General Science Preview

General Science
for
Civil Services Examinations
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for
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CONTENTS
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
List of Videos xix
Chapter-wise Break up of Previous Year’s Questions (Prelims) xx
UNIT – I PHYSICS
1 MOTION 1
1 Distance and Displacement 3
Distance 3
Displacement 3
2 Uniform and Non-uniform Motion 4
3 Rate of Motion (Speed) 4
4 Speed with Direction (Velocity) 5
Change of Velocity 5
Velocity of an Object Moving in Circular Path 5
Final and Initial Velocity 5
Rate of Change in Velocity (Acceleration) 6
Acceleration of a Body Moving in a Circular Direction 6
Practice Questions 7
2 FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION 8

1 Galileo’s Inclined Plane Experiment 8
2 Laws of Motion 10
First Law of Motion 10
Second Law of Motion 11
Third Law of Motion 13
Perfecting Past Prelims 15
iv Contents
3 GRAVITATION 16
1 Gravitation 16
Gravitational Constant 17
2 Why Moon Revolves Around the Earth? 17
Why Moon Does Not Hit the Earth Due to Gravitational Pull? 17
3 Acceleration Due to Gravity 18
Calculation of Acceleration Due to Gravity 18
Acceleration Due to Gravity on the Earth, g 19
4 Motion of Objects Under Free Fall 19
5 Mass and Weight 19
Mass and Weight of Object on Moon 20
6 Thrust and Pressure 20
7 Buoyant Force 21
What Is the Amount of Buoyant Force Experienced by a Body? 21
What Is the Force That Pulls the Object Down in a Fluid? 22
What Keeps a Body Afloat? 22
If a Bottle Filled with Water Sinks, How Can a Large Ship Stay Afloat? 22
8 Archimedes Principle 23
4 WORK AND ENERGY 26

1 Work 26
Scientific Conception of Work 26
Work by a Force or Work Done 26
2 Energy 27
Forms of Energy 27
Law of Conservation of Energy 29
3 Power: Rate of Doing Work 29
4 Commercial Unit of Energy 29
5 SOUND 31
1 Propagation of Sound 31
2 Nature of Sound Waves 31
3 Features of Sound 33
4 Reflection of Sound 35
5 Echo 36
Why Do We Hear Echo of Thunder? 36
6 Reverberation 36
Contents v
How Is Reverberation Different from Echo? 36

How Can Reverberation Be Reduced? 37
Applications of Reverberation Phenomenon 38
7 Structure of Human Ear 40
6 LIGHT I 44
1 Why Do We See Objects in Light? 44
2 How Do We Perceive Colours? 44
3 Does Light Travel in Straight Line or Can It Deflect? 44
4 Why Does Diffraction Occur? 44
5 What Is Special About Speed of Light? 45
What Is the Nature of Light: A Wave or a Stream of Particles? 45
6 Reflection of Light 45
7 Reflection by Plane Mirror 46
8 Spherical Mirrors 47
Focus of a Concave Mirror 48
Focus of a Convex Mirror 48
Image Formation by Concave Mirror 49
Uses of Concave Mirror 50
Image Formation by Convex Mirror 51
Uses of Convex Mirrors 52
9 Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors 52
Mirror Formula 53
Magnification 53
10 Refraction of Light 54
Why Does Pencil Appears Displaced When Partly Immersed in Water? 54
Does the Refraction of Light Changes with Other Liquids Such As Kerosene? 54
What Pattern Does Light Observe During Refraction? 54
What Is Optically Rarer and Optically Denser Medium? 55
Can a Perpendicular Ray of Light Refract from an Optical Denser (or Rarer) Medium? 56
11 Refractive Index 56
What Is Absolute Refractive Index? 56
What Is Atmospheric Refraction? 57
12 Refraction by Spherical Lens 58
What Is a Spherical Lens? 58
Convex Lens 58
Concave Lens 58
Power of a Lens 59
vi Contents
7 LIGHT II 62
1 Dispersion of Light 62
Why Does Dispersion Occur? 62
Dispersion of Light by Glass Prism 62
Dispersion of Light by Water Droplet 63
2 Scattering of Light 65
Applications of Scattering of Light 65
3 Human Eye 66
Limits of Vision 67
Position of Eyes 68
Defects of Vision 68
8 ELECTRICITY 72
1 Electric Circuit 72
2 Electric Charge 72
3 Electric Current 73
Instrument Used to Measure Electric Current 73
4 Potential Difference 74
Instrument Used to Measure Potential Difference 75
5 Ohm’s Law 75
Proof of Ohm’s Law 75
6 Resistance 76
7 Heating Effect of Electric Current 78
Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current 78
Working of an Electric Bulb 78
Working of an Electric Fuse 79
8 Electric Power 79
Unit of Power Used to Calculate Consumption of Energy 80
9 MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 82

1 Properties of a Magnet 82
2 What Is a Magnetic Field? 82
3 Direction of a Magnetic Field 83
Relation Between the Direction of Current and Direction of Magnetic Field 84
4 Fleming’s Left-hand Rule 84
Contents vii
5 Electric Motor 85
How Does an Electric Motor Work? 85
6 Electromagnetic Induction 86
Experiment to Prove Existence of Induced Current 87
What Is a Galvanometer? 87
7 Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule 88
What Is Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule? 88
8 Electric Generator 88
Situation in India 89
9 Domestic Electrical Circuits 89
Earth Wire 90
Double Insulation 90
10 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 93
1 Wavelength and Frequency 93
2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 94
3 Types of Electromagnetic Waves 95
11 LASER (LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION) 101

1 Features of Lasers 101
2 How Are Lasers Made? 101
Steps in the Making of Laser 102
3 Types of Lasers 102
4 Applications of Lasers 103
UNIT – II CHEMISTRY
1 MATTER 109
1 What Is Matter Made Up Of? 109
Experimental Support 109
2 Characteristics of Particles of Matter 109
3 States of Matter 110
Can Matter Change Its State? 111
viii Contents
2 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE? 117

1 Types of Pure Substances 118
Elements 118
Compounds 119
2 Mixtures 119
Homogeneous Mixture 120
Heterogeneous Mixture 120
3 Solution 120
Properties of a Solution 121
Concentration of a Solution 121
4 Suspension 122
Properties of Suspension 122
5 Colloidal Solution 122
Properties of Colloid 123
6 Separating the Components of a Mixture 125
7 Water Purification Process 129
3 ATOMS AND MOLECULES 135

1 Laws of Chemical Combination 135
2 Atom 135
3 How Do Atoms Exist? 136
Structure of an Atom 136
4 Isotopes 140
Applications of Isotope of Various Elements 140
5 Isobars 141
How Are Electrons Distributed in Different Orbits (Shells)? 141
6 Valency 141
7 Molecule 143
Molecules of Elements 144
Molecules of Compounds 144
8 Molecular Mass 144
9 Ion 145
10 Mole 145
Contents ix
4 METALS AND NON-METALS 148

1 Modern Periodic Table 148
Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table 148
Position of Elements in Each Group (Vertical Columns) 149
Position of Elements in Each Period (Horizontal Rows) 149
Anomaly in Case of Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table 149
2 2n2 Rule 149
3 Atomic Size 150
Factors Determining Atomic Size 150
4 Description of Elements in a Periodic Table 150
Properties of Metals 151
Properties of Non-metals 152
Properties of Metalloids (Semi-Metals) 152
Metals Which Exhibit Properties of Non-metals 153
Non-metals Which Exhibit Properties of Metals 153
5 What Is Chemical Bonding? 153
Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond 153
Covalent Bond 154
Polar Bond 156
Hydrogen Bond 156
6 Reactivity of Metals and Non-metals 158
Reactivity in Case of Metals 158
Reactivity in Case of Non-metals 158
7 The Reactivity Series 159
Reaction of Metals with Oxygen 160
Reaction of Metals with Water 160
Reactivity of Different Metals with Water 160
Reaction of Metals with Acids 161
Reaction of Metal with Other Metal Salt 161
Reaction of Metals with Non-Metals 161
8 Occurrence of Metals 161
9 Extraction of Metals 161
Extracting Metals of Low Reactivity 162
Extracting Metals of Moderate Reactivity 163
Extracting Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series 163
10 Refining of Metals 164
Electrolytic Refining 164
11 Corrosion 164
Prevention of Corrosion 165
12 Alkali Metals (Group I) 165
x Contents
13 Alkaline Earth Metals (Group II) 165

14 Transition Metals 166
15 Halogens (Group 17) 166
16 Noble Gases (Group 18) 166
17 Rare Earth Metals 166
5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 170

1 Chemical Reactions 170
2 Writing a Chemical Equation 171
Balanced Chemical Equation 171
Unbalanced Chemical Equation 171
3 Making Chemical Equation More Informative 173
4 Types of Chemical Reactions 173
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions 175
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 175
6 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 178

1 Nature of Bonds Made by Carbon 179
2 What Makes Carbon Form So Many Compounds? 179
3 Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds 180
4 Properties of Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds 181
5 Homologous Series 181
Alkanes 181
Alkenes 181
Alkynes 182
Alcohol 182
6 Carbon Compounds As Fuel 182
Properties of Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds on Combustion 182
7 Allotropes of Carbon 183
8 Other Applications of Carbon and Its Compounds 185
Soaps and Detergents 185
7 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 188

1 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 188
2 Reactions of Acids and Bases 189
Contents xi
Neutralisation Reaction 189

Reaction of Acids with Metal Oxides 189
Reaction of Bases with Non-metal Oxides 189
Reaction of Acids with Metal 190
Reaction of Base with Metal 190
Reaction of Carbonates and Bicarbonates with Acids 190
Reactions of Acids with Bicarbonates 190
3 What Are Indicators? 191
Types of Indicators 192
Importance of pH in Everyday Life 193
pH Value of Acidic, Basic and Neutral Salt 195
4 Water of Crystallisation 195
Plaster of Paris 195
Common Salt (Sodium Chloride) 195
5 Base and Alkali 197
UNIT – III BIOLOGY
1 CELL: UNIT OF LIFE 201

1 Discovery of Cell 201
2 Types of Cells 201
3 Structural Organisation of a Cell 203
4 Tissue 207
Comparison of Plant and Animal Tissues 207
Plant Tissues 207
Animal Tissues 209
2 PLANT DIVERSITY 214

1 Description of Various Plant Groups 214
2 What Are Herbs and Shrubs? 216
3 Insectivorous Plants 216
4 Why Do Insectivorous Plants Feed on Insects? 217
5 Parts of a Tree 217
xii Contents
3 ANIMAL DIVERSITY 221

1 Vertebrates 221
2 Invertebrates 225
4 HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION 231

1 Variations 231
Importance of Variations 231
2 Heredity 231
3 Inheritance 232
Dominant Trait 232
Recessive Trait 232
Genotype 232
Phenotype 232
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits: Mendel’s Contribution 233
4 Sex Determination 235
Sex Determination in Human Beings 235
X-Linked Recessive Inheritance 236
Sickle Cell Anaemia 238
5 Evolution 238
Inherited Traits 240
Acquired Traits 240
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships 240
6 Evolution and Classification 241
Evolution by Stages 242
7 Evolution Should Not Be Equated with ‘Progress’ 242
8 Fossils 242
Finding Age of Fossils 243
How Fossils Give Information About Evolution? 243
9 Species 243
Speciation 243
Causes of Speciation 243
Hybridisation 244
Contents xiii
5 LIFE PROCESSES 247

1 Nutrition 247
Autotrophic Nutrition 247
Heterotrophic Nutrition 248
2 Nutrition in Human Beings 248
3 Respiration 252
Respiration in Human Beings 252
4 Transportation 252
How Does the Blood Circulatory System Work? 252
Transportation in Plants 256
5 Digestive System 256
Mouth 256
Oesophagus 257
Stomach 257
Small Intestine 257
Liver and Gall Bladder 257
Pancreas 258
Large Intestine 258
6 Excretion 258
Excretory System 259
Kidney Dialysis 260
Excretion in Plants 260
6 CONTROL AND COORDINATION 265

1 Nervous System 265
How Impulse Travels? 265
Reflex Action 266
2 Human Nervous System 266
Brain 267
3 Endocrine System 269
Working 269
Coordination in Plants 269
Hormones in Human Beings 270
Hormones in Plants 271
xiv Contents
7 REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS 273

1 Asexual Reproduction 273
2 Reproduction in Flowering Plants 275
3 Reproduction in Human Beings 277
4 Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) 279
5 Contraceptive Methods 280
8 WHY DO WE FALL ILL? 282

1 What Do You Mean by Health? 282
2 Distinction Between Healthy and Disease-free 282
3 What Does Disease Look Like? 283
4 Types of Diseases 283
5 Causes of Disease 283
6 Infectious and Non-infectious Diseases 284
Agents of Infection 284
Means of Spreading Infection 284
7 Immune System: Protection Against Diseases 285
8 Principles of Treatment 286
How Do We Kill Microbe? 287
What Is An Antibiotic? 287
How Do Antibiotics Work? 287
What Is Antibiotic Resistance? 288
Why Is It Important to Tackle Antibiotic Resistance? 288
Why Making Antiviral Medicine Is Harder Than Making Antibacterial Medicines? 288
Principle of Prevention 288
How Can We Prevent Disease? 289
9 Immunisation 289
Solutions for Practice Questions and Perfecting Past Prelims 299

PREFACE
If you ever happen to be walking down the streets of places where preparation for Civil Services is done,
it will not be uncommon for you to come across or make the acquaintance of ‘several’ starry eyed yet
completely committed IAS aspirants. Yet, ‘several’ would be an understatement given the number that
runs into lakhs! But when we say committed, we mean it; these young men and women are ready to
sacrifice almost all their youthful follows including sleep, comfort and even a semblance of a normal life
to achieve one goal—IAS!
Sadly, this dream remains a distant one for a large majority of these aspirants in spite of the endless
hours of study and sleep forsaken nights. When we tried to unravel WHY, the responses were almost
synchronous:
“The subject was so vast that there was too much to cover and I could never complete it.”
“I read so much but could not retain it.”
“I studied something but was quizzed on something else in the exam.”
“I kept reading but did not attempt to solve the past year papers or give a mock exam.”
“Subscribing to several sources of information/preparation such as a coaching class, the internet and
books was futile; after all there are only 24 hours in a day.”
“My almirah was full of too many books, but I could barely complete a few.”
And while the candid answers stated above clearly gave us a challenging problem—we did not attempt to
solve it. We instead focused on a holistic solution—the synchronizing of effort i.e. Learning and Positive
Results!
It is with this aim that we—PrepMate collaborated with Cengage India—are continuously striving
to develop a comprehensive learning model that is a combination of print and digital product so as to
effectively address the issues that most aspirants grapple with.
About the Print–Digital Learning Model

The learning model initiates the process with a series of books targeted at cracking the UPSC exam. The
books stand apart from others available because of the following unique features:
We use a conceptual approach, simple language, explain concepts with diagrams, cite sufficient
examples, pose pertinent questions in a reader friendly format—to ensure that the contents of
these books can be read and assimilated in a time-bound manner.
The content is specially designed taking into account the trend in UPSC exams in recent years.
We have also included the previous years’ questions (with solutions) after every chapter.
Preface xvi
The Practice Questions at the end of each chapter are exhaustive to provide sufficient preparation
to crack the exams.
We have tried to encapsulate all that is required to be learnt for a particular subject into a single
book.
Usually, an aspirant purchases a book, but never gets a chance to contact the authors. We believe that the
contact among aspirants and authors is important for learning and motivation of the aspirants. That is
precisely why we have developed an application and a web portal to answer your queries and provide you
with continuous support during your preparation.
It is through this digital component that we provide the following services:
1. Videos covering important and difficult topics

2. Answer writing practice sessions
3. Daily prelims quiz
4. Assistance in interview preparation
5. Regular updates
6. Daily current affairs
7. Monthly current affairs magazine
8. Radio news analysis
9. Educational videos
10. Previous years’ papers and solutions
11. Free study materials
Looking forward to being your partner in the journey towards achieving your dream!
In case you have any specific queries or constructive feedback you can always share the same with us
via e-mail at info@prepmate.in .
PrepMate
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
“We cannot accomplish all that we want to do without working together”

The complete UPSC learning module by Prepmate has been the culmination of more than a year of
ideation and brain storming with a lot of people. It is only natural that we should gratefully acknowledge
their valuable contribution sincerely. Nirmal Singla, Ramnik Jindal, Sharat Gupta, Subhash Singla and
Vijay Singla—thank you for your continuous support and motivation.
We would also like to thank Maninder Mann, Rajinder Paul Singla and Sundeep Singh Garha who
helped us in first conceiving and later developing the synergistic print–digital model of the project—
without you we would be missing our competitive edge.
Implementation of strategy can more often than not prove challenging and the development of the
digital component did prove to be tougher than we had envisaged. But our technical team was focused
on enabling our dream and delivering the best and they surely did. With a specific mention to the testing
of both the website and the application, we would like to thank Parth, Tanvir and Surabhi who did their
job patiently and effectively in spite of the road blocks.
Our videos and books could not have been possible without the help of our graphics design team—
Sandeep, Manjeet, Sukhjinder, Roshni and Uday toiled endlessly to ensure the best designed audio-
visuals.
It is an understatement to state that the sourcing and reviewing of existing content and the generation
of missing content was the most crucial part of this project and the backbone of our Learning Module.
This would just not have been possible without our team of content contributors: Isha Gupta, Shelly
Jindal, Gurdeep, Surabhi, Shantnu, Tanvir, Anmol, Kriti, Tanya, Sahil, Suraj and Dilshad, who left no
stone unturned in their pursuit of excellence—your pivotal contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
We would like to extend a special thanks to our staff members Geeta, Jitender, Manoj and Pinki,
who helped us in the most laborious job i.e. typing through the several manuscripts of our books—your
contribution is sincerely appreciated.
It is imperative that we thank Isha Gupta, Shelly Jindal, Anjum Diwan, Rajesh Goel, Shikha Sharma
and Ravinder Indoura, for their critical yet constructive feedback that identified and subsequently
rectified the errors that crept in during the development process. We will never be able to thank them
enough for this—you fortified the very foundation of our model.
We sincerely acknowledge the initiatives and support from the entire editorial team of Cengage India
in the process of publishing this book.
PrepMate
LIST OF VIDEOS
1. How and why to prepare general science for civil services prelims?
2. Archimedes principle
3. Reflection of light
4. Magnetic effects of electric current
5. Electromagnetic radiation
6. Water purification process
7. Chemical bonding
8. Plant diversity
9. Animal diversity
10. X-linked recessive inheritance

Chapter-wise Break Up of Previous Year’s Questions (Prelims)
Chapters 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 Total
BIOLOGY
1. Cell: Unit of Life 0
2. Plant Diversity 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
3. Animal Diversity 2 1 1 3 7
4. Heredity and Evolution 1 1 1 3
5. Life Processes 2 1 2 1 1 7
6. Control and Coordination 0
7. Reproduction in 1 1 1 1 4
Organisms
8. Why Do We Fall Ill? 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 11
CHEMISTRY
1. Matter 0
2. Is Matter Around Us Pure? 1 2 1 1 5
3. Atoms and Molecules 1 1 2
4. Metals and Non-Metals 1 1 2
5. Chemical Reactions 0
6. Carbon and Its 1 1 2
Compounds
7. Acids, Bases and Salts 0
PHYSICS
1. Motion 0
2. Force and Laws of Motion 1 1 2
3. Gravitation 0
4. Work and Energy 0
5. Sound 0
Chapters 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 Total
6. Light I 1 1
7. Light II 1 1 2
8. Electricity 0
9. Magnetics Effects of 1 1
Electric Current
10. Electromagnetic Radiation 1 2 2 2 7
11. Laser 1 1
TOTAL 2 3 1 8 7 7 4 12 6 13 63
Unit – I
PHYSICS
Chapter 1 MOTION
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object over time. Motion of a body depends on the frame
of reference. For instance, for the passengers in a moving bus, the roadside houses appear to be moving
backwards. A person standing on the roadside perceives the bus as moving. However, a passenger inside
the bus perceives the fellow passengers at rest.
If the position of a body is not changing with respect to a given frame of reference, the body is said
to be at rest or stationary. In our example, a passenger inside the bus perceives the fellow passengers at
rest.
An object’s motion can change only when a force acts on the object. Further, the motion of a body is
described in terms of displacement, distance, speed, velocity and acceleration. Let us understand these
concepts.
1 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance
Distance is the total movement of an object without any regard to direction. It is defined as how much
ground an object has covered from its starting point.
Displacement
It is defined as the change in position of an object. In other words, it is the shortest distance between
the initial position and the final position. It is a vector quantity and thus, has both a direction and a
magnitude.
4m 5m
B C
3m
4 Physics
Consider the given figure which shows a person travelled 4 m from Point A to Point B and then
travelled 3 m from Point B to Point C. The total distance travelled by the person = 4 m + 3 m = 7 m.
On the other hand, the displacement is the distance between Point A and Point C, which is 5 m.
Further, he travels 5 m from Point C to Point A. In this case, the total distance travelled = 4 m + 3 m
+ 5 m = 12 m, but displacement is 0 because the final position and the initial position of the person is
the same.
Difference Between a Vector Quantity and a Scalar Quantity

The main difference between a vector quantity and a scalar quantity is that a vector quantity has
both magnitude and direction, whereas a scalar quantity has only magnitude and no direction.
For instance, the measurement of temperature of an object is a scalar quantity; the measurement
of the increase or decrease in the temperature of the object is a vector quantity.
When a vector is represented in a diagram, the length of a vector depicts magnitude. The arrow,
on the other hand, shows the direction.
2 UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM MOTION

Uniform motion is the kind of motion in which a body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time,
even if we consider very small intervals of time.
For instance, if a bicycle running with the uniform motion has a speed of 5 m/s, it means that the
bicycle covers 5 metres in each second.
On the other hand, non-uniform motion is a motion in which a body covers unequal distances in
equal intervals of time.
3 RATE OF MOTION (SPEED)

The rate of motion or speed of an object is calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the object
in unit time. The unit of distance is metre, kilometre, etc., and the unit of time is hour, second, etc.
Therefore, the SI unit of speed is metre/second or kilometre/hour.
What Is SI Unit?
The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from Systeme International, the French
version of the name) is a scientific method of expressing the magnitudes or quantities of natural
phenomena.
There are seven base units in the system, from which other units are derived. The seven base
units are:
Motion 5
SI Base Units:
1. The metre (abbreviation, m) is the SI unit of displacement or length.
2. The kilogram (abbreviation, kg) is the SI unit of mass.
3. The second (abbreviation, s or sec) is the SI unit of time.
4. The kelvin (abbreviation, K), also called the degree Kelvin (abbreviation, °K), is the SI unit of
temperature.
5. The ampere (abbreviation, A) is the SI unit of electric current.
6. The candela (abbreviation, cd) is the SI unit of luminous intensity.
7. The mole (abbreviation, mol) is the SI unit of material quantity.
The other SI units are derived from these units.

Distance Travelled
Speed =
Time taken
200
For instance, let us say that a person travels 200 km in 5 h. Then, the speed of the person is = 40
km/h. 5
4 SPEED WITH DIRECTION (VELOCITY)

Velocity is speed with a direction, while speed does not have a direction. Speed is a scalar quantity.
On the other hand, velocity is a vector quantity. Thus, when we specify velocity, we must specify the
magnitude (the speed) and the direction of travel. For example, a person is driving his car at a speed of
100 km/h in the south direction.
This is analogous to the difference between distance (a scalar quantity) and displacement (the distance
with direction.)
Change of Velocity
A change in speed or a change in direction, or a change in both speed and direction, means that the
object has a change in velocity. For instance, when a person driving his car at 100 km/h (the speed) in
the south direction either reduces or increases speed or changes direction of travel, there will be change
in velocity.
Velocity of an Object Moving in Circular Path

Velocity of an object moving in a circular path is constantly changing because in a circular path, the body
continuously changes its direction.
Final and Initial Velocity

Initial velocity of an object means the velocity of the object at the starting reference point. The initial
velocity is denoted by ‘u’. Final velocity of the object is given as the velocity at the ending reference point.
The final velocity is denoted by ‘v’.
6 Physics
In some cases, both initial and final velocities can be zero. For instance, when a car starts journey
from rest and ends its journey at rest. In other cases, initial velocity can be more than zero and the final
velocity is zero. For example, when a car stops after applying the break, its initial velocity is greater than
zero, but the final velocity is zero.
Rate of Change in Velocity (Acceleration)

Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity. In other words, acceleration is the change
in velocity in a period of time. Thus, acceleration of an object is based on both velocity and time. The SI
unit of velocity is metre/second, and the SI unit of time is second.
metre/second
Thus, the SI unit of acceleration is = metre/second2 or m/s2 or ms−2.
second
Mathematically, acceleration is calculated with the following formula:
v–u
a=
t
where a stands for acceleration, v stands for final velocity, u stands for initial velocity, and t stands for
time taken to reach the final velocity from the initial velocity.
Let us read the following example to understand the concept of acceleration. When you drive a car,
you can accelerate it till maximum velocity as per the speed limit permitted in the city. Let us presume
that the speed limit is 60 km/h.
If you press the accelerator hard, you may be able to attain 0 to 60 km/h in about 7 s. If you press it
gently, you may attain 60 km/h in 14 s.
In both the cases, whether you are pressing the accelerator of your car gently or hard, you are
experiencing acceleration. If you decrease the time to change speed from 0 to 60 km/h, the acceleration
is greater. The moment you attain 60 km/h and keep a constant speed, your acceleration is zero.
As acceleration is based on velocity, which is a vector quantity, so change in direction also brings
acceleration. If the car turns, an acceleration occurs towards the new direction. In the above example,
we can call the forward acceleration of the car a linear acceleration. Acceleration on account of change
in direction is called non-linear acceleration.
Let us suppose that you are required to reduce speed on account of heavy traffic. If the speed of the
car decreases, this leads to negative acceleration, also called deceleration. Mathematically, there is no
separate formula for deceleration: both are change in velocity.
Acceleration of a Body Moving in a Circular Direction

If a body is moving in a circular path, there is a continuous change in its velocity due to change in
direction. Consequently, there is continuous change in acceleration.
Motion 7
Practice Questions
1. Which one of the following is not a (a) Displacement
vector quantity? (b) Speed
(a) Speed (c) Acceleration
(b) Velocity (d) Velocity
(c) Displacement 4. Which of the following factor can lead
(d) Both velocity and displacement to continuous change in velocity of a
2. Which one of the following relation moving body?
between distance and displacement is (a) Movement in a straight line
correct? (b) Movement in a circular path
(a) Displacement can be greater than (c) Movement at fast speed
distance. (d) Movement at slow speed
(b) Distance is always equal to 5. What will happen to the acceleration of a
displacement. moving object, if the time taken to attain
(c) Distance can be greater or equal to a particular velocity is reduced?
displacement.
(a) The acceleration will increase.
(d) Displacement is always less than
(b) The acceleration will reduce.
distance.
(c) The acceleration will remain
3. If we throw a ball upwards as high as we constant.
can, which one of the following physical (d) The acceleration will either increase
quantity remains constant? or decrease.
; ANSWER KEYS
Practice Questions
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (a)

IS MATTER AROUND
Chapter 2 US PURE?
What do you understand by the term ‘pure’? When we use the term pure, we usually mean a substance
free from adulteration. From chemistry point of view, a pure substance refers to a matter which consists
of a single type of particles and which cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical
process. However, these substances can be further separated through chemical processes.
Difference Between Physical and Chemical Processes

A physical process results in physical changes such as change in temperature, shape, colour
or similar features but no change is observed in the internal or chemical composition of
substances.
On the other hand, the chemical processes change the internal or chemical composition of
substances.
For instance, if we mix salt in water, it is a physical process. The physical characteristics of
water change, i.e. taste changes to salty. The chemical composition of water and salt does not
undergo any change.
On the other hand, when oxygen and hydrogen react to form water, then the chemical composition
changes to that of water. Thus, it is a chemical process.
Physical process can be easily reversed. For instance, salt can be easily separated from water
by the process of evaporation. However, the chemical processes cannot be reversed at all or
require very large amount of energy to be reversed. For instance, water can be converted back
into hydrogen and oxygen only after using lot of energy.
In the physical processes, very little heat or light is usually absorbed or given out. In a chemical
process, a lot of heat or light energy is absorbed or given out.
From our brief discussion, we have learned that the products obtained from chemical processes can
be reversed only through another chemical process or cannot be reversed at all. Thus, we can conclude
that the products obtained through chemical processes are pure in nature. In the previous chapter, we
classified matter into types. In this chapter, we will classify the matter into pure and impure substances
as follows.
118 Chemistry
1 TYPES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

We have learned that pure substances are made up of single type of particles which cannot be separated
into subtypes. On the basis of their chemical composition, pure substances have been classified into two
types: elements and compounds.
Elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances even by a chemical
reaction. It is the most basic form of matter. Elements have been further divided into three categories:
metals, non-metals and metalloids.
Metals show some or all of the following properties:
They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour.
They possess lustre (shine).
They conduct heat and electricity.
They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when they are hit).
Examples of metals include copper, gold, silver, iron, sodium, potassium, etc. Mercury is the only
metal that remains in liquid state at room temperature. Other metals are solid in nature.
Non-metals usually show some or all of the following properties:
They display a variety of colours.
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
Examples of non-metals include hydrogen, oxygen, iodine, carbon, bromine, chlorine, etc.
Is Matter Around Us Pure? 119
Some elements have intermediate properties between those of metals and non-metals. These are
called metalloids. Examples include boron, silicon, germanium, etc.
More than 100 elements are known to mankind. Out of these, the number of naturally existing
elements is 92 and the rest are man-made.
At room temperature, majority of the elements exist in solid state. Eleven elements occur in gaseous
state. Only mercury and bromine occur in liquid state.
We will learn more about elements in the next chapter.
Compounds
When two or more elements combine together in a fixed proportion, then the substance formed is called
a compound. For instance, water is a compound which is made up of two elements, namely hydrogen
and oxygen. Further, hydrogen and oxygen combine in a fixed ratio of 2 : 1.
The elements in a compound combine through a chemical process and cannot be separated easily.
Different elements in a compound are held together by chemical bonds which are difficult to break.
These bonds are formed as a result of the sharing or exchange of electrons among the atoms. The
smallest unbreakable unit of a compound is called a molecule. We will discuss about compounds and
molecules in the next chapter.
2 MIxTURES
Mixture is formed when two or more than two substances are mixed together physically in such a
manner that each substance retains its chemical identity. No new chemical bond is formed between the
components of the mixture nor is any existing bond broken. Thus, mixture is a physical process and not
a chemical process.
For instance, if we dissolve common salt (sodium chloride) into water, then a mixture of salt water is
obtained. The mixture of salt water retains the qualities of its constituents, that is salt and water.
Further, the salt can be separated easily from water through evaporation which is a physical process.
Most of the matter around us exists in the form of mixture. For example, air is a mixture of gases, soil,
fresh water, salt water and so on.
Difference Between Mixture and Compound
Mixture Compound
Elements or compounds are physically mixed Elements react to form new compounds.
together to form a mixture and no new compound
is formed.
Formation of mixture does not involve a chemical Formation of compound involves a chemical
process. process.
The composition of mixture is variable. For The composition of each substance is always fixed.
instance, a mixture of salt and water will contain For instance, water will always contain hydrogen
varied proportions of salt. and oxygen in a fixed proportion of 2 : 1.
120 Chemistry
Mixture Compound
A mixture shows the properties of the constituents. The compound has properties which are totally
For instance, air which is a mixture of gases reflects different from that of its constituents. For
the qualities of various gases present in it. instance, properties of water are entirely different
from that of hydrogen and oxygen.
The constituents can be separated easily by The constituents can be separated only by
physical methods. chemical or electrochemical reactions.
Let us further discuss the various types of mixture. On the basis of the nature of components that
form a mixture, it has been broadly classified into two categories: (i) homogeneous mixture and (ii)
heterogeneous mixture.
Homogeneous Mixture
It is a mixture that has a uniform composition throughout. In other words, the composition of the
mixture is the same throughout the mixture.
For example, air is a homogeneous mixture of many gases. If you test a sample of gas of one city and
compare it with the sample of other city, you will find the same components in both the samples. The
ratio might differ but the components will remain the same. Other examples of homogenous mixtures
are salt in water, sugar in water, etc. If we mix sugar or salt in the water, the taste appears uniform to us.
Thus, we can conclude that these are also uniform mixtures.
Moreover, if we add more sugar to water, it tastes sweeter. Though it remains homogenous, it contains
more sugar. Thus, we can conclude that a homogenous solution can have a variable composition.
Heterogeneous Mixture
It is a mixture whose components are not uniform. In other words, the components of the mixture are
not evenly spread throughout the mixture. If we take out different sample from the same mixture, they
will not be identical.
For example, mixtures of oil and water, cereal and milk, sodium chloride and iron filings, etc., are
examples of heterogeneous mixture. The components of a heterogeneous mixture can be easily separated
through simple physical methods such as hand-picking, filtration and sieving. Sieve is a utensil consisting
of a wire or plastic mesh which is held in a frame, used for separating solids from liquids, for separating
coarser from finer particles or for reducing soft solids to a pulp.
Let us understand mixtures better by reading more about them.
3 SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more than two substances. The components of a solution
are homogeneous (same composition) to the particle level. For example, lemonade is a solution of salt,
sugar, water and lemon extract. It tastes the same throughout. Thus, we can say that the particles of salt,
sugar and lemon are uniformly distributed in the solution. Lemonade is an example of liquid solution.
Solutions can be solids and gases as well. For example, as we discussed above air is a homogenous mixture
of gases.
Alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal. It is a mixture because it shows
the properties of its components. Some alloys are found in nature as solution, i.e. homogenous. For
instance, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc (usually 70% copper and 30% zinc). Bronze is an alloy of
copper and tin (usually 88% copper and 12% tin).
A solution consists of at least two components: solvent and solute. The component of the solution
that dissolves the other component in itself is called the solvent. Usually it is in larger quantity. The
component that gets dissolved in other component is called solute. It is usually in smaller quantity.
For example, soft drinks contain sugar and carbon dioxide gas dissolved in them. Here, water is the
solvent and sugar and carbon dioxide gas are solutes.
Properties of a Solution
Homogeneous mixture
Size of the particles of a solution is smaller than 1 nm (10–9 m) in diameter.
Cannot be seen with a naked eye
When light is passed through a solution, the particles in a solution, because of their small size,
do not scatter light. Thus, the path of light is not visible. Thus, solutions do not exhibit Tyndall
effect.
When solution is left undisturbed, solute particles do not settle down and thus cannot be separated
from the solvent. Thus, solution is stable.
Concentration of a Solution
We know that a solution is a mixture of solvent and solute, and the proportion of solvent and solute can
be varied in a solution. Depending upon the proportion of solute present in a solvent, a solution can be
dilute, concentrated or saturated.
When a solution contains very little amount of solute as compared to the solvent, then it is called a
dilute solution. Concentrated solution is the opposite of dilute solution. It has a much higher quantity
of solute as compared to dilute solution. Concentration of a solution increases by increasing the amount
of solute while keeping the volume of the solvent constant.
A solution is said to have achieved saturation level when no more solute can be dissolved in the
solvent without raising its temperature. In other words, a saturated solution is the one in which no more
solute can be dissolved in the solution, at a given temperature.
Supersaturation is a state of a solution that contains more of the dissolved solute than could be
dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances. A supersaturated solution may be formed by
heating the solution with excess solute, and cooling very carefully.
Have you ever noticed that it is difficult to add sugar to cold milk than warm milk? Why? If we raise
the temperature of a solution, the particles of solvent and solute get more energy to intermingle with
each other. Thus, increase in temperature, increases the ability of a solvent to dissolve more solute.
122 Chemistry
The ability of the solute to get dissolved in a solvent is known as its solubility. The solubility of
different substances is different at the same temperature in the given solvent.
Concentration of a solution can be defined as:
Amount of solute Amount of solute
Concentration of a solution = or
Amount of solution Amount of solvent
The concentration can also be calculated in percentage terms as follows:
Mass of solute
Concentration of a solution = ×100
Mass of solution
A solution should not to be misinterpreted as combination of a solid and liquid only. It could
also be a combination of solid–solid, solid–gas, gas–solid, gas–gas, etc.
4 SUSPENSION
When the solute particles do not dissolve in the solvent and remain suspended, the mixture formed
is called suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture. Particles in suspension are sufficiently
large to be seen by the naked eyes. One of the characteristics of a suspension is that, if the mixture is
left undisturbed, the solute particles will settle down and the components of the mixture separate over
time.
Properties of Suspension
Heterogeneous mixture
Large particles (>1 µm). It can be seen by naked eyes.
When light is passed through suspension, the path of light becomes visible because the particles
scatter light beam passing through it. Thus, the particles in a suspension exhibit Tyndall effect.
Suspension is unstable. If left undisturbed for a period of time, the particles settle down. Thus,
the components can be easily separated from the mixture.
When the particles settle down, the suspension breaks and does not scatter light.
5 COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
A colloid or a colloidal solution is a mixture in which the particles are uniformly spread throughout
the solution. Even if a colloid is left undisturbed, the particles remain suspended in it (and do not
settle down). The size of particles in a colloid is much smaller as compared to the size of particles in
a suspension, but larger than the size of particles in a homogenous mixture. Therefore, the colloidal
solution appears to be homogeneous but actually it is a heterogeneous mixture. Milk and blood are
examples of colloids.
Though the size of the particles is so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye but still the
particles can scatter a beam of light and make the path of the light visible. This scattering of light is
known as Tyndall effect. For example, a beam of light entering the room through a small hole becomes
visible because the light gets scattered by the dust particles and smoke present in the air.
Another example of Tyndall effect can be observed in a dense forest. The beam of light, entering
through the dense canopy, becomes visible because it gets dispersed on account of the presence of mist
in the air. Mist consists of tiny water droplets. Thus, mist is also an example of colloids.
Properties of Colloid
Appears homogenous but is actually heterogeneous.
Size of particles is too small to be seen by naked eye.
124 Chemistry
Though they cannot be seen through the naked eye but still the particles are large enough to
scatter a beam of light.
Colloids are stable. The particles in a colloid do not settle down when left undisturbed.
The particles cannot be separated from the mixture by simple physical process such as hand-
picking, filtration and sieving. Special techniques have to be performed to separate them. These
techniques are discussed later at the end of chapter.
Another way to think about colloids is that they consist of dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase, and the
component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing medium. Like other
mixtures, colloids can also be solid, liquid or gas. All types of colloids consist of the dispersed phase and
the dispersing medium. Some examples of colloids based on this view are listed as follows:
Dispersed Dispersing Type Example

Phase Medium
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass
Differences Among Various Types of Mixtures
Solution Suspension Colloid

Homogeneous mixture, e.g. Nonhomogeneous mixture or Particles are uniformly
lemon water, air, aerated drinks there are suspended particles in distributed, they appear
(CO2 in liquid). a mixture, e.g. dust particles in homogeneous but are
room. heterogeneous, e.g. milk, blood.
Very small sized particles of less Particles can be seen through The size of particles in a colloid
than 10–9 m (1 nm), so cannot naked eye (>1µm). is 10–9 meter (1 nm) to 10−6 m
be seen through naked eye. (1 µm). Particles cannot be seen
through naked eye.
Particles are so small that they Particles do scatter passing Particles are large enough to
do not scatter light. light. scatter light.
Solution is stable. Particles Particles settle down when left Colloids are stable.
do not settle down when left undisturbed
undisturbed.
6 SEPARATING THE COMPONENTS OF A MIxTURE

We have already learned that most of the substances that we see around and believe to be pure are
chemically not pure. They are mixtures. Different methods are used to separate the individual
components of a mixture.
Separation of components of a heterogeneous mixture is much easier as compared to homogeneous
mixture. Components of a heterogeneous mixture can be separated using simple physical processes
such as hand-picking, sieving, filtration, etc.
There are different methods through which the components of a mixture can be separated from each
other. The methods are described as follows:
(i) Evaporation: This technique can be used to separate
a volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures)
component from a nonvolatile component. For example,
ink is a mixture of blue/black dye and water. Water is a
volatile substance. Thus, if we evaporate water from the
mixture, then only dye would be left as a residue.
(ii) Centrifugation: This method can be used to separate
cream from milk. Centrifugation means separating the
components of a mixture by the application of centrifugal
force (a force, arising from the body’s inertia, which
appears to act on a body moving in a circular path and is
directed away from the centre around which the body is
moving). By the application of centrifugation, the denser
particles are forced to settle at the sides and at the bottom, whereas the lighter particles stay at the
centre and at the top, when the colloid is spun rapidly in a circular motion.
The technique of centrifugation has the following applications:
It is used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
It is used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
It is used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
126 Chemistry
(iii) Separating components of mixture with two immiscible liquids: Immiscible liquids are
incapable of mixing or blending together. Even if immiscible liquids mix temporarily, eventually
they separate into layers.
The immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities. For instance, if the
layer of oil and water is left undisturbed, then oil settles at the top because it has less density than
that of water.
This method of keeping the mixture undisturbed is also used in the extraction of iron from its
ore. The lighter slag is separated at the top by this method to leave the molten iron at the bottom
in the furnace.
(iv) Sublimation: We have learned that when anything solid turns into a gas without first becoming
liquid, the phenomenon of direct conversion of solid into gas is called sublimation. Surface layer
of snow or ice turning into fog or steam without melting is an example of sublimation.
This technique can be used to separate a sublimate volatile component (volatile meaning
tendency of an object to vaporise) from a nonsublimate impurity. For example, ammonium
chloride changes directly from solid to gaseous state on heating. Thus, to separate ammonium
chloride from salt, we heat the mixture. Ammonium chloride changes into gaseous state and salt
is left behind as the residue.
(v) Chromatography: It is a technique which is used to separate multiple solutes that dissolve in a
single solvent. For example, usually a dye is a mixture of two or more colours. Different colours
have different tendency to dissolve in water; some dissolve faster, whereas others take time. This
property is used to separate colours in a dye.
In paper chromatography, solvent moves up the paper via capillary action, moving pigment
molecules with it. If we put a mark of dye on a filter paper and immerse the filter paper into
water, different colours constituting dye dissolve on wet paper at different rates. The coloured
component that is more soluble in water shifts farther from the water droplet and the component
which is least soluble shifts the least. Consequently, different colours in a dye are separated.
Capillary action refers to the flow of a liquid into a narrow tube or porous material without the
assistance of external forces. It is the result of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion between
the liquid and the material.
Apart from separating colours in a dye, chromatography is used for the following purposes:
To obtain pigments from natural colours.
To separate drugs from blood.
Miscible Liquids
Miscible liquids are those liquids which blend or mix together. If these liquids are left undisturbed,
these liquids do not form separate layers. Thus, unlike immiscible liquids, special techniques as
mentioned below are required to separate miscible liquids.
(vi) Distillation: It is a process through which the components of a mixture are separated by either
heating or cooling. To separate the components of a mixture of two miscible liquids, this method
is used. This method can be used where the difference between the boiling points of the two liquids
is at least 25°C.
For example, this method can be used to separate acetone from water. Take the mixture of acetone
and water in a distillation flask. Fit the thermometer at the top of distillation flask to record the
temperature of the mixture.
Arrange the apparatus as shown in the given figure. Heat the mixture slowly. The acetone
vaporises because it has low boiling point, i.e. 56°C, whereas the boiling point of water is 100°C.
The vaporised acetone is transferred to the condenser. Condenser is then passed through a tube
which carries cold water. As the vaporised acetone passes through the condenser, its temperature
reduces. Consequently, it turns into liquid and get collected in the form of liquid as it passes out
from the condenser outlet. Water is left behind in the distillation flask.
(vii) Fractional distillation: Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible
liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25°C. It is used for the separation
of different gases from air, different factions from petroleum products, etc. The apparatus used
in fractional distillation is similar to that used for simple distillation, except that a fractionating
column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.
128 Chemistry
A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface for the
vapours to cool and condense repeatedly, as shown in the figure.
Use of Fractional Distillation to Obtain Different Gases from Air

We know that air is a mixture of gases. First of all, this mixture is converted into liquid by increasing
the pressure and reducing the temperature. After that, the liquefied air is allowed to warm up into
the fractional distillation column. As different gases reach their boiling point, the gases start getting
separated one by one from the remaining gases.
(viii) Crystallisation: Crystallisation is the process through which we can separate pure solids in the
form of crystals. The method is usually used to purify solids such as common salt.
Let us understand the process of crystallisation through its application in producing common salt.
Take some salt water from the sea. Filter the impurities out. Warm up the solution in an open
container to evaporate excess water from the salt water so as to get a saturated solution. Cover the
solution and leave it undisturbed at room temperature to cool slowly for a day. We will obtain the
crystals of common salt. This process is called crystallisation.
Crystallisation is considered to be a better option than evaporation on the following grounds:
1. Some solids decompose or some, such as sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
2. Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after the filtration which on evapo-
ration contaminates the solid.
Crystallisation is used for the following purposes:
1. Helps in purification of salt from the sea water.
2. Separation of alum crystals from impure samples.
Out of the methods given earlier, we can apply an appropriate method to obtain a pure substance.
The choice of method has to be made based on the nature of the mixture.
7 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESS

Water purification is an important process which ensures safe drinking water. Safe drinking water is
necessary for the health of an entire community. Systems have been placed in order to ensure the quality
of water supplied. Water analysis is done to look for any kind of contamination including organic,
inorganic, microbial or radioactive contaminants. The process of water purification involves the
following steps:
1. Screening: Before the water is entered into the treatment plant, it is passed through a screen. When
the source of water is a lake or river, the screen serves as an important component, keeping out large
natural contaminants such as plants and wood, or fish. In case of ground water, screening may not be
necessary since the water has passed through layers of the earth which act as a screen in itself.
2. Coagulation: After the water passes the screen, alum and other chemicals are added to the water,
which are known as coagulants, which form floc. Floc is a mass of tiny clumped particles. This floc
attracts dirt particles, which eventually makes them heavy enough to sink to the bottom of the water
storage tank.
3. Sedimentation: The water and floc flow into the next chamber, where they are made to rest. The
heavy floc settles down at the bottom of the chamber, from where they are moved to the waste disposal
system. The water is then moved to the next chamber.
4. Filtration: Water is made to pass through layers of gravel, sand and charcoal. The gravel layer is
often about 1 foot deep and the sand layer about 2½ feet deep. They help to filter out any remaining
particles.
5. Chlorination: The last step that is involved in this process is chlorination. Water goes into a closed
tank or reservoir. Chlorine or other disinfecting chemicals are added to the water and they kill any
remaining microorganisms or bacteria in the water, as chlorine is highly toxic. This keeps the water
clean and infection free.
130 Chemistry
In case, ground water is being treated in the water treatment plant, then chlorination might be the
only step required to purify the water.
Other Methods
1. UV filtration: An effective method for further disinfecting bacteria from the water is UV filtration.
UV rays penetrate harmful microorganisms in water and kill them by attacking their DNA. This
eliminates their ability to reproduce. This method is simple, effective and environmentally safe. UV
systems can destroy majority of harmful microorganisms.
2. Reverse osmosis: To eliminate contaminants such as chlorine, heavy metals and VOCs (volatile
organic compounds), UV systems are coupled with reverse osmosis systems.
When two solutions with different concentrations of a solute are separated by a semipermeable
membrane, the solvent has a tendency to move from low to high solute concentrations for maintaining
equilibrium.The process is known as osmosis.
In reverse osmosis, a solvent is forced from a region of high solute concentration through a
semipermeable membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure more than
the osmotic pressure.
3. Zeolites: Zeolites are solids that possess an open, three-dimensional crystal structure. Their
constituent elements include aluminium, oxygen and silicon, with alkali or alkaline earth metals
(such as sodium, potassium and magnesium). They possess gaps between them where molecules of
water are trapped.
Zeolites find application in water softeners and water filters. In ion-exchange water softeners, hard
water (rich in calcium and magnesium ions) is made to pass through a zeolite column. The zeolites
contain sodium in them, which they release into the water after trapping the calcium and magnesium
ions. The water becomes softer and rich in sodium. In a similar fashion, zeolites can absorb soluble/
insoluble micro-impurities from drinking water as well.
132 Chemistry
Practice Questions
1. The best technique to separate two (a) Chlorine (b) Ozone
immiscible liquids is: (c) Nitrogen (d) Oxygen
(a) Chromatography 7. Consider the following statements:
(b) Sublimation
1. All metals are good conductors of
(c) Centrifugation
heat and electricity.
(d) None of the above
2. All non-metals are poor conductors
2. Sugar dissolves easily in hot milk of heat and electricity.
because: Which of the statements given above is/
(a) Intermolecular force of attraction in are correct?
particles of hot milk is high. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(b) Volume of milk increases on (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
heating. 8. Consider the following statements:
(c) Added energy makes dissolving of
1. All chemical processes are
sugar easier
irreversible.
(d) None of the above
2. Heat and light are absorbed in a
3. Which one of the following materials is chemical process but are never
suitable for water purification? released.
(a) Silicones (b) Zeolites Which of the statements given above is/
(c) Asbestos (d) Quartz are correct?
(a) 1 only
4. Which one of the following is not a (b) 2 only
chemical change? (c) Both 1 and 2
(a) Burning of coal in air (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) Fermentation of sugarcane juice
9. Consider the following statements:
(c) Crystallisation of table salt from sea
water 1. Properties of the constituents of
(d) Cracking of petroleum mixture are totally different from
that of the final mixture.
5. Which one of the following gases is used 2. The composition of a mixture is
for the purification of drinking water? universally fixed.
(a) Sulphur dioxide 3. The constituents of a mixture can be
(b) Chlorine separated physically.
(c) Fluorine Which of the statements given above is/
(d) Carbon dioxide are correct?
(a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
6. The water pollution in river is measured
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
by the dissolved amount of
10. Match the following: 12. Consider the following statements:

1. Homogeneous a. Distilled water 1. Size of particles of suspension is
solution greater than 1 mm.
2. Particles in a suspension exhibit
2. Heterogeneous b. Milk
Tyndall effect.
solution
3. Suspensions are stable as the particles
3. Colloidal c. Orange juice settle down when left undisturbed.
solution with pulp Which of the statements given above is/
1 2 3 are correct?
(a) a b c (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(b) b c a (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) c b a 13. Match the following:
(d) a c b
Type of Colloid Example
11. Consider the following statements:
1. Aerosols a. Sponge
1. Brass is an alloy of copper and tin.
2. Foam b. Fog
2. Solder is an alloy of tin and lead.
3. Bronze is an alloy of copper and 3. Emulsion c. Butter
zinc. 4. Gel d. Milk
Which of the statements given above is/ 1 2 3 4
are correct? (a) b a d c
(a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (b) a d c b
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) b d a c
(d) a c d b
PERFECTING PAST PRELIMS

1. What are rubies and sapphires chemically (a) The formation of hydrochloric acid
known as? (2008) when chlorine is added to water.
(a) Silicon dioxide (b) The formation of hypochlorous acid
(b) Aluminium oxide when chlorine is added to water.
(c) Lead tetroxide (c) The formation of nascent oxygen
(d) Boron nitride when chlorine is added to water.
2. Chlorination is a process used for water (d) The formation of hydrogen when
purification. The disinfecting action of chlorine is added to water.
chlorine is mainly due to (2010)
Solutions for
Practice
Questions and
Perfecting Past
Prelims

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General Science

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2 FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION 8

4 WORK AND ENERGY 26

How Is Reverberation Different from Echo? 36

9 MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 82

11 LASER (LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION) 101

2 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE? 117

3 ATOMS AND MOLECULES 135

4 METALS AND NON-METALS 148

13 Alkaline Earth Metals (Group II) 165

5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 170

6 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 178

7 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 188

Neutralisation Reaction 189

UNIT – III BIOLOGY

1 CELL: UNIT OF LIFE 201

2 PLANT DIVERSITY 214

3 ANIMAL DIVERSITY 221

4 HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION 231

5 LIFE PROCESSES 247

6 CONTROL AND COORDINATION 265

7 REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS 273

8 WHY DO WE FALL ILL? 282

Solutions for Practice Questions and Perfecting Past Prelims 299

About the Print–Digital Learning Model

1. Videos covering important and difficult topics

“We cannot accomplish all that we want to do without working together”

4. Magnetic effects of electric current

6. Water purification process

10. X-linked recessive inheritance

1 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Difference Between a Vector Quantity and a Scalar Quantity

2 UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM MOTION

3 RATE OF MOTION (SPEED)

The other SI units are derived from these units.

4 SPEED WITH DIRECTION (VELOCITY)

Velocity of an Object Moving in Circular Path

Final and Initial Velocity

Rate of Change in Velocity (Acceleration)

Acceleration of a Body Moving in a Circular Direction

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (a)

Difference Between Physical and Chemical Processes

1 TYPES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

Dispersed Dispersing Type Example

Differences Among Various Types of Mixtures

Solution Suspension Colloid

6 SEPARATING THE COMPONENTS OF A MIxTURE

Use of Fractional Distillation to Obtain Different Gases from Air

7 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESS

10. Match the following: 12. Consider the following statements:

PERFECTING PAST PRELIMS

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