Welding Workshop

Definition:
Join together (metal parts) by heating the surfaces to the point of melting with a blowpipe,
electric arc, or other means, and uniting them by pressing, hammering, etc.

Types of welding:

Fusion welding:
Fusion welding is a generic term for welding processes that rely upon melting to join materials of
similar compositions and melting points.
Types of fusion welding include:

 Arc welding
 Oxy-fuel welding
 Electric resistance welding
 Laser beam welding
 Electron beam welding
 Thermite welding

Pressure Welding
Pressure welding is a process in which external pressure is applied to produce welded joints
either at temperatures below the melting point, which is solid state welding, or at a temperature
above the melting point, which is fusion state welding.

Types of pressure welding include:

 Spot welding
 Forged welding

Welding Methods:

 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) - also known as "stick welding", uses
an electrode that has flux, the protectant for the puddle, around it. The electrode holder
holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from
atmospheric contamination.

 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) - also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a non-
consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as Argon or Helium.
  Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) - commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a wire
feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas
or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from
atmospheric contamination.

 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) - almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a
special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas,
depending on the filler.

 Submerged arc welding (SAW) - uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a
blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.

Welding Joint:
A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined
together.

Types of Joints:

Safe practices pertaining to gas cutting:

 Gas cylinder must be prevented from sharp impact with one another or the ground.
 Acetylene cylinder must always be kept upright.
 Cylinders should be stored in a well-protected, well ventilated dry location, well away
from highly combustible material
 Moving cylinders never use gas without proper pressure regulators.
 One should not smoke where cylinders are stored.
  Cylinder valves should be closed after completion of work.
 Do not tamper with number and marking on cylinder Keep all cylinders chained, they
should be chained individually and not as group
 Before connecting the pressure regulator to a cylinder valve, the valve should be opened
slightly and closed. This is called cracking and is done to remove dirt. To test for leak
soap solutions should be used.
 Never attempt to mix gases in a cylinder.

General Precautions:
 Remove any combustible material before starting welding.
 Do not weld in confined spaces without adequate ventilation or individual respiratory
equipment.
 When welding inside boiler cylinders must be kept outside and hose and its attachment
tested for leakage.
 Keep a fire extinguisher ready for emergency use.
 Use goggles with nonflammable lenses and frames.
 Do not weld painted or galvanized surfaces in a badly ventilated place.
 Never attempt to relight a blow pipe that has blown out without first closing both the
valves.
 If cutting is to be stopped for a long time, close the cylinder valves and then release all
gas pressure from the regulator by opening torch valves momentarily.

Welding Safety Equipment:

Welding Torches:
A welding torch is a tool that the welder uses to locally melt the metal material of the base part,
allowing the weld to be created. The torch is connected to the gas tanks via hoses that are
designed to prevent backflow of gas or shock waves to the tank. The torch has valves that allow
the welder to finely adjust the flow of each of the gases.
Creating a Flame:
When the welder is ready to start, he opens the valves on the gas tanks and ignites the gas exiting
the torch. The welder then adjusts the ratio of oxygen and fuel gas by opening or closing valves
on the torch. These valves allow the welder to change the properties of the flame depending on
the task at hand.

Neutral Flame:
The neutral flame is the primary flame used by gas welders. A neutral flame has two zones: a
hotter, lighter inner zone and a cooler, darker outer zone. In a neutral flame, all of the fuel gas is
being burned in the process, resulting in a clean flame. The welder uses the tip of the inner flame
zone to heat the parts to be welded, as this is the hottest part of the flame.

Carbonizing Flame:
If the oxygen is reduced, a carbonizing flame is created from a neutral flame. In this case, not all
of the fuel gas is being burned by the flame. A carbonizing flame has three zones, and is cooler
than a neutral flame because the excess carbon acts as an insulator. Carbonizing flames deposit
soot on the work piece that has to be cleaned when the part is cooled, but the addition of carbon
to the metal is desirable in some iron and steel welding applications.

Oxidizing Flame:
An oxidizing flame is caused by increasing the oxygen from a neutral flame. Because of the
excess oxygen, this flame is hotter than the neutral or carbonizing flames. Welders generally do
not use an oxidizing flame, because it can increase the oxides in the base material. However, an
oxidizing flame is used for bronze and brass work.

Preventing welding flashback:

Oxy-acetylene torches have been used for many years for cutting, welding, brazing, and heating
of metals. The equipment used today is safe, but every year, hundreds of employees are injured
or die as a result of improper use. Knowledge and precautions can prevent fires and violent
explosions.

Gas Pressure: One cause of fires and explosions is high acetylene pressure. When more than 15
pounds of pressure is used, acetylene becomes unstable and decomposes explosively. This is the
major reason for using other fuel gases such as MAPP, propylene, propane, and natural gas
which may be safely used at higher operating pressures.
Burn back: If your oxygen cylinder is low or empty, reverse flow of gas may occur. The fuel
gas, being at a higher pressure, can travel up the oxygen line and mix with gas in the hose,
regulator and cylinder. If you light your torch without purging the lines, a burnback may occur
with explosions in the hose, regulator, or cylinder.

Backfire: The same thing can happen with high oxygen pressure and low fuel gas pressure if a
backfire occurs, which is usually caused by holding the cutting torch too close to your work. This
causes gas starvation of the cutting flame and results in the flame being sucked into the torch
head. Usually you will hear a popping sound that turns to a whistle when this happens.
Flashback: When a backfire takes place in a mixing chamber, unless you shut off the oxygen
valve, the flame burning in the torch head may ignite gases in the hoses and result in a flashback.
A flashback is an explosion that progresses through the torch, hoses, regulators, and into the
cylinders. Consequence can range from a burst hose to a violent explosion of the regulator and
cylinders.

There are several things you can do to help prevent flashbacks, fires and explosions:

1. If using acetylene, keep the pressure below 15 pounds.

2. Purge your hoses before lighting the torch.

3. Never light your torch with a mixture of fuel and oxygen. After purging the lines, light the
torch with only the fuel gas valve open.
4. Check valves should be installed on both torch inlets and operating properly. Check valves can
stop the reverse flow of gases, but will not prevent flashbacks.

5. To prevent flashbacks, flashback arrestors must be installed on the outlets of both regulators,
and/or torch inlets.

AWS Classifications of electrodes explained:

The American Welding Society (AWS) numbering system can tell a welder quite a bit about a
specific stick electrode including what application it works best in and how it should be used to
maximize performance. With that in mind, let's take a look at the system and how it works.

The prefix "E" designates an arc welding electrode. The first two digits of a 4-digit number and
the first three digits of 5-digit number indicate minimum tensile strength. For example, E6010 is
a 60,000 psi tensile strength electrode while E10018 designates a 100,000 psi tensile strength
electrode.

E 60 1 10

Electrode Tensile Position Type of Coating and

Strength Current

The next to last digit indicates position. The "1" designates an all position electrode, "2" is for
flat and horizontal positions only; while "4" indicates an electrode that can be used for flat,
horizontal, vertical down and overhead. The last 2 digits taken together indicate the type of
coating and the correct polarity or current to use. See chart below:
Digit Type of Coating Welding Current

0 High cellulose sodium DC+

1 High cellulose potassium AC, DC+ or DC-

2 High titania sodium AC, DC-

3 High titania potassium AC, DC+

4 Iron powder, titania AC, DC+ or DC-

5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+

6 Low hydrogen potassium AC, DC+

7 High iron oxide, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-

8 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-

 WOOD WORKSHOP

Tool:
Comparison between Hard & Soft wood:
Hardwood
Definition Comes from angiosperm trees that are
not monocots; trees are usually broad-
leaved. Has vessel elements that
transport water throughout the wood;
under a microscope, these elements
appear as pores.
Uses Hardwoods are more likely to be found
in high-quality furniture,
decks, flooring, and construction that
needs to last.
Examples Examples of hardwood trees include
alder, balsa, beech, hickory, mahogany,
maple, oak, teak, and walnut.
Density Most hardwoods have a higher density
than most softwoods.
Cost Hardwood is typically more expensive
than softwood.
Growth Hardwood has a slower growth rate.
Shedding Hardwoods shed their leaves over a
of leaves period of time in autumn and winter.
Fire More
Resistance
Softwood
Comes from gymnosperm trees which
usually have needles and cones. Medullary
rays and tracheids transport water and
produce sap. When viewed under a
microscope, softwoods have no visible pores
because of tracheids.
About 80% of all timber comes from
softwood. Softwoods have a wide range of
applications and are found in building
components (e.g., windows, doors),
furniture, medium-density fiberboard
(MDF), paper, Christmas trees, and much
more.
Examples of softwood trees are cedar,
Douglas fir, juniper, pine, redwood, spruce,
and yew.
Most softwoods have a lower density than
most hardwoods.
Softwood is typically less expensive
compared to hardwood.
Softwood has a faster rate of growth.
Softwoods tend to keep their needles
throughout the year.
Poor
The Disadvantages of Wood:

Wood-Destroying Pests:
One of the greatest disadvantages of wood is that a variety of pests are attracted to-- and can
destroy-- wood. Termites, carpenter bees, carpenter ants, powderpost beetles and wood-
devouring fungi are all common wood-destroying pests. These pests are difficult to identify,
expensive to eradicate, and can do great amounts of damage that is virtually invisible until it's
too late to repair.

Durability:
Some types of wood coupled with different types of wood treatments have greatly enhanced the
general durability of wood, but there are many applications for which wood is unsuitable due to
durability issues. In cases where material needs to withstand high weight loads, multiple impacts,
extremely high or low temperatures, metals and synthetic materials are often used in place of
wood. Even in the case of traditionally all-wood applications like fences, durability issues have
increased the use of alternatives such as plastics, which can be formed to give the appearance of
wood, but can last longer with less maintenance.

Moisture:
Moist conditions can, over time, even soften wood treated to withstand moisture, making it
susceptible to wet rot and fungus. Such problems can be very expensive to treat, and often the
best preventative measure is simply to use a material that does not have this vulnerability.
Plastics and nonporous materials are frequently used in applications where high moisture is a
consideration.

Warping:
Age, temperature, and environmental humidity are all factors that can make wood warp.
Depending on conditions, wood may warp by swelling, shrinking, or twisting. This means that in
many fine-calculation applications -- such as in doorways and around windowframes -- the
choice of wood may reduce functionality if the environmental conditions do not meet specific
requirements.

Burning:
Wood, of course, can burn-- making it a less than ideal material to use in applications where fire
safety is a concern. Even worse, some types of treated wood can emit toxic chemicals such as
arsenic, which can be fatal in closed spaces.
Woodshop Specific Safety:
 All powered woodcutting and sanding tools must be run with dust collection or vacuum
equipment connected to the appropriate ports and on at all times.
 Smoke or sparks are bad signs in the woodshop. Stop what you are doing and correct the
problem. Usually correct feed and depth of cut or getting a sharp bit / blade will help.
 All wood must be processed according to our Materials Cutting Chart. Wood considered
highly toxic, or containing lead paint or mold, is never to be machined in the space.
Wood with nails, screws, staples, etc., must not be cut with the large power saws. You
must read the full cutting chart for all details (also posted in the woodshop).
 No metal cutting allowed on woodshop equipment.
 No wet or damp items of any type (including containers, rags, limbs) may be placed or
left on horizontal machine surfaces.
 Clean your machines, your work space, and put all tools away when finished. Scrap wood
should be placed in designated locations. Use vacuums or hand brushes to clean
machinery.
 Food and beverages allowed only on workbenches with ratty tops - never on any machine
table.
 Carriage and Wagon Shop

Definition:
A wagon is the part of a train that is used for transporting goods, produce, food and products
(collectively known as freight).A coach is where people sit (also known as a carriage).

Air brake & Vacuum brake System in trains:

A moving train contains energy, known as kinetic energy, which needs to be removed from the
train in order to cause it to stop. The simplest way of doing this is to convert the energy into
heat. The conversion is usually done by applying a contact material to the rotating wheels or to
discs attached to the axles. The material creates friction and converts the kinetic energy into
heat. The wheels slow down and eventually the train stops. The material used for braking is
normally in the form of a block or pad.

The vast majority of the world's trains are equipped with braking systems which use compressed
air as the force used to push blocks on to wheels or pads on to discs. These systems are known
as "air brakes" or "pneumatic brakes". The compressed air is transmitted along the train through
a "brake pipe". Changing the level of air pressure in the pipe causes a change in the state of the
brake on each vehicle. It can apply the brake, release it or hold it "on" after a partial
application. The system is in widespread use throughout the world.
An alternative to the air brake, known as the vacuum brake, was introduced around the early
1870s, the same time as the air brake. Like the air brake, the vacuum brake system is controlled
through a brake pipe connecting a brake valve in the driver's cab with braking equipment on
every vehicle. The operation of the brake equipment on each vehicle depends on the condition
of a vacuum created in the pipe by an ejector or exhauster. The ejector, using steam on a steam
locomotive, or an exhauster, using electric power on other types of train, removes atmospheric
pressure from the brake pipe to create the vacuum. With a full vacuum, the brake is
released. With no vacuum, i.e. normal atmospheric pressure in the brake pipe, the brake is fully
applied.

The pressure in the atmosphere is defined as 1 bar or about 14.5 lbs. per square inch. Reducing
atmospheric pressure to 0 lbs. per square inch, creates a near perfect vacuum which is measured
as 30 inches of mercury, written as 30 Hg. Each 2 inches of vacuum therefore represents about 1
lb. per square inch of atmospheric pressure.

In the UK, vacuum brakes operated with the brake pipe at 21 Hg, except on the Great Western
Railway which operated at 25 Hg.

The vacuum in the brake pipe is created and maintained by a motor-driven exhauster. The
exhauster has two speeds, high speed and low speed. The high speed is switched in to create a
vacuum and thus release the brakes. The slow speed is used to keep the vacuum at the required
level to maintain brake release. It maintains the vacuum against small leaks in the brake
pipe. The vacuum in the brake pipe is prevented from exceeding its nominated level (normally
21 Hg) by a relief valve, which opens at the setting and lets air into the brake pipe to prevent
further increase.
Train wheel:
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail tracks. A rolling
component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly on a rail car or locomotive or
indirectly on a bogie, also called a truck.

Wheels are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a specific hardness. New wheels
are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles
need to be periodically monitored to insure proper wheel-rail interface. Improperly trued wheels
increase rolling resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation.
A railroad wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre)
around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated and pressed onto
the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools. Monobloc wheels do not have
encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a resilient material, such as rubber, between the
wheel and tire.

Cause of damage:
The most usual cause of damage is drag braking on severe gradients. Because the brake
blocks apply directly on the tire, it is heated up, relaxing the interference fit. It is not feasible to
fit the tire with such a heavy interference as to eliminate this risk entirely, and the retaining ring
will ensure that the tire can only rotate on the wheel center, maintaining its alignment. In rare
instances the rotation could be so severe as to wear the retaining ring down till it breaks, which
could result in derailment.
Severe braking or low adhesion may stop the rotation of the wheels while the vehicle is still
moving can cause a flat spot on the tire and localized heat damage to the tire material.

Tires are reasonably thick, about 3 inches, giving plenty of room for wear. Worn tires or tires
with flats are reprofiled on a wheel lathe if there is sufficient thickness of material remaining.
 Machine Shop

Machine shop:
A machine shop is a room, building, or company where machining is done. In a machine
shop, machinists use machine tools and cutting tools to make parts, usually
of metal or plastic (but sometimes of other materials such as glass or wood). A machine shop can
be a small business (such as a job shop) or a portion of a factory.

Machine Tool:
A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by
cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation.

Examples of machine tools:

Examples of machine tools are:

 Broaching machine
 Drill press
 Gear shaper
 Hobbing machine
 Hone
 Lathe
 Screw machines
 Milling machine
 Shear (sheet metal)
 Shaper
 Saws
 Planer
 Stewart platform mills
 Grinding machines

Methods of cutting:
 Straight cutting
 Tapper cutting
 Step cutting

Types of Lathe Chucks:

Lathe machines are tools that spin blocks of material as abrasive or cutting tools are applied to
the material. Often used to shape objects with rotational symmetry, lathes are used on wood,
metal and other common construction materials. Lathe chucks are an essential part of any lathe
machine as they are important in holding and clamping objects safely and securely in the lathe
machine. There are four basic types of lathe chucks.

Four-Jaw Independent Chuck:

The four-jaw independent chuck is the most affordable type of lathe chuck. In this chuck each
stepped jaw is independently operated by a different screw. Because of this, four-jaw
independent chucks can clamp square, rectangular, round and irregular shaped materials using
between two and all four of the available jaws. However, because of this versatility, using this
chuck can be a slow and grinding process that requires lots of practice and the aid of an indicator
gauge. The jaws of this chuck are also reversible for clamping inside or outside, which is useful
with mixed combinations.

Three- or Six-Jaw Scroll Chuck:

Three- or six-jaw scroll chucks are operated with a key that adjusts all the jaws at once. Scroll
chucks are highly precise, fast and efficient and can work with changes of thousandths of an
inch. However, they are not as accurate as a four-jaw chuck and the jaws are not reversible, so
you need two sets for clamping inside or outside.
Four-Jaw Combination Chuck:
Four-jaw combination chucks combine aspects of four-jaw independent chucks and scroll
chucks. In a four-jaw combination chuck each jaw can be adjusted independently but all the jaws
are opened and closed at the same time using a key. These chucks work well for repetitive work
on square, rectangular or irregular pieces that don't require regular adjustments.

Jacobs Drill Chucks:

Jacobs drill chucks are another common chuck type that work similarly to three-jaw scroll
chucks, but they are designed with a long, accurate grips for use on drill bits and round stock.
Jacobs drill chucks are generally used for drilling tailstock on lathes, but there are special models
than can fit threaded lathe spindles that hold small, round bars in place.
 Carriage & Wagon Shop
CIP (Chief Inspector Production)

Requisition:
An authoritative or formal demand for something to be done, given, supplied, etc.

Requisition may be consist of

 Sample
(To complete order, they copied this sample)
 Drawing
(It’s a detail drawing)
 Sketch
(It’s made by hand)

It is also mentioned in requisition that which process has to be chosen to manufacture that part
for example we have selected forging, casting or machining etc.

Check feasibility:
After getting requisition, feasibility is checked whether they can fulfill this order or not.

CIP:
He prepared prove sheet (worked) that is called Production Work Order in technical language. In
this sheet, each & every operation is arranged in series .After each operation, inspection is done.

Prove Sheet:
In this sheet, each & every operation is arranged in series .After each operation, inspection is
done.it consist of drawing number, material detail etc.

MP note:
After manufacturing of part, material production note is prepared that sent to store.

Section in CIP office:

1. Planning Section
2. Rate Section
3. Evaluation Section
4. Ganting Section

Money Transection:
There are four color copies of MP note.one is sent to account bank that prepare TC which is sent
to division.
Production Organization:

DS (Divisional Superidant)

WM (Work Manager) PM (Production Mechanical Engineer)

AWMP (Assistant work manager production)

AWMG (Assistant work manager general)

AMMC (Assistant work manager carriage)

AWMW (Assistant work manager wagon)

CIP (head)

Foreman grade 1

Charge Man

Mistri

Workman
Cost Evaluation:
Labor (time) + Store (material) = primary cost
Labor (time) + Overhead charges = shop on cost

*overhead charges = its indirect work.

Primary cost + Shop on cost = unit cost

PM:
PM (Production engineer mechanical) is head of carriage shop, loco shop, steel shop and power
house.

Section of Production Office:

Planning section:
Plan the manufacturing of job.

Granting section:
Reserve machine for that job.

Machinery and equipment section:

Do maintenance, purchase and repair.

Rate and evaluation section:

Determine the cost.

Material dispatch section:

Dispatch material for out of division order.

Missleanous section:
Requisition that is out of division is deal here.

POC:
This is charges of officers in head quarter. POC mean is performa on cost.

Time Study:
In this section, job is observed and have a idea which nature of work is required. Then planning
of operation is done and operation is measured.33 percent allowances are added.
 Spring Shop

Material:
Spring steel SUP-9 is used for manufacturing of springs.

Chemical composition of SUP-9:

Manganese 0.65 to 0.95 %

Silicon 0.15 to 0.35 %

Chromium 0.65 to 0.95 %

Carbon 0.5 to 0.60 %

Sulphur 0.035 % maximum

Phosphorous 0.035 % maximum

Manufacturing Process of Coil Spring:

Cutting of bars:
Bars are heated and cut to the required size bar cropping machine.

Bar realign and grinding:

This operation not 100% done due to lack of machine,

End tempering:
Both the ends of bars are heated alternately and tampered on hammer.

Coiling:
There are two bar heating temperature controlled furnaces attached with two coiling machines.
Bars are heated in these furnaces and the temperature is maintained from 860 degree to 900
degree.
Setting and Spacing:
After coiling, spring is placed on faceplate. The coil pitch and total height is set by fixture made
for this purpose. After it smiting is done.

Hardening:
After setting the spring it is again heated in a temperature controlled hardening furnace, where
temperature is is 830-860 degree. Spring is quenched in oil tank after it where temperature is
180-210 degree. Hardness of 375BHN to 425BHN is required.

Tempering:
It is done in two temperature controlled furnaces where temperature is 480-510 degree. There is
conveyor belt in furnace and after hardening spring is placed on conveyor belt.in furnace 45 will
be taken by spring.

Scragging:
Its capacity is 35 tons per sq. Each spring is compressed 5 to 6 times.so that coils are closed and
load is removed. After it length is checked.
Grinding:
Both ends of spring are grinded so that spring are properly placed on the desired place.

Load Testing:
5% of spring are loaded variously and deflection is noted and their behavior is noted.

Inspection:

Spring are finally inspected for any crack and inspection department checks final height.

Painting:
Finally spring are painted with red oxide and dispatched to store.
 Millwright Shop

Sections:

Weighing Machine section:

Here are different types of weighing machines to weigh engines. Like

 Weight bridge
 Weight machine
 Spring salter
 Beam scale

Cash Safe:
Here they have a cash safe which can be lock at every angle.

Overhead Electric Canes:

To lift and transform heavy things from one place to other cranes are used.

Pump Section:
Here they have different type of pump like centrifugal or rotary pumps. They do their repair and
maintenance.

Air Compressor:

Here air is compressed from 14.7 to 90 pounds per square. This air used to run furnace burnolic
system.

Road Cranes:

They are run by tires. Those things which are out of railway crane range are lifted by it.

Chain and Wire Rope System:

Here chain and ropes are checked, tested and repaired.1 rope, 2 rope, 3 rope and 4 rope wire are
here.

Terminal connection of chain slings:

 Ring
  Egg link
 Hook

Terminal connection of wire rope sling:

 Ring
 Egg link
 Hook
 Tumble

Smithy Section:

Boiler are here and steam is used in this section of 80-90 Ib pressure.

Machine Shop

Three types of raw material is found here from which products are made.

 Bars
  Casted
 Frogged

Every type of raw material has its own section for manufacturing.

Light things section:

In this section small machines are exist and small type product are repaired or manufactured
here.

Heavy things section:

In this section large machines are exist and bigger type product are repaired or manufactured
here.

Different types of machines also have their own section.in one section only type of machine exist
like

 Center lath section

 Capstan lath section etc.