasor’s angle and magnitude. Both used to determine the steady- state
12 generators must be operating at the fault current
for selecting the equipment ratings.
same frequency and phase-matched
within typically 5 to 10 degrees with
13 each other. The voltage magnitude
typically must be within 20 to 24%.
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Generator Protection
Generator protection will vary and
Generator Protection ANSI/IEEE i
Std 242-1986
depend on the size of the generator,
type of system and importance of the
generator. Generator sizes are defined
ii
1 1 1 1
as: small—1000 kVA maximum up
Alternate
to 600 V (500 kVA maximum when 51
Location
51V 32 40
1
above 600 V); medium over 1000 kVA
to 12,500 kVA maximum regardless
of voltage; large—from 12,500– 2
50,000 kVA. The simplest is a single
generator system used to feed emer- 1 3
gency and/or standby loads. In this
Gen 51G 87 3
case, the generator is the only source
available when it is operating and 1
it must keep operating until the
51 Preferred 4
normal source returns. Location Gen
21
9
To Main Bus
OC = Operating coil
PC = Permissive coil
10
Figure 1.2-7. Generator Percentage Differential Relay (Phase Scheme)
and Ground Differential Scheme Using a Directional Relay
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
18
19
20
21
i Generator Set Sizing Typical rating definitions for diesel Electrical rating definitions for natural
gensets are: standby, prime plus 10, gas powered gensets are typically
and Ratings continuous and load management defined as standby or continuous with
(paralleled with or isolated from definitions similar to those mentioned
ii Many factors must be considered
when determining the proper size or
utility). Any diesel genset can have above for diesels. Natural gas gensets
several electrical ratings depending recover more slowly than diesel gensets
electrical rating of an electrical power on the number of hours of operation when subjected to block loads. Diesel
1 generator set. The engine or prime
mover is sized to provide the actual
per year and the ratio of electrical engines have a much more direct path
load/genset rating when in operation. from the engine governor and fuel
or real power in kW, as well as speed The same diesel genset can have a delivery system to the combustion
2 (frequency) control through the use
of an engine governor. The generator
standby rating of 2000 kW at 0.8 power chamber and this results in a very
factor (pf) and a continuous rating of responsive engine-generator. A natural
is sized to supply the kVA needed at 1825 kW at 0.8 pf. The lower continuous gas engine is challenged with air-fuel
3 startup and during normal running rating is due to the additional hours flow dynamics and a much more indi-
operation and it also provides voltage of operation and higher load that the rect path from the engine governor
control using a brushless exciter and continuous genset must carry. These (throttle actuator) and fuel delivery
4 voltage regulator. Together the engine additional requirements put more system (natural gas pressure regulator,
and generator provide the energy stress on the engine and generator fuel valve and actuator, carburetor
necessary to supply electrical loads and therefore the rating is decreased mixer, aftercooler, intake manifold) to
5 in many different applications to maintain longevity of the equipment. the combustion chamber and this results
encountered in today’s society. in a less responsive engine-generator.
Different generator set manufacturers Diesel gensets recover about twice as
The generator set must be able to
6 supply the starting and running
use basically the same diesel genset fast as natural gas gensets.
electrical rating definitions and these
electrical load. It must be able to are based on international diesel For the actual calculations involved
pick up and start all motor loads and
7 low power factor loads, and recover
fuel stop power standards from for sizing a genset, there are readily
organizations like ISO, DIN and others. accessible computer software programs
without excessive voltage dip or A standby diesel genset rating is that are available on the genset manu-
extended recovery time. Nonlinear
8 loads like variable frequency drives,
typically defined as supplying varying facturer’s Internet sites or from the
electrical loads for the duration of a manufacturer’s dealers or distributors.
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) power outage with the load normally These programs are used to quickly
systems and switching power supplies
9 also require attention because the SCR
connected to utility, genset operating and accurately size generator sets for
<100 hours per year and no overload their application. The programs take
switching causes voltage and current capability. A prime plus 10 rating is into consideration the many different
10 waveform distortion and harmonics.
The harmonics generate additional
typically defined as supplying varying parameters discussed above, including
electrical loads for the duration of a the size and type of the electrical loads
heat in the generator windings, and power outage with the load normally (resistive, inductive, SCR, etc.), reduced
11 the generator may need to be upsized
to accommodate this. The type of
connected to utility, genset operating voltage soft starting devices (RVSS),
ð500 hours per year and overload motor types, voltage, fuel type, site
fuel (diesel, natural gas, propane, etc.) capability of 10% above its rating for conditions, ambient conditions and
12 used is important as it is a factor in
determining generator set transient
1 hour out of 12. A continuous rating other variables. The software will
is typically defined as supplying optimize the starting sequences of the
response. It is also necessary to unvarying electrical loads (i.e., base motors for the least amount of voltage
13 determine the load factor or average
power consumption of the generator
loaded) for an unlimited time. The load dip and determine the starting kVA
management ratings apply to gensets needed from the genset. It also provides
set. This is typically defined as the load in parallel operation with the utility transient response data, including
14 (kW) x time (hrs. while under that
particular load) / total running time.
or isolated/islanded from utility and voltage dip magnitude and recovery
these ratings vary in usability from duration. If the transient response is
When this load factor or average <200 hours per year to unlimited unacceptable, then design changes can
15 power is taken into consideration
with peak demand requirements
usage. Refer to generator set manufac- be considered, including oversizing
turers for further definitions on load the generator to handle the additional
and the other operating parameters management ratings, load factor or kvar load, adding RVSS devices to
16 mentioned above, the overall electrical average power consumption, peak reduce the inrush current, improving
rating of the genset can be determined. demand and how these ratings are system power factor and other methods.
Other items to consider include the typically applied. Even though there is The computer software programs are
17 unique installation, ambient, and site some standardization of these ratings quite flexible in that they allow changes
requirements of the project. These across the manufacturers, there also to the many different variables and
will help to determine the physical exists some uniqueness with regard to parameters to achieve an optimum
18 configuration of the overall system. how each manufacturer applies their design. The software allows, for
generator sets. example, minimizing voltage dips
or using paralleled gensets vs. a
19 single genset.
20
21
ii
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
i Short-Circuit Currents— The AC component is not constant secondary current. Limiting the power
if rotating machines are connected source fault capacity will thereby
General to the system because the impedance reduce the maximum fault current from
of this apparatus is not constant. The the transformer.
ii The amount of current available in a
short-circuit fault is determined by the
rapid variation of motor and generator
impedance is due to these factors: The electric network that determines
capacity of the system voltage sources the short-circuit current consists of an
1 and the impedances of the system, Subtransient reactance (x d" ), deter- AC driving voltage equal to the pre-fault
including the fault. Voltage sources mines fault current during the first system voltage and an impedance
include the power supply (utility or cycle, and after about 6 cycles this corresponding to that observed when
2 on-site generation) plus all rotating value increases to the transient reac- looking back into the system from the
machines connected to the system at tance. It is used for the calculation fault location. In medium and high
the time of the fault. A fault may be of the momentary interrupting and/or voltage work, it is generally satisfactory
3 either an arcing or bolted fault. In an momentary withstand duties of to regard reactance as the entire
arcing fault, part of the circuit voltage is equipment and/or system. impedance; resistance may be
consumed across the fault and the total neglected. However, this is normally
Transient reactance (x d' ), which deter-
4 fault current is somewhat smaller than
mines fault current after about 6 cycles
permissible only if the X/R ratio of the
for a bolted fault, so the latter is the medium voltage system is equal to or
worst condition, and therefore is the and this value in 1/2 to 2 seconds more than 25. In low voltage (1000 V
increases to the value of the synchro-
5 value sought in the fault calculations.
nous reactance. It is used in the setting
and below) calculations, it is usually
worthwhile to attempt greater accuracy
Basically, the short-circuit current is of the phase OC relays of generators by including resistance with reactance
determined by applying Ohm’s Law and medium voltage circuit breakers.
6 to an equivalent circuit consisting of
in dealing with impedance. It is for this
Synchronous reactance (xd ), which reason, plus ease of manipulating the
a constant voltage source and a time- various impedances of cables and
varying impedance. A time-varying determines fault current after steady-
7 impedance is used in order to account state condition is reached. It has no buses and transformers of the low
effect as far as short-circuit calculations voltage circuits, that computer studies
for the changes in the effective voltages are recommended before final selection
of the rotating machines during the are concerned, but is useful in the
8 fault. In an AC system, the resulting determination of relay settings. of apparatus and system arrangements.
short-circuit current starts out higher in Transformer impedance, in percent, is When evaluating the adequacy
9 magnitude than the final steady-state
value and asymmetrical (due
defined as that percent of rated primary of short-circuit ratings of medium
voltage circuit breakers and fuses,
voltage that must be applied to the
to the DC offset) about the X-axis. transformer to produce rated current both the rms symmetrical value and
10 The current then decays toward a
lower symmetrical steady-state value.
flowing in the secondary, with second- asymmetrical value of the short-circuit
current should be determined.
ary shorted through zero resistance.
The time-varying characteristic of the Therefore, assuming the primary For low voltage circuit breakers and
11 impedance accounts for the symmetri-
cal decay in current. The ratio of the
voltage can be sustained (generally fuses, the rms symmetrical value
referred to as an infinite or unlimited should be determined along with
reactive and resistive components (X/R supply), the maximum current a trans- either: the X/R ratio of the fault
12 ratio) accounts for the DC decay, see
Figure 1.3-1. The fault current consists
former can deliver to a fault condition is at the device or the asymmetrical
the quantity of (100 divided by percent short- circuit current.
of an exponentially decreasing direct- impedance) times the transformer rated
13 current component superimposed
upon a decaying alternating-current.
The rate of decay of both the DC and Total Current—A Wholly Offset
14 AC components depends upon the
ratio of reactance to resistance (X/R) 3.0
Asymmetrical Alternating Wave
9
2.8
2.7 10
PEAK MAXIMUM ASYMMETRICAL
RMS SYMMETRICAL
2.5
2.4 12
2.3
13
2.2 1.8
R
O
14
CT
2.1 1.7
FA
N
PEAK MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =
O
TI
1.9 1.5
U
M
OR 16
AK
1.8 CT 1.4
PE
FA
TION
ICA
1.7
TIP
L 1.3
17
UL
1.6 SM 1.2
RM
18
1.5 1.1
1.4
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
19
CIRCUIT X/R RATIO (TAN PHASE)
20
Figure 1.3-2. Relation of X/R Ratio to Multiplication Factor
21
i Fault Current Calculations Synchronous motors—use 5.0 times Medium Voltage Motors
motor full load current (impedance
value of 20%). If known, use actual values otherwise
The calculation of asymmetrical
use the values indicated for the same
currents is a laborious procedure since
ii the degree of asymmetry is not the
When the motor load is not known, type of motor.
the following assumptions generally
same on all three phases. It is common
practice for medium voltage systems,
are made: Calculation Methods
1 to calculate the rms symmetrical fault 208Y/120 V Systems The following pages describe various
current, with the assumption being methods of calculating short-circuit
■ Assume 50% lighting and 50%
made that the DC component has currents for both medium and low
2 decayed to zero, and then apply
motor load
voltage systems. A summary of
a multiplying factor to obtain the first or the types of methods and types of
half-cycle rms asymmetrical current, calculations is as follows:
3 which is called the “momentary ■ Assume motor feedback contribu-
tion of twice full load current of ■ Medium voltage
current.” For medium voltage systems
transformer switchgear—exact
(defined by IEEE as greater than
4 1000 V up to 69,000 V) the multiplying or
method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-5
factor is established by NEMA® and ■ Medium voltage
ANSI standards depending upon the 240/480/600 V Three-Phase, Three-Wire or switchgear—quick
5 operating speed of the breaker. For Four-Wire Systems check table . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-7
low voltage systems, short-circuit ■ Assume 100% motor load ■ Medium voltage
study software usually calculates the switchgear
6 symmetrical fault current and the or Example 1—verify
faulted system X/R ratio using ANSI ratings of breakers . . . . Page 1.3-8
■ Assume motors 25% synchronous
guidelines. If the X/R ratio is within the
7 standard, and the breaker interrupting
and 75% induction ■ Medium voltage
switchgear
current is under the symmetrical fault or Example 2—verify
value, the breaker is properly rated.
8 If the X/R ratio is higher than ANSI ■ Assume motor feedback contribu-
ratings of breakers
with rotating
standards, the study applies a multi- tion of four times full load current loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-9
plying factor to the symmetrical of transformer
9 calculated value (based on the
■ Medium voltage
480Y/277 V Systems in Commercial Buildings switchgear Example 3
X/R value of the system fault) and —verify ratings of
compares that value to the breaker ■ Assume 50% induction motor load
10 symmetrical value to assess if it is
breakers with
or generators . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-10
properly rated. In the past, especially
using manual calculations, a multiply- Assume motor feedback contribu- ■ Medium voltage
11 ing factor of 1.17 (based on the use
■
tion of two times full load current fuses—exact method . . Page 1.3-11
of an X/R ratio of 6.6 representing of transformer or source ■ Power breakers—
a source short-circuit power factor asymmetry
12 of 15%) was used to calculate the derating factors . . . . . . . Page 1.3-11
asymmetrical current. These values ■ Molded-case
breakers—asymmetry
13 take into account that medium voltage
breakers are rated on maximum derating factors . . . . . . . Page 1.3-12
asymmetry and low voltage breakers ■ Short-circuit
14 are rated average asymmetry. calculations—
To determine the motor contribution short cut method
during the first half-cycle fault current, for a system . . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-13
15 when individual motor horsepower ■ Short-circuit
load is known, the subtransient calculations—short
reactances found in the IEEE Red Book cut method for
16 should be used in the calculations. end of cable . . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-15
When the system motor load is ■ Short-circuit
unknown, the following assumptions calculations—
17 generally are made: short cut method
for end of cable
Induction motors—use 4.0 times chart method . . . . . . . . . Page 1.3-16
18 motor full load current (impedance
■ Short-circuit currents—
value of 25%).
chart of transformers
300–3750 kVA. . . . . . . . . Page 1.5-9
19 Note: For motors fed through adjustable
frequency drives or solid-state soft starters,
there is no contribution to fault current, unless
1) they have an internal run contactor or
20 2) they have a bypass contactor.
21
The Close and Latch Capability The ANSI Standard C37.010 allows the Step 3: Reduce the reactance network
i This is also a related quantity use of the X values only in determin- to an equivalent reactance. Call this
expressed in rms asymmetrical ing the E/X value of a fault current. The reactance XI.
amperes by 1.6 x maximum R values are used to determine the X/R
ii symmetrical interrupting capability. ratio, in order to apply the proper Step 4: Set up the same network for
multiplying factor, to account for the resistance values.
For example, 1.6 x 36 = 57.6 or 58 kA, or
1.6 K x rated short-circuit current. total fault clearing time, asymmetry, Step 5: Reduce the resistance network
1 and decrement of the fault current. to an equivalent resistance. Call this
Another way of expressing the close resistance RI. The above calculations
and latch rating is in terms of the peak The steps in the calculation of fault
of XI and RI may be calculated by
2 current, which is the instantaneous currents and breaker selection are
several computer programs.
value of the current at the crest. ANSI described hereinafter:
Standard C37.09 indicates that the ratio Step 1: Collect the X and R data of the Step 6: Calculate the E/XI value, where
3 of the peak to rms asymmetrical value circuit elements. Convert to a common E is the prefault value of the voltage at
for any asymmetry of 100% to 20% kVA and voltage base. If the reactances the point of fault nominally assumed
(percent asymmetry is defined as the and resistances are given either in 1.0 pu.
4 ratio of DC component of the fault in ohms or per unit on a different voltage X
per unit to 2 ) varies not more than Step 7: Determine X/R = ------I as
or kVA base, all should be changed previously calculated. RI
±2% from a ratio of 1.69. Therefore, the to the same kVA and voltage base. This
5 close and latch current expressed in caution does not apply where Step 8: Go to the proper curve for
terms of the peak amperes is = 1.6 x the base voltages are the same as the type of fault under consideration
1.69 x K x rated short-circuit current. the transformation ratio. (three-phase, phase-to-phase, phase-
6 to-ground), type of breaker at the loca-
In the calculation of faults for the pur- Step 2: Construct the sequence
poses of breaker selection, the rotating tion (2, 3, 5 or 8 cycles), and contact
networks and connect properly for parting time to determine the multi-
7 machine impedances specified in ANSI the type of fault under consideration. plier to the calculated E/XI.
Standard C37.010 Article 5.4.1 should Use the X values required by ANSI
be used. The value of the impedances Standard C37.010 for the “interrupting” See Figures 1.3-3, 1.3-4 and 1.3-5 for
8 and their X/R ratios should be obtained duty value of the short-circuit current. 5-cycle breaker multiplying factors.
from the equipment manufacturer. At Use Figure 1.3-5 if the short circuit is
initial short-circuit studies, data from fed predominantly from generators
9 manufacturers is not available. Typical removed from the fault by two or more
values of impedances and their X/R
ratios are given in Table 1.3-1.
10
130 130 130
7
5
12
10
5
8
100 100 100 6
4
13 4
3
90 90 90
3
14 80 80 80
TIME
Ratio X/R
Ratio X/R
Ratio X/R
70 70 70
TIME
15
ING
60
RT
60
ING
60
PA
ART
16
T
50 50 50
AC
T P
NT
AC
CO
40 40 40
NT
17
CO
30 30 30
5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE
18 20
BREAKER
20
BREAKER
20
BREAKER
19 10 10 10
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
20 Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes
Figure 1.3-3. Three-phase Fault Multiplying Figure 1.3-4. Line-to-Ground Fault Multiplying Figure 1.3-5. Three-phase and Line-to-Ground
21 Factors that Include Effects of AC and Factors that Include Effects of AC and Fault Multiplying Factors that Include Effects
DC Decrement DC Decrement of DC Decrement Only
transformations or the per unit reac- The ANSI standards do not require the Application Quick Check Table i
tance external to the generation is 1.5 inclusion of resistances in the calcula-
times or more than the subtransient tion of the required interrupting and For application of circuit breakers in a
reactance of the generation on a com- close and latch capabilities. Thus the radial system supplied from a single
mon base. Also use Figure 1.3-5 where calculated values are conservative. source transformer. Short-circuit duty ii
the fault is supplied by a utility only. However, when the capabilities of was determined using E/X amperes
existing switchgears are investigated, and 1.0 multiplying factor for X/R ratio
Step 9: Interrupting duty short-circuit the resistances should be included. of 15 or less and 1.25 multiplying 1
current = E/XI x MFx = E/X2.
factor for X/R ratios in the range of
For single line-to-ground faults, the
Step 10: Construct the sequence 15 to 40.
(positive, negative and zero) networks
symmetrical interrupting capability 2
is 1.15 x the symmetrical interrupting Application Above 3,300 ft (1,000 m)
properly connected for the type of fault capability at any operating voltage,
under consideration. Use the The rated one-minute power frequency
X values required by ANSI Standard
but not to exceed the maximum withstand voltage, the impulse with- 3
symmetrical capability of the breaker. stand voltage, the continuous current
C37.010 for the “Close and Latch”
duty value of the short-circuit current. Section 5 of ANSI C37 provides rating, and the maximum voltage rating
further guidance for medium voltage must be multiplied by the appropriate 4
Step 11: Reduce the network to an breaker application. correction factors below to obtain
equivalent reactance. Call the reac- modified ratings that must equal or
tance X. Calculate E/X x 1.6 if the Reclosing Duty exceed the application requirements. 5
breaker close and latch capability is ANSI Standard C37.010 indicates the
given in rms amperes or E/X x 2.7 if Note: Intermediate values may be obtained
reduction factors to use when circuit
the breaker close and latch capability breakers are used as reclosers. Eaton
by interpolation. 6
is given in peak or crest amperes. VCP-W breakers are listed at 100% Table 1.3-3. Altitude Derating
rating factor for reclosing.
Step 12: Select a breaker whose: Altitude in Correction Factor 7
Feet (Meters) Current Voltage
a. Maximum voltage rating exceeds
the operating voltage of the system: 3300 (1006) (and below)
5000 (1524)
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.95
8
E V max 10,000 (3048) 0.96 0.80
b. -------- I ----------------- KI
X2 Vo
Table 1.3-4. Application Quick Check Table 9
See Table 6.0-1, Tab 6. Source Operating Voltage
Where:
Transformer
MVA Rating
kV
10
I = Rated short-circuit current Motor Load 2.4 4.16 6.6 12 13.8
19
20
21
21
1 Gen X
----- ratio is 30
R
2 1
XS
1
X
1
X
1
X
3
X
and
1
RS
1
R
1
R
1
R
3
R
3 XS X
G1 G2 G3
or XS X
----- and R S
R
---- Therefore, System --------- ----- Gen X
----- 30
3 3 RS R R
4
Since generator neutral grounding reactors are used to limit the ILG to I3-phase or
below, we need only check the I3 short-circuit duty.
5
I B I B I B 31B 3(1.04) 4.16 kV
IB Phase ------ + ------ + ------ + ------------ ----------------------- 28.4 kA Symmetrical E/X amperes
X X X X 0.11
6
X
System ----- of 30 is a Multiplying Factor of 1.04 from Table 1.3-6.
7 R
Short-circuit duty is 28.4 (1.04) = 29.5 kA Symmetrical
8 Three-Phase Symmetrical Interrupting Capability Figure 1.3-8. Example 3—One-Line Diagram
Breaker Type V Max. at V Max. Max. KI at 4.16 kV Oper. Voltage
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Medium Voltage Fuses— Step 3—Construct the sequence Low Voltage Power Circuit i
networks using reactances and connect
Fault Calculations properly for the type of fault under Breakers—Fault Calculations
consideration and reduce to a single
There are two basic types of medium
voltage fuses. The following definitions
equivalent reactance. The steps for calculating the fault cur-
rent for the selection of a low voltage
ii
are taken from ANSI Standard C37.40. Step 4—Construct the sequence power circuit breaker are the same as
Expulsion Fuse (Unit)
networks using resistances and those used for medium voltage circuit
breakers except that where the con-
1
connect properly for the type of
A vented fuse (unit) in which the fault under consideration and reduce nected loads to the low voltage bus
expulsion effect of the gases produced
by internal arcing, either alone or aided
to a single equivalent resistance.
includes induction and synchronous 2
by other mechanisms, results in current Step 5—Calculate the E/XI value, motor loads. The assumption is made
where E is the prefault value of the that in 208Y/120 V systems the contri-
interruption.
voltage at the point of fault normally bution from motors is two times the full 3
Current-Limiting Fuse (Unit) assumed 1.0 in pu. For three-phase load current of step-down transformer.
faults E/XI is the fault current to be This corresponds to an assumed 50%
A fuse unit that, when its current-
responsive element is melted by a used in determining the required motor aggregate impedance on a kVA 4
current within the fuse’s specified interrupting capability of the fuse. base equal to the transformer kVA
rating or 50% motor load. For 480 V,
current-limiting range, abruptly
introduces a high resistance to
Note: It is not necessary to calculate a 480Y/277 V and 600 V systems, the 5
single phase-to-phase fault current. This assumption is made that the contribution
reduce current magnitude and current is very nearly 3 /2 x three-phase
from the motors is four times the full
duration, resulting in subsequent
current interruption.
fault. The line-to-ground fault may exceed
the three-phase fault for fuses located in load current of the step-down trans- 6
generating stations with solidly grounded former, which corresponds to an assumed
There are two classes of fuses; 25% aggregate motor impedance on a
power and distribution. They are
neutral generators, or in delta-wye trans-
formers with the wye solidly grounded, kVA base equal to the transformer kVA 7
distinguished from each other by where the sum of the positive and negative rating or 100% motor load.
the current ratings and minimum sequence impedances on the high voltage
melting type characteristics. side (delta) is smaller than the impedance of In low voltage systems that contain 8
the transformer. generators, the subtransient reactance
The current-limiting ability of a should be used.
current-limiting fuse is specified by For single line-to-ground fault:
If the X/R to the point of fault is greater
9
its threshold ratio, peak let-through XI X I (+) + X I (–) + X I (0) than 6.6, a derating multiplying factor
current and I2t characteristics.
(MF) must be applied. The X/R ratio is
Interrupting Ratings of Fuses calculated in the same manner as that
10
E
If ------- 3 for medium voltage circuit breakers.
Modern fuses are rated in amperes XI
rms symmetrical. They also have a Calculated symmetrical amperes x 11
listed asymmetrical rms rating that Step 6—Select a fuse whose MF ð breaker interrupting rating.
is 1.6 x the symmetrical rating. published interrupting rating
Refer to ANSI/IEEE C37.48 for fuse
exceeds the calculated fault current.
The multiplying factor MF can be
calculated by the formula:
12
interrupting duty guidelines. Figure 1.3-2 should be used where
–
Calculation of the Fuse Required
older fuses asymmetrically rated are
MF
2 1 2.718
X/R
13
involved. 2.29
Interrupting Rating:
The voltage rating of power fuses used
Step 1—Convert the fault from
the utility to percent or per unit on on three-phase systems should equal
If the X/R of system feeding the
breaker is not known, use X/R = 15.
14
a convenient voltage and kVA base. or exceed the maximum line-to-line
voltage rating of the system. Current For fused breakers by the formula:
Step 2—Collect the X and R data of all limiting fuses for three-phase systems 15
the other circuit elements and convert – 2 X/R
should be so applied that the fuse 1 2 2.718
to a percent or per unit on a conve- MF
voltage rating is equal to or less than
nient kVA and voltage base same as 1.41 x nominal system voltage.
1.25 16
that used in Step 1. Use the substran- If the X/R of the system feeding the
sient X and R for all generators and breaker is not known, use X/R = 20.
motors. 17
Refer to Table 1.3-8 for the standard
ranges of X/R and power factors used in
testing and rating low voltage breakers. 18
Refer to Table 1.3-9 for the circuit
breaker interrupting rating multiplying
factors to be used when the calculated 19
X/R ratio or power factor at the point
the breaker is to be applied in the
power distribution system falls outside 20
of the Table 1.3-8 X/R or power factors
used in testing and rating the circuit
breakers. MF is always greater than 1.0. 21
Note: These are derating factors applied to the breaker and are the inverse of MF.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
(b) % impedance = % Z =
(ohms impedance) (kVA base)
kV 2 10
5
(% impedance) kV 2 (10)
(c) Ohms impedance =
kVA base 6
4. Change power-source impedance to per unit (a) —if utility fault capacity given in kVA
or percent impedance on kVA base as selected
for this study: kVA base in study
7
Per-unit impedance = pu Z = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
power-source kVA fault capacity
(b) —if utility fault capacity given in rms symmetrical short circuit amperes 8
kVA base in study
Per-unit impedance = pu Z = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(short-circuit current) 3 (kV of source)
-
9
5. Change motor rating to kVA: (a) —motor kVA — 3 (kV) (I) where I = motor nameplate full-load amperes
(b) —if 1.0 power factor synchronous motorkVA = (0.8) (hp)
(c) —if 0.8 power factor synchronous motorkVA = (1.0) (hp)
10
(d) —if induction motor kVA = (1.0) (hp)
(g)
(kV) (1000)
= ----------------------------------- 15
3 (ohms Z)
(kVA base) (100)- = kV 2 1000
kVA base- = ---------------------------------------------
7. Determine symmetrical short-circuit kVA: (a) Symmetrical short-circuit kVA = -------------------------
pu Z %Z
----------------------------------
ohms Z 16
2
3(line-to-neutral kV) 1000
(b) = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ohms Z)
17
8. Determine line-to-line short-circuit current: (a) —from three-phase transformer—approx. 86% of three-phase current
(b) —three single-phase transformers (e.g., 75 kVA, Z = 2%) calculate same as one three-phase
unit (i.e., 3 x 75 kVA = 225 kVA, Z = 2%). 18
(c) —from single-phase transformer—see Page 1.3-15.
(a) —synchronous motor—5 times motor full load current (impedance 20%) 19
9. Determine motor contribution (or feedback) as
source of fault current: (b) —induction motor—4 times motor full-load current (impedance 25%) j
See IEEE
Standard No. 141
(c) —motor loads not individually identified, use contribution from group of motors as follows:
—on 208Y/120 V systems—2.0 times transformer full-load current 20
—on 240-480-600 V three-phase, three-wire systems—4.0 times transformer full-load current
—on 480Y/277 V three-phase, four-wire systems
—In commercial buildings, 2.0 times transformers full-load current (50% motor load)
—In industrial plants, 4.0 times transformer full-load current (100% motor load) 21
Example Number 1
i
How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors
ii A. System Diagram B. Impedance Diagram (Using “Short Cut” Method for Combining Impedances
and Sources).
1 A B C
Utility Source 500 MVA
Major Contribution
Utility
2
Cables
Transformer
3 1000 kV A
Switchboard Fault
5.75%
480V Cables
4 Cable Fault
Switchboard Fault
13 Equation
Step (See) Calculation
1 – Select 1000 kVA as most convenient base, since all data except utility source is on
14 secondary of 1000 kVA transformer.
19 Symmetrical short circuit current at switchboard fault = 3-phase kVA base = 1000 = 23,720 amperes rms
Z pu 3 kV 0.0507 3 0.480
Example Number 2
i
Fault Calculation—Secondary Side of Single-Phase Transformer
X = 6.6R X = 0.9887Z 3
120V
F2
Half-winding of Transformer
{ Multiply
Multiply % X by 1.2 } Reference: IEEE Standard No. 141
% R by 1.5
4
240V
F1 Full-winding of Transformer
A INFINITE
Step Two 4 – 750 kcmil B 500,000
C 250,000
2 – 500 kcmil
Select the applicable chart from the following pages. The D 150,000
16 charts are grouped by secondary system voltage, which is
25 250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
E 100,000
F 50,000
15
Step Three
18 Select the family of curves that is closest to the “available
10 4 – 750 kcmil
source kVA.” The black line family of curves is for a source of 2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
500,000 kVA. The lower value line (in red) family of curves is #1/0 AWG
19 for a source of 50,000 kVA. You may interpolate between 5
#4 AWG
Select the specific curve for the conductor size being used. If
21 your conductor size is something other than the sizes shown Figure 1.3-13. 300 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/208 V
on the chart, refer to the conductor conversion Table 1.3-10.
B 4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
i
250 kcmil UTILITY KV UTILITY KVA
30 #1/0 AWG 120
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
20 80 B
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG 1
15 60 F 2
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
3
10 250 kcmil 40
#1/0 AWG 4 – 750 kcmil
#4 AWG 2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
5 20 #4 AWG
4
0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
5
Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location
Figure 1.3-14. 500 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/208 V Figure 1.3-17. 1500 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 V
6
60
UTILITY KVA
120 4 – 750 kcmil
UTILITY KVA
7
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
40 B 80
F
F 9
30 60
10
20 40 4 – 750 kcmil
4 – 750 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil 250 kcmil
10
250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG 20
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG 11
#4 AWG
0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 12
Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location
Figure 1.3-15. 750 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 V Figure 1.3-18. 2000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 V 13
14
4 – 750 kcmil UTILITY KVA UTILITY KVA
60 2 – 500 kcmil 12
15
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
40
F
8
F 16
30
4 – 750 kcmil
6 4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
17
2 – 500 kcmil 250 kcmil
250 kcmil #1/0 AWG
#1/0 AWG
18
20 4 #4 AWG
#4 AWG
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
10 2 250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG 19
0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location
20
Figure 1.3-16. 1000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 V Figure 1.3-19. 300 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/480 V
21
i
UTILITY KVA UTILITY KVA
30 60
ii
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
2 15 B
250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
30
F
F
3 10
4 – 750 kcmil
20
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil 250 kcmil
5 250 kcmil 10 #1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
4
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
5
Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location
Figure 1.3-20. 500 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/480 V Figure 1.3-23. 1500 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 V
6
7 30
UTILITY KVA
60 4 – 750 kcmil
UTILITY KVA
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
8
4 – 750 kcmil D 150,000 D 150,000
25 2 – 500 kcmil 50 B #4 AWG
E 100,000 E 100,000
250 kcmil F 50,000 F 50,000
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
20 B 40
9 F
F
15 30
10 4 – 750 kcmil
10 2 – 500 kcmil 20 4 – 750 kcmil
250 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
#1/0 AWG 250 kcmil
11 5
#4 AWG
10
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
12 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location
13 Figure 1.3-21. 750 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 V Figure 1.3-24. 2000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 V
14
4 – 750 kcmil UTILITY KVA
30 2 – 500 kcmil
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
17 15
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
18 10
#4 AWG
19
0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
20
Distance in Feet from T ransformer to Breaker Location
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
21
Engine Generator Systems From the nameplate data on the motor, Example: 7
With an engine generator as the the full-load amperes of a 7-1/2 hp. Assuming a project having a
source of power, the type of starter 220 V, 1750 rpm, three-phase, squirrel- 1000 kVA generator, where the
that will limit the inrush depends on cage motor is 19.0 A. Therefore: voltage variation must not exceed
8
the characteristics of the generator. Starting current (%F.L.) = 10%. Can a 75 hp, 1750 rpm, 220 V,
Although automatic voltage regulators three-phase, squirrel-cage motor be
are usually used with all AC engine- 10 100 1000 started without objectionable lamp
9
3.45 or 345%.
generators, the initial dip in voltage is 19.0 220 3 0.40 flicker (or 10% voltage drop)?
caused by the inherent regulation of
the generator and occurs too rapidly From Table 1.3-11, a NEMA design C or
From tables in the circuit protective 10
for the voltage regulator to respond. devices reference section, the full-load
NEMA design D motor with an autotrans-
amperes of this size and type of motor
It will occur whether or not a regulator
is installed. Consequently, the percent
former starter gives approximately this
is 158 A. To convert to same basis as 11
starting ratio. It could also be obtained
of initial voltage drop depends on the column 7, 158 A must be divided by
from a properly set solid-state adjust-
the generator capacity and % voltage
ratio of the starting kVA taken by the
motor to the generator capacity, the
able reduced voltage starter.
drop, or: 12
inherent regulation of the generator, The choice will depend upon the
torque requirements of the load since
158 = 0.0158 A per kVA
the power-factor of the load thrown
on the generator, and the percentage the use of an autotransformer starter
1000 x 10 per 1% voltage drop 13
load carried by the generator. reduces the starting torque in direct Checking against the table, 0.0158 falls
proportion to the reduction in starting
A standard 80% power-factor engine- current. In other words, a NEMA
within the 0.0170–0.0146 range. This
indicates that a general-purpose motor
14
type generator (which would be design C motor with an autotrans- with autotransformer starting can
used where power is to be supplied former would have a starting torque
to motor loads) has an inherent of approximately full-load (see Table
be used. 15
regulation of approximately 40% 1.3-11) whereas the NEMA design D Note: Designers may obtain calculated
from no-load to full-load. This means information from engine generator
motor under the same conditions
that a 50% variation in load would would have a starting torque of
manufacturers. 16
cause approximately 20% variation approximately 1-1/2 times full-load. The calculation results in conservative
in voltage (50% x 40% = 20%).
Note: If a resistance starter were used for results. The engineer should provide 17
Assume that a 100 kVA, 80% PF the same motor terminal voltage, the start- to the engine-generator vendor the
engine-type generator is supplying ing torque would be the same as that starting kVA of all motors connected to
the power and that the voltage drop obtained with autotransformer type, but the
starting current would be higher, as shown.
the generator and their starting sequence. 18
should not exceed 10%. Can a 7-1/2 hp, The engineer should also specify the
220 V, 1750 rpm, three-phase, squirrel- maximum allowable drop. The engi-
cage motor be started without Shortcut Method neer should request that the engine-gen- 19
exceeding this voltage drop? Column 7 in Table 1.3-11 has been erator vendor consider the proper
worked out to simplify checking. generator size when closed-transition
Starting ratio =
The figures were obtained by using the autotransformer reduced voltage start- 20
Percent voltage drop gen. kVA 1000 formula above and assuming ers, and soft-start solid-state starter
1 kVA generator capacity and 1% are used; so the most economical
F.L. amperes volts 3 reg. of gen.
voltage drop. method of installation is obtained. 21
Voltage Drop Formulas If the receiving end voltage, load current and power factor
i (PF) are known.
Approximate Method
2 2
Voltage Drop E VD = E R cos + I R E R sin + IX – ER
ii +
E VD = IR cos + IX sin
ER is the receiving end voltage.
1 where abbreviations are same as below “Exact Method.” Exact Method 2—If receiving or sending mVA and its power
factor are known at a known sending or receiving voltage.
Exact Methods
2 Voltage drop
2 2 ZMVA R
2
E S = E R + ---------------------------------
- + 2ZMVA R cos – R
Exact Method 1—If sending end voltage and load PF 2
ER
3 are known.
or
2 2
E VD = E S + IR cos + IX sin – E S – IX cos – IR sin
4 2 2 ZMVA R 2
E R = E S + ---------------------------------
- – 2ZMVA S cos – S
where: 2
ES
5 EVD = Voltage drop, line-to-neutral, volts
where:
ES = Source voltage, line-to-neutral, volts
ER = Receiving line-line voltage in kV
6 I = Line (Load) current, amperes
ES = Sending line-line voltage in kV
R = Circuit (branch, feeder) resistance, ohms
7 X = Circuit (branch, feeder) reactance, ohms
MVAR = Receiving three-phase mVA
MVAS = Sending three-phase mVA
cos = Power factor of load, decimal
8 Z = Impedance between and receiving ends
sin = Reactive factor of load, decimal
= The angle of impedance Z
9 R = Receiving end PF
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
19
20
21
Table 1.3-13. Voltage Drop—Volts per Ampere per 100 Feet (30 m); Three-Phase, Phase-to-Phase
i Conductor Size Magnetic Conduit (Steel) Nonmagnetic Conduit (Aluminum or Nonmetallic)
AWG Load Power Factor, % Load Power Factor, %
or kcmil
ii 60 70 80 90 100 60 70 80 90 100
Copper Conductors
14 0.3390 0.3910 0.4430 0.4940 0.5410 0.3370 0.3900 0.4410 0.4930 0.5410
1 12 0.2170 0.2490 0.2810 0.3130 0.3410 0.2150 0.2480 0.2800 0.3120 0.3410
10 0.1390 0.1590 0.1790 0.1980 0.2150 0.1370 0.1580 0.1780 0.1970 0.2150
8 0.0905 0.1030 0.1150 0.1260 0.1350 0.0888 0.1010 0.1140 0.1250 0.1350
2 6
4
0.0595
0.0399
0.0670
0.0443
0.0742
0.0485
0.0809
0.0522
0.0850
0.0534
0.0579
0.0384
0.0656
0.0430
0.0730
0.0473
0.0800
0.0513
0.0849
0.0533
2 0.0275 0.0300 0.0323 0.0342 0.0336 0.0260 0.0287 0.0312 0.0333 0.0335
1 0.0233 0.0251 0.0267 0.0279 0.0267 0.0218 0.0238 0.0256 0.0270 0.0266
3 1/0 0.0198 0.0211 0.0222 0.0229 0.0213 0.0183 0.0198 0.0211 0.0220 0.0211
2/0 0.0171 0.0180 0.0187 0.0190 0.0170 0.0156 0.0167 0.0176 0.0181 0.0169
3/0 0.0148 0.0154 0.0158 0.0158 0.0136 0.0134 0.0141 0.0147 0.0149 0.0134
4 4/0 0.0130 0.0134 0.0136 0.0133 0.0109 0.0116 0.0121 0.0124 0.0124 0.0107
250 0.0122 0.0124 0.0124 0.0120 0.0094 0.0107 0.0111 0.0112 0.0110 0.0091
300 0.0111 0.0112 0.0111 0.0106 0.0080 0.0097 0.0099 0.0099 0.0096 0.0077
5 350 0.0104 0.0104 0.0102 0.0096 0.0069 0.0090 0.0091 0.0091 0.0087 0.0066
500 0.0100 0.0091 0.0087 0.0080 0.0053 0.0078 0.0077 0.0075 0.0070 0.0049
600 0.0088 0.0086 0.0082 0.0074 0.0046 0.0074 0.0072 0.0070 0.0064 0.0042
6 750
1000
0.0084
0.0080
0.0081
0.0077
0.0077
0.0072
0.0069
0.0063
0.0040
0.0035
0.0069
0.0064
0.0067
0.0062
0.0064
0.0058
0.0058
0.0052
0.0035
0.0029
Aluminum Conductors
7 12 0.3296 0.3811 0.4349 0.4848 0.5330 0.3312 0.3802 0.4328 0.4848 0.5331
10 0.2133 0.2429 0.2741 0.3180 0.3363 0.2090 0.2410 0.2740 0.3052 0.3363
8 0.1305 0.1552 0.1758 0.1951 0.2106 0.1286 0.1534 0.1745 0.1933 0.2115
8 6 0.0898 0.1018 0.1142 0.1254 0.1349 0.0887 0.1011 0.1127 0.1249 0.1361
4 0.0595 0.0660 0.0747 0.0809 0.0862 0.0583 0.0654 0.0719 0.0800 0.0849
2 0.0403 0.0443 0.0483 0.0523 0.0535 0.0389 0.0435 0.0473 0.0514 0.0544
9 1
1/0
0.0332
0.0286
0.0357
0.0305
0.0396
0.0334
0.0423
0.0350
0.0428
0.0341
0.0318
0.0263
0.0349
0.0287
0.0391
0.0322
0.0411
0.0337
0.0428
0.0339
2/0 0.0234 0.0246 0.0275 0.0284 0.0274 0.0227 0.0244 0.0264 0.0274 0.0273
3/0 0.0209 0.0220 0.0231 0.0241 0.0217 0.0160 0.0171 0.0218 0.0233 0.0222
10 4/0 0.0172 0.0174 0.0179 0.0177 0.0170 0.0152 0.0159 0.0171 0.0179 0.0172
250 0.0158 0.0163 0.0162 0.0159 0.0145 0.0138 0.0144 0.0147 0.0155 0.0138
300 0.0137 0.0139 0.0143 0.0144 0.0122 0.0126 0.0128 0.0133 0.0132 0.0125
11 350 0.0130 0.0133 0.0128 0.0131 0.0100 0.0122 0.0123 0.0119 0.0120 0.0101
500 0.0112 0.0111 0.0114 0.0099 0.0076 0.0093 0.0094 0.0094 0.0091 0.0072
600 0.0101 0.0106 0.0097 0.0090 0.0063 0.0084 0.0085 0.0085 0.0081 0.0060
12 750 0.0095 0.0094 0.0090 0.0084 0.0056 0.0081 0.0080 0.0078 0.0072 0.0051
1000 0.0085 0.0082 0.0078 0.0071 0.0043 0.0069 0.0068 0.0065 0.0058 0.0038
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Capacitors and Power Factor ANSI Standard C37.06 (indoor oilless Low Voltage Capacitor Switching
i
circuit breakers) indicates the preferred
ratings of Eaton’s Type VCP-W vacuum Circuit breakers and switches for use
Capacitor General Application breaker. For capacitor switching, with a capacitor must have a current
Considerations careful attention should be paid to rating in excess of rated capacitor
current to provide for overcurrent from
ii
Additional application information the notes accompanying the table.
The definition of the terms are in ANSI overvoltages at fundamental frequency
is available in Tab 35 regarding
capacitors and harmonic filters Standard C37.04 Article 5.13 (for the and harmonic currents. The following 1
latest edition). The application guide percent of the capacitor-rated current
as follows: should be used as a general guideline:
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.012 covers the
■ Capacitor selection method of calculation of the Fused and unfused switches. . . . 165% 2
■ Where to install capacitors in a plant quantities covered by C37.06 Standard.
distribution system Molded case breaker or
■ Locating capacitors on reduced
Note that the definitions in C37.04 equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150% 3
make the switching of two capacitors
voltage and multi-speed starters banks in close proximity to the switch- DSII power circuit breakers . . . . 135%
■ Harmonic considerations gear bus a back-to-back mode of
Magnum DS power 4
■ Eliminating harmonic problems switching. This classification requires
circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135%
■ National Electrical Code a definite purpose circuit breaker
requirements (breakers specifically designed for Contactors: 5
capacitance switching). Open type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135%
Medium Voltage We recommend that such application
Capacitor Switching be referred to Eaton.
Enclosed type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150% 6
Capacitance switching constitutes The NEC, Section 460.8(C), requires
A breaker specified for capacitor
severe operating duty for a circuit switching should include as applicable:
the disconnecting means to be rated not
less than 135% of the rated capacitor
7
breaker. At the time the breaker opens
at near current zero, the capacitor is 1. Rated maximum voltage. current (for 600 V and below).
fully charged. After interruption, when 2. Rated frequency. See Tab 35 for switching device 8
the alternating voltage on the source ampere ratings. They are based on
side of the breaker reaches its opposite 3. Rated open wire line charging percentage of capacitor-rated current
maximum, the voltage that appears switching current. as indicated (above). The interrupting 9
across the contacts of the open breaker rating of the switch must be selected
is at least twice the normal peak line- 4. Rated isolated cable charging and
to match the system fault current
to-neutral voltage of the circuit. If a shunt capacitor switching current.
available at the point of capacitor 10
breakdown occurs across the open 5. Rated back-to-back cable application. Whenever a capacitor
contact, the arc is re-established. Due charging and back-to-back bank is purchased with less than the
to the circuit constants on the supply capacitor switching current. ultimate kvar capacity of the rack or 11
side of the breaker, the voltage across enclosure, the switch rating should
the open contact can reach three times 6. Rated transient overvoltage factor. be selected based on the ultimate
the normal line-to-neutral voltage. kvar capacity—not the initial installed 12
After it is interrupted and with 7. Rated transient inrush current and
its frequency. capacity.
subsequent alternation of the supply
side voltage, the voltage across the 8. Rated interrupting time. Refer to Tab 35 for recommended 13
open contact is even higher. selection of capacitor switching
9. Rated capacitive current devices; recommended maximum
switching life. capacitor ratings for various motor 14
types and voltages; and for required
10. Grounding of system and multipliers to determine capacitor kvar
capacitor bank. required for power factor correction. 15
Load break interrupter switches
are permitted by ANSI/IEEE Standard
C37.30 to switch capacitance, but they 16
must have tested ratings for the purpose.
Refer to Eaton Type MVS ratings.
17
18
19
20
21
i Motor Power Factor % AR—percent reduction in line To derate a capacitor used on a system
current due to the capacitor. A voltage lower than the capacitor
Correction capacitor located on the motor side voltage rating, such as a 240 V
of the overload relay reduces line capacitor used on a 208 V system,
ii See Tab 35 containing suggested
maximum capacitor ratings for
current through the relay. Therefore, a use the following formula:
different overload relay and/or setting Actual kvar =
induction motors switched with the may be necessary. The reduction in
1 capacitor. The data is general in nature line current may be determined by Applied Voltage
2
and representative of general purpose measuring line current with and Nameplate kvar ----------------------------------------------------------------------
2
induction motors of standard design. without the capacitor or by calculation
Nameplate Voltage
2 The preferable means to select capacitor as follows:
ratings is based on the “maximum For the kVAC required to correct the
recommended kvar” information (Original PF) power factor from a given value of
% AR 100 – 100
3 available from the motor manufacturer. (Improved PF) COS 1 to COS 2, the formula is:
If this is not possible or feasible, the
tables can be used. kVAC = kW (tan phase1–tan phase2)
If a capacitor is used with a lower kvar
4 An important point to remember
rating than listed in tables, the % AR Capacitors cause a voltage rise.
can be calculated as follows: At light load periods the capacitive
is that if the capacitor used with the
motor is too large, self-excitation Actual kvar voltage rise can raise the voltage at
5 may cause a motor-damaging over-
% AR Listed % AR
kvar in Table
the location of the capacitors to an
voltage when the motor and capacitor unacceptable level. This voltage rise
combination is disconnected from the The tables can also be used for other can be calculated approximately by the
6 line. In addition, high transient torques motor ratings as follows: formula:
capable of damaging the motor shaft A. For standard 60 Hz motors MVA r
or coupling can occur if the motor is
7 reconnected to the line while rotating
operating at 50 Hz: % VR
MVA SC
kvar = 1.7–1.4 of kvar listed
and still generating a voltage of % AR = 1.8–1.35 of % AR listed
self-excitation. MVAR is the capacitor rating and
8 B. For standard 50 Hz motors MVASC is the system short-circuit
Definitions operating at 50 Hz: capacity.
kvar—rating of the capacitor in
9 reactive kilovolt-amperes. This value
kvar = 1.4–1.1 of kvar listed
% AR = 1.4–1.05 of % AR listed
With the introduction of variable speed
drives and other harmonic current
is approximately equal to the motor
C. For standard 60 Hz wound-rotor generating loads, the capacitor
no-load magnetizing kilovars.
10 motors: impedance value determined must
kvar = 1.1 of kvar listed not be resonant with the inductive
% AR= 1.05 of % AR listed reactances of the system.
11
Note: For A, B, C, the larger multipliers
apply for motors of higher speeds; i.e.,
12 3600 rpm = 1.7 mult., 1800 rpm = 1.65
mult., etc.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
10,000
systems, communications systems,
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
70
80
90
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
8
1000 1000
40
ANSI Three-Phase 19,600A
480/277V 50
40 11
30 Thru Fault 30
analysis and selection and application Protection Curve
(More Than 10 in C 1,600A
of each overcurrent protective device 12
20 20
Lifetime)
in the series circuit from the power 24,400A
B
source(s) to each load apparatus. The 10
9
600A
10
9
13
8 8
objective of coordination is to localize 7
6
M 7
6
TIME IN SECONDS
TIME IN SECONDS
14
3 3
on the power-source side has the first A 175A
16
X = Available fault current
the circuit if the fault persists. Sensitivity .4
including motor
.4
contribution.
of coordination is the degree to which
.3 .3
Ground
the protective devices can minimize .2 Fault Trip .2
.1
17
To study and accomplish coordination .09
.08
.07
.09
.08
.07
requires (a) a one-line diagram, the Transformer
18
.06 .06
B Inrush
.05 .05
roadmap of the power distribution
Max. Three-Phase
.04 .04
.02 .02
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
of operating-current characteristics
(normal, peak, starting) of each Figure 1.4-1. Time-Current Characteristic Curves for Typical Power Distribution System
utilization circuit, (d) equipment Protective Devices Coordination Analysis 21
A—CB (175 A) coordinates selectively Maximum 480 V three-phase fault available fault current at their point of
i with motor M on starting and running indicated on the horizontal current axis. application. All breakers are equipped
and with all upstream devices, except with long-time-delay (and possibly
that CB B will trip first on low level Maximum 4160 V three-phase fault short delay) and instantaneous over-
ii ground faults. indicated, converted to 480 V basis. current trip devices. A main breaker
4160 may have short time-delay tripping to
B—CB (600 A) coordinates selectively I 480V I 4160V allow a feeder breaker to isolate the
1 with all upstream and downstream 480
fault while power is maintained to all
devices, except will trip before A on the remaining feeders.
The ANSI protection curves are
limited ground faults, since A has no
specified in ANSI C57.109 for liquid-
2 ground fault trips.
filled transformers and C57.12.59 for
A selective or fully coordinated system
permits maximum service continuity.
C—Main CB (1600 A) coordinates dry-type transformers.
The tripping characteristics of each
selectively with all downstream
3 devices and with primary fuse D,
Illustrative examples such as shown overcurrent device in the system must
here start the coordination study from be selected and set so that the breaker
for all faults on load side of CB. nearest the fault opens to isolate the
the lowest rated device proceeding
4 D—Primary fuse (250 A, 4160 V) coor- upstream. In practice, the setting or faulted circuit, while all other breakers
dinates selectively with all secondary rating of the utility’s protective device remain closed, continuing power to
protective devices. Curve converted to sets the upper limit. Even in cases the entire unfaulted part of the system.
5 480 V basis. Clears transformer inrush where the customer owns the medium
The National Electrical Code 1
point (12 x FLC for 0.1 sec.), indicating voltage or higher distribution system,
contains specific requirements for
that fuse will not blow on inrush. the setting or rating of the lowest set
designing certain circuits with selective
6 Fuse is underneath right-half of ANSI protective device at the source deter-
coordination. Article 100 defines
three-phase withstand curve, indicating mines the settings of the downstream
selective coordination: Coordination
fuse will protect transformer for high- devices and the coordination.
7 magnitude faults up to ANSI rating.
Therefore the coordination study
(Selective), the following definition:
“Localization of an overcurrent condi-
Delta-wye secondary side short should start at the present setting tion to restrict outages to the circuit or
8 circuit is not reflected to the primary or rating of the upstream device and
work toward the lowest rated device. If
equipment affected, accomplished by
the choice of overcurrent protective
by the relation
this procedure results in unacceptable devices and their ratings or settings.”
9 IP
VS
IS
settings, the setting or rating of the 1 NEC 2011 NFPA 70: National Electrical Code
VP upstream device should be reviewed. International Electrical Code Series.
Where the utility is the sole source,
10 for L-L and L-G faults. For line-to-line they should be consulted. Where the Article 620.62 (elevators, dumbwaiters,
escalators, moving walks, wheelchair
fault, the secondary (low voltage) side owner has its own medium or higher
voltage distribution, the settings or lifts, and stairway chair lifts) requires
fault current is 0.866 x I three-phase
11 fault current. ratings of all upstream devices should “Where more than one driving machine
disconnecting means is supplied by a
be checked.
However, the primary (high voltage) single feeder, the overcurrent protective
If perfect coordination is not feasible,
12 side fault is the same as if the secondary
then lack of coordination should be
devices in each disconnecting means
shall be selectively coordinated with
fault was a three-phase fault. Therefore
in coordination studies, the knee of the limited to the smallest part of the system. any other supply side overcurrent
13 short-time pickup setting on the sec- Application data is available for all protective device.” A similar require-
ment under Article 700.27 is as follows;
ondary breaker should be multiplied by protective equipment to permit
systems to be designed for adequate “Emergency system(s) overcurrent
1 or 1.1547
14 0.866 overcurrent protection and coordina- devices shall be selectively coordinated
with all supply side overcurrent
tion. For circuit breakers of all types,
time-current curves permit selection of protective devices.” Article 701.27
before it is compared to the minimum
15 melting time of the upstream primary instantaneous and inverse-time trips. states that “Legally required standby
system(s) overcurrent devices shall be
fuse curve. In the example shown, the For more complex circuit breakers,
with solid-state trip units, trip curves selectively coordinated with all supply
knee is at 4000 A 30 sec., and the 30-
16 sec. trip time should be compared to include long- and short-time delays, side overcurrent devices.”
the MMT (minimum melt time) of the as well as ground-fault tripping, with a Exception: Selective coordination
fuse curve at 4000 x 1.1547 = 4619 A. In wide range of settings and features to shall not be required between two
17 this case, there is adequate clearance provide selectivity and coordination. overcurrent devices located in series
to the fuse curve. For current-limiting circuit breakers, if no loads are connected in parallel
fuses, and circuit breakers with with the downstream device.
18 In the example shown, the ANSI integral fuses, not only are time-
three-phase through fault protection current characteristic curves available, In addition, for health care facilities,
curve must be multiplied by 0.577 but also data on current-limiting Article 517.26, Application of Other
19 and replotted in order to determine performance and protection for Articles requires that “The essential
the protection given by the primary downstream devices. electrical system shall meet the
for a single line to ground fault in requirements of Article 700, except
20 the secondary. In a fully rated system, all circuit as amended by Article 517.”
breakers must have an interrupting
capacity adequate for the maximum
21
All breakers must have an interrupting Protection of Conductors (Excerpts E. Tap Conductors. Tap conductors
capacity not less than the maximum
from NFPA 70-2011, Article 240.4) shall be permitted to be protected i
available short-circuit current at their against overcurrent in accordance
point of application. A selective Conductors, other than flexible cords with the following:
system is a fully rated system with and fixture wires, shall be protected ii
tripping devices chosen and adjusted against overcurrent in accordance with 1. 210.19(A)(3) and (A)(4) Household
to provide the desired selectivity. their ampacities as specified in Section Ranges and Cooking Appliances
The tripping characteristics of each 310.15, unless otherwise permitted or and Other Loads. 1
overcurrent device should not over- required in (A) through (G). 2. 240.5(B)(2) Fixture Wire.
lap, but should maintain a minimum
time interval for devices in series (to A. Power Loss Hazard. Conductor 3. 240.21 Location in Circuit. 2
allow for normal operating tolerances) overload protection shall not be
required where the interruption of 4. 368.17(B) Reduction in Ampacity
at all current values. Generally, a
maximum of four low voltage circuit the circuit would create a hazard, Size of Busway. 3
breakers can be operated selectively such as in a material handling
magnet circuit or fire pump circuit. 5. 368.17(C) Feeder or Branch Circuits
in series, with the feeder or branch (busway taps).
breaker downstream furthest from Short-circuit protection shall be 4
the source. provided. 6. 430.53(D) Single Motor Taps.
Note: FPN See NFPA 20-2003, standard
Specify true rms sensing devices in for the Installation of Stationary Pumps Circuit Breaker Cable 5
order to avoid false trips due to rapid
currents or spikes. Specify tripping
for Fire Protection. Temperature Ratings
elements with I2t or I4t feature for B. Devices Rated 800 A or Less. The UL listed circuit breakers rated 125 A or 6
improved coordination with other next higher standard overcurrent less shall be marked as being suitable
devices having I2t or I4t (such as device rating (above the ampacity for 60 ºC (140ºF), 75 ºC (167 ºF) only or
OPTIM™ trip units) characteristics of the conductors being protected) 60/75 ºC (140/167ºF) wire. All Eaton 7
and fuses. shall be permitted to be used, breakers rated 125 A or less are marked
provided all of the following 60/75 ºC (140/167 ºF). All UL listed circuit
In general for systems such as shown
in the example: conditions are met. breakers rated over 125 A are suitable 8
for 75 ºC conductors. Conductors rated
1. The settings or ratings of the 1. The conductors being protected for higher temperatures may be used,
primary side fuse and main breaker are not part of a branch circuit but must not be loaded to carry more 9
must not exceed the settings supplying more than one receptacle current than the 75 ºC ampacity of that
allowed by NEC Article 450. for cord-and-plug-connected size conductor for equipment marked
portable loads. or rated 75 ºC or the 60 ºC ampacity of 10
2. At 12 x IFL the minimum melting that size conductor for equipment
time characteristic of the fuse 2. The ampacity of the conductors
marked or rated 60 ºC. However, when
does not correspond with the
should be higher than 0.1 second.
standard ampere rating of a fuse or
applying derated factors, so long as the 11
actual load does not exceed the lower
3. The primary fuse should be to the a circuit breaker without overload
of the derated ampacity or the 75 ºC or
trip adjustments above its rating
left of the transformer damage
curve as much as possible. The (but that shall be permitted to have
60 ºC ampacity that applies. 12
correction factor for a single line- other trip or rating adjustments).
Zone Selective Interlocking
to-ground factor must be applied
to the damage curve. 3. The next higher standard rating Trip elements equipped with zone 13
selected does not exceed 800 A. selective interlocking, trip without
4. The setting of the short-time delay intentional time delay unless a
element must be checked against C. Overcurrent Devices Rated Over
restraint signal is received from 14
the fuse MMT after it is corrected 800 A. Where the overcurrent
device is rated over 800 A, the a protective device downstream.
for line-to-line faults. Breakers equipped with this feature
ampacity of the conductors it
reduce the damage at the point of
15
5. The maximum fault current must protects shall be equal to or
be indicated at the load side of greater than the rating of the fault if the fault occurs at a location
between the zone of protection.
each protective device. overcurrent device as defined in 16
Section 240.6. The upstream breaker upon receipt
6. The setting of a feeder protective
of the restraint signal will not trip until
device must comply with Article
240 and Article 430 of the NEC.
D. Small Conductors. Unless
specifically permitted in 240.4(E) its time-delay setting times out. If the 17
It also must allow the starting or 240.4(G), the overcurrent breaker immediately downstream of the
fault does not open, then after timing
and acceleration of the largest
motor on the feeder while carrying
protection shall not exceed 15 A
for 14 AWG, 20 A for 12 AWG, and out, the upstream breaker will trip. 18
all the other loads on the feeder. 30 A for 10 AWG copper; or 15 A Breakers equipped with ground fault
for 12 AWG and 25 A for 10 AWG
aluminum and copper-clad
trip elements should also be specified 19
to include zone interlocking for the
aluminum after any correction ground fault trip element.
factors for ambient temperature
and number of conductors have
20
been applied.
21
Ground Fault Protection Suggested Ground Fault Settings The Series G high performance,
i Article 230.95 of NEC requires ground-
current-limiting circuit breaker series
For the main devices: offers interrupting ratings to 200 kA.
fault protection of equipment shall be A ground fault pickup setting equal Frames are EGC, EGU, EGX, JGC, JGU,
ii provided for solidly grounded wye
electrical services of more than 150 V
to 20–30% of the main breaker rating JGX, LGC, LGU and LGX.
but not to exceed 1200 A, and a time
to ground, but not exceeding 600 V delay equal to the delay of the short- Any of these current-limiting devices—
1 phase-to-phase for each service time element, but not to exceed fuses, fused breakers or current-limit-
disconnect rated 1000 A or more. 1 second. ing breakers—cannot only clear these
large faults safely, but also will limit
The rating of the service disconnect
2 shall be considered to be the rating
For the feeder ground fault setting:
A setting equal to 20–30% of the feeder
the Ip and I2t let-through significantly
to prevent damage to apparatus
of the largest fuse that can be installed ampacity and a time delay to coordinate downstream, extending their zone
or the highest continuous current trip
3 setting for which the actual overcurrent
with the setting of the main (at least of protection. Without the current
6 cycles below the main). limitation of the upstream device,
device installed in a circuit breaker is the fault current could exceed the with-
rated or can be adjusted. If the desire to selectively coordinate
4 ground fault devices results in settings
stand capability of the downstream
The maximum allowable settings are: equipment. Underwriters
that do not offer adequate damage
1200 A pickup, 1 second or less trip Laboratories tests and lists these
protection against arcing single line-
5 delay at currents of 3000 A or greater. ground faults, the design engineer
series combinations. Application
information is available for
The characteristics of the ground-fault should decide between coordination
combinations that have been tested
and damage limitation.
6 trip elements create coordination and UL®-listed for safe operation
problems with downstream devices For low voltage systems with high- downstream from MDSL, TRI-PAC,
not equipped with ground fault magnitude available short-circuit and Current Limit-R, or Series C
7 protection. The National Electrical currents, common in urban areas and breakers of various ratings, under
Code exempts fire pumps and large industrial installations, several high available fault currents.
continuous industrial processes solutions are available. High interrupt-
8 from this requirement. ing Series C® molded case breakers,
Protective devices in electrical
distribution systems may be properly
It is recommended that in solidly current-limiting circuit breakers, or
coordinated when the systems are
grounded 480/277 V systems where current-limiting fuses, limiters integral
9 main breakers are specified to be with molded-case circuit breakers
designed and built, but that is no
guarantee that they will remain
equipped with ground fault trip elements (TRI-PAC®) or mounted on power
coordinated. System changes and
that the feeder breakers be specified circuit breakers (MDSL) can be used to
10 to be equipped with ground fault trip handle these large fault currents. To
additions, plus power source changes,
frequently modify the protection
elements as well. provide current limiting, these devices
requirements, sometimes causing loss
must clear the fault completely within
11 the first half-cycle, limiting the peak
of coordination and even increasing
fault currents beyond the ratings of
current (Ip) and heat energy (I2t)
some devices. Consequently, periodic
let-through to considerably less than
12 what would have occurred without
study of protective-device settings
and ratings is as important for safety
the device. For a fully fusible system,
and preventing power outages
rule-of-thumb fuse ratios or more
13 accurate I2t curves can be used to
as is periodic maintenance of the
distribution system.
provide selectivity and coordination.
For fuse-breaker combinations, the
14 fuse should be selected (coordinated)
so as to permit the breaker to handle
those overloads and faults within its
15 capacity; the fuse should operate
before or with the breaker only on
large faults, approaching the interrupt-
16 ing capacity of the breaker, to minimize
fuse blowing. Recently, unfused, truly
current-limiting circuit breakers with
17 interrupting ratings adequate for the
largest systems (Type Series C, FDC,
JDC, KDC, LDC and NDC frames
18 or Type Current Limit-R®) have
become available.
19
20
21
Grounding above ground potential. Any person The equipment grounding system
i
coming in contact with such an object must be bonded to the grounding
Grounding encompasses several while grounded could be seriously electrode at the source or service;
different but interrelated aspects of injured or killed. In addition, current however, it may be also connected
electrical distribution system design flow from the accidental grounding of to ground at many other points. ii
and construction, all of which are an energized part of the system could This will not cause problems with
essential to the safety and proper generate sufficient heat (often with the safe operation of the electrical
operation of the system and equip- arcing) to start a fire. To prevent the distribution system. Where computers, 1
ment supplied by it. Among these establishment of such unsafe poten- data processing, or microprocessor-
are equipment grounding, system tial difference requires that (1) the based industrial process control
grounding, static and lightning equipment grounding conductor pro- systems are installed, the equipment 2
protection, and connection to earth vide a return path for ground fault cur- grounding system must be designed
as a reference (zero) potential. rents of sufficiently low impedance to to minimize interference with their
prevent unsafe voltage drop, and (2) proper operation. Often, isolated 3
1. Equipment Grounding the equipment grounding conductor grounding of this equipment, or
be large enough to carry the maximum isolated electrical supply systems are
Equipment grounding is essential
ground fault current, without burning required to protect microprocessors 4
to safety of personnel. Its function is
off, for sufficient time to permit protec- from power system “noise” that does
to ensure that all exposed noncurrent-
tive devices (ground fault relays, circuit not in any way affect motors or other
carrying metallic parts of all structures
breakers, fuses) to clear the fault. The electrical equipment. Such systems 5
and equipment in or near the electrical
grounded conductor of the system must use single-point ground concept
distribution system are at the same
(usually the neutral conductor), although to minimize “noise” and still meet
potential, and that this is the zero
grounded at the source, must not be the NEC requirements. Any separate 6
reference potential of the earth.
used for equipment grounding. isolated ground mat must be tied to the
Equipment grounding is required
rest of the facility ground mat system
by both the National Electrical Code The equipment grounding conductor for NEC compliance. 7
(Article 250) and the National Electrical may be the metallic conduit or raceway
Safety Code regardless of how the of the wiring system, or a separate 2. System Grounding
power system is grounded. Equipment equipment grounding conductor, 8
grounding also provides a return path run with the circuit conductors, as System grounding connects the
for ground fault currents, permitting permitted by NEC. If a separate electrical supply, from the utility, from
protective devices to operate. Acciden- equipment grounding conductor is transformer secondary windings, or 9
tal contact of an energized conductor of used, it may be bare or insulated; if from a generator, to ground. A system
the system with an improperly insulated, the insulation must be green, can be solidly grounded (no intentional
grounded noncurrent-carry metallic green with yellow stripe or green tape. impedance to ground), impedance 10
part of the system (such as a motor Conductors with green insulation may grounded (through a resistance or
frame or panelboard enclosure) would not be used for any purpose other than reactance), or ungrounded (with no
raise the potential of the metal object for equipment grounding. intentional connection to ground. 11
3. Medium Voltage System: Grounding
Table 1.4-1. Features of Ungrounded and Grounded Systems (from ANSI C62.92) 12
Description A B C D E
Ungrounded Solidly Grounded Reactance Grounded Resistance Grounded Resonant Grounded
13
(1) Apparatus Fully insulated Lowest Partially graded Partially graded Partially graded
insulation
(2) Fault to Usually low Maximum value rarely Cannot satisfactorily be Low Negligible except when 14
ground current higher than three-phase reduced below one-half Petersen coil is short
short circuit current or one-third of values for circuited for relay
solid grounding purposes when it may
compare with solidly 15
grounded systems
(3) Stability Usually unimportant Lower than with other Improved over solid Improved over solid Is eliminated from
methods but can be grounding particularly grounding particularly consideration during 16
made satisfactory by use if used at receiving end if used at receiving end single line-to-ground
of high-speed breakers of system of system faults unless neutralizer
is short circuited to
isolate fault by relays
17
(4) Relaying Difficult Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Requires special
provisions but can be
made satisfactory 18
(5) Arcing Likely Unlikely Possible if reactance is Unlikely Unlikely
grounds excessive
(6) Localizing Effect of fault transmitted Effect of faults localized Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults Effect of faults 19
faults as excess voltage on to system or part of system or part of system transmitted as excess transmitted as excess
sound phases to all system where they occur where they occur unless voltage on sound phases voltage on sound phases
parts of conductively
connected network
reactance is quite high to all parts of conductively
connected network
to all parts of conductively
connected network
20
(7) Double Likely Likely Unlikely unless Unlikely unless Seem to be more likely
faults reactance is quite high
and insulation weak
resistance is quite high
and insulation weak
but conclusive information
not available 21
ii (8) Lightning
protection
Ungrounded neutral Highest efficiency and
service arresters must be lowest cost
If reactance is very high
arresters for ungrounded
Arresters for ungrounded,
neutral service usually
Ungrounded neutral
service arresters must
applied at sacrifice in cost neutral service must be must be applied at be applied at sacrifice
and efficiency applied at sacrifice in cost sacrifice in cost and in cost and efficiency
1 and efficiency efficiency
(9) Telephone Will usually be low Will be greatest in Will be reduced from Will be reduced from Will be low in magnitude
interference except in cases of double magnitude due to higher solidly grounded values solidly grounded values except in cases of double
2 faults or electrostatic fault currents but can faults or series resonance
induction with neutral be quickly cleared at harmonic frequencies,
displaced but duration particularly with high but duration may be great
3 may be great speed breakers
(10) Radio May be quite high during Minimum Greater than for Greater than for May be high during faults
interference faults or when neutral solidly grounded, solidly grounded,
4 (11) Line
is displayed
Will inherently clear Must be isolated for
when faults occur
Must be isolated for
when faults occur
Must be isolated for Need not be isolated but
availability themselves if total length each fault each fault each fault will inherently clear itself
of interconnected line is in about 60 to 80 percent
5 low and require isolation of faults
from system in increas-
ing percentages as length
6 becomes greater
(12) Adaptability Cannot be interconnected Satisfactory indefinitely Satisfactory indefinitely Satisfactory with solidly- Cannot be interconnected
to interconnection unless interconnecting with reactance-grounded with solidly-grounded or reactance-grounded unless interconnected
7 system is ungrounded
or isolating transformers
systems systems systems with proper
attention to relaying
system is resonant
grounded or isolating
are used transformers are used.
Requires coordination
8 between interconnected
systems in neutralizer
settings
9 (13) Circuit Interrupting capacity Same interrupting Interrupting capacity
determined by three-
Interrupting capacity
determined by three-
Interrupting capacity
determined by three-
breakers determined by three- capacity as required for
phase conditions three-phase short circuit phase fault conditions phase fault conditions phase fault conditions
10 will practically always be
satisfactory
(14) Operating Ordinarily simple but Simple Simple Simple Taps on neutralizers must
procedure possibility of double be changed when major
11 faults introduces system switching is per-
complication in times formed and difficulty may
of trouble arise in interconnected
12 systems. Difficult to tell
where faults are located
(15) Total cost High, unless conditions Lowest Intermediate Intermediate Highest unless the arc
13 are such that arc tends
to extinguish itself, when
suppressing characteris-
tic is relied on to eliminate
transmission circuits may transmission circuits
be eliminated, reducing when it may be lowest
14 total cost for the particular types
of service
Table 1.4-2 taken from ANSI-C62.92 should not be limited to less than the Grounding Point
indicates the characteristics of the current transformers rating of the The most commonly used grounding i
various methods of grounding. source. This rule will provide sensitive point is the neutral of the system or the
differential protection for wye-connected neutral point created by means of a
Reactance Grounding generators and transformers against zigzag or a wye-broken delta grounding ii
It is generally used in the grounding line-to-ground faults near the neutral. transformer in a system that was oper-
of the neutrals of generators directly Of course, if the installation of ground ating as an ungrounded delta system.
connected to the distribution system fault differential protection is feasible, 1
bus, in order to limit the line-to-ground or ground sensor current transformers In general, it is a good practice that all
fault to somewhat less than the three- are used, sensitive differential relaying source neutrals be grounded with the
phase fault at the generator terminals. in resistance grounded system with same grounding impedance magnitude. 2
If the reactor is so sized, in all probability greater fault limitation is feasible. However, neutrals should not be tied
the system will remain effectively In general, ground sensor current together to a single resistor. Where
grounded. transformers (zero sequence) do not one of the medium voltage sources is 3
have high burden capacity. Resistance the utility, their consent for impedance
Resistance Grounded grounded systems limit the circulating grounding must be obtained.
Medium voltage systems in general currents of triple harmonics and limit 4
should be low resistance grounded. The neutral impedance must have a
the damage at the point of fault. This
The ground fault is typically limited to voltage rating at least equal to the rated
method of grounding is not suitable
about 200–400 A but less than 1000 A for line-to-neutral connection of loads.
line-to-neutral voltage class of the sys- 5
(a cable shield consideration). With a tem. It must have at least a 10-second
properly sized resistor and relaying On medium voltage systems, 100% rating equal to the maximum future
application, selective fault isolation cable insulation is rated for phase-to- line-to-ground fault current and a 6
is feasible. The fault limit provided neutral voltage. If continued operation continuous rating to accommodate the
has a bearing on whether residually with one phase faulted to ground is triple harmonics that may be present.
connected relays are used or ground desired, increased insulation thickness 7
sensor current transformers are used is required. For 100% insulation, fault 4. Low Voltage System: Grounding
for ground fault relaying. clearance is recommended within Solidly grounded three-phase systems
one minute; for 133% insulation, one (Figure 1.4-2) are usually wye- 8
In general, where residually connected hour is acceptable; for indefinite connected, with the neutral point
ground relays are used (51N), the fault operation, as long as necessary, grounded. Less common is the “red-
current at each grounded source 173% insulation is required. leg” or high-leg delta, a 240 V system 9
supplied by some utilities with one
Table 1.4-2. Characteristics of Grounding winding center-tapped to provide 120 V
Grounding Classes Ratios of Symmetrical Percent Fault Per Unit Transient to ground for lighting. This 240 V, three- 10
and Means Component Parameters 1 Current LG Voltage phase, four-wire system is used where
120 V lighting load is small compared
A. Effectively ➃
X0/X1 R0/X1 R0/X0 2 3
to 240 V power load, because the 11
1. Effective 0-3 0-1 — >60 ð2 installation is low in cost to the utility.
2. Very effective 0-1 0-0.1 — >95 <1.5 A corner-grounded three-phase delta
B. Noneffectively system is sometimes found, with 12
1. Inductance one phase grounded to stabilize all
a. Low inductance 3-10 0-1 — >25 <2.3 voltages to ground. Better solutions
b. High inductance >10 — <2 <25 ð2.73 8
are available for new installations. 13
2. Resistance
a. Low resistance 0-10 — Š2 <25 <2.5
b. High resistance
3. Inductance and resistance
—
>10
>100
—
ð(-1)
>2
<1
<10
ð2.73
ð2.73 Phase A 14
4. Resonant 5 — — <1 ð2.73 • • • Phase B
5. Ungrounded/capacitance N
a. Range A -× to -40 6 — — <8 ð3 9 • Phase C
15
b. Range B -40 to 0 — — >8 >3 79 • Neutral
1 Values of the coefficient of grounding (expressed as a percentage of maximum phase-to-phase
voltage) corresponding to various combinations of these ratios are shown in the ANSI C62.92
Appendix figures. Coefficient of grounding affects the selection of arrester ratings.
Grounded Wye
16
2 Ground-fault current in percentage of the three-phase short-circuit value. • Phase B
3 Transient line-to-ground voltage, following the sudden initiation of a fault in per unit of the crest
of the prefault line-to-ground operating voltage for a simple, linear circuit. • • • Phase C 17
Phase A
4 In linear circuits, Class A1 limits the fundamental line-to-ground voltage on an unfaulted phase to
138% of the prefault voltage; Class A2 to less than 110%. • Neutral
5 See ANSI 62.92 para. 7.3 and precautions given in application sections. 18
6 Usual isolated neutral (ungrounded) system for which the zero-sequence reactance is capacitive Center-Tapped (High-Leg) Delta
(negative).
7 Same as NOTE (6) and refer to ANSI 62.92 para. 7.4. Each case should be treated on its own merit. • Phase A 19
8 Under restriking arcing ground fault conditions (e.g., vacuum breaker interrupter operation),
this value can approach 500%. • • Phase B
9 Under arcing ground fault conditions, this value can easily reach 700%, but is essentially unlimited. • Phase C
20
Corner-Grounded Delta
Ungrounded systems (Figure 1.4-3) Selecting the Low Voltage System used as substitutes for ungrounded
i can be either wye or delta, although Grounding Method systems where high system
the ungrounded delta system is far There is no one “best” distribution availability is required.
more common. system for all applications. In choosing
ii among solidly grounded, resistance
With one phase grounded, the voltage
to ground of the other two phases
grounded, or ungrounded power rises 73%, to full phase-to-phase
• Phase A
distribution, the characteristics of the
1 system must be weighed against the
voltage. In low voltage systems this
• • Phase B
Phase C requirements of power loads, lighting
is not important, since conductors
are insulated for 600 V.
loads, continuity of service, safety
2 Ungrounded Delta
and cost. A low voltage resistance grounded
Phase A system is normally grounded so that
Under ground fault conditions, each
3 • • • Phase B
system behaves very differently. A
the single line-to-ground fault current
N exceeds the capacitive charging
• Phase C solidly grounded system produces current of the system. If data for the
high fault currents, usually with arcing, charging current is not available, use
4 Ungrounded Wye
and the faulted circuit must be cleared 40–50 ohm resistor in the neutral
Figure 1.4-3. Ungrounded Systems on the first fault within a fraction of a of the transformer.
second to minimize damage. An
5 Resistance-grounded systems ungrounded system will pass limited In commercial and institutional
(Figure 1.4-4) are simplest with a current into the first ground fault—only installations, such as office buildings,
wye connection, grounding the neutral the charging current of the system, shopping centers, schools and hospitals,
6 point directly through the resistor. caused by the distributed capacitance lighting loads are often 50% or more
Delta systems can be grounded by to ground of the system wiring and of the total load. In addition, a feeder
means of a zig-zag or other grounding equipment. In low voltage systems, outage on first ground fault is seldom
7 transformer. Wye broken delta this is rarely more than 1 or 2 A. crucial—even in hospitals, that have
transformer banks may also be used. Therefore, on first ground fault, an emergency power in critical areas. For
ungrounded system can continue in these reasons, a solidly grounded wye
8 service, making it desirable where distribution, with the neutral used for
Phase A power outages cannot be tolerated. lighting circuits, is usually the most
• • • Phase B
However, if the ground fault is economical, effective and convenient
9 R •
N
Phase C intermittent, sputtering or arcing, a design. In some instances, it is an
high voltage—as much as 6 to 8 times NEC requirement.
phase voltage—can be built up across
10 the system capacitance, from the In industrial installations, the effect
Resistance-Grounded Wye
phase conductors to ground. Similar of a shutdown caused by a single
high voltages can occur as a result ground fault could be disastrous.
11 • • Phase A
of resonance between system An interrupted process could cause the
loss of all the materials involved, often
• • • Phase B capacitance and the inductances
ruin the process equipment itself, and
12 • Phase C of transformers and motors in the
• system. The phase-to-phase voltage sometimes create extremely danger-
N • is not affected. This high transient ous situations for operating personnel.
R • phase-to-ground voltage can puncture On the other hand, lighting is usually
13 insulation at weak points, such as only a small fraction of the total
motor windings, and is a frequent industrial electrical load. A solidly
Delta With Derived Neutral Resistance- cause of multiple motor failures on grounded neutral circuit conductor
14 Grounded Using Zig-Zag Transformer ungrounded systems. Locating a first is not imperative and, when required,
fault on an ungrounded system can can be obtained from inexpensive
Figure 1.4-4. Resistance-Grounded Systems be difficult. If, before the first fault is lighting transformers.
15 cleared, a second ground fault occurs Because of the ability to continue in
This derives a neutral point, which
can be either solidly or impedance- on a different phase, even on a operation with one ground fault on
different, remote feeder, it is a high-
16 grounded. If the grounding transformer
current phase-to-ground-to-phase
the system, many existing industrial
plants use ungrounded delta distribu-
has sufficient capacity, the neutral
created can be solidly grounded and fault, usually arcing, that can cause tion. Today, new installations can have
severe damage if at least one of the
17 used as part of a three-phase, four-wire
grounds is not cleared immediately.
all the advantages of service continuity
system. Most transformer-supplied of the ungrounded delta, yet minimize
systems are either solidly grounded If the second circuit is remote, enough the problems of the system, such
current may not flow to cause
18 or resistance grounded. Generator
protection to operate. This can leave
as the difficulty of locating the first
neutrals are often grounded through ground fault, risk of damage from a
a reactor, to limit ground fault (zero high voltages and stray currents on second ground fault, and damage
19 sequence) currents to values the structures and jeopardize personnel. transient overvoltages. A high-
generator can withstand. In general, where loads will be resistance grounded wye distribution
connected line-to-neutral, solidly can continue in operation with a
20 grounded systems are used. High ground fault on the system and will
resistance grounded systems are not develop transient overvoltages.
21
ground fault can be nearly eliminated. vices. On a 208 V system, the voltage 1
Main Bonding
Ungrounded delta systems can be to ground is 120 V. If a ground fault Jumper
converted to high-resistance grounded occurs, the arc goes out at current Typical
However, should any conductor become neutral. In a residual sensing scheme, levels of ground fault protection are
i grounded, the fault current will return the relationship of the polarity markings desired for added service continuity.
along the ground path—not the normal —as noted by the “X” on each sensor— Additional grounding points may be
circuit conductors—and the sensor will is critical. Because the vectorial sum of employed upstream of the residual
ii have an unbalanced magnetic flux the currents in all the conductors will sensors, but not on the load side.
condition, and a sensor output will total zero under normal, non-ground
be generated to actuate the ground faulted conditions, it is imperative Both the zero sequence and
1 fault relay. that proper polarity connections are residual sensing methods have
employed to reflect this condition. been commonly referred to as
“vectorial summation” methods.
2 Zero
Sequence
Sensor
Alternate
Sensor
Location Sensor Most distribution systems can use
Residual
Main Polarity
Marks
Sensors either of the three sensing methods
exclusively or a combination of the
3 Main
sensing methods depending upon
Neutral the complexity of the system and
the degree of service continuity and
4 GFR Typical
Neutral
selective coordination desired.
Feeder
Typical Different methods will be required
GFR Feeder
depending upon the number of supply
5 Typical sources, and the number and location
4W Load Typical
4W Load
of system grounding points.
6 Figure 1.4-6. Zero Sequence Sensing Method As an example, one of the more
Figure 1.4-7. Residual Sensing Method frequently used systems where
Zero sequence sensors are available continuity of service to critical loads
As with the zero sequence sensing
7 with various window openings for
method, the resultant residual sensor is a factor is the dual source system
circuits with small or large conductors, illustrated in Figure 1.4-8. This system
and even with large rectangular win- output to the ground fault relay or
integral ground fault tripping circuit uses tie-point grounding as permitted
8 dows to fit over busbars or multiple
large size conductors in parallel. Some will be zero if all currents flow only under NEC Sec. 250.24(A)(3). The use
sensors have split cores for installation in the circuit conductors. Should a of this grounding method is limited
ground fault occur, the current from to services that are dual fed (double-
9 over existing conductors without
disturbing the connections. the faulted conductor will return along ended) in a common enclosure or
the ground path, rather than on the grouped together in separate enclo-
This method of sensing ground faults other circuit conductors, and the resid- sures, employing a secondary tie.
10 can be employed on the main discon- ual sum of the sensor outputs will not
nect where protection per NEC (230.95) This scheme uses individual sensors
be zero. When the level of ground fault connected in ground return fashion.
is desired. It can also be easily employed
11 in multi-tier systems where additional current exceeds the pre-set current
and time delay settings, a ground
Under tie breaker closed operating
levels of ground fault protection are conditions, either the M1 sensor or
desired for added service continuity. fault tripping action will be initiated. M2 sensor could see neutral unbalance
12 Additional grounding points may be This method of sensing ground faults currents and possibly initiate an
employed upstream of the sensor, but can be economically applied on main improper tripping operation. However,
not on the load side. with the polarity arrangements of
service disconnects where circuit break-
13 Ground fault protection employing ers with integral ground fault protection these two sensors along with the tie
ground return or zero sequence sensing are provided. It can be used in protec- breaker auxiliary switch (T/a) and
methods can be accomplished by the tion schemes per NEC (230.95) or in interconnections as shown, this
14 use of separate ground fault relays multi-tier schemes where additional possibility is eliminated.
(GFRs) and disconnects equipped with
standard shunt trip devices or by circuit
15 breakers with integral ground fault Power Power
protection with external connections Transformer Transformer
arranged for these modes of sensing. In
16 some cases, a reliable source of control
Neutral Sensor Neutral Sensor
power is needed. Main Main
Bkr. Main Bkr. 52-1 Tie Bkr. Main Bkr. 52-2 Bkr.
The third basic method of detecting 52-T
17 ground faults involves the use of
52-1
ØA, ØB, ØC ØA, ØB, ØC
52-2
M2G
M1N
Feeder Feeder
TN
TG
a a
ers equipped with electronic trip units,
19 current sensors and integral ground 33-
52-T
fault protection. The three-phase sensors 4-Wire 4-Wire
B5 B4 B4 B5 B4 B5 Load
are required for normal phase overcur- Load
Digitrip Digitrip Digitrip
20 rent protection. Ground fault sensing B4
Digitrip
B5 Main Bkr.
52-1
Main Bkr.
52-T
Main Bkr.
52-2
B4
Digitrip
B5
is obtained with the addition of an
identically rated sensor mounted on the
21 Figure 1.4-8. Dual Source System—Single Point Grounding
Note: This GF scheme requires trip units to be set to source ground sensing.
Selective ground fault tripping coordi- or a combination of all types may be GFR is an indication that any occurring
nation between the tie breaker and the employed to accomplish the desired ground fault is within the zone of the i
two main circuit breakers is achieved end results. GFR next upstream from the fault and
by pre-set current pickup and time that device will operate instantaneously
delay settings between devices GFR/1, Because the NEC (230.95) limits the to clear the fault with minimum dam- ii
GFR/2 and GFR/T. maximum setting of the ground fault age and maximum service continuity.
protection used on service equipment This operating mode permits all GFRs
The advantages of increased service to 1200 A (and timed tripping at 3000 A to operate instantaneously for a fault 1
continuity offered by this system can for one second), to prevent tripping within their zone and still provide
only be effectively used if additional of the main service disconnect on a complete selectivity between zones.
levels of ground fault protection are feeder ground fault, ground fault The National Electrical Manufacturers 2
added on each downstream feeder. protection must be provided on all the Association (NEMA) states, in their
Some users prefer individual grounding feeders. To maintain maximum service application guide for ground fault
of the transformer neutrals. In such continuity, more than two levels (zones) protection, that zone interlocking is 3
cases, a partial differential ground fault of ground fault protection will be necessary to minimize damage from
scheme should be used for the mains required, so that ground fault outages ground faults. A two-wire connection
and tie breaker. can be localized and service interrup- is required to carry the restraining 4
tion minimized. To obtain selectivity signal from the GFRs in one zone to
An example of a residual partial differ- between different levels of ground
ential scheme is shown in Figure 1.4-9. the GFRs in the next zone.
The scheme typically relies upon the
fault relays, time delay settings should 5
be employed with the GFR furthest Circuit breakers with integral ground
vector sum of at least two neutral downstream having the minimum fault protection and standard circuit
sensors in combination with each
breakers’ three-phase sensors. To
time delay. This will allow the GFR breakers with shunt trips activated 6
nearest the fault to operate first. by the ground fault relay are ideal for
reduce the complexity of the drawing, With several levels of protection, this ground fault protection. Many fused
each of the breakers’ three-phase
sensors have not been shown. It is
will reduce the level of protection for switches over 1200 A, and Eaton Type 7
faults within the upstream GFR zones. FDP fusible switches with ratings
absolutely critical that the sensors’ Zone interlocking was developed for from 400 to 1200 A, are listed by UL
polarities are supplied as shown, the
neutral sensor ratings of the mains and
GFRs to overcome this problem. as suitable for ground fault protection. 8
Fusible switches so listed must be
tie are the same, and that there are GFRs (or circuit breakers with integral equipped with a shunt trip, and be able
no other grounds on the neutral bus
made downstream of points shown.
ground fault protection) with zone
interlocking are coordinated in a
to open safely on faults up to 12 times 9
their rating.
system to operate in a time delayed
An infinite number of ground fault
protection schemes can be developed
mode for ground faults occurring most
remote from the source. However, this
Power distribution systems differ
widely from each other, depending
10
depending upon the number of alternate time delayed mode is only actuated upon the requirements of each user,
sources, the number of grounding points
and system interconnections involved.
when the GFR next upstream from the
fault sends a restraining signal to the
and total system overcurrent protec-
tion, including ground fault currents,
11
Depending upon the individual system upstream GFRs. The absence of a must be individually designed to meet
configuration, either mode of sensing restraining signal from a downstream these needs. Experienced and knowl-
edgeable engineers must consider the
12
power sources (utility or on-site), the
Power Power effects of outages and costs of down- 13
Transformer Transformer time, safety for people and equipment,
initial and lifecycle costs, and many
other factors. They must apply protec- 14
X X
tive devices, analyzing the time-current
X
Neutral Neutral X
characteristics, fault interrupting
Main
Sensor Main
Breaker 52-1
Sensor Main
Breaker 52-2 Main
capacity, and selectivity and coordina- 15
Breaker Breaker tion methods to provide the most safe
52-1 52-2 and cost-effective distribution system.
Phase A, Tie Breaker Phase A, Further Information 16
Phase B, 52-T Phase B, ■ PRSC-4E—System Neutral Ground-
Phase C Phase C
Neutral X
Neutral
ing and Ground Fault Protection
(ABB Publication)
17
Neutral Sensor X
Tie Breaker 52-T ■ PB 2.2—NEMA Application Guide
18
Trip Unit
Trip Unit
Typical X
X
Typical X
X
for Ground Fault Protective Devices
Four-Wire Four-Wire for Equipment
Feeder 52-1 52-T 52-2 Feeder
■ IEEE Standard 142—Grounding of
a a a
Industrial and Commercial Power 19
Four-Wire Load Four-Wire Load
Systems (Green Book)
Trip Unit Trip Unit Trip Unit IEEE Emerald Book (Standard 1100)
Main Breaker Tie Breaker Main Breaker
■
■ UL 96A, Installation Requirements
20
52-1 52-T 52-2
for Lightning Protection Systems
Figure 1.4-9. Dual Source System—Multiple Point Grounding 21
Lightning and Surge Protection The electrical distribution system and Surge Protection
i Physical protection of buildings
equipment ground must be connected
Eaton’s VacClad-W metal-clad switch-
to this grounding electrode system by
from direct damage from lightning a grounding electrode conductor. All gear is applied over a broad range of
ii is beyond the scope of this section.
Requirements will vary with geographic
other grounding electrodes, such as circuits, and is one of the many types
of equipment in the total system. The
those for the lightning protection sys-
location, building type and environ- tem, the telephone system, television distribution system can be subject to
1 ment, and many other factors (see antenna and cable TV system grounds, voltage transients caused by lighting
IEEE/ANSI Standard 142, Grounding and computer systems, must be bonded or switching surges.
of Industrial and Commercial Power to this grounding electrode system. Recognizing that distribution system
2 Systems). Any lightning protection
can be subject to voltage transients
system must be grounded, and the Medium Voltage Equipment Surge
lightning protection ground must be caused by lighting or switching, the
3 bonded to the electrical equipment Protection Considerations industry has developed standards to
grounding system. provide guidelines for surge protection
Transformers of electrical equipment. Those guide-
Grounding Electrodes lines should be used in design and
4 If the voltage withstand/BIL rating of
the transformer is less than that of the protection of electrical distribution
At some point, the equipment and systems independent of the circuit
switchgear feeding the transformer,
system grounds must be connected breaker interrupting medium. The
5 to the earth by means of a grounding
surge protection is recommended at
industry standards are:
the transformer terminals, in line with
electrode system.
established practices. In addition, ANSI C62
6 Outdoor substations usually use a consideration should be given to using Guides and Standards for Surge
ground grid, consisting of a number of surge arresters and/or surge capacitors Protection
ground rods driven into the earth and for transformers having equal or
7 bonded together by buried copper greater withstand/BIL ratings than that IEEE 242—Buff Book
conductors. The required grounding of the switchgear feeding the trans- IEEE Recommended Practice for
electrode system for a building is former for distribution systems where Protection and Coordination of
8 spelled out in the NEC Article 250. reflected voltage waves and/or reso- Industrial and Commercial Power
nant conditions may occur. Typically Systems
The preferred grounding electrode incoming voltage surges are reflected
IEEE 141—Red Book
9 is a metal underground water pipe in
direct contact with the earth for at least
at the transformer primary terminals
Recommended Practice for
(because of the change in impedance)
10 ft (3 m). However, because under- resulting in voltages at the ends of the Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants
10 ground water piping is often plastic
outside the building, or may later be
transformer primary terminals/wind-
ings of up to two times the incoming IEEE C37.20.2
replaced by plastic piping, the NEC voltage wave. System capacitance and Standards for Metal-Clad Switchgear
11 requires this electrode to be supple-
mented by and bonded to at least one
inductance values combined with the
transformer impedance values can Eaton’s medium voltage metal-clad
other grounding electrode, such as cause resonant conditions resulting and metal-enclosed switchgear that
12 the effectively grounded metal frame
of the building, a concrete-encased
in amplified reflected waves. Surge uses vacuum circuit breakers is applied
arresters/capacitors when required, over a broad range of circuits. It is one
electrode, a copper conductor ground should be located as close to the trans- of the many types of equipment in the
13 ring encircling the building, or a made former primary terminals as practical. total distribution system. Whenever a
electrode such as one or more driven switching device is opened or closed,
ground rods or a buried plate. Where Motors certain interactions of the power
14 any of these electrodes are present, Surge capacitors and, where appropri- system elements with the switching
they must be bonded together into one ate, surge arresters should be applied device can cause high frequency voltage
grounding electrode system. at the motor terminals. transients in the system. Due to the
15 One of the most effective grounding Generators
wide range of applications and variety
of ratings used for different elements
electrodes is the concrete-encased Surge capacitors and station in the power systems, a given circuit
electrode, sometimes called the Ufer
16 ground, named after the man who
class surge arresters at the machine may or may not require surge protec-
terminals. tion. Therefore, Eaton does not include
developed it. It consists of at least
surge protection as standard with its
20 ft (6 m) of steel reinforcing bars or
17 rods not less than 1/2 inches (12.7 mm)
metal-clad or metal-enclosed medium
voltage switchgear. The user exercises
in diameter, or at least 20 ft (6 m) of
the options as to the type and extent
bare copper conductor, size No. 4 AWG
18 or larger, encased in at least 2 inches
of the surge protection necessary
depending on the individual circuit
(50.8 mm) of concrete. It must be
characteristics and cost considerations.
located within and near the bottom of
19 a concrete foundation or footing that The following are Eaton’s recommen-
is in direct contact with the earth. Tests dations for surge protection of medium
have shown this electrode to provide
20 a low-resistance earth ground even in
voltage equipment. Please note these
recommendations are valid when
poor soil conditions. using Eaton’s vacuum breakers only.
21
Surge Protection Recommendations RC Snubber and/or ZORC damp 6. Capacitor Switching—No surge
Note: The abbreviation ZORC® used in the internal transformer resonance: protection is required. Make sure i
text below refers to Surge Protection Device that the capacitor’s lightning
manufactured by Strike Technology (Pty) The natural frequency of transformer impulse withstand rating is equal
Ltd. An equivalent device offered by other windings can under some circumstances to that of the switchgear. ii
manufacturers, such as Type EHZ by ABB, be excited to resonate. Transformer
and Protec Z by Northern Technologies SA windings in resonance can produce 7. Shunt Reactor Switching—
can also be used. elevated internal voltages that produce Provide Surge Arrester in parallel 1
insulation damage or failure. An RC with RC Snubber, or ZORC at the
1. For circuits exposed to lightning, Snubber or a ZORC applied at the reactor terminals.
surge arresters should be applied
in line with Industry standard
transformer terminals as indicated
8. Motor Starting Reactors or Reduced 2
above can damp internal winding
practices. resonance and prevent the production Voltage Auto-Transformers—
Provide Surge Arrester in parallel
2. Transformers
of damaging elevated internal voltages.
with RC Snubber, or ZORC at the 3
This is typically required where rectifiers,
UPS or similar electronic equipment is reactor or RVAT terminals.
a. Close-Coupled to medium
voltage primary breaker: on the transformer secondary. 9. Switching Underground Cables— 4
Provide transients surge pro- Surge protection not needed.
3. Arc-Furnace Transformers—
tection, such as Surge Arrester
Provide Surge Arrester in parallel
in parallel with RC Snubber, or
with RC Snubber, or ZORC at the Types of Surge Protection Devices 5
ZORC. The surge protection
transformer terminals. Generally surge protective devices
device selected should be
located and connected at the 4. Motors—Provide Surge Arrester in
should be located as closely as possible
to the circuit component(s) that require
6
transformer primary terminals parallel with RC Snubber, or ZORC
or it can be located inside the protection from the transients, and
at the motor terminals. For those
switchgear and connected on motors using VFDs, surge protec-
connected directly to the terminals of
the component with conductors that
7
the transformer side of the tion should be applied and precede
primary breaker. are as short and flat as possible to
the VFD devices as well.
b. Cable-Connected to medium
minimize the inductance. It is also
important that surge protection devices
8
5. Generators—Provide station class
voltage primary breaker: should be properly grounded for
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC
Provide transient surge protec-
tion, such as Surge Arrester in
Snubber, or ZORC at the generator effectively shunting high frequency
transients to ground.
9
terminals.
parallel with RC Snubber, or
ZORC for transformers con-
nected by cables with lengths 10
up to 75 feet. The surge protec-
tion device should be located
and connected at the transformer 11
terminals. No surge protection
is needed for transformers with
lightning impulse withstand 12
ratings equal to that of the
switchgear and connected to
the switchgear by cables at
13
least 75 feet or longer. For
transformers with lower BIL,
provide surge arrester in parallel Figure 1.4-10. Surge Protection Devices 14
with RC Snubber or ZORC.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
18
19
20
21
Surge Protection Summary Good protection: Surge Arrester Best protection: ZORC, plus proper
Minimum protection: Surge Arrester
in parallel with Surge Capacitor for surge arrester preceding ZORC where i
protection from high overvoltage needed for protection against lightning.
for protection from high overvoltage peaks and fast rising transient. This ZORC provides protection from high
peaks, or Surge Capacitor for protec-
tion from fast-rising transient. Please
option may not provide adequate frequency voltage transients and limits ii
surge protection from escalating peak magnitude of the transient to
note that the surge arresters or surge voltages caused by circuit resonance. 1 to 2 PU (see ZORC description on
capacitor alone may not provide When applying surge capacitors on Page 1.4-16 for more detail). Surge 1
adequate surge protection from both sides of a circuit breaker, surge arrester provides protection from
escalating voltages caused by circuit capacitor on one side of the breaker higher voltage peaks resulting from
resonance. Note that when applying must be RC Snubber or ZORC, lightning surges. 2
surge capacitors on both sides of a to mitigate possible virtual
circuit breaker, surge capacitor on current chopping. Further Information
one side of the breaker must be ■ IEEE/ANSI Standard 142—Grounding 3
RC Snubber or ZORC, to mitigate Better protection: RC Snubber in Industrial and Commercial Power
possible virtual current chopping. parallel with Surge Arrester for Systems (Green Book)
protection from high frequency
■ IEEE Standard 241—Electric Power 4
transients and voltage peaks.
Systems in Commercial Buildings
(Gray Book)
■ IEEE Standard 141—Electric Power
5
Distribution for Industrial Plants
(Red Book)
6
Table 1.4-3. Surge Arrester Selections—Recommended Ratings
Service
Voltage
Distribution Class Arresters
Solidly Low Resistance High Resistance or
Station Class Arresters
Solidly Low Resistance High Resistance or
7
Line-to-Line Grounded System Grounded System Ungrounded System Grounded System Grounded System Ungrounded System
kV
Arrester Ratings kV
Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV
Arrester Ratings kV
Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV
8
2.30 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55
2.40 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10 9
3.30 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10
4.00 3 2.55 6 5.10 6 5.10 3 2.55 6 5.10 6 5.10
4.16
4.76
6
6
5.10
5.10
6
6
5.10
5.10
6
9
5.10
7.65
6
6
5.10
5.10
6
6
5.10
5.10
6
9
5.10
7.65
10
4.80 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65
6.60
6.90
6
6
5.10
5.10
6
6
5.10
5.10
9
9
7.65
7.65
6
6
5.10
5.10
6
9
5.10
7.65
9
9
7.65
7.65 11
7.20 6 5.10 6 5.10 10 8.40 6 5.10 9 7.65 10 8.40
8.32 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20
8.40 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20 12
11.00 9 7.65 9 7.65 15 12.70 9 7.65 10 8.40 15 12.70
11.50 9 7.65 10 8.40 18 15.30 9 7.65 12 10.20 18 15.30
12.00 10 8.40 10 8.40 18 15.30 10 8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30 13
12.47 10 8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30 10 8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30
13.20 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30
13.80 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30 12 10.20 15 12.70 18 15.30
14.40 12 10.20 12 10.20 21 17.00 12 10.20 15 12.70 21 17.00
14
18.00 15 12.70 15 12.70 27 22.00 15 12.70 18 15.30 27 22.00
20.78 18 15.30 18 15.30 30 24.40 18 15.30 21 17.00 30 24.40
22.00 18 15.30 18 15.30 30 24.40 18 15.30 21 17.00 30 24.40 15
22.86 18 15.30 21 17.00 — — 18 15.30 24 19.50 36 29.00
23.00 18 15.30 21 17.00 — — 18 15.30 24 19.50 36 29.00
24.94
25.80
21
21
17.00
17.00
24
24
19.50
19.50
—
—
—
—
21
21
17.00
17.00
24
24
19.50
19.50
36
36
29.00
29.00
16
26.40 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 27 22.00 39 31.50
33.00
34.50
27
30
22.00
24.40
30
30
24.40
24.40
—
—
—
—
27
30
22.00
24.40
36
36
29.00
29.00
45
48
36.50
39.00
17
38.00 30 24.40 — — — — 30 24.40 36 29.00 — —
18
19
20
21
i Power Quality Terms Defining the Problem Another option is to buy power condi-
Power quality problems can be resolved tioning equipment to correct any and
Technical Overview in three ways: by reducing the variations all perceived power quality problems
in the power supply (power distur- without any on-site investigation.
ii Introduction bances), by improving the load equip- Power Quality Terms
Sensitive electronic loads deployed ment’s tolerance to those variations, or
by inserting some interface equipment Power disturbance: Any deviation
today by users require strict require-
1 ments for the quality of power delivered (known as power conditioning equip- from the nominal value (or from some
ment) between the electrical supply selected thresholds based on load
to loads.
and the sensitive load(s) to improve the tolerance) of the input AC power
2 For electronic equipment, power compatibility of the two. Practicality characteristics.
disturbances are defined in terms of and cost usually determine the extent Total harmonic distortion or distortion
amplitude and duration by the elec- to which each option is used.
3 tronic equipment operating envelope.
factor: The ratio of the root-mean-
square of the harmonic content to the
Electronic loads may be damaged Many methods are used to define
power quality problems. For example, root-mean-square of the fundamental
and disrupted, with shortened life
4 expectancy, by disturbances. one option is a thorough on-site quantity, expressed as a percentage
of the fundamental.
investigation, which includes inspecting
The proliferation of computers, variable wiring and grounding for errors, Crest factor: Ratio between the
5 frequency motor drives, UPS systems monitoring the power supply for peak value (crest) and rms value of
and other electronically controlled power disturbances, investigating a periodic waveform.
equipment is placing a greater demand equipment sensitivity to power distur-
6 on power producers for a disturbance- bances, and determining the load Apparent (total) power factor: The
free source of power. Not only do these disruption and consequential effects ratio of the total power input in watts
types of equipment require quality (costs), if any. In this way, the power to the total volt-ampere input.
7 power for proper operation; many quality problem can be defined,
Sag: An rms reduction in the AC
times, these types of equipment are alternative solutions developed,
also the sources of power disturbances voltage, at the power frequency, for
and optimal solution chosen.
8 that corrupt the quality of power in a the duration from a half-cycle to a few
seconds. An undervoltage would have
given facility. Before applying power-conditioning
equipment to solve power quality a duration greater than several seconds.
9 Power quality is defined according
to IEEE Standard 1100 as the concept
problems, the site should be checked
Interruption: The complete loss of volt-
for wiring and grounding problems.
of powering and grounding electronic age for a time period.
Sometimes, correcting a relatively
10 equipment in a manner that is suitable
to the operation of that equipment.
inexpensive wiring error, such as a Transient: A sub-cycle disturbance
loose connection or a reversed neutral in the AC waveform that is evidenced
IEEE Standard 1159 notes that “within and ground wire, can avoid a more by a sharp brief discontinuity of the
11 the industry, alternate definitions or
interpretations of power quality have
expensive power conditioning solution. waveform. May be of either polarity
and may be additive to or subtractive
been used, reflecting different points Sometimes this approach is not practical
from the nominal waveform.
because of limitations in time; expense
12 of view.”
is not justified for smaller installations; Surge or impulse: See transient.
In addressing power quality problems monitoring for power disturbances
at an existing site, or in the design Noise: Unwanted electrical signals
13 stages of a new building, engineers
may be needed over an extended
period of time to capture infrequent that produce undesirable effects
need to specify different services or disturbances; the exact sensitivities of in the circuits of control systems
mitigating technologies. The lowest in which they occur.
14 cost and highest value solution is
the load equipment may be unknown
and difficult to determine; and finally,
to selectively apply a combination Common-mode noise: The noise
the investigative approach tends to voltage that appears equally and in
of different products and services
15 as follows:
solve only observed problems. Thus
unobserved or potential problems may
phase from each current-carrying
conductor to ground.
Key services/technologies in the not be considered in the solution. For
16 “power quality” industry: instance, when planning a new facility,
there is no site to investigate. There-
Normal-mode noise: Noise signals
measurable between or among active
■ Power quality surveys, analysis fore, power quality solutions are often circuit conductors feeding the subject
17 and studies implemented to solve potential or per-
ceived problems on a preventive basis
load, but not between the equipment
■ Power monitoring grounding conductor or associated
■ Grounding products and services instead of a thorough on-site investi- signal reference structure and the active
18 ■ Surge protection
gation. circuit conductors.
■ Voltage regulation
19 ■ Harmonic solutions
■ Lightning protection (ground rods,
hardware, etc.)
20 ■ Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
or motor-generator (M-G) set
21
Methodology for Ensuring Effective The proliferation of communication The benefit of implementing cascaded
Power Quality to Electronic Loads and computer network systems network protection is shown in i
The power quality pyramid is an has increased the need for proper Figure 1.4-12. Combined, the two
effective guide for addressing power grounding and wiring of AC and data/ stages of protection at the service
quality problems at an existing facility. communication lines. In addition to entrance and branch panel locations ii
The framework is also effective for reviewing AC grounding and bonding reduce the IEEE 62.41 recommended
specifying engineers who are design- practices, it is necessary to prevent test wave (C3–20 kV, 10 kA) to less than
ing a new facility. Power quality starts ground loops from affecting the signal 200 V voltage, a harmless disturbance 1
with grounding (the base of the reference point. level for 120 V rated sensitive loads.
pyramid) and then moves upward
to address the potential issues. This 2. Surge Protection If only building entrance feeder 2
protection were provided, the let-
simple, yet proven methodology, Surge protection devices (SPDs) through voltage will be approximately
will provide the most cost-effective
approach. As we move higher up the
are recommended as the next stage
power quality solutions. NFPA,
950 V in a 277/480 V system exposed 3
to induced lightning surges. This
pyramid, the cost per kVA of mitigating UL 96A, IEEE Emerald Book and level of let-through voltage can cause
potential problems increase and the
quality of the power increases (refer
equipment manufacturers recom-
mend the use of surge protectors.
degradation or physical damage of 4
most electronic loads.
to Figure 1.4-11). The SPD shunt short duration voltage
Wherever possible, consultants,
disturbances to ground, thereby
preventing the surge from affecting specifiers and application engineers
5
electronic loads. When installed as should ensure similar loads are fed
from the same source. In this way,
part of the facility-wide design, SPDs
are cost-effective compared to all disturbance-generating loads are
6
Cost Per kVA
= SPD
possible protection (less
than 200V at Stage 2) 17
Figure 1.4-12. Cascaded Network Protection 18
19
20
21
The recommended system approach ■ Building entrance SPDs protect By twisting the installation wires, the
i for installing SPDs is summarized in the facility against large external area between wires is reduced and the
Figure 1.4-13. transients, including lightning mutual inductance affect minimized.
■ SPDs are bi-directional and prevent
ii transient and noise disturbances
Increasing the diameter of the installation
1. wires is of negligible benefit. Induc-
Identify Critical Loads from feeding back within a system tance is a “skin effect” phenomenon and
when installed at distribution or
1 branch panels
a function of wire circumference. Since
2. only a marginal reduction in inductance
Identify Non-Critical Loads ■ Two levels of protection safeguard is achieved when the diameter of the
2 sensitive loads from physical
damage or operational upset
installation conductors is increased,
3.
the use of large diameter wire results
in only minimal improvement (see
Identify Noise and Side-Mounted SPD vs. Integral SPD
3 Disturbance Generating Loads
Directly connecting the surge sup-
Figure 1.4-15).
presser to the busbar of electrical Further benefits provided by integrated
4. distribution equipment results in surge suppression designs are the
4 Review Internal Power Distribution Layout
the best possible level of protection. elimination of field installation costs and
Compared to side-mounted devices, the amount of expensive “outboard”
wall space taken up by side-mounted
5 5.
Identify Facility Exposure to
connecting the SPD unit to the busbar
eliminates the need for lead wires SPD devices.
Expected Levels of Disturbance
and reduces the let-through voltage
Building Entrance Feeder Installation
6 6.
up to 50% (see Figure 1.4-14).
Considerations
Apply Mitigating Equipment to: Given that surges are high frequency Installing an SPD device immediately
a) Service Entrance Main Panels disturbances, the inductance of the after the switchgear or switchboard
7 b) Key Sub-Panels installation wiring increases the main breaker is the optimal location
c) Critical Loads
let-through voltage of the protective for protecting against external distur-
d) Data and Communication Lines
device. Figure 1.4-15 shows that bances such as lightning. When placed
8 for every inch of lead length, the in this location, the disturbance is
Figure 1.4-13. System Approach for Installing SPDs let-through voltage is increased by “intercepted” by the SPD and reduced
an additional 15–25 V above the
9 There may be specific critical loads
within a facility that require a higher manufacturers stated suppression
to a minimum before reaching the
distribution and/or branch panel(s).
level of protection. A series SPD is best performance.
suited for protecting such loads. The use of a disconnect breaker
10 Lead length has the greatest effect on eliminates the need to de-energize
Advantages of the system approach are: the actual level of protection realized. the building entrance feeder equip-
Twisting of the installation wires is ment should the SPD fail or require
11 ■ The lowest possible investment
in mitigating equipment to protect
the second most important installation isolation for Megger testing.
consideration.
a facility
12
208Y/120 Panelboard
13 (integrated versus side mounted SPD)
15 600
400
16
N
SPD
Integrated SPD
SPD (direct bus bar connection)
200
17
GRO UND G RO UND
0
Surge
18 G –200
Event
G –2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
N
19 Microseconds
\
21
The size or capacity of a suppressor is This increase in disturbance voltage for the proper solution selection.
measured in surge current per phase. can result in process disruption
Larger suppressers rated at approxi- and downtime. 4. Harmonics Distortion 5
mately 250 kA per phase should be
Installing Dataline Surge Protection Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads
installed at the service entrance to
survive high-energy surges associated Most facilities also have communica- Until recently, most electrical loads were 6
with lightning. tion lines that are potential sources linear. Linear loads draw the full sine
for external surges. As identified by wave of electric current at its 60 cycle
A 250 kA per phase surge rating allows
for over a 25-year life expectancy
the power quality pyramid, proper (Hz) fundamental frequency—Figure 7
grounding of communication lines is 1.4-16 shows balance single-phase,
assuming an IEEE defined high essential for dependable operation. linear loads. As the figure shows,
exposure environment. Lower surge NEC Article 800 states that all data, little or no current flows in the neutral 8
rating devices may be used; however, power and cable lines be grounded conductor when the loads are non-
device reliability and long-term and bonded. linear and balanced.
performance may be compromised.
Power disturbances such as lightning With the arrival of nonlinear electronic
9
For aerial structures, the 99.8 percentile can elevate the ground potential loads, where the AC voltage is con-
recorded lightning stroke current is verted to a DC voltage, harmonics are
less than 220 kA. The magnitude of
between two communicating pieces
of electronic equipment with different created because of the use of only part
10
surges conducted or induced into a ground references. The result is current of the AC sine wave. In this conversion
facility electrical distribution system is from AC to DC, the electronics are turned
considerably lower given the presence
flowing through the data cable, causing
component failure, terminal lock-up, on in the 60 cycle wave at a given point
11
of multiple paths for the surge to travel data corruption and interference. in time to obtain the required DC level.
along. It is for this reason that IEEE
C62.41 recommends the C3 (20 kV, NFPA 780 D—4.8 warns that “surge
The use of only part of the sign wave
causes harmonics.
12
10 kA) test wave for testing SPDs suppression devices should be installed
installed at building entrance feeders. on all wiring entering or leaving elec- It is important to note that the current
tronic equipment, usually power, data distortion caused by loads such as 13
SPDs with surge ratings greater than or communication wiring.” rectifiers or switch mode power
250 kA are not required, however, supplies causes the voltage distortion.
higher ratings are available and may Surge suppressers should be installed That voltage distortion is caused by 14
provide longer life. at both ends of a data or communica- distorted currents flowing through an
tion cable. In those situations where impedance. The amount of voltage
Installing Panelboard Surge one end of the cable is not connected distortion depends on: 15
Protection Devices into an electronic circuit (e.g., contactor
Smaller surge capacity SPDs (120 kA coil), protection on the electronic end ■ System impedance
per phase) are installed at branch pan- only is required. ■ Amount of distorted current 16
elboards where power disturbances
are of lower energy, but occur much To prevent the coupling or inducing of Devices that can cause harmonic
more frequently. This level of surge power disturbances into communication disturbances include rectifiers, 17
current rating should result in a lines, the following should be avoided: thrusters and switching power sup-
greater than 25-year life expectancy. plies, all of which are nonlinear.
Data cables should not be run over
■
fluorescent lighting fixtures
Further, the proliferation of electronic 18
When isolated ground systems are equipment such as computers, UPS
used, the SPD should be installed such ■ Data cables should not be in the systems, variable speed drives,
that any common mode surges are vicinity of electric motors programmable logic controllers, and 19
shunted to the safety ground. ■ The right category cable should the like: non-linear loads have become
be used to ensure transmission a significant part of many installations.
The use of a disconnect breaker is
optional. The additional let-through
performance Other types of harmonic-producing 20
■ Data cables must be grounded at loads include arcing devices (arc
voltage resulting from the increased furnaces, fluorescent lights) and iron
inductance caused by the disconnect both ends when communicating
switch is about 50–60 V. between buildings core storable devices (transformers, 21
especially during energization).
Nonlinear load currents vary widely present on the three phases add Harmonic Issues
i from a sinusoidal wave shape; often together in the neutral, as shown in
Harmonic currents perform no work
they are discontinuous pulses. This Figure 1.4-17, rather than cancel each
means that nonlinear loads are and result in wasted electrical energy
other out, as shown in Figure 1.4-16.
ii extremely high in harmonic content. Odd non-triplen harmonics are
that may over burden the distribution
system. This electrical overloading
classified as “positive sequence”
Triplen harmonics are the 3rd, 9th, may contribute to preventing an
or “negative sequence” and are the
1 15th,...harmonics. Further, triplen 1st, 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc.
existing electrical distribution system
from serving additional future loads.
harmonics are the most damaging
to an electrical system because these In general, as the order of a harmonic In general, harmonics present on
2 harmonics on the A-phase, B-phase gets higher, its amplitude becomes a distribution system can have the
and C-phase are in sequence with each smaller as a percentage of the funda- following detrimental effects:
other. Meaning, the triplen harmonics mental frequency.
3 1. Overheating of transformers and
rotating equipment.
60 Hz Fundamental
2. Increased hysteresis losses.
4
3. Decreased kVA capacity.
A Phase
4. Overloading of neutral.
5
5. Unacceptable neutral-to-ground
voltages.
6 120º 6. Distorted voltage and current
Lagging waveforms.
B Phase
7 7. Failed capacitor banks.
8. Breakers and fuses tripping.
8 9. Double or ever triple sized neutrals
120º
Lagging
to defy the negative effects of
C Phase triplen harmonics.
9
In transformers, generators and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
10 Balance
systems, harmonics cause overheating
Neutral and failure at loads below their ratings
Current because the harmonic currents cause
11 greater heating than standard 60 Hz
current. This results from increased
Figure 1.4-16. Balanced Neutral Current Equals Zero eddy current losses, hysteresis losses
12 in the iron cores, and conductor skin
effects of the windings. In addition,
60 Hz Fundamental the harmonic currents acting on the
13 3rd Harmonic impedance of the source cause
harmonics in the source voltage, which
A Phase is then applied to other loads such as
14 motors, causing them to overheat.
The harmonics also complicate the
15 120º
application of capacitors for power
factor correction. If, at a given harmonic
B Phase
Lagging
frequency, the capacitive impedance
16 equals the system reactive impedance,
the harmonic voltage and current can
reach dangerous magnitudes. At the
17 120º C Phase
same time, the harmonics create
Lagging problems in the application of power
factor correction capacitors, they
18 lower the actual power factor. The
rotating meters used by the utilities for
watthour and various measurements
19 Neutral
Triplen
do not detect the distortion component
caused by the harmonics. Rectifiers
Current with diode front ends and large DC side
20 capacitor banks have displacement
!
Single-phase power supplies for Total Harmonic Distortion Table 1.4-7. Current Distortion Limits for
computer and fixture ballasts are
Revised standard IEEE 519-1992
General Distribution Systems (120– 69,000 V) i
rich in third harmonics and their Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in
odd multiples. indicates the limits of current distor-
Percent of IL
tion allowed at the PCC (Point of
Common Coupling) point on the Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics) ii
Even with the phase currents perfectly
balanced, the harmonic currents in system where the current distortion ISC /IL <11 11 17 23 35 TDD
<h <h <h <h
the neutral can total 173% of the is calculated, usually the point of
connection to the utility or the main
<17 <23 <35 1
phase current. This has resulted in
overheated neutrals. The Information supply bus of the system. <20 3 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
Technology Industry Council (ITIC)
The standard also covers the harmonic
20<50
50<100
7.0
10.0
3.5
4.5
2.5
4.0
1.0
1.5
0.5
0.7
8.0
12.0
2
formerly known as CBEMA, recom-
mends that neutrals in the supply to limits of the supply voltage from the 100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
utility or cogenerators. >1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
electronic equipment be oversized 3 All power generation equipment is limited 3
to at least 173% of the ampacity of Table 1.4-5. Low Voltage System Classification to these values of current distortion,
the phase conductors to prevent and Distortion Limits for 480 V Systems regardless of actual ISC/IL where:
problems. ITIC also recommends Class C AN DF ISC = Maximum short-circuit current at PCC. 4
derating transformers, loading them IL = Maximum demand load current
to no more than 50% to 70% of their Special application 2 10 16,400 3% (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
nameplate kVA, based on a rule-of- General system
Dedicated system
5
2
22,800
36,500
5%
10%
TDD = Total Demand Distortion. Even
harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd
5
thumb calculation, to compensate harmonic limits above. Current distortions
for harmonic heating effects. 2 Special systems are those where the rate that result in a DC offset, e.g., half-wave
In spite of all the concerns they
of change of voltage of the notch might
mistrigger an event. AN is a measurement
converters, are not allowed. 6
cause, nonlinear loads will continue of notch characteristics measured in
volt-microseconds, C is the impedance
Harmonic Solutions
to increase. Therefore, the design of
nonlinear loads and the systems that ratio of total impedance to impedance In spite of all the concerns nonlinear 7
at common point in system. DF is loads cause, these loads will continue
supply them will have to be designed distortion factor. to increase. Therefore, the design
so that their adverse effects are greatly
reduced. Table 1.4-4 shows the typical of nonlinear loads and the systems 8
Table 1.4-6. Utility or Cogenerator Supply that supply them will need design so
harmonic orders from a variety of Voltage Harmonic Limits
adverse harmonic effects are greatly
harmonic generating sources. Voltage 2.3–69 kV 69–138 kV >138 kV reduced. Table 1.4-8 and depicts many 9
Range harmonic solutions along with their
Table 1.4-4. Source and Typical Harmonics
advantages and disadvantages.
Source Typical
Harmonics 1
Maximum
individual
3.0% 1.5% 1.0%
10
harmonic Eaton’s Engineering Services &
6-pulse rectifier 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19… Total 5.0% 2.5% 1.5%
Systems Group (EESS) can perform
12-pulse rectifier
18-pulse rectifier
11, 13, 23, 25…
17, 19, 35, 37…
harmonic harmonic studies and recommend 11
distortion solutions for harmonic problems.
Switch-mode power
supply
Fluorescent lights
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13…
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13… Vh 12
Arcing devices 2, 3, 4, 5, 7…
Percentages are x 100 for each
harmonic V1
Transformer energization 2, 3, 4
1 Generally, magnitude decreases as harmonic and
13
order increases.
h = hmax 1/2 14
Vthd = ² 2
Vh
h=2 15
It is important for the system designer
to know the harmonic content of the
utility’s supply voltage because it will 16
affect the harmonic distortion of
the system.
17
18
19
20
21
4 Harmonic mitigating
transformers/phase shifting
■ Substantial (50–80%) reduction in harmonics
when used in tandem
■ Harmonic cancellation highly dependent
on load balance
■ Must have even multiples of matched loads
18
19
20
21
5. Uninterruptible Power The normal power source supplied by Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
Systems (UPS) the local utility or provider is not stable systems have evolved to serve the i
enough over time to continuously needs of sensitive equipment and
The advent of solid-state semiconduc- serve these loads without interruption. can supply a stable source of electrical
tors over 40 years ago, and their It is possible that a facility outside a power, or switch to backup to allow ii
subsequent evolution to transistors, major metropolitan area served by the for an orderly shutdown of the loads
and the miniaturization of electronics utility grid will experience outages of without appreciable loss of data or
into microprocessor over 25 years ago, some nature 15–20 times in one year. process. In the early days of main- 1
has created numerous computation Certain outages are caused by the frame computers, motor-generator
machines that assist us in every weather, and others by the failure sets provide isolation and clean power
conceivable manner. These machines, of the utility supply system due to to the computers. They did not have 2
and their clever configurations, equipment failures or construction deep reserves, but provided extensive
whether they take the form of interruptions. Some outages are ride-through capability while other
computers, appliance controls, fax only several cycles in duration, while sources of power (usually standby 3
machines, phone systems, computers others may be for hours at a time. emergency engine generator sets) were
of all sizes, server systems and server brought to serve the motor-generator
farms, emergency call centers, data In a broader sense, other problems sets while the normal source of power 4
processing at banks, credit companies, exist in the area of power quality, and was unstable or unavailable.
private company communication many of those issues also contribute
networks, government institutions and to the failure of the supply to provide UPS systems have evolved along the 5
defense agencies, all rely on a narrow that narrow range of power to the lines of rotary types and static types
range of nominal AC power in order sensitive loads mentioned above. of systems, and they come in many
for these devices to work properly. Power quality problems take the configurations, and even hybrid 6
Indeed, many other types of equip- form of any of the following: power designs having characteristics of
ment also require that the AC electrical failure, power sag, power surge, both types. The discussion that
power source be at or close to nominal undervoltage, overvoltage, line noise, follows attempts to compare and 7
voltage and frequency. Disturbances of frequency variations, switching contrast the two types of UPS
the power translate into failed transients and harmonic distortion. systems, and give basic guidance
processes, lost data, decreased Regardless of the reason for outages on selection criteria. This discussion 8
efficiency and lost revenue. and power quality problems, the will focus on the medium, large and
sensitive loads can not function very large UPS systems required by
normally without a backup power users who need more than 10 kVA of 9
source, and in many cases, the loads clean reliable power.
must be isolated from the instabilities of
the utility supply and power quality 10
problems and given clean reliable
power on a continuous basis, or be
able to switch over to reliable clean 11
electrical power quickly.
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Power Ratings of UPS Systems types of hybrid UPS systems are not system checks are performed then
i ■ Small UPS: Typically 300 VA to 10 kVA,
the focus of this discussion, because the input contactor is closed. The static
only one or two vendors offer these disconnect switch is turned on and the
and sometimes as high as 18 kVA hybrid types of rotary UPS systems, conduction angle is rapidly increased
ii ■ Medium UPS: 10–60 kVA although admittedly they continue to from zero to an angle that causes the
■ Large UPS: 100–200 kVA units, and be used in very large-scale data center DC bus voltage between the utility
higher when units are paralleled applications. See Figure 1.4-18 for the converter and the flywheel converter
1 ■ Very Large UPS: 200–750 kVA modern high speed Rotary UPS to reach approximately 650 V through
units, and higher when units systems discussed in this section the rectifying action of the freewheel-
are paralleled of the guide. These types of modern ing diodes in the utility converter.
2 rotary UPS systems are advanced, As soon as this level of DC voltage is
Each of these categories is arbitrary integrated designs using scalable reached, the static disconnect turns
because manufacturers have many configurations of high-speed flywheel, on fully. The next steps involved the
3 different UPS offerings for the same motor and generator in one compact utility converter IGBTs to start firing,
application. The choice of UPS type UPS package. The new rotary which allows the converter to act as
and the configuration of UPS modules technologies have the potential to a rectifier, a regulating voltage source
4 for a given application depends upon replace battery backup systems, or and an active harmonic filter. As the
many factors, including how many at least reduce the battery content IGBTs begin to operate, the DC bus
power quality problems the UPS is for certain applications. The appeal is increased to a normal operating
5 expected to solve; how much future of rotary systems is the avoidance of voltage of approximately 800 V, and
capacity is to be purchased now for the purchase, maintenance and facility the output bus is transferred from
future loads; the nature of the sensi- space required by DC battery based bypass to the output of the power
6 tive loads and load wiring; which backup systems. electronics module. The transfer from
type of UPS system is favored, rotary bypass is completed when the output
or static; choices of battery or DC High-Speed Rotary contactor is closed and the bypass
7 storage technology considered; and
Concept of Operation contactor opened in a make-before-
a host of other application issues. break manner.
The modern rotary type of UPS
8 Rotary UPS Systems operation is understood by reviewing The firing of the SCRs in the static
the four topics below: startup mode, disconnect switch is now changed so
Typical Ratings normal operation mode, discharge that each SCR in each phase is only
9 300–900 kVA/720 kW maximum. mode and recharge mode. turned on during the half-cycle, which
permits real power to flow from the
Typical Rotary Configurations Startup Mode utility supply to the UPS. This firing
10 Rotary UPS systems are among the The UPS output is energized on pattern at the static disconnect switch
oldest working systems developed bypass as soon as power is applied prevents power from the flywheel
to protect sensitive loads. Many of from the source to the system input. from feeding backward into the
11 these systems are complicated engine- The UPS continues the startup utility supply and ensures that all of
generator sets coupled with high procedure automatically when the the flywheel energy is available to
inertial flywheels operated at relatively front panel controls are placed into support the load.
12 low rotational speeds. These legacy the “Online” position. Internal UPS
Ix
18 Field Coil ac dc Filter Inductor Ig Id = Output Current
Ih = Harmonic Current
Driver dc ac Ix = Reactive Load Current
19 Ir = Real Load Current
Ih
Integrated Motor/Flywheel/
20 and Generator
Immediately after the output is trans- causes a voltage boost across the line as the load power is completely
ferred from bypass to the power elec- inductor, and a lagging current causes transferred to the input source, the util- i
tronic module, the flywheel field is a bucking voltage. By controlling the ity converter and flywheel converter
excited, which also provides magnetic utility converter to maintain nominal start to recharge the flywheel and
lift to unload the flywheel bearings. output voltage, just enough reactive return to normal operation mode. The ii
The flywheel inverter is turned on current flows through the line inductor flywheel recharge power is program-
and gradually increases frequency to make up the difference between the mable between a slow and fast rate,
at a constant rate to accelerate the input voltage and the output voltage. and using the fast rate results in an 1
flywheel to approximately 60 rpm. increase of UPS input current over
Once the flywheel reaches 60 rpm, The load current consists of three nominal levels. Recharging the flywheel
the flywheel inverter controls the components: the harmonic current is accomplished by controlling the 2
acceleration to keep currents below the required by the load, the reactive load utility and flywheel converter in a
maximum charging and the maximum current, and the real current, which similar manner as is used to maintain
input settings. Once the flywheel does the work. The utility converter full charge in the normal operation 3
reaches 4000 rpm, the UPS is fully supplies both the harmonic and mode, however the IGBT gating points
functional and capable of supporting reactive currents. Because these are changed to increase current into
the load during a power quality event. currents supply no net power to the the flywheel. 4
flywheel acceleration continues until load, the flywheel supplies no energy
the Flywheel reaches “full charge” at for these currents. They circulate High-Speed Rotary Advantages
7700 rpm. The total time to complete between the utility converter and the ■ Addresses all power quality 5
startup is less than 5 minutes. load. The power stage controls analyze problems
the harmonic current requirements of
Battery systems are not required
Normal Operation Mode the load and set the firing angle of
■
or used 6
Once the UPS is started and the the inverter IGBTs to make the utility
converter a very low impedance source ■ No battery maintenance required
flywheel is operating at greater than
4000 rpm, the UPS is in the normal to any harmonic currents. Thus, ■ Unlimited discharge cycles 7
operating mode where it is regulating nonlinear load currents are supplied ■ 150-second recharge time available
output voltage and supplying reactive almost entirely from the utility ■ Wide range of operating tempera-
and harmonic currents required by the converter with little effect on the tures can be accommodated 8
load. At the same time it cancels the quality of the UPS output voltage (–20 ° to 40 °C)
effect of load current harmonics on the waveform and with almost no
Small compact size and less floor
UPS output voltage. transmission of load harmonics
■
space required (500 kW systems
9
currents to the input of the UPS.
Input current consists of three compo- takes 20 sq ft)
nents: real load current, charging Discharge Mode ■ N+1 reliability available up to 10
current, and voltage regulation current. The UPS senses the deviation of 900 kVA maximum
Real current is current that is in phase the voltage or frequency beyond ■ No disposal issues
with the supply voltage and supplies programmed tolerances and quickly
High-Speed Rotary Disadvantages
11
real power to the load. Real current disconnects the supply source by
flowing through the line inductor causes turning off the static disconnect switch ■ Flywheel does not have deep
a slight phase shift of the current and opening the input contactor. The reserve capacity—rides through 12
lagging the voltage by 10 degrees disconnect occurs in less than one-half for up to 13 seconds at 100% load
and ensures that the UPS can quickly cycle. Then the utility converter starts ■ Some enhanced flywheel systems
transfer to bypass without causing delivering power from the DC bus to may extend the ride through to 13
unacceptable switching transients. The the load, and the flywheel converter 30 seconds at 100% load
second component is charging current changes the firing point of its IGBTs Mechanical flywheel maintenance
required by the flywheel to keep the to deliver power to the DC bus. The
■
required every 2–3 years, and oil 14
rotating mass fully charged at rated UPS maintains a clean output voltage changes required every year
rpm, or to recharge the rotating mass within 3% or nominal voltage to the
after a discharge. The power to main- load when input power is lost. ■ Recharge fast rates require the
input to be sized for 125% of
15
tain full charge is low at 2 kW and
is accomplished by the IGBTs of the Recharge Mode nominal current
flywheel converter gating to provide When input power is restored to ■ Flywheels failures in field not 16
small pulses of motoring current to the acceptable limits, the UPS synchronizes understood
flywheel. This current can be much the output and input voltages, closes ■ Requires vacuum pumps for
higher if fast recharge times are the input contactor and turns on the high-speed flywheels 17
selected. The final component of input static disconnect switch. The utility ■ Limited number of vendors and
current is the voltage regulation current, converter then transfers power from experience
which is usually a reactive current that the flywheel to the input source by 18
circulates between the input and the linearly increasing the real input
utility converter to regulate the output current. The transfer time is program-
voltage. Leading reactive current mable from 1 to 15 seconds. As soon 19
20
21
12
Bypass Breaker (Optional) UPS Module
13
Bypass Static Switch
14 Source Load
Normal Rectifier/Charger Output
Inverter
15 Breaker
AC DC
Breaker
DC AC
16 Battery Breaker
17 Battery
18 Figure 1.4-19. Typical Static UPS, Double Conversion Type with Battery Backup
19
20
21
Static Double Conversion Disadvantages 3. The battery stores DC energy for C. Static line interactive UPS
■ Battery systems, battery maintenance use by the inverter when input concept of operation—the basic i
and battery replacement are required power to the UPS fails. The operation of the Line Interactive
amount of power available from UPS is:
■ Large space requirement for
battery systems (higher life takes
the DC battery system and time to ii
discharge voltage is a function of 1. The Line Interactive type of UPS
more space, e.g., 500 kW takes has a different topology than the
the type of battery selected and
80–200 sq ft depending upon the
type of battery used, VRLA 10 year,
the ampere-hour sized used. static double conversion and 1
Battery systems should be sized standby systems. The normal
VRLA 20 year or flooded) input power is connected to the
for the anticipated outage.
■ Limited discharge cycles of load in parallel with a battery 2
battery system 4. The DC link connects the output of and bi-directional inverter/charger
■ Narrow temperature range the rectifier/charger to the input of assembly. The input source usu-
for application the inverter and to the battery. ally terminates at a line inductor 3
Typically the rectifier/charger and the output of the inductor is
■ Efficiencies are in the 90–94%
is sized only to supply charger connected to the load in parallel
range, which is lower than some line
interactive configurations
power to the battery, and is with the battery and inverter/ 4
rated far lower than in the charger circuit. See Figure 1.4-21
■ Bypass mode places load at risk double conversion UPS. for more details.
unless bypass has UPS backup
5. The bypass circuit provides a 2. The traditional rectifier circuit
5
■ Redundancy of UPS modules
results in higher costs direct connection of input source is eliminated and this results
to the load. The load operates in a smaller footprint and
■ Output faults are cleared by the
from unregulated power. The weight reduction. However, line
6
bypass circuit
bypass static switch can switch conditioning is compromised.
■ Output rating of the UPS is 150%
for 30 seconds
to non-conducting mode in 150–
120 milliseconds. When the UPS 3. When the input power fails, the 7
■ Battery disposal and safety recognizes the loss of normal battery/inverter charger circuit
issues exist reverses power and supplies the
input power, it transfers to battery/
inverter mode by simultaneously load with regulated power. 8
B. Standby UPS concept of
turning the Inverter ON and the Static Line Interactive UPS Advantages
operation—The basic operation of
the Standby UPS is:
static switch OFF.
■ Slight improvement of power 9
Static Standby UPS Advantages conditioning over standby
1. The Standby UPS topology is UPS systems
Lower costs than double conversion
similar to the double conversion ■
■ Small footprints and weights 10
type, but the operation of the UPS ■ Rectifier and charger are
is different in significant ways. economically sized ■ Efficient design
Normal power is connected to ■ Efficient design ■ Batteries are sized for the 11
the UPS input through the facility ■ Batteries are sized for the
application
electrical distribution system. application Static Line Interactive UPS Disadvantages
This usually involves two input 12
circuits that must come from the Static Standby UPS Disadvantages ■ Impractical over 5 kVA
same source. See Figure 1.4-20 ■ Impractical over 2 kVA ■ Not as good conditioning as
for details.
■ Little to no isolation of load from double conversion 13
2. The rectifier/charger function power quality disturbances ■ Standby power is from battery alone
converts the normal AC power to Battery systems, battery mainte-
DC power to charge the battery
■ Standby power is from battery alone ■
nance and battery replacement 14
■ Battery systems, battery mainte-
only, and does not simultaneously nance and battery replacement are required
power the inverter. The load is
connected to the input source
are required ■ Limited discharge cycles for the
battery system
15
■ Limited discharge cycles of
through the bypass static switch. Narrow temperature range for
battery system ■
The inverter is in the standby
mode ready to serve the load ■ Narrow temperature range for application 16
application ■ Battery disposal and safety
from battery power if the input
Output faults are cleared by the issues exist
power source fails. ■
bypass circuit
17
■ Battery disposal and safety
issues exist 18
19
20
21
i UPS Module
2 Source Load
Rectifier/
3 Normal
Breaker
Charger Inverter Output
Breaker
AC DC
4 DC AC
Battery
5 Breaker
6 Battery
7 Figure 1.4-20. Typical Static UPS, Standby Type with Battery Backup
8 UPS Module
10 Source Load
Inductor
11
Bidirectional
12 Inverter/Charger
DC
13 AC
14
15 Battery
16
Figure 1.4-21. Typical Static UPS, Line Interactive Type with Battery Backup
17
18
19
20
21
Secondary Voltage Selection Technical Factors supplied from a 480 V system through
The choice between 208Y/120 V and The principal advantage of the use of step-down transformers, voltage drop i
higher secondary voltages in buildings in the 480 V supply conductors can be
480Y/277 V secondary distribution for compensated for by the tap adjust-
is that for a given load, less current
commercial and institutional buildings
depends on several factors. The most means smaller conductors and lower ments on the transformer, resulting ii
voltage drop. Also, a given conductor in full 120 V output. Because these
important of these are size and types transformers are usually located close
size can supply a large load at the
of loads (motors, fluorescent lighting,
same voltage drop in volts, but a lower to the 120 V loads, secondary voltage 1
incandescent lighting, receptacles) drop should not be a problem. If it is,
and length of feeders. In general, large percentage voltage drop because of
the higher supply voltage. Fewer or taps may be used to compensate by
motor and fluorescent lighting loads,
smaller circuits can be used to transmit raising the voltage at the transformer. 2
and long feeders, will tend to make the
higher voltages, such as 480Y/277 V, the power from the service entrance The interrupting ratings of circuit
point to the final distribution points.
more economical. Very large loads
Smaller conductors can be used in many
breakers and fuses at 480 V have 3
and long runs would indicate the use increased considerably in recent years,
of medium voltage distribution and branch circuits supplying power loads, and protective devices are now available
and a reduction in the number of light-
loadcenter unit substations close to
ing branch circuits is usually possible.
for any required fault duty at 480 V. 4
the loads. Conversely, small loads, In addition, many of these protective
short runs and a high percentage of It is easier to keep voltage drops within devices are current limiting, and can
incandescent lighting would favor acceptable limits on 480 V circuits than be used to protect downstream equip- 5
lower utilization voltages such as on 208 V circuits. When 120 V loads are ment against these high fault currents.
208Y/120 V.
Industrial installations, with large
6
motor loads, are almost always 480 V,
often ungrounded delta or resistance
grounded delta or wye systems (see Elevator
7
section on ground fault protection). Panel
Practical Factors
Typical
8
Because most low voltage distribution
Emergency
equipment available is rated for up to Typical
600 V, and conductors are insulated for
HVAC
Panel
Lighting Panel 9
(Typical Every
600 V, the installation of 480 V systems Third Floor)
uses the same techniques and is
essentially no more difficult, costly, or Typical
10
480Y/277 V 208Y/120 V
hazardous than for 208 V systems. The Panel Panel
major difference is that an arc of 120 V
11
Dry Type Transformer
480∆-208Y/120 V
to ground tends to be se lf-extinguish- (Typical Every Floor)
ing, while an arc of 277 V to ground HVAC Busway Emergency Elevator
tends to be self-sustaining and likely to
cause severe damage. For this reason,
Feeder Riser Lighting
Riser
Riser
12
the National Electrical Code requires
ground fault protection of equipment
on grounded wye services of more
Building and
Miscellaneous
Typical Typical
13
Loads
than 150 V to ground, but not exceeding Typical
600 V phase-to-phase (for practical
purpose, 480Y/277 V services), for any
14
Typical Typical
service disconnecting means rated Spare
1000 A or more. The National Electrical
Code permits voltage up to 300 V 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
15
to ground on circuits supplying
permanently installed electric discharge
lamp fixtures, provided the luminaires 1 4000 A
Automatic 16
Transfer Switch
Main CB
do not have an integral manual switch Gen. CB
17
Emergency
and are mounted at least 8 ft (2.4 m) CTs
Utility
or Standby
Metering
above the floor. This permits a three- PTs Generator
phase, four-wire, solidly grounded Utility 4000A at 480Y/277V
480Y/277 V system to supply directly all
of the fluorescent and high-intensity
Service 100,000A Available Fault Current
18
discharge (HID) lighting in a building at Figure 1.4-22. Typical Power Distribution and Riser Diagram for a Commercial Office Building
277 V, as well as motors at 480 V. 1 Include ground fault trip. 19
20
21
Economic Factors Motors and controls are another cause NEMA standard TP-1 is being adopted
i Utilization equipment suitable for of wasted energy that can be reduced. by many states and is another method
principal loads in most buildings New, energy-efficient motor designs of energy-efficient design. NEMA TP-1
is available for either 480 V or 208 V are available using more and better establishes minimum operating
ii systems. Three-phase motors and core steel, and larger windings. efficiencies for each distribution
their controls can be obtained for either transformer size at a loading equal to
For any motor operating 10 or more 35% of the transformer full load kVA.
voltage, and for a given horsepower
1 are less costly at 480 V. Fluorescent and
hours per day, it is recommended to The 35% loading value in the NEMA
use the energy-efficient types. These standard reflects field studies con-
HID lamps can be used with either 277 V motors have a premium cost of about
or 120 V ballasts. However, in almost all ducted by the U.S. Department of
2 cases, the installed equipment will have
20% more than standard motors. Energy, which showed that dry-type
Depending on loading, hours of use transformers installed in commercial
a lower total cost at the higher voltage. and the cost of energy, the additional facilities are typically loaded at an
3 Energy Conservation
initial cost could be repaid in energy average of 35% of their full load
saved within a few months, and it capacity over a 24-hour time period.
Because of the greatly increased cost rarely takes more than two years. Table 1.4-9 compares losses for
4 of electrical power, designers must Because, over the life of a motor, the both low temperature rise and TP-1
consider the efficiency of electrical cost of energy to operate it is many transformers using a 75 kVA design.
distribution systems, and design for times the cost of the motor itself, any
5 energy conservation. In the past, motor with many hours of use should Table 1.4-9. Load Losses
especially in commercial buildings, be of the energy-efficient type. Temp. Load Losses in Watts
design was for lowest first cost, Rise ºC No 25% 35% 50% 75% Full
6 because energy was inexpensive. Where a motor drives a load with
variable output requirements such Loss Load Load Load Load Load
Today, even in the speculative office
building, operating costs are so high as a centrifugal pump or a large fan, 150 360 490 620 885 1535 2450
7 that energy-conserving designs can customary practice has been to run the
motor at constant speed, and to throttle
115 420 480 610 805 1170 1950
justify their higher initial cost with a 80 500 535 615 730 945 1410
rapid payback and continuing savings. the pump output or use inlet vanes or TP-1 150 230 310 480 745 1235 2280
8 Buildings that must meet LEED certifi- outlet dampers on the fan. This is highly
inefficient and wasteful of energy. In Efficiencies above TP-1. Candidates
cations may require energy-saving
designs. There are four major sources recent years, solid-state variable- Standard Level (CSL) is a DOE
9 of energy conservation in a commercial frequency, variable-speed drives for
ordinary induction motors have been
efficiency evaluation for transformers.
CSL-1 is equivalent to TP-1. Levels
building—the lighting system, the
motors and controls, the transformers available, reliable and relatively are from CSL-1 to CSL-5. CSL-3 is being
10 and the HVAC system. inexpensive. Using a variable-speed
drive, the throttling valves, inlet vanes
promoted for higher efficiency applica-
tions. A NEMA white paper Clarifica-
The lighting system must take or output dampers can be eliminated, tions on the Use of DOE Design—Lines
11 advantage of the newest equipment saving their initial cost and energy
over the life of the system. An
6, 7 and 8 is available from NEMA that
elaborates on
and techniques. New light sources,
familiar light sources with higher additional benefit of both energy- the matter.
12 efficiencies, solid-state ballasts with efficient motors and variable-speed
drives (when operated at less than HVAC systems have traditionally been
dimming controls, use of daylight,
environmental design, efficient full speed) is that the motors operate very wasteful of energy, often being
designed for lowest first cost. This,
13 luminaires, computerized or at reduced temperatures, resulting in
too, is changing. For example, reheat
programmed control, and the like, increased motor life.
are some of the methods that can systems are being replaced by variable
Transformers have inherent losses. air volume systems, resulting in equal
14 increase the efficiency of lighting
Transformers, like motors, are designed comfort with substantial increases in
systems. They add up to providing
the necessary amount of light, with the for lower losses by using more and efficiency. While the electrical engineer
better core materials, larger conductors, has little influence on the design of the
15 desired color rendition, from the most
etc., and this results in increased initial HVAC system, he/she can specify that
efficient sources, where and when it is
needed, and not providing light where cost. Because the 480 V to 208Y/120 V all motors with continuous or long duty
stepdown transformers in an office cycles are specified as energy-efficient
16 or when it is not necessary. Using the
building are usually energized 24 hours types, and that the variable-air-volume
best of techniques, office spaces that
originally required as much as 3.5W a day, savings from lower losses can fans do not use inlet vanes or outlet
be substantial, and should be consid- dampers, but are driven by variable-
17 per square foot have been given
ered in all transformer specifications. speed drives. Variable-speed drives
improved lighting, with less glare
and higher visual comfort, using as One method of obtaining reduced can often be desirable on centrifugal
losses is to specify transformers with compressor units as well. Since some
18 little as 1.0 to 2.0W per square foot.
220 °C insulation systems designed for of these requirements will be in HVAC
In an office building of 200,000 square
feet (60,960 m), this could mean a 150 °C average winding temperature specifications, it is important for the
rise, with no more than 80 °C (or energy-conscious electrical engineer
19 saving of 400 kW, which, at $0.05 per
sometimes 115 °C) average winding to work closely with the HVAC engineer
kWh, 250 days per year, 10 hours per
day, could save $50,000 per year in temperature rise at full load. A better at the design stage.
method would be to evaluate transformer
20 energy costs. Obviously, efficient
losses, based on actual loading cycles
lighting is a necessity.
throughout the day, and consider the
cost of losses as well as the initial cost
21 of the transformers in purchasing.
Building Control Systems Because building design and control This has been changed by the high
In order to obtain the maximum benefit
for maximum energy saving is impor- cost of purchased energy, plus a i
tant and complex, and frequently federal law (Public Utility Regulatory
from these energy-saving lighting, involves many functions and several Policies Act, known as PURPA) that
power and HVAC systems, they must
be controlled to perform their functions
systems, it is necessary for the design requires public utilities to purchase ii
engineer to make a thorough building any excess power generated by the
most efficiently. Constant monitoring and environmental study, and to weigh cogeneration plant. In many cases,
would be required for manual operation,
so some form of automatic control
the costs and advantages of many practical commercial cogeneration 1
systems. The result of good design systems have been built that provide
is required. The simplest of these can be economical, efficient operation. some or all of the electric power
energy-saving controls, often very Poor design can be wasteful and required, plus hot water, steam, and 2
effective, is a time clock to turn various extremely costly. sometimes steam absorption-type
systems on and off. Where flexible air conditioning. Such cogeneration
control is required, programmable Distributed Energy Resources systems are now operating success- 3
controllers may be used. These range fully in hospitals, shopping centers,
from simple devices, similar to multi- Distributed energy resources (DER)
high-rise apartment buildings and
function time clocks, up to full micro- are increasingly becoming prominent
sources of electric power. Distributed even commercial office buildings. 4
processor-based, fully programmable
devices, really small computers. For energy resources are usually small-to- Where a cogeneration system is being
complete control of all building systems, medium sources of electric generation,
either from renewable or non-renew-
considered, the electrical distribution 5
computers with specialized software system becomes more complex. The
can be used. Computers can not only able sources. Sources include: interface with the utility company is
control lighting and HVAC systems,
■ Photovoltaic (PV) systems critical, requiring careful relaying 6
and provide peak demand control, to to protect both the utility and the
(solar systems)
minimize the cost of energy, but they cogeneration system. Many utilities
Wind
can perform many other functions. Fire ■
have stringent requirements that 7
detection and alarm systems can oper- ■ Fossil-fueled (diesel, natural gas, must be incorporated into the system.
ate through the computer, which can landfill gas, coal-bed methane) Proper generator control and protec-
also perform auxiliary functions such generators (reciprocating engines) tion is necessary, as well. An on-site 8
as elevator control and building com- ■ Gas-fired turbines (natural gas, land- electrical generating plant tied to an
munication in case of fire. Building fill gas, coal-bed methane) electrical utility, is a sophisticated
security systems, such as closed-circuit ■ Water-powered (hydro) engineering design. 9
television monitoring, door alarms and
■ Fuel cells Utilities require that when the
intruder sensing, can be performed by
the same building computer system. ■ Microturbines protective device at their substation
opens that the device connecting a
10
■ Wave power
The time clocks, programmable cogenerator to the utility open also.
■ Coal-fired boilers
controllers and computers can
obtain data from external sensors One reason is that most cogenerators 11
Distributed energy resources may also
and control the lighting, motors and are connected to feeders serving other
be termed alternative energy resources.
customers. Utilities desire to reclose
other equipment by means of hard
wiring-separate wires to and from Prime Power the feeder after a transient fault is 12
each piece of equipment. In the more DER can be used for generating prime cleared. Reclosing in most cases will
damage the cogenerator if it had
complex systems, this would result in
a tremendous number of control
power or for cogeneration. Prime power
concerns a system that is electrically remained connected to their system. 13
wires, so other methods are frequently separated from the electrical grid. Islanding is another reason why the
used. A single pair of wires, with elec-
tronic digital multiplexing, can control
Prime power is generated at remote utility insists on the disconnection of 14
sites where commercial electrical the cogenerator. Islanding is the event
or obtain data from many different power is not available. that after a fault in the utility’s system
points. Sometimes, coaxial cable is is cleared by the operation of the 15
used with advanced signaling equip- Cogeneration protective devices, a part of the
ment. Some systems dispense with system may continue to be supplied
Cogeneration is another outgrowth of
control wiring completely, sending and
the high cost of energy. Cogeneration by cogeneration. Such a condition is 16
receiving digital signals over the dangerous to the utility’s operation
is the production of electric power con-
power wiring. The newest systems during restoration work.
currently with the production of steam,
may use fiber-optic cables to carry
hot water and similar energy uses. The 17
tremendous quantities of data, free Major cogenerators are connected to
electric power can be the main prod-
from electromagnetic interference. the subtransmission or the transmission
uct, and steam or hot water the
The method used will depend on
byproduct, as in most commercial
system of a utility. Major cogenerators 18
the type, number and complexity have buy-sell agreements. In such
installations, or the steam or hot water
of functions to be performed. cases, utilities use a trip transfer
can be the most required product,
and electric power a byproduct, as
scheme to trip the cogenerator breaker. 19
in many industrial installations. In Guidelines that are given in ANSI
some industries, cogeneration has Guide Standard 1001 are a good
been common practice for many starting point, but the entire design 20
years, but until recently it has not should be coordinated with the utility.
been economically feasible for most
commercial installations. 21
PV System Design Considerations The S-Max follows standard industry High Temperature Equation
i Successful photovoltaic (PV) design
and code practices in determining the Once the maximum number of
maximum number of solar modules modules per string is established,
and construction is a complex multi- per string for the open-circuit photo- the minimum number of modules per
ii discipline endeavor. Proper planning
includes the site-layout study for
voltaic (PV) voltage rise in cold string needs to be calculated. Here,
weather (Voc < 600 V as per NEC). Its more site-related aspects come into
maximizing the sun’s energy harvest- low 300 V MPPT lower-limit ensures play, as the voltage of solar modules
1 ing for solar module selection, and that multiple configurations are decreases with increasing tempera-
for updating the electrical/mechanical possible for solar systems hot weather
design and construction to the latest ture. The modules’ (photovoltaic cell)
voltage drop (i.e., Vmp as a function temperature is influenced by the
2 code and local constraints, including of temperature, solar irradiance and ambient temperature, reflected sun-
fire marshal and seismic regulations. array-conductor voltage drop). The
Professionally prepared bid, permit, loads from nearby structures, parapet
following equations are the basis of walls, roof-coatings, etc. Air-flow
3 construction and as-build drawings all solar system layout and design. above and behind the solar modules
shall be required and maintained. Consult professional engineering to
For installation in/on/for existing affect the cell temperature. The
help when planning any solar system. accepted industry standards to add
4 structures and sites, it is advised
Engineering design firms offering to the module heating is listed below.
that, at the minimum, pre-design complete solar systems “turn-key”
and construction tests be performed Unusual mounting systems may
calculations, drawings, construction adjust these figures, and it is best to
5 for existing power-quality issues,
management and procurement are seek assistance in establishing and
water drainage and the utility feeder/ a good place to start. Eaton offers
transformer, and that electrical planning such installations.
professional S-Max inverter applica-
6 distribution panel ratings are verified tion assistance, on-site commissioning ■ 20 °C for ground or pole mounted
sufficient for the planned solar system, and maintenance services. Eaton solar systems
and the necessary arc flash studies be maintains a working relationship with ■ 25 °C for roof-top solar systems
7 performed. Connection to the utility
the best engineering services firms mounted at inclined angles
is always a utility interconnect agree- across the country, and helps arrange (offers improved air-flow behind
ment (application) process, and is the successful implantation of your the modules)
8 typically required for the available
solar system. The S-Max 250 kW ■ 30 °C for roof-top solar systems
solar incentives and programs offered
inverter and up-fit solutions easily mounted flat, yet at least 6.00 inches
by the utility, municipality, state, and perform well in Mega-Watt and Utility-
9 various federal agencies and depart-
Scale systems. Eaton also offers a
(152.4 mm) above the roof surface
ments. State, and IRS tax incentives Vmp_min = Vmp + (temp-differential x
wide range of balance-of-system
require well-documented records. (BOS) products, ranging from solar temp-coefficient-of-Vmp)
10 Solar systems, while low maintenance, module source and array combiners,
The temp-differential in this case
do require periodic service. The solar to DC and AC breakers, electrical and
includes the above temperature
distribution panels and switchgear.
11 modules need to be washed-clean on
a regular basis and electrical termina-
“adders.” The Vmp and related
Low Temperature Equation temperature coefficients are listed
tions require initial and annual checks. on the solar module’s data sheets.
Voc_max = Voc + (temp-differential x
12 Cooling system filters are periodic
maintenance items, with the re-fresh temp-coefficient-of-Voc) While the code doesn’t indicate the
rate dependent upon typical and The temp-differential is the difference high temperature to use (i.e., because
13 unusual circumstances. between the standard module rating it is an equipment application issue),
the industry standard is to evaluate the
Solar systems installed near other new at 25 °C and the low temperature.
The voltage (Voc) will rise with ASHRAE 2% and 4% high temperature
construction where dust is generated
14 (e.g., grading, paving) or agricultural temperatures under 25 °C. figures, coupled to known location
differences. Record high temperatures
environments may require additional Seek the solar module data sheet for provide an indication of system
solar-system checks and services.
15 Planning for such contingencies is
a list of standard test condition (STC)
data, temperature coefficients, and any
performance when climatic condition
reaches these levels.
the business of solar-system design, special module-related information to
construction and on-going operation. Beyond the damaging temperature
16 Performance-based incentives
determine the low-temperature open
circuit voltage. The NEC 2011, and affects on photovoltaic module Vmp
require verifiable metering, often industry practice, requires the voltage levels, voltage drop in PV
by registered/approved independent conductors under such conditions also
17 third parties. Such monitoring periods
use of the site’s Extreme Annual
Mean Minimum Design Dry Bulb need to be calculated and evaluated,
are typically for 60 or more months. Temperature data, available in the beyond normal temperatures. The
inverter only uses (knows) the Vmp
18 The S-Max inverter offers a wide range ASHRAE Handbook. Code requires
voltage at the inverter, not at the
of features and options to enable a that the resulting maximum voltage
(Voc) when added in the “string of PV modules.
successful and long-lived solar-energy
19 harvesting solution. The isolation modules” be under 600 V. Record Increasing grid voltages also puts a
step-up transformer, coupled to either low temperatures provide an constraint on the minimum Vmp
a negative or a positive grounded indication of system performance voltage at the DC input stage.
20 solar array, ensures that the S-Max when temperatures drop to these
can match to all (known) solar module levels. The S-Max inverter is designed
technologies. to standards higher than 600 Vdc.
21
To ensure the full MPPT range without governmental agency having jurisdic- a charger to keep it at full capacity
power-clipping (reduced power output), tion. Optional standby systems, not when normal power is on, one or more i
prudent PV system designs shall con- legally required, are also covered in lamps, and a relay to connect the
sider the PV array’s Vmp voltage drop the NEC (Article 702). battery to the lamps on loss of normal
to the point of the inverter connection, power, is also permitted. Because ii
ambient temperatures and the PV Emergency systems are intended to of the critical nature of emergency
system installation type’s effects on supply power and illumination essen- power, ground fault protection is not
Vmp, solar module miss-match and tial for safety to human life, when the required. It is considered preferable 1
tolerance variations, degradation of normal supply fails. NEC requirements to risk arcing damage, rather than to
solar modules over time (solar system are stringent, requiring periodic testing disconnect he emergency supply com-
life), etc. Typical Vmp design values, under load and automatic transfer to pletely. For emergency power, ground 2
based upon known and expected emergency power supply on loss of fault alarm is required by NEC 700.7(D)
conditions are 5–10% over the normal supply. See Figure 1.4-23. to indicate a ground fault in solidly
minimum MPPT tracking voltage. All wiring from emergency source to grounded wye emergency systems 3
Reference NEC 2011 Section 690, emergency loads must be kept separate of more than 150 V to ground and
Solar Photovoltaic Systems. from all other wiring and equipment, circuit-protective devices rated 1000 A
in its own distribution and raceway or more. 4
Emergency Power system, except in transfer equipment
enclosures and similar locations. The Legally required standby systems, as
Most areas have requirements
for emergency and standby power
most common power source for large required by the governmental agency 5
emergency loads is an engine-generator having jurisdiction, are intended to
systems. The National Electrical Code set, but the NEC also permits the supply power to selected loads, other
does not specifically call for any
emergency or standby power, but
emergency supply (subject to local code than those classed as emergency 6
requirements) to be storage batteries, systems, on loss of normal power.
does have requirements for those uninterruptible power supplies, a These are usually loads not essential
systems when they are legally
mandated and classed as emergency
separate emergency service, or a to human safety, but loss of which 7
connection to the service ahead of the could create hazards or hamper
(Article 700), legally required standby normal service disconnecting means. rescue or fire-fighting operations.
(Article 701) by municipal, state, Unit equipment for emergency illumi- 8
federal or other codes, or by any nation, with a rechargeable battery,
9
Utility
Source
Typical Application: Three engine generator sets serve the load, plus one additional engine
generator set for redundancy to achieve N+1 level of performance. Open or Closed transition is available. 10
G1 G2 G3 G4
Paralleling Switchgear 11
with Distribution
Revenue
Metering
HMI 12
Touchscreen
52G1 52G2 52G3 52G4
Main D1 D2 D3 D4
13
Service
14
15
16
ATS1 N E ATS2 N E ATS3 N E ATS4 N E
To Normal
Distribution
To Emergency
Circuits 17
Circuits
Optional Remote PC 19
with Software
LP1 BP1 LP2 BP2 LP3 BP3 LP4 BP4
20
Figure 1.4-23. Typical Emergency Power System
21
NEC requirements are similar to those Industrial plants, especially in process It is important that the electrical sys-
i for emergency systems, except that industries, usually have some form tem designer providing a substantial
wiring may occupy the same distribu- of alternate power source to prevent source of emergency and standby
tion and raceway system as the extremely costly shutdowns. These power investigate the possibility of
ii normal wiring if desired. Optional standby generating systems are using it for peak shaving, and even
standby systems are those not legally critical when needed, but they are of partial utility company financing.
required, and are intended to protect needed only infrequently. They Frequently, substantial savings in
1 private business or property where represent a large capital investment. power costs can be realized for a
life safety does not depend on To be sure that their power will be small additional outlay in distribution
performance of the system. Optional available when required, they should and control equipment.
2 systems can be treated as part of the be tested periodically under load.
normal building wiring system. Both Peak shaving equipment operating in
legally required and optional standby The cost of electric energy has risen parallel with the utility are subject to the
3 systems should be installed in such to new high levels in recent years, and comments made under cogeneration
a manner that they will be fully avail- utilities bill on the basis not only of as to separation from the utility under
able on loss of normal power. It is power consumed, but also on the fault conditions.
4 preferable to isolate these systems basis of peak demand over a small
as much as possible, even though not interval. As a result, a new use for Sound Levels
required by code. in-house generating capacity has
5 developed. Utilities measure demand Sound Levels of Electrical Equipment
Where the emergency or standby charges on the basis of the maximum for Offices, Hospitals, Schools and
source, such as an engine generator demand for electricity in any given Similar Buildings
6 or separate service, has capacity to specific period (typically 15 or 30 Insurance underwriters and building
supply the entire system, the transfer minutes) during the month. Some owners desire and require that the
scheme can be either a full-capacity utilities have a demand “ratchet clause” electrical apparatus be installed
7 automatic transfer switch, or, less that will continue demand charges on for maximum safety and the least
costly but equally effective, normal a given peak demand for a full year, interference with the normal use of
and emergency main circuit breakers, unless a higher peak results in even the property. Architects should take
8 electrically interlocked such that on higher charges. One large load, coming particular care with the designs for
failure of the normal supply the on at a peak time, can create higher hospitals, schools and similar build-
emergency supply is connected to the electric demand charges for a year. ings to keep the sound perception of
9 load. However, if the emergency or
Obviously, reducing the peak demand such equipment as motors, blowers
standby source does not have capacity and transformers to a minimum.
for the full load, as is usually the can result in considerable savings in
10 case, such a scheme would require the cost of electrical energy. For those
installations with engine generators
Even though transformers are
automatic disconnection of the relatively quiet, resonant conditions
nonessential loads before transfer. for emergency use, modern control may exist near the equipment, which
11 Simpler and more economical in systems (computers or programmable
controllers) can monitor the peak
will amplify their normal 120 Hz hum.
such a case is a separate emergency Therefore, it is important that consid-
bus, supplied through an automatic demand, and start the engine-generator eration be given to the reduction of
12 transfer switch, to feed all critical to supply part of the demand as it
approaches a preset peak value. The
amplitude and to the absorption of
loads. The transfer switch connects energy at this frequency. This problem
this bus to the normal supply, in engine-generator must be selected begins in the designing stages of the
13 normal operation. On failure of the to withstand the required duty cycle. equipment and the building. There are
normal supply, the engine-generator The simplest of these schemes transfer two points worthy of consideration: 1)
is started, and when it is up to speed specific loads to the generator. More What sound levels are desired in the
14 the automatic switch transfers the complex schemes operate the generator normally occupied rooms of this build-
emergency loads to this source. On in parallel with the normal utility supply. ing? 2) To effect this, what sound level
return of the normal source, manual or The savings in demand charges can in the equipment room and what type
15 automatic retransfer of the emergency reduce the cost of owning the emer- of associated acoustical treatment
loads can take place. gency generator equipment. will give the most economical
In some instances, utilities with little installation overall?
16 Peak Shaving reserve capacity have helped finance A relatively high sound level in the
Many installations now have the cost of some larger customer- equipment room does not indicate
owned generating equipment. In
17 emergency or standby generators.
In the past, they were required for return, the customer agrees to take
an abnormal condition within the
apparatus. However, absorption may
hospitals and similar locations, but some or all of his load off the utility be necessary if sound originating in
system and on to his own generator at
18 not common in office buildings or
shopping centers. However, many the request of the utility (with varying
an unoccupied equipment room is
objectionable outside the room.
costly and unfortunate experiences limitations) when the utility load Furthermore, added absorption
approaches capacity. In some cases,
19 during utility blackouts in recent years
have led to the more frequent installa- the customer’s generator is paralleled
material usually is desirable if
there is a “build-up” of sound
tion of engine generators in commer- with the utility to help supply the peak due to reflections.
utility loads, with the utility buying
20 cial and institutional systems for safety
and for supplying important loads. the supplied power. Some utilities
have been able to delay large capital
21 expenditures for additional generating
capacity by such arrangements.
Some reduction or attenuation takes Table 1.4-11. Maximum Average Sound Levels for Medium Voltage Transformers—Decibels
place through building walls, the kVA Liquid-Filled Transformers Dry-Type Transformers i
remainder may be reflected in various Self-Cooled Forced-Air Self-Cooled Forced-Air
directions, resulting in a build-up or Rating (OA) Cooled Rating (FA) Rating (AA) Cooled Rating (FA)
apparent higher levels, especially if ii
resonance occurs because of room 300 55 — 58 67
dimensions or material characteristics. 500 56 — 60 67
750 57 67 64 67
1
Area Consideration 1000 58 67 64 67
1500 60 67 65 68
In determining permissible sound lev-
els within a building, it is necessary to
2000
2500
61
62
67
67
66
68
69
71
2
consider how the rooms are to be used
3000 63 67 68 71
and what levels may be objectionable 3750 64 67 70 73
to occupants of the building. The
5000 65 67 71 73
3
ambient sound level values given in 6000 66 68 72 74
Table 1.4-10 are representative average 7500 67 69 73 75
values and may be used as a guide in 10,000 68 70 — 76
4
determining suitable building levels.
Because values given in Table 1.4-11 transmitted vibration is approximately
Decrease in sound level varies at an
are in general higher than those given 98%. If the floor or beams beneath 5
approximate rate of 6 dB for each
doubling of the distance from the in Table 1.4-10, the difference must be the transformer are light and flexible,
attenuated by distance and by proper the isolator must be softer or have
source of sound to the listener. For
use of materials in the design of the improved characteristics in order to 6
example, if the level 6 ft (1.8 m) from
a transformer is 50 dB, the level at a building. An observer may believe keep the transmitted vibrations to a
that a transformer is noisy because minimum. (Enclosure covers and
distance of 12 ft (3.7 m) would be 44 dB
the level in the room where it is ventilating louvers are often improp- 7
and at 24 ft (7.3 m) the level decreases
to 38 dB, etc. However, this rule applies located is high. Two transformers of erly tightened or gasketed and
the same sound output in the same produce unnecessary noise.) The
only to equipment in large areas
room increase the sound level in the building structure will assist the 8
equivalent to an out-of-door installation,
with no nearby reflecting surfaces. room approximately 3 dB, and three dampeners if the transformer is
transformers by about 5 dB, etc. mounted above heavy floor members
Table 1.4-10. Typical Sound Levels or if mounted on a heavy floor slab. 9
Sounds due to structure-transmitted Positioning of the transformer in
Description Average vibrations originating from the trans- relation to walls and other reflecting
Decibel
Level (dB) former are lowered by mounting the surfaces has a great effect on reflected
10
transformers on vibration dampeners noise and resonances. Often, placing
Radio, recording and TV studios 25–30 or isolators. There are a number of the transformer at an angle to the wall,
Theatres and music rooms 30–35 different sound vibration isolating rather than parallel to it, will reduce
11
Hospitals, auditoriums and churches 35–40
materials that may be used with noise. Electrical connections to a
Classrooms and lecture rooms 35–40 good results. Dry-type power trans- substation transformer should
Apartments and hotels
Private offices and conference rooms
35–45
40–45
formers are often built with an isolator be made with flexible braid or
12
mounted between the transformer conductors; connections to an
Stores 45–55
support and case members. The
Residence (radio, TV off)
and small offices 53 natural period of the core and coil
individually mounted transformer
should be in flexible conduit.
13
Medium office (3 to 10 desks) 58 structure when mounted on vibration
dampeners is about 10% of the funda-
Residence (radio, TV on)
Large store (5 or more clerks)
60
61 mental frequency. The reduction in the 14
Factory office 61
Large office 64
Average factory 70 15
Average street 80
21
ii
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
2 Time-delay starting or closing relay A device that functions to give a desired amount
of time delay before or after any point of operation
Used for providing a time-delay for
re-transfer back to the normal source
ii
in a switching sequence or protective relay system, in an automatic transfer scheme.
except as specifically provided by device functions
48, 62 and 79 described later. 1
6 Starting circuit breaker A device whose principal function is to connect —
a machine to its source of starting voltage.
19 Starting to running transition timer A device that operates to initiate or cause the Used to transfer a reduced voltage
2
automatic transfer of a machine from the starting starter from starting to running.
to the running power connection.
21 Distance relay A device that functions when the circuit — 3
admittance, impedance or reactance increases or
decreases beyond predetermined limits.
23 Temperature control device A device that functions to raise or to lower the Used as a thermostat to control 4
temperature of a machine or other apparatus, or space heaters in outdoor equipment.
of any medium, when its temperature falls below
or rises above, a predetermined level. 5
24 Volts per hertz relay A device that operates when the ratio of voltage —
to frequency is above a preset value or is below
a different preset value. The relay may have any
combination of instantaneous or time delayed
6
characteristics.
25 Synchronizing or synchronism check device A device that operates when two AC circuits are
within the desired limits of frequency, phase angle
In a closed transition breaker
transfer, a 25 relay is used to ensure 7
or voltage, to permit or cause the paralleling of two-sources are synchronized before
these two circuits. paralleling. Eaton FP-5000/EDR-5000
feeder protective relays. 8
27 Undervoltage relay A device which functions on a given value of Used to initiate an automatic transfer
undervoltage. when a primary source of power is lost.
Eaton FP-5000/FP-4000/MP-4000/
EDR-5000/EDR-4000 protective relays.
9
30 Annunciator relay A non-automatically reset device that gives a Used to remotely indicate that a
number of separate visual indications upon the
functioning of protective devices, and which may
protective relay has functioned, or
that a circuit breaker has tripped.
10
also be arranged to perform a lockout function. Typically, a mechanical “drop” type
annunciator panel is used.
32 Directional power relay A relay that functions on a desired value of power Used to prevent reverse power from 11
flow in a given direction, or upon reverse power feeding an upstream fault. Often
resulting from arc back in the anode or cathode used when primary backup generation
circuits of a power rectifier. is used in a facility. Eaton FP-5000/
EDR-5000 protective relays.
12
33 Position switch A device that makes or breaks contact when the Used to indicate the position of a
main device or piece of apparatus, which has no
device function number, reaches a given point.
drawout circuit breaker (TOC switch). 13
34 Master sequence device A device such as a motor-operated multi-contact —
switch, or the equivalent, or a programmable
device, that establishes or determines the operating
14
sequence of the major devices in equipment
during starting and stopping, or during sequential
switching operations. 15
37 Undercurrent or underpower relay A relay that functions when the current or power Eaton MP-3000/MP-4000/EMR-3000
flow decreases below a predetermined value. motor protective relays.
38 Bearing protective device A device that functions on excessive bearing Eaton MP-3000/MP-4000 motor 16
temperature, or on other abnormal mechanical protective relays.
conditions, such as undue wear, which may
eventually result in excessive bearing temperature. 17
40 Field relay A device that functions on a given or abnormally —
high or low value or failure of machine field current,
or on an excessive value of the reactive component
of armature current in an AC machine indicating
18
abnormally high or low field excitation.
41 Field circuit breaker A device that functions to apply, or to remove,
the field excitation of a machine.
—
19
42 Running circuit breaker A device whose function is to connect a machine —
to its source of running or operating voltage.
This function may also be used for a device, such 20
as a contactor, that is used in series with a circuit
breaker or other fault-protecting means, primarily
for frequent opening and closing of the circuit. 21
Table 1.5-1. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
i Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses
ii 43 Manual transfer or selector device A manually operated device that transfers control
or potential circuits in order to modify the plan of
—
5 48 Incomplete sequence relay A relay that generally returns the equipment to the
normal, or off, position and locks it out of the
—
Table 1.5-1. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical i
Number Uses
Table 1.5-1. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
i Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
F Frequency/fault S Solenoid 13
I0 Zero sequence current SI Seal-in
20
21
Codes and Standards a number of other testing laboratories A design engineer should conform
i The National Electrical Code (NEC),
have been recognized and accepted. to all applicable codes, and require
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic equipment to be listed by UL or
NFPA Standard No. 70, is the most Engineers (IEEE) publishes a number another recognized testing laboratory
ii prevalent electrical code in the United
States. The NEC, which is revised every
of books (the “color book” series) on wherever possible, and to meet
recommended practices for the design ANSI or NEMA standards. ANSI/IEEE
three years, has no legal standing of of industrial buildings, commercial recommended practices should
1 its own, until it is adopted as law by buildings, emergency power systems, be followed to a great extent. In
a jurisdiction, which may be a city, grounding, and the like. Most of these many cases, standards should be
county or state. Most jurisdictions IEEE standards have been adopted as exceeded to get a system of the
2 adopt the NEC in its entirety; some ANSI standards. They are excellent quality required. The design goal
adopt it with variations, usually more guides, although they are not in any should be a safe, efficient, long-
rigid, to suit local conditions and way mandatory. lasting, flexible and economical
3 requirements. A few large cities, such
electrical distribution system.
as New York and Chicago, have their
own electrical codes, basically similar Professional Organizations
4 to the NEC. The designer must deter-
American National Standards Institute National Electrical Manufacturers
mine which code applies in the area
of a specific project. (ANSI) Association (NEMA)
5 The Occupational Safety and Health Headquarters: 1300 North 17th Street
Suite 1847
Act (OSHA) of 1970 sets uniform 1819 L Street, NW Rosslyn, VA 22209
national requirements for safety in the
6 workplace—anywhere that people are
6th Floor
Washington, DC 20036
703-841-3200
employed. Originally OSHA adopted 202-293-8020 www.nema.org
the 1971 NEC as rules for electrical
7 safety. As the NEC was amended every Operations: National Fire Protection Association
three years, the involved process for 25 West 43rd Street (NFPA)
modifying a federal law such as OSHA 4th Floor 1 Battery March Park
8 made it impossible for the act to adopt New York, NY 10036 Quincy, MA 02169-7471
each new code revision. To avoid this 212-642-4900 617-770-3000
9 problem, the OSHA administration
in 1981 adopted its own code, a con- www.ansi.org www.nfpa.org
densed version of the NEC containing Institute of Electrical and Electronic Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
10 only those provisions considered
related to occupational safety. OSHA
Engineers (IEEE) 333 Pfingsten Road
Northbrook, IL 60062-2096
was amended to adopt this code, Headquarters:
847-272-8800
11 based on NFPA Standard 70E, Part 1,
which is now federal law.
3 Park Avenue
17th Floor www.ul.com
The NEC is a minimum safety New York, NY 10016-5997
International Code Council (ICC)
12 standard. Efficient and adequate 212-419-7900
5203 Leesburg Pike
design usually requires not just Operations: Suite 600
meeting, but often exceeding NEC
13 requirements to provide an effective,
445 Hoes Lane Falls Church, VA 22041
1-888-422-7233
Piscataway, NJ 08854-1331
reliable, economical electrical system.
732-981-0060
www.iccsafe.org
14 Many equipment standards have been
www.ieee.org
established by the National Electrical The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
Manufacturers’ Association (NEMA) International Association of Electrical 1735 New York Avenue, NW
15 and the American National Standards Inspectors (IAEI) Washington, DC 20006-5292
Institute (ANSI). Underwriters 202-626-7300
901 Waterfall Way
Laboratories (UL) has standards that
Suite 602
16 equipment must meet before UL will
Richardson, TX 75080-7702
www.aia.org
list or label it. Most jurisdictions and
972-235-1455
OSHA require that where equipment
17 listed as safe by a recognized labora- www.iaei.org
tory is available, unlisted equipment
may not be used. UL is by far the most
18 widely accepted national laboratory,
although Factory Mutual Insurance
Company lists some equipment, and
19
20
21
Motor Protection Table 1.5-2. Motor Circuit Protector (MCP), Circuit Breaker and Fusible Switch Selection Guide
Consistent with the 2011 NEC Horsepower Full Load Fuse Size NEC 430.52 Recommended Eaton i
Amperes Maximum Circuit Motor Circuit
430.6(A)(1) circuit breaker, HMCP and (NEC) FLA Amperes Breaker Protector Type HMCP
fuse rating selections are based on
full load currents for induction motors Time Delay Non-Time Delay Amperes Amperes Adj. Range
ii
running at speeds normal for belted 230 V, Three-Phase
motors and motors with normal 1 3.6 10 15 15 7 21–70 1
torque characteristics using data taken 1-1/2 5.2 10 20 15 15 45–150
from NEC Table 430.250 (three-phase). 2 6.8 15 25 15 15 45–150
Actual motor nameplate ratings shall 3 9.6 20 30 20 30 90–300
2
be used for selecting motor running 5 15.2 30 50 30 30 90–300
overload protection. Motors built 7-1/2 22 40 70 50 50 150–500
10 28 50 90 60 50 150–500
special for low speeds, high torque 15 42 80 150 90 70 210–700 3
characteristics, special starting
20 54 100 175 100 100 300–1000
conditions and applications will 25 68 125 225 125 150 450–1500
require other considerations as 30 80 150 250 150 150 450–1500 4
defined in the application section 40 104 200 350 150 150 750–2500
of the NEC. 50 130 250 400 200 150 750–2500
These additional considerations may
60 154 300 500 225 250 1250–2500 5
75 192 350 600 300 400 2000–4000
require the use of a higher rated HMCP, 100 248 450 800 400 400 2000–4000
or at least one with higher magnetic
pickup settings.
125
150
312
360
600
700
1000
1200
500
600
600
600
1800–6000
1800–6000
6
200 480 1000 1600 700 600 1800–6000
Circuit breaker, HMCP and fuse
ampere rating selections are in
460 V, Three-Phase 7
line with maximum rules given in 1 1.8 6 6 15 7 21–70
1-1/2 2.6 6 10 15 7 21–70
NEC 430.52 and Table 430.250. Based
on known characteristics of Eaton type
2
3
3.4
4.8
6
10
15
15
15
15
7
15
21–70
45–150
8
breakers, specific units are recom- 5 7.6 15 25 15 15 45–150
mended. The current ratings are no
more than the maximum limits set by
7-1/2
10
11
14
20
25
35
45
25
35
30
30
90–300
90–300 9
the NEC rules for motors with code 15 21 40 70 45 50 150–500
letters F to V or without code letters. 20 27 50 90 50 50 150–500
Motors with lower code letters will 25 34 60 110 70 70 210–700 10
require further considerations. 30 40 70 125 70 100 300–1000
40 52 100 175 100 100 300–1000
In general, these selections were 50 65 125 200 110 150 450–1500 11
based on: 60 77 150 150 125 150 750–2500
75 96 175 300 150 150 750–2500
1. Ambient—outside enclosure not
more than 40 °C (104 °F).
100 124 225 400 175 150 750–2500
12
125 156 300 500 225 250 1250–2500
150 180 350 600 250 400 2000–4000
2. Motor starting—infrequent
starting, stopping or reversing.
200 240
575 V, Three-Phase
450 800 350 400 2000–4000
13
3. Motor accelerating time— 1 1.4 3 6 15 3 9–30
10 seconds or less. 1-1/2
2
2.1
2.7
6
6
10
10
15
15
7
7
21–70
21–70
14
4. Locked rotor—maximum 6 times 3 3.9 10 15 15 7 21–70
motor FLA. 5
7-1/2
6.1
9
15
20
20
30
15
20
15
15
45–150
45–150 15
Type HMCP motor circuit protector 10 11 20 35 25 30 90–300
may not set at more than 1300% of 15 17 30 60 40 30 90–300
the motor full-load current to comply 20 22 40 70 50 50 150–500 16
with NEC 430.52. (Except for NEMA 25 27 50 90 60 50 150–500
Design B energy high-efficiency 30 32 60 100 60 50 150–500
motors that can be set up to 1700%.) 40 41 80 125 80 100 300–1000 17
50 52 100 175 100 100 300–1000
Circuit breaker selections are based 60 62 110 200 125 150 750–2500
on types with standard interrupting 75
100
77
99
150
175
250
300
150
175
150
150
750–2500
750–2500
18
ratings. Higher interrupting rating types
may be required to satisfy specific 125 125 225 400 200 250 1250–2500
system application requirements. 150
200
144
192
300
350
450
600
225
300
250
400
1250–2500
2000–4000
19
For motor full load currents of
208 V and 200 V, increase the
corresponding 230 V motor values
20
by 10 and 15% respectively.
21
3 7-1/2 80
230 V, Single-Phase
3 100 1.00 (25.4) 1.00 (25.4) 150 250 150
2 Types are for minimum interrupting capacity breakers. Ensure that the fault duty does not exceed breaker’s I.C.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
20
21
2 300
500
833
1388
722
1203
361
601
289
481
72.2
120
41.6
69.4
24.1
40.1
14.4
24.1
13.9
23.1
13.1
21.9
12.6
20.9
7.56
12.6
5.04
8.39
750 2082 1804 902 722 180 104 60.1 36.1 34.7 32.8 31.4 18.9 12.6
1000 2776 2406 1203 962 241 139 80.2 48.1 46.3 43.7 41.8 25.2 16.8
3 1500 4164 3608 1804 1443 361 208 120 72.2 69.4 65.6 62.8 37.8 25.2
2000 — 4811 2406 1925 481 278 160 96.2 92.6 87.5 83.7 50.4 33.6
2500 — — 3007 2406 601 347 200 120 116 109 105 63.0 42.0
4 3000
3750
—
—
—
—
3609
4511
2887
3608
722
902
416
520
241
301
144
180
139
174
131
164
126
157
75.6
94.5
50.4
62.9
5000 — — — 4811 1203 694 401 241 231 219 209 126 83.9
5 7500
10,000
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1804
2406
1041
1388
601
802
361
481
347
463
328
437
314
418
189
252
126
168
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Approximate Impedance Data Table 1.5-9. 15 kV Class Primary— Table 1.5-11. 600V Primary Class Three-Phase
Table 1.5-6. Typical Impedances—
Dry-Type Substation Transformers DOE 2016 Energy-Efficient Dry-Type i
kVA %Z %R %X X/R
Distribution Transformers, Copper Wound
Three-Phase Transformers Liquid-Filled 1
kVA %Z %X %R X/R
kVA Liquid-Filled
150 °C Rise
150 °C Rise Copper
ii
300 4.50 2.87 3.47 1.21
Network Padmount
500 5.75 2.66 5.10 1.92 15 3.10 1.59 2.66 0.60
750 5.75 2.47 5.19 2.11
37.5
45
—
—
—
— 1000 5.75 2.16 5.33 2.47
30
45
2.52
3.80
0.79
2.60
2.39
2.77
0.33
0.94
1
50 — — 1500 5.75 1.87 5.44 2.90 75 2.84 1.94 2.08 0.93
2000 5.75 1.93 5.42 2.81
75
112.5
—
—
3.4
3.4 2500 5.75 1.74 5.48 3.15
112.5
150
3.63
3.02
3.11
2.64
1.88
1.46
1.66
1.81 2
150 — 3.4
80 °C Rise 225 4.34 3.98 1.73 2.31
225 — 3.4 300 3.48 3.19 1.38 2.31
300 5.00 3.4
300
500
4.50
5.75
1.93
1.44
4.06
5.57
2.10
3.87 115 °C Rise Copper
3
500 5.00 4.6
750 5.75 1.28 5.61 4.38
750 5.00 5.75 15 2.90 1.59 2.43 0.66
1000
1500
5.00
7.00
5.75
5.75
1000
1500
5.75
5.75
0.93
0.87
5.67
5.68
6.10
6.51
30
45
2.35
3.85
0.97
2.87
2.14
2.57
0.45
1.12 4
2000 5.75 0.66 5.71 8.72
2000 7.00 5.75 75 2.86 2.12 1.92 1.10
2500 5.75 0.56 5.72 10.22 112.5 4.02 3.59 1.82 1.97
2500
3000
7.00
—
5.75
5.75 150 3.34 3.05 1.37 2.23 5
3750 — 6.00
Table 1.5-10. 600 V Primary Class Three- 225 5.03 4.78 1.58 3.02
5000 — 6.50 Phase DOE 2016 Energy-Efficient Dry-Type 300 4.14 3.94 1.29 3.06
1 Values are typical. For guaranteed values,
Distribution Transformers, Aluminum Wound 80 °C Rise Copper
6
refer to transformer manufacturer. kVA %Z %X %R X/R 15 3.09 2.04 2.32 0.88
21
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
20
21
Table 1.5-16. Conversion of NEMA Enclosure Type Ratings to IEC 60529 Enclosure Classification Designations (IP)
i (Cannot be Used to Convert IEC Classification Designations to NEMA Type Ratings)
ii
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
2 2
Average Characteristics of Application Notes ■ Z X R
600 V Conductors— ■ Resistance and reactance are ■ For busway impedance data, see
i
phase-to-neutral values, based on Tab 21 of this catalog
Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m)
The tables below are average charac-
60 Hz AC, three-phase, four-wire
distribution, in ohms per 100 ft
■ For PF (power factor) values less ii
than 1.0, the effective impedance Ze
teristics based on data from IEEE (30 m) of circuit length (not total is calculated from
Standard 141-1993. Values from
different sources vary because of
conductor lengths) Ze R PF X sin (arc cos PF) 1
■ Based upon conductivity of 100% for
operating temperatures, wire ■ For copper cable data, resistance
copper, 61% for aluminum
stranding, insulation materials
and thicknesses, overall diameters, ■ Based on conductor temperatures
based on tinned copper at 60 Hz;
600 V and 5 kV nonshielded cable
2
random lay of multiple conductors of 75 °C. Reactance values will
based on varnished cambric insula-
in conduit, conductor spacing, and have negligible variation with
other divergences in materials, test temperature. Resistance of both
tion; 5 kV shielded and 15 kV cable
based on neoprene insulation
3
conditions and calculation methods. copper and aluminum conductors
will be approximately 5% lower ■ For aluminum cable data, cable is
These tables are for 600 V 5 kV and
15 kV conductors, at an average at 60 °C or 5% higher at 90 °C. cross-linked polyethylene insulated 4
temperature of 75 °C. Other parame- Data shown in tables may be
used without significant error
ters are listed in the notes. For
medium voltage cables, differences between 60 ° and 90 °C 5
among manufacturers are consider- ■ For interlocked armored cable,
use magnetic conduit data for
ably greater because of the wider vari-
ations in insulation materials and steel armor and non-magnetic
6
thicknesses, shielding, jacketing, over- conduit data for aluminum armor
all diameters, and the like. Therefore,
data for medium voltage cables should
7
be obtained from the manufacturer
of the cable to be used. 8
Table 1.5-17. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Copper Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) at 75 °C (a) Three Single Conductors
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct In Non-Magnetic Duct
9
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
10
8 0.811 0.0754 0.814 0.811 0.0860 0.816 0.811 0.0603 0.813 0.811 0.0688 0.814
8 (solid) 0.786 0.0754 0.790 0.786 0.0860 0.791 0.786 0.0603 0.788 0.786 0.0688 0.789
6 0.510 0.0685 0.515 0.510 0.0796 0.516 0.510 0.0548 0.513 0.510 0.0636 0.514 11
6 (solid) 0.496 0.0685 0.501 0.496 0.0796 0.502 0.496 0.0548 0.499 0.496 0.0636 0.500
4 0.321 0.0632 0.327 0.321 0.0742 0.329 0.321 0.0506 0.325 0.321 0.0594 0.326
4 (solid)
2
0.312
0.202
0.0632
0.0585
0.318
0.210
0.312
0.202
0.0742
0.0685
0.321
0.214
0.312
0.202
0.0506
0.0467
0.316
0.207
0.312
0.202
0.0594
0.0547
0.318
0.209
12
1 0.160 0.0570 0.170 0.160 0.0675 0.174 0.160 0.0456 0.166 0.160 0.0540 0.169
1/0
2/0
0.128
0.102
0.0540
0.0533
0.139
0.115
0.128
0.103
0.0635
0.0630
0.143
0.121
0.127
0.101
0.0432
0.0426
0.134
0.110
0.128
0.102
0.0507
0.0504
0.138
0.114
13
3/0 0.0805 0.0519 0.0958 0.0814 0.0605 0.101 0.0766 0.0415 0.0871 0.0805 0.0484 0.0939
4/0 0.0640 0.0497 0.0810 0.0650 0.0583 0.0929 0.0633 0.0398 0.0748 0.0640 0.0466 0.0792
250 0.0552 0.0495 0.0742 0.0557 0.0570 0.0797 0.0541 0.0396 0.0670 0.0547 0.0456 0.0712 14
300 0.0464 0.0493 0.0677 0.0473 0.0564 0.0736 0.0451 0.0394 0.0599 0.0460 0.0451 0.0644
350 0.0378 0.0491 0.0617 0.0386 0.0562 0.0681 0.0368 0.0393 0.0536 0.0375 0.0450 0.0586
400 0.0356 0.0490 0.0606 0.0362 0.0548 0.0657 0.0342 0.0392 0.0520 0.0348 0.0438 0.0559 15
450 0.0322 0.0480 0.0578 0.0328 0.0538 0.0630 0.0304 0.0384 0.0490 0.0312 0.0430 0.0531
500 0.0294 0.0466 0.0551 0.0300 0.0526 0.0505 0.0276 0.0373 0.0464 0.0284 0.0421 0.0508
600
750
0.0257
0.0216
0.0463
0.0495
0.0530
0.0495
0.0264
0.0223
0.0516
0.0497
0.0580
0.0545
0.0237
0.0194
0.0371
0.0356
0.0440
0.0405
0.0246
0.0203
0.0412
0.0396
0.0479
0.0445
16
Note: More tables on Page 1.5-16.
17
18
19
20
21
Table 1.5-18. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Copper Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) at 75 °C (b) Three Conductor Cable
i Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct and Steel Interlocked Armor In Non-Magnetic Duct and Aluminum Interlocked Armor
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
ii R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
8 0.811 0.0577 0.813 0.811 0.0658 0.814 0.811 0.0503 0.812 0.811 0.0574 0.813
8 (solid) 0.786 0.0577 0.788 0.786 0.0658 0.789 0.786 0.0503 0.787 0.786 0.0574 0.788
1 6
6 (solid)
0.510
0.496
0.0525
0.0525
0.513
0.499
0.510
0.496
0.0610
0.0610
0.514
0.500
0.510
0.496
0.0457
0.0457
0.512
0.498
0.510
0.496
0.0531
0.0531
0.513
0.499
4 0.321 0.0483 0.325 0.321 0.0568 0.326 0.321 0.0422 0.324 0.321 0.0495 0.325
2 4 (solid)
2
0.312
0.202
0.0483
0.0448
0.316
0.207
0.312
0.202
0.0508
0.0524
0.317
0.209
0.312
0.202
0.0422
0.0390
0.315
0.206
0.312
0.202
0.0495
0.0457
0.316
0.207
1 0.160 0.0436 0.166 0.160 0.0516 0.168 0.160 0.0380 0.164 0.160 0.0450 0.166
3 1/0
2/0
0.128
0.102
0.0414
0.0407
0.135
0.110
0.128
0.103
0.0486
0.0482
0.137
0.114
0.127
0.101
0.0360
0.0355
0.132
0.107
0.128
0.102
0.0423
0.0420
0.135
0.110
3/0 0.0805 0.0397 0.0898 0.0814 0.0463 0.0936 0.0766 0.0346 0.0841 0.0805 0.0403 0.090
4/0 0.0640 0.0381 0.0745 0.0650 0.0446 0.0788 0.0633 0.0332 0.0715 0.0640 0.0389 0.0749
4 250 0.0552 0.0379 0.0670 0.0557 0.0436 0.0707 0.0541 0.0330 0.0634 0.0547 0.0380 0.0666
300 0.0464 0.0377 0.0598 0.0473 0.0431 0.0640 0.0451 0.0329 0.0559 0.0460 0.0376 0.0596
350 0.0378 0.0373 0.0539 0.0386 0.0427 0.0576 0.0368 0.0328 0.0492 0.0375 0.0375 0.0530
5 400 0.0356 0.0371 0.0514 0.0362 0.0415 0.0551 0.0342 0.0327 0.0475 0.0348 0.0366 0.0505
450 0.0322 0.0361 0.0484 0.0328 0.0404 0.0520 0.0304 0.0320 0.0441 0.0312 0.0359 0.0476
500 0.0294 0.0349 0.0456 0.0300 0.0394 0.0495 0.0276 0.0311 0.0416 0.0284 0.0351 0.0453
6 600
750
0.0257
0.0216
0.0343
0.0326
0.0429
0.0391
0.0264
0.0223
0.0382
0.0364
0.0464
0.0427
0.0237
0.0197
0.0309
0.0297
0.0389
0.0355
0.0246
0.0203
0.0344
0.0332
0.0422
0.0389
Table 1.5-19. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Aluminum Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 Ft (305 m) at 90 °C (a) Three Single Conductors
7 Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct In Non-Magnetic Duct
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
8 R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
11 250
300
0.0896
0.0750
0.0384
0.0375
0.0975
0.0839
0.0892
0.0746
0.0495
0.0479
0.102
0.0887
0.0894
0.0746
0.0307
0.0300
0.0945
0.0804
0.0891
0.0744
0.0396
0.0383
0.0975
0.0837
350 0.0644 0.0369 0.0742 0.0640 0.0468 0.0793 0.0640 0.0245 0.0705 0.0638 0.0374 0.0740
400 0.0568 0.0364 0.0675 0.0563 0.0459 0.0726 0.0563 0.0291 0.0634 0.0560 0.0367 0.0700
12 500 0.0459 0.0355 0.0580 0.0453 0.0444 0.0634 0.0453 0.0284 0.0535 0.0450 0.0355 0.0573
600 0.0388 0.0359 0.0529 0.0381 0.0431 0.0575 0.0381 0.0287 0.0477 0.0377 0.0345 0.0511
700 0.0338 0.0350 0.0487 0.0332 0.0423 0.0538 0.0330 0.0280 0.0433 0.0326 0.0338 0.0470
13 750 0.0318 0.0341 0.0466 0.0310 0.0419 0.0521 0.0309 0.0273 0.0412 0.0304 0.0335 0.0452
1000 0.0252 0.0341 0.0424 0.0243 0.0414 0.0480 0.0239 0.0273 0.0363 0.0234 0.0331 0.0405
14 Table 1.5-20. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Aluminum Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (30 m) at 90 °C (b) Three Conductor Cable
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct and Steel Interlocked Armor In Non-Magnetic Duct and Aluminum Interlocked Armor
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
15 kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
21
Current Carrying Capacities of Copper and Aluminum and Copper-Clad Aluminum Conductors
From National Electrical Code (NEC), 2011 Edition (NFPA 70-2011)
i
Table 1.5-21. Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 0–2000 V, 60 ° to 90 °C (140° to 194 °F).
Not more than three current-carrying conductors in raceway, cable or earth (directly buried), based on ambient temperature of 30 °C (86 °F). ii
Size Temperature Rating of Conductor (See Table 310.15 [B][16]) Size
AWG or
kcmil
60 °C (140 °F)
Types
75 °C (167 °F) 90 °C (194 °F) 60 °C (140 °F)
Types
75 °C (167 °F) 90 °C (194 °F) AWG or
kcmil 1
TW, UF RHW, THHW, TBS, SA, SIS, FEP, TW, UF RHW, THHW, TBS, SA, SIS,
THW, THWN,
XHHW, USE, ZW
FEPB, MI,
RHH, RHW-2,
THW, THWN,
XHHW, USE
THHN, THHW,
THW-2, THWN-2,
2
THHN, THHW, RHH, RHW-2,
THW-2, THWN-2, USE-2, XHH,
USE-2, XHH, XHHW, XHHW-2, 3
XHHW, XHHW-2, ZW-2
ZW-2
Copper Aluminum or Copper-Clad Aluminum 4
18 — — 14 — — — —
16 — — 18 — — — —
14 1 15 20 25 — — — — 5
12 1 20 25 30 20 20 25 12 1
10 1 30 35 40 25 30 35 10 1
8 40 50 55 30 40 45 8 6
6 55 65 75 40 50 60 6
4 70 85 95 55 65 75 4
3 85 100 110 65 75 85 3 7
2 95 115 130 75 90 100 2
1 110 130 150 85 100 115 1
1/0 125 150 170 100 120 135 1/0 8
2/0 145 175 195 115 135 150 2/0
3/0 165 200 225 130 155 175 3/0
4/0 195 230 260 150 180 205 4/0 9
250 215 255 290 170 205 230 250
300 240 285 320 190 230 255 300
350 260 310 350 210 250 280 350
10
400 280 335 380 225 270 305 400
500 320 380 430 260 310 350 500
600
700
355
385
420
460
475
520
285
310
340
375
385
420
600
700
11
750 400 475 535 320 385 435 750
800 410 490 555 330 395 450 800
900 435 520 585 355 425 480 900
12
1000 455 545 615 375 445 500 1000
1250 495 590 665 405 485 545 1250
1500 520 625 705 435 520 585 1500 13
1750 545 650 735 455 545 615 1750
2000 560 665 750 470 560 630 2000
1 See NEC Section 240.4 (D). 14
Note: For complete details of using Table 1.5-21, see NEC Article 310 in its entirety.
Table 1.5-22. Correction Factors From NFPA 70-2011 (See Table 310.15 [B][2][a]) 15
Ambient For ambient temperatures other than 30 °C (86 °F), multiply the allowable ampacities shown Ambient
Temperature °C above by the appropriate factor shown below. Temperature °F
16
21–25 1.08 1.05 1.04 1.08 1.05 1.04 070–77
26–30 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 078–86
31–35 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.91 0.94 0.96 087–95 17
36–40 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.82 0.88 0.91 096–104
41–45 0.71 0.82 0.87 0.71 0.82 0.87 105–113
46–50 0.58 0.75 0.82 0.58 0.75 0.82 114–122
18
51–55 0.41 0.67 0.76 0.41 0.67 0.76 123–131
56–60 — 0.58 0.71 — 0.58 0.71 132–140
61–70
71–80
—
—
0.33
—
0.58
0.41
—
—
0.33
—
0.58
0.41
141–158
159–176
19
20
21
i Ampacities for Conductors (4) Preservation of the safety benefits (4) Adjustment factors shall not
of established industry practices apply to Type AC cable or to
Rated 0–2000 V (Excerpted and standardized procedures. Type MC cable under the following
ii from NFPA 70-2011, 310.15) (1) General. For explanation of type let-
conditions:
Note: Fine Print Note (FPN) was changed ters used in tables and for a. The cables do not have an overall
to Informational Note in the 2011 NEC. recognized sizes of conductors for outer jacket.
1 (A) General.
the various conductor insulations,
b. Each cable has not more than three
see Table 310.104(A) and Table
310.104(B). For installation current-carrying conductors.
(1) Tables or Engineering Supervision.
2 Ampacities for conductors shall requirements, see 310.1 through c. The conductors are 12 AWG copper.
be permitted to be determined by 310.15(A)(3) and the various
tables as provided in 310.15(B) or articles of this Code. For flexible d. Not more than 20 current-carrying
3 under engineering supervision, cords, see Table 400.4, Table conductors are installed without
as provided in 310.15(C). 400.5(A)(1) and Table 400.5(A)(2). maintaining spacing, are stacked,
or are supported on”bridle rings.”
(3) Adjustment Factors.
4 Note: Informational Note No. 1: Ampacities
provided by this section do not take voltage (5) An adjustment factor of 60 percent
drop into consideration. See 210.19(A), (a) More Than Three Current- shall be applied to Type AC cable or
Informational Note No. 4, for branch circuits Carrying Conductors in a Raceway Type MC cable under the following
5 and 215.2(A), Informational No. 2, for feeders. or Cable. Where the number of conditions:
Note: Informational Note No. 2: For the current-carrying conductors in a
allowable ampacities of Type MTW wire, raceway or cable exceeds three, or a. The cables do not have an overall
6 see Table 13.5.1 in NFPA 79-2007, Electrical where single conductors or multi- outer jacket.
Standard for Industrial Machinery. conductor cables are installed
b. The number of current carrying
without maintaining spacing for
7 (2) Selection of Ampacity. Where a continuous length longer than
conductors exceeds 20.
more than one ampacity applies 24.00-inch (600 mm) and are not c. The cables are stacked or bundled
for a given circuit length, the installed in raceways, the allowable longer that 24.00-inch (600 mm)
8 lowest value shall be used. ampacity of each conductor shall be without spacing being maintained.
Exception: Where two different reduced as shown in Table
ampacities apply to adjacent 310.15(B)(3)(a). Each current-carry- (b) More Than One Conduit, Tube,
9 portions of a circuit, the higher ing conductor of a paralleled set of or Raceway. Spacing between
ampacity shall be permitted to conductors shall be counted as a conduits, tubing, or raceways
be used beyond the point of current-carrying conductor. shall be maintained.
10 transition, a distance equal to 10 ft
(c) Circular Raceways Exposed to
(3.0 m) or 10 percent of the circuit Note: Informational Note No. 1: See Annex
length figured at the higher B, Table B.310.15(B)(2)(11), for adjustment Sunlight on Rooftops.
11 ampacity, whichever is less.
factors for more than three current-carrying
conductors in a raceway or cable with Where conductors or cables are
Note: Informational Note: See 110.14(C) for load diversity. installed in circular raceways exposed
to direct sunlight on or above rooftops,
12 conductor temperature limitations due to
termination provisions. Note: Informational Note No. 2: See 366.23(A) the adjustments shown in Table 1.5-23
for adjustment factors for conductors in shall be added to the outdoor
(B) Tables. Ampacities for conductors sheet metal auxiliary gutters and 376.22(B) temperature to determine the
13 rated 0–2000 V shall be as specified for adjustment factors for conductors in
applicable ambient temperature
metal wireways.
in the Allowable Ampacity for application of the correction
Table 310.15(B)(16) through factors in Table 310.15(B)(2)(a) or
14 Table 310.15(B)(19), and
(1) Where conductors are installed in
Table 310.15(B)(2)(b).
cable trays, the provisions of
Ampacity Table 310.15(B)(20) and 392.80 shall apply. Note: Informational Note: One source for
Table 310.15(B)(21) as modified
15 by 310.15(B)(1) through (B)(7). (2) Adjustment factors shall not apply
the average ambient temperatures in various
locations is the ASHRAE Handbook
to conductors in raceways having —Fundamentals.
Note: Informational Note: Table
a length not exceeding 24.00-inch
16 310.15(B)(16) through Table 310.15(B)(19)
(600 mm). Table 1.5-23. NEC (2011) Table 310.15(B)(3)(c)
are application tables for use in determining
conductor sizes on loads calculated in Ambient Temperature Adjustment for Circular
(3) Adjustment factors shall not apply Raceways Exposed to Sunlight On or
17 accordance with Article 220. Allowable
ampacities result from consideration of one to underground conductors enter- Above Rooftops
or more of the following: ing or leaving an outdoor trench
Distance Above Roof to Temperature
if those conductors have physical
18 (1) Temperature compatibility with protection in the form of rigid
Bottom of Conduit Adder ºF (ºC)
connected equipment, especially metal conduit, intermediate metal 0–0.51-inch (0–13.0 mm) 60 (33)
the connection points. conduit, rigid polyvinyl chloride
19 conduit (PVC), or reinforced
Above 0.51-inch (13.0 mm)–
3.54-inch (90.0 mm)
40 (22)
(2) Coordination with circuit and thermosetting resin conduit (RTRC) Above 3.54-inch (90.0 mm)– 30 (17)
system overcurrent protection. having a length not exceeding 11.81-inch (300.0 mm)
20 (3) Compliance with the requirements 10 ft (3.05 m), and if the number of Above 12.00-inch (300.0 mm)– 25 (14)
of product listings or certifications. conductors does not exceed four. 36.00-inch (900.0 mm)
21 See 110.3(B).
(4) Bare or Covered Conductors. (b) In a three-wire circuit consisting (6) Grounding or Bonding Conductor.
Where bare or covered conductors of two phase conductors and the A grounding or bonding conductor i
are installed with insulated neutral conductor of a four-wire, shall not be counted when applying
conductors, the temperature three-phase, wye-connected the provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
rating of the bare or covered system, a common conductor ii
conductor shall be equal to the carries approximately the same
lowest temperature rating of the current as the line-to-neutral load
insulated conductors for the currents of the other conductors 1
purpose of determining ampacity. and shall be counted when applying
the provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
(5) Neutral Conductor. 2
(c) On a four-wire, three-phase wye
(a) A neutral conductor that carries circuit where the major portion of
only the unbalanced current from
other conductors of the same
the load consists of nonlinear loads, 3
harmonic currents are present in
circuit shall not be required to the neutral conductor; the neutral
be counted when applying the
provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
conductor shall therefore be con- 4
sidered a current-carrying conductor.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
20
21
Seismic Requirements i
ii
1
General
In the 1980s, Eaton embarked on a 2
comprehensive program centered
around designing and building
electrical distribution and control 3
equipment capable of meeting and
exceeding the seismic load require-
ments of the Uniform Building Code 4
(UBC) and California Building Code
(CBC). These codes emphasize build-
ing design requirements. Electrical 5
equipment and distribution system
components are considered attach-
ments to the building. The entire 6
program has been updated to show
compliance with the 2009 International
Building Code (IBC) and the 2010 CBC 7
seismic requirements. A cooperative Figure 1.5-1. Typical Earthquake Ground Motion Map for the United States
effort with the equipment user, the
building designer and the equipment International Building Code (IBC) California Building Code 8
installer ensures that the equipment On December 9, 1994, the International The 2001 CBC was based upon the
is correctly anchored such that it can Code Council (ICC) was established 1997 UBC. In August of 2006, it was
withstand the effects of an earthquake. as a nonprofit organization dedicated repealed by the California Building 9
Eaton’s electrical distribution and to developing a single set of compre- Standards Commission (CBSC) and
control equipment has been tested hensive and coordinated codes. The replaced by the 2007 CBC, California
and seismically proven for require- ICC founders—the Building Officials Code of Regulations (CCR), Title 24, 10
ments exceeding the IBC and CBC. and Code Administrators (BOCA), the Part 2 and used the 2006 IBC as the
Over 100 different assemblies International Conference of Building basis for the code. The 2010 CBC
representing essentially all product Officials (ICBO), and the Southern is based upon the 2009 IBC, with 11
lines have been successfully tested Building Code Congress International amendments as deemed appropriate
and verified to seismic levels higher (SBCCI)—created the ICC in response by the CBSC. Eaton’s seismic
than the maximum seismic require- to technical disparities among the qualification program fully envelopes 12
ments specified in the IBC and CBC. three nationally recognized model the requirements of the 2010 CBC.
The equipment maintained structural codes now in use in the U.S. The
integrity and demonstrated the ability ICC offers a single, complete set of Process 13
to function immediately after the construction codes without regional
seismic tests. A technical paper, According to Chapter 16 of the 2009
limitations—the International
Earthquake Requirements and Eaton Building Code.
IBC, structure design, the seismic 14
Distribution and Control Equipment requirements of electrical equipment
in buildings may be computed in two
Seismic Capabilities (SA12501SE), Uniform Building Code (UBC)
provides a detailed explanation steps. The first step is to determine 15
of the applicable seismic codes 1997 was the final year in which the the maximum ground motion to be
and Eaton’s equipment qualification UBC was published. It has since been considered at the site. The second step
program. The paper may be found replaced by the IBC. is to evaluate the equipment mounting 16
at www.eaton.com/seismic. Type and attachments inside the building
in SA12501SE in the document or structure. These are then evaluated
search field. to determine appropriate seismic test 17
requirements. The ground motion,
seismic requirements of the equipment,
and the seismic response spectrum 18
requirements are discussed on
Page 1.5-23, see Figure 1.5-3.
19
20
21
Ground Motion If the latitude and longitude of the SDS, the peak spectral acceleration,
i According to the code, the first and
building location is not known, extends between the values of T0 and
another convenient Web site is TS. T0 and TS are defined in the codes
most important step in the process available that will provide this as follows:
ii is to determine the maximum
considered earthquake spectral
information based upon a street
T0 = 0.2 SD1/SDS = 0.2 x 1.24/1.90 =
address: http://geocoder.us/
response acceleration at short 0.131 seconds (7.63 Hz)
1 periods of 0.2 seconds (SS) and at
a period of 1.0 second (S1). These
To determine the maximum considered
TS = SD1/SDS = 1.24/1.90 =
earthquake ground motion for most
values are determined from a set 0.653 seconds (1.53 Hz)
site classes (A through D), the code
2 of 24 spectral acceleration maps introduces site coefficients, which According to the IBC and ASCE 7, the
(Figure 1.5-1) and include numerous when applied against the location- spectral acceleration (Sa) at periods
contour lines indicating the severity specific site class, produces the less than 1.45 seconds may be com-
3 of the earthquake requirements at a adjusted maximum considered puted by using the following formula:
particular location in the country. earthquake spectral response
acceleration for the required site. Sa = SDS (0.6 T/T0 + 0.4)
The spectral acceleration maps
4 indicate low to moderate seismic
The site coefficients are defined as Where T is the period where Sa is
Fa at 0.2 seconds short period and being calculated:
requirements for the entire country, FV at 1.0 second period. From the
with the exception of two particular
5 areas; the West Coast and the Midwest
tables in the code, the highest adjust- Therefore, the acceleration at
ing factor for SS is equal to 1.0 and the 0.0417 seconds (24 Hz), for example,
(the New Madrid area). The seismic highest adjusting factor for S1 is 1.50. is equal to:
requirements at the New Madrid area
6 are approximately 30% higher than the As a result, the adjusted maximum Sa = 1.90 (0.6 (0.0417/0.131) + 0.4) = 1.12 g
maximum requirements of the West considered earthquake spectral
Coast. The maps also suggest that the The acceleration at 0.03 seconds
7 high seismic requirements in both
response for 0.2 second short period
(SMS) and at 1.0 second (SM1), adjusted (33 Hz) is equal to:
regions, West Coast and Midwest, for site class effects, are determined Sa = 1.90 (0.6 (0.03/0.131) + 0.4) = 1.02 g
quickly decrease as one moves away
8 from the fault area. Therefore, the high
from the following equations:
At zero period (infinite frequency),
requirements are only limited to a SMS = Fa SS = 1.0 x 2.85 g = 2.85 g T = 0.0, the acceleration (ZPA) is
equal to:
9 relatively narrow strip along the fault
lines. Just a few miles away from this
SM1 = Fv S1 = 1.5 x 1.24 g = 1.86 g
Sa = 1.90 (0.6 (0.0/0.131) + 0.4) =
strip, only a small percentage of the ASCE 7 (American Society of Civil
0.76 g (ZPA)
Engineers), Section 11.4, provides a
10 maximum requirements are indicated.
plot of the final shape of the design The acceleration to frequency
Assuming the worse condition, which response spectra of the seismic relationship in the frequency range
is a site directly located near a fault,
11 the maximum considered earthquake
ground motion. The plot is shown in
Figure 1.5-2. ASCE 7 is referenced
of 1.0 Hz to TS is stated equal to:
spectral response acceleration at short throughout the IBC as the source for Sa = SD1/T
periods of 0.2 seconds (SS) is equal to
12 285% gravity and at 1.0 second period
numerous structural design criteria. Where Sa is the acceleration at the
(S1) is 124% gravity. These numbers The design spectral acceleration curve T period.
are the maximum numbers for the can now be computed. The peak spec-
13 entire country except for the New tral acceleration (SDS) and the spectral
At 1.0 Hz (T=1.0) this equation yields
the following acceleration:
Madrid area. These particular sites are acceleration at 1.0 second (SD1) may
on the border of California and Mexico now be computed from the following Sa = 1.24/1 = 1.24 g
14 (S1) and in Northern California (SS). formulas in the code:
To help understand the 2009 IBC (and SDS = 2/3 x SMS = 2/3 x 2.85 g = 1.90 g
15 2010 CBC) seismic parameters for a
SD1 = 2/3 x SM1 = 2/3 x 1.8 g = 1.24 g
specific building location, the link to
the US Geological Society is extremely
16 helpful: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/
Spectural Response Acceleration Sa(g)
research/hazmaps/design/
SDS
17 Download the file “Java Ground
Motion Parameter Calculator”—and SD1
Sa =
T
save it to your hard drive, then run the
18 executable that was downloaded.
The program will allow one to enter SD1 SD1 TL
Sa =
the latitude and longitude of a T2
19 location. (One must be connected
to the Internet to run this application,
even after downloading the program.)
20 The IBC (CBC) seismic parameters for
T0 TS 1.0 TL
that location will then be displayed. Period T (sec)
21
Figure 1.5-2. Design Response Spectrum
Testing has demonstrated that the It can be seen that Eaton has elected to This completes the ground motion
lowest dominant natural frequency of develop generic seismic requirements design response spectrum. The i
Eaton’s electrical equipment is above that envelop two criteria: spectral accelerations are equal to
3.2 Hz. This indicates that testing at 0.76 g at ZPA, or 33 Hz, and increases
1.24g at 1 Hz is not necessary. In ■ The highest possible spectral peak linearly to a peak acceleration of 1.90 g ii
addition, having the low end of the accelerations and ZPA at 0.09 seconds (or 11.49 Hz) and stays
spectra higher than realistically ■ The maximum frequency range constant to 0.653 seconds (1.53 Hz),
required forces the shake table to required for many different sites then gradually decreases to 1.24 g at 1
move at extremely high displacements 1 second (or 1.0 Hz). This curve is
to meet the spectral acceleration at shown in Figure 1.5-3.
the low frequencies. 2
Testing to accommodate the low end
of the spectra using this acceleration
10
9 3
component can result in testing to a 8
7 Test Response Spectrum Zero Period
Acceleration (g peak)
factor 2 to 3 times greater than that 6 (TRS) Acceleration = Maximum
realistically required. 5
4
Table Test Motion 4
Through testing experience and data 3
analysis, the seismic acceleration at
1.0 Hz is taken equal to 0.7 g, which 2 Spectrum Dip – Not Important
5
will ensure that the seismic levels are Because Frequency is Not an
Equipment Natural Frequency
achieved well below 3.2 Hz. This yields
a more vigorous test over a wider 1.0
6
.9
range of seismic intensities. .8
7
.7
Required Response Spectrum Zero Period
In developing the seismic requirements .6
(RRS)
.5 Acceleration = Maximum
above, it is important to recognize Floor Motion
.4
the following:
.3 8
T0 and TS are dependent on SMS and
SD1. If SD1 is small relative to SMS then .2
Acceleration (g)
The seismic response at the middle of
2 base mounted equipment close to its 1
C.G. is at least 50% higher than the
Eaton Seismic
floor input at the equipment natural
3 frequency. The base accelerations
associated with the accelerations of
FP/WP at the C.G. of the equipment
4 could then be computed as 3.42 /1.5
= 2.28 g. It is the equipment base input
acceleration that is measured and
5 documented during seismic testing
0.1
1 10 100
and is the acceleration value shown
on Eaton’s seismic certificates. Frequency (Hz)
6
Final Combined Requirements Figure 1.5-4. Required Response Spectrum Curve
7 To better compare all seismic levels
and determine the final envelope
10
seismic requirements, the 2010 CBC,
8 2009 IBC for California, and 2009 IBC
for New Madrid area seismic require-
ments are plotted in Figure 1.5-4. All Eaton 120% Seismic Envelope
9 curves are plotted at 5% damping. An
envelopment of the seismic levels in
the frequency range of 3.2 Hz to 100 Hz
10 is also shown. This level is taken as
Acceleration (g)
16
17
18
19
20
21
16
17
18
19
20
21
Additional Design and If steel, factors such as thickness or Stand-Alone or Free-Standing Equipment
i Installation Considerations gauge, attachment via bolts or welding, If stand-alone or free-standing, then
and the size and type of hardware this may require that additional width
When installing electrical distribution must be considered. space be allowed at each end of the
ii and control equipment, consideration equipment for additional seismic
must be given as to how the methods If concrete, the depth, the PSI, the type
of re-enforcing bars used, as well as bracing supplied by the manufacturer.
employed will affect seismic forces
1 imposed on the equipment, equipment the diameter and embedment of Additional thought must be given to
mounting surface, and conduits anchorage all must be considered. the clearances around the equipment
entering the equipment. The designer must also give consider- to rigid structural edifices. Space must
2 ation if the equipment will be secured be allowed for the differing motions of
Eaton recommends that when specify- the equipment and the structure, so
ing a brand of electrical distribution to the wall, versus stand-alone or free-
standing, which requires the equip- that they do not collide during a seis-
3 and control equipment, the designer
ment to withstand the highest level of mic event and damage one another.
references the installation manuals of
that manufacturer to ascertain that the seismic forces. Top cable entry should Note: If the equipment is installed as stand-
be avoided for large enclosures, as
4 requirements can be met through the
accommodation for cable/conduit
alone or free-standing, with additional
seismic bracing at each end and not
design and construction process.
flexibility will need to be designed attached to the structure as tested, and yet,
For Eaton electrical distribution and into the system. it is fitted tightly against a structural wall,
5 control products, the seismic installa- then this would be an incorrect installation
tion guides for essentially all product For a manufacturer to simply state for the application of the seismic certificate.
lines can be found at our Web site: “Seismic Certified” or “Seismic
6 http://www.eaton.com/seismic. Qualified” does not tell the designer Furthermore, if conduits are to be
if the equipment is appropriate for installed overhead into the equipment,
Electrical designers must work closely the intended installation. does the design call for flexible conduits
7 with the structural or civil engineers of sufficient length to allow for the
for a seismic qualified installation. Note: Eaton recommends that designers conflicting motion of the equipment
confirm with the manufacturer if the and the structure during a seismic event
8 Consideration must be given to the seismic certification supplied with the
equipment is based on:
so as to not damage the conductors
type of material providing anchorage contained therein, and the terminations
for the electrical equipment. points within the equipment.
1. ACTUAL shaker table test as
9 required by the IBC and CBC. Structure Attached Equipment
2. The seismic certificate and test The designer must work closely
10 data clearly state if the equipment with the structural engineer if the
was tested as free-standing— equipment is to be attached to the
anchored at the bottom of the structure to ascertain that the internal
11 equipment to the shaker table. wall re-enforcement of the structure,
type of anchor, and depth of embed-
3. Structure attached, that is, ment is sufficient to secure the
12 anchored at the center of gravity equipment so that the equipment,
(C.G.) or at the TOP of the equip- conduits and structure move at or
ment to a simulated wall on the near the same frequency.
13 shaker table.
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21