4

WIND ENERGY
Learning Outcome: 1

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

 Fully comprehend the significance of energy to sociocultural growth
 Explain the significant role played by the wind in the energy sector in recent years
 Engage confidently in discuss related to wind power technology
 Discuss the concepts of photovoltaic effect, greenhouse effect, solar heating water
system, Sun as a fusion reactor
 Engage knowledgably in the debate, “Is solar energy the answer to weaning the
world off fossil fuels?”

Overview
 Energy from the Wind Electron Flow by Solar Energy
 Wind speed distributions
 Influence of surroundings and height
 Power content of the wind - Fundamental Equation of Wind Power
 Efficiency in Extracting Wind Power
 The wind shaft configuration
 Lift and Drag Forces of the Wind
 The Wind Turbine Subsystem
4.1 Energy from the Wind
The power of wind has been utilized by man many centuries ago with historic
designs called windmills, constructed from wood and stone for the purpose of
grinding grains. The historic designs were generally cumbersome and inefficient
with somewhat difficulties in maintenance. These earlier challenges 2

discouraged the use of windmills till the beginning of the 20th century when
knowledge base in aerodynamics and advances in materials were made.
Wind power devices have now evolved into simpler designs with ease of
maintainability and are now used to drive turbines in order to produce
electricity.

4.1.1 Wind, what is it? Simply put, it is atmospheric air mass in motion caused by
convective processes or differences in air pressure. The wind energy is sometime
describes as a form of indirect solar energy due to its source. Wind is largely as
a result of the air pressure differential associated with the temperature rise of
the atmospheric air caused by solar irradiance of the air masses.

Wind resources are particularly high in coastal areas because wind can move
unhindered across the smooth surface of the sea. Furthermore, temperature
differences between water and land cause local compensating streams; the
land breeze and the sea breeze.

4.1.2 Land and Sea breeze: The sun heats the land more quickly than the water
during the day. This temperature differential stimulates air motion in such a
way that the lighter air masses on the land is “blown” from the land by the
heavier sea air masses. This convective process whereby warmer air rising on
the land is replaced by breeze coming from the sea is called the Sea breeze.
However, at night, the reversed convective process happens. The land quickly
loses its heat while the water retains its warmth; the air over the water is
warmer and less dense. This pressure differential induces the cold and dense air
on the land (land breeze) to move to the water surface to substitute the
warmer and rising air.
4.2 Wind speed distributions
Wind speed distributions are mostly used to estimate the annual available
wind energy. These distributions are estimated using measurements, wind
maps or computer analysis. Tables or statistical functions can give the
distribution.
The mean wind speed can be easily calculated using: 3

𝜐 = ∑ ℎ(𝜐). 𝜐 (4.1)

However, the mean wind speed can only partly describe the potential of a
site, because the wind distribution may be continuous wind or long calm
periods interspersed with periods of very high wind speeds. The wind energy in
these two cases can be totally different. Nevertheless, the mean wind speed is
often used to give the site quality.
A wind speed frequency distribution gives much better information about the
wind conditions of a certain site than the mean wind speed. The frequency
distribution can be given as tables with wind speed intervals or as statistical
functions. The most common statistical functions that are used for wind power
calculations are the Weibull and the Rayleigh distributions. The description of
these two wind speed distribution functions is not one of the objectives of this
course.

4.3 Influence of surroundings and height

Figure 4.1: a wind generator farm

The wind speed is usually recorded at a height

of 10 m. Hills or mountains influence the wind
speed significantly. On top of a mountain or
on the luff side, which is perpendicular to the
wind the wind speed, can rise to become
double the uninfluenced value. In contrast,
the wind speed is much lower on the lee side.
Obstacles, plants or hills near a wind generator site can slow the wind
significantly. Single obstacles are no problem if the total rotor area is over
three times higher than the obstacle or if there is sufficient distance between
the wind generator and the obstacle. Without proper clearance, wind
turbulence can reduce the usable wind energy. The wind speed increases with
the height from ground because the wind is slowed down by the roughness of 4

the ground. Wind generators usually have hub heights of more than 10 metres.

4.3 Power content of the wind - Fundamental Equation of Wind Power

Wind power depends on:
1. Volume of air
2. Speed of air
3. Mass of air (density) flowing through the
area of interest (flux).
The energy possessed by an air mass (wind)
flowing with a speed v is kinetic and it is given as K.E = ½mv2.
The power possessed is derived by differentiating the energy with respect to
time.
𝑑(𝐾.𝐸) 𝑑𝑚
= ½v2 (4.2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

But density is related with mass by ρxV = m

𝑑𝑚 𝑑(ρxV)
Thus, = (4.3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

and volume V is a defined as V = Cross sectional area, A x thickness, x

𝑑𝑚 𝑑(ρ.A.x) 𝑑(x)
Hence, = = 𝜌. 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
where = 𝜐 and finally the power of the
𝑑𝑡

wind
P = ½ 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝜐3 (4.4)
The density of air ρ varies with the air pressure p and temperature Ɵ. The
density changes proportionally to the air pressure at constant temperature.
Table 4.1 shows the density change for different temperatures at constant
pressure.
Table 4.1: Density of air as a function of temperature
Temperature Ɵ -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
in ˚C
Density 𝝆 in 1.377 1.324 1.275 1.230 1.188 1.149 1.112
kg/m3
5

For the utilization of wind power a technical system such as a wind turbine
should take as much power from the wind as possible. This turbine slows the
wind from speed v1 to speed v2 and uses the corresponding power difference.
If this happened in a pipe with rigid walls at constant pressure, the wind speed
v2 would change with the initial wind speed v1, because the same amount of
air that enters the pipe must leave it. Hence, the mass flow of the air before
and after the wind turbine is the same.

Wind turbines slow down the wind when converting wind energy into
electricity; however, the mass flow before and after the wind turbine remains
constant. The wind flows through a larger cross-section after passing through
the wind turbine as shown in Figure 4.2. For constant pressure and density ρ of
the air, the mass flow is:

Figure 4.2: Theoretical Change of Wind

Speed in a Turbine
𝑑𝑚 𝑑(x)
= 𝜌. 𝐴 = 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑣 = constant
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Thus, 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝜐1 = 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝜐2 (4.5)
Hence, the wind speed (average) is
evaluated as
𝑣 = ½(𝜐1 + 𝜐2) (4.6)
at the height of the wind turbine.
The power PT taken from the wind can be calculated from the difference in
wind speeds:
𝑑𝑚
PT = ½ x x (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) (4.7)
𝑑𝑡
 PT = ½ x 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑣 x (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) and putting in eqtn 4.6, we get
PT = ½ x 𝜌. 𝐴. ½(𝜐1 + 𝜐2)x (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ), simplifying,

PT = ¼ x𝜌. 𝐴.(𝜐1 + 𝜐2) x (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ), (4.8)

4.4 Efficiency in Extracting Wind Power
The ideal maximum power: The ratio of the power extracted from the wind 6

with the operation of the turbine to the wind power obtainable without a
turbine is called the power coefficient CP and is defined mathematically as,
CP = PT / P (4.9)
However, the wind power without the influence of the turbine and as
evaluated earlier eqtn 4.4
P = ½ 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑣13
Thus, CP = ¼ x𝜌. 𝐴.(𝜐1 + 𝜐2) x (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) / ½ 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑣13
CP = (𝜐1 + 𝜐2) x (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) / 2𝑣13
Simplifying, CP = (𝑣13 - 𝜐1𝑣22 + 𝜐2𝑣12 - 𝑣23 ) / 2𝑣13
Thus, CP = ½ (1 - 𝑣22 /𝑣12 + 𝜐2/𝜐1 - 𝑣23 /𝑣13 ) (4.10)
𝜐2/𝜐1 = ß gives the ideal wind speed ratio
Betz has calculated the maximum power coefficient possible, which is called
𝑑𝐶𝑃
the ideal or Betz power coefficient and it is evaluated at =0
𝑑ß

Hence, differentiating equation 4.10 with respect to the ideal wind speed ratio
and keeping stuff neat, we have
𝑑𝐶𝑃
= ½(0 - 2ß + 1 - 3ß2) = 0, hence 3ß2 + 2ß – 1 = 0  (3ß - 1)(ß + 1) = 0
𝑑ß

ß = -1 or ß = 1/3. Since the velocity ratio are positive and real numbers, ß = 1/3.
Substituting this value ß = 1/3 (𝜐2/𝜐1 = 1/3) into eqtn 4.10 and simplifying gives
the Betz power coefficient, 𝐶𝑝,𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑧 = 0.592. In effect, If a wind turbine slows
down air with an initial wind speed 𝜐1 to one third of 𝜐1 (𝜐2 = 1/3 · 𝜐1), the
theoretical maximum power can be taken, and this maximum is about 59.2
per cent of the power content of the wind. 59.2% efficiency is the best a
conventional wind turbine can do in extracting power from the wind.
The Real maximum power efficiency: In practice, the wind power generated is
far less than that derived above and the power coefficient of real systems has
been determined to fall within 0.4 and 0.5.

4.5 The wind shaft configuration

The orientation of the shaft and rotational axis determines the first
7
classification of the wind turbine. A turbine with a shaft mounted horizontally
parallel to the ground is known as a horizontal axis wind turbine or (HAWT).
A vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) has its shaft normal to the ground (Figure
4.3)

Figure 4.3: Alternative configurations for shaft and rotor orientation.

The two configurations have different rotor designs and with its favourable
characteristics.
Table 4.2: VAWT vs. HAWT
VAWT HAWT
Low tip speed ratio and difficulty in controlling
rotor speed
Difficulties in the starting
requires no additional mechanism to face the
wind and heavy generator equipment can be
mounted on the ground, thus reducing tower
loads

Figure 4.3: Wind Turbine Configurations and Design Parameters

4.6 Lift and Drag Forces of the Wind

Figure 4.4: Turbine

Aerodynamics

The following are the wind

9
turbine configuration in use:
2. Drag-type,
3. Magnus-effect wind plants,
4. Vortex wind plants.
1. Lift-type,
The Lift and Drag types are commonly adopted in practice.
4.6.1 The Drag-type Device: In this device type, the wind generates a force
parallel to the direction it is blowing. If an object is set up perpendicularly to
the wind, the wind exerts a force FD on the object. The wind speed v, the
effective object area A and the drag coefficient CD, which depends on the
object shape, define the drag force:

FD = CD . ½ . ρ . A . 𝜐 2 (4.11)
Figure 4.5 shows drag coefficients for various shapes. With PD = FD · 𝜐, the
power to counteract the force becomes:
PD = CD . ½ . ρ . A . 𝜐 3 (4.12)

Figure 4.5: Drag Coefficients for Various Shapes

4.6.2 The Lift-type Device: In a lift-type machine, the wind generates a
force perpendicular to the direction it is blowing. This type of device operating
mechanism is analogous to buoyance. If wind, which circulates around a body,
develops higher flow speeds along the upper surface than along the lower, an
overpressure emerges at the upper surface and an under pressure at the
lower. The result is a buoyancy force, according to Bernoulli: 10

FL = CL . ½ . ρ . AP . 𝑣𝐴2 (4.11)
The buoyancy force is calculated using the lift coefficient cL, the air density ρ,
the apparent wind speed vA and the projected body area AP. Rotor blades of
modern wind generators usually make use of the buoyancy force. The
projected area
AP = t.r (4.12)
of a rotor blade is defined by the chord t and span that is approximately
equal to the rotor radius r.

Figure 4.6: Wind Speeds and Rotor Motion.

Drag forces, which have been described in the section about drag devices, also
have effects on lift devices:
FD = CD . ½ . ρ . A . 𝜐 2 (From equation 4.11)
However, the buoyancy force on a drag device is much higher than the drag
force. The ratio of both forces is called the lift-drag ratio ε:
ε = FL / FD = CL / CD (4.13)
In practice rotor designs suffer from the accumulation of minor losses resulting
from:
a) Tip losses
b) Wake effects
c) Blade shape simplification losses
d) Drive train efficiency losses 11

Figure 4.8: The wind force direction

Figure 4.7: The wind force direction
in a Lift type device
in a Drag type device

4.7 The Wind Turbine Subsystem

 Foundation  Generator  Power
 Tower  Electronics & Electronics
 Nacelle Controls  Cooling
 Hub & Rotor  Yaw  Diagnostic
 Drivetrain  Pitch
 Gearbox  Braking
Detail descriptions of these components shall be discussed in later module of
the course.
 12

Figure 4.9: Section through the Stall-controlled TW600 Wind Generator

 13

Figure 4.10: Section through a typical wind generator