Intonation (linguistics)

In linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch while speaking which is not used to distinguish words. It
contrasts with tone, in which pitch variation does distinguish words. Intonation, rhythm, and stress are
the three main elements of linguistic prosody. Intonation patterns in some languages, such
as Swedish and Swiss German, can lead to conspicuous fluctuations in pitch, giving speech a sing-song
quality.[1] Fluctuations in pitch either involve a rising pitch or a falling pitch. Intonation is found in
every language and even in tonal languages, but the realization and function are seemingly different. It is
used in non-tonal languages to add attitudes to words (attitudinal function) and to differentiate
between wh-questions, yes-no questions, declarative statements, commands, requests, etc. Intonation can
also be used for discourse analysis where new information is realized by means of intonation. It can also
be used for emphatic/contrastive purposes.
All languages use pitch pragmatically as intonation — for instance for emphasis, to convey surprise
or irony, or to pose a question. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa use pitch for distinguishing
words in addition to providing intonation.
Generally speaking, the following intonations are distinguished:
 Rising Intonation means the pitch of the voice rises over time [↗];
 Falling Intonation means that the pitch falls with time [↘];
 Dipping Intonation falls and then rises [↘↗];

Rising intonation is most commonly found when a question is being asked. The intonation at the end
allows someone to differentiate between a question and a statement.

Unfortunately, however, the rising intonation has become inherited by the Americans, and is
incorporated in most sentences spoken. It is most commonly found on American television, and is why it
has started to be misused.

Falling intonation literally means the feature of some accents of English where statements have a
falling intonation patterns or low fundamental frequency or a low tone in the final syllable of the
utterance.

Non-Final Intonation
with "non-final- intonation" the pitch rises and falls within the sentences or word. This type of
intonationis used in various situations. For example:

Unfinished Thoughts: It is often used to indicate that you have not ended a tought. To indicate that you
have something more to say, raise your pitch at the end of the phrase. Ex:
"When i saw him..." or "if i study hard..."

I bought the magazine,(raising intonation) but i didn't read it.(fall intonation)

If I study hard, (raising Intonation) I'll pass the year(falling intonation)
 USES OF INTONATION

The uses of intonation can be divided into six categories:

 informational: for example, in English I saw a ↘man in the garden answers "Whom did you
see?" or "What happened?", while I↘saw a man in the garden answers "Did you hear a man in
the garden?"

 grammatical: for example, in English a rising pitch turns a statement into a yes-no question, as
in He's going ↗home? This use of intonation to express grammatical mood is its primary
grammatical use(though whether this grammatical function actually exists is controversial).

 illocution: the intentional force is signaled in, for example, English Why ↘don't you move to
California? (a question)versus Why don't you ↗move to California? (a suggestion).

 attitudinal: high declining pitch signals more excitement than does low declining pitch, as in
English Good ↗morn↘ing versus Good morn↘ing.

 textual: linguistic organization beyond the sentence is signaled by the absence of a statement-
ending decline in pitch, as in English The lecture was canceled [high pitch on both syllables of
"cancelled", indicating continuation]; the speaker was ill. versus The lecture was
can↘celed. [high pitch on first syllable of "canceled", but declining pitch on the second syllable,
indicating the end of the first thought] The speaker was ill.

 indexical: group membership can be indicated by the use of intonation patterns adopted
specifically by that group, such as street vendors, preachers, and possibly women in some cases
(see high rising terminal.)
 Prosodic stress

Prosodic stress, or sentence stress, refers to stress patterns that apply at a higher level than the
individual word – namely within a prosodic unit. It may involve a certain natural stress pattern
characteristic of a given language, but may also involve the placing of emphasis on particular words
because of their relative importance (contrastive stress).

An example of a natural prosodic stress pattern is that described for French above; stress is placed on the
final syllable of a string of words (or if that is a schwa, the next-to-final syllable). A similar pattern has
been claimed for English (see Levels of stress above): the traditional distinction between (lexical)
primary and secondary stress is replaced partly by a prosodic rule stating that the final stressed syllable
in a phrase is given additional stress. (A word spoken alone becomes such a phrase, hence such prosodic
stress may appear to be lexical if the pronunciation of words is analyzed in a standalone context rather
than within phrases.)

Another type of prosodic stress pattern is quantity sensitivity – in some languages additional stress tends
to be placed on syllables that are longer (moraically heavy).

Prosodic stress is also often used pragmatically to emphasize (focus attention on) particular words or the
ideas associated with them. Doing this can change or clarify the meaning of a sentence; for example:

I didn't take the test yesterday. (Somebody else did.)

I didn't take the test yesterday. (I did not take it.)
I didn't take the test yesterday. (I did something else with it.)
I didn't take the test yesterday. (I took a different one. / I took the test you are thinking of, but there was
more than one.)
I didn't take the test yesterday. (I took something else.)
I didn't take the test yesterday. (I took it some other day.)

As in the examples above, stress is normally transcribed as italics in printed text or underlining in
handwriting.

In English, stress is most dramatically realized on focused or accented words. For instance, consider the
dialogue
"Is it brunch tomorrow?"
"No, it's dinner tomorrow."
In it, the stress-related acoustic differences between the syllables of "tomorrow" would be small
compared to the differences between the syllables of "dinner", the emphasized word. In these
emphasized words, stressed syllables such as "din" in "dinner" are louder and longer. They may
also have a different fundamental frequency, or other properties.
The main stress within a sentence, often found on the last stressed word, is called the nuclear
stress.
 Why word stress is important
Mistakes in word stress are a common cause of misunderstanding in English. Here are the reasons why:

 What is stress?
 Stressing the wrong syllable in a word can make the word very difficult to hear and understand; for
example, try saying the following words:

oO Oo
b'tell hottle

And now in a sentence:

"I carried the b'tell to the hottle."

Now reverse the stress patterns for the two words and you should be able to make sense of the sentence!
"I carried the bottle to the hotel."

 Stressing a word differently can change the meaning or type of the word:
"They will desert* the desert** by tomorrow."

oO Oo
desert* desert**

Think about the grammatical difference between desert* and desert**.
I will look at this in more detail later.

 Even if the speaker can be understood, mistakes with word stress can make the listener feel irritated, or
perhaps even amused, and could prevent good communication from taking place.

These three reasons tell me that word stress is an important part of the English language, and it is
something I should help my students with.

What word stress is

When we stress syllables in words, we use a combination of different features. Experiment now with the
word 'computer'. Say it out loud. Listen to yourself. The second syllable of the three is stressed. What
are you doing so that the listener can hear that stress?

 A stressed syllable combines five features:

o It is l-o-n-g-e-r - com p-u-ter
o It is LOUDER - comPUTer
o It has a change in pitch from the syllables coming before and afterwards. The pitch of a stressed
syllable is usually higher.
o It is said more clearly -The vowel sound is purer. Compare the first and last vowel sounds with the
stressed sound.
o It uses larger facial movements - Look in the mirror when you say the word. Look at your jaw and lips
in particular.

It is equally important to remember that the unstressed syllables of a word have the opposite features of
a stressed syllable!
Some 'rules' of word stress.

Word Type of word Tendency Exceptions

apple stress on the first syllable

hotel
table two-syllable nouns and adjectives Oo
lagoon
happy apple

the noun has stress on the first syllable

Oo
suspect
words which can be used as both "You are the suspect!" respect
import
nouns and verbs the verb has stress on the second syllable witness
insult
oO
"I suspect you."
fairly equally balanced but with stronger stress
hairbrush on the first part
compound nouns
football Oo
hairbrush

How I help my students

Students can be alarmed when they meet words which are similar but have different stress patterns:

O o o O oo O o o oooOo

equal equality equalise equalisation

A useful thing you can do is to help students see connections with other word families. Patterns can
usually be found, for example:

O o final o O oo finality O o o finalise o o o O o finalisation

neutral neutrality neutralise neutralisation

There are some recognised differences in word stress which depend on the variety of English being
used, for example:

o o O o Caribbean aluminium (British English) o O o o Caribbean aluminum (American English)

These differences are noted in good learner dictionaries. If words like these come up in class, point them
out to students. Ask if there are similar cases of differences in word stress in their own language - this
will heighten awareness and interest.