PRESCHOOL ASSESSMENT

Preschool
ASSESSMENT
Principles and Practices

MARLA R. BRASSARD
ANN E. BOEHM

THE GUILFORD PRESS

New York London
©2007 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012
www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording,
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brassard, Marla R.
Preschool assessment : principles and practices / Marla R. Brassard, Ann E. Boehm.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59385-333-4 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-59385-333-5 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Child development—Evaluation. 2. Ability—Testing. 3. Education, Preschool.
I. Boehm, Ann E., 1938– II. Title.
LB1131.B623 2007
372.126—dc22
2006039103
 To our beloved husbands,
George Litchford and Neville Kaplan

To our fellow early childhood assessors,

committed to improving the lives of young children

In memory of the late Mary Alice White,

who trained us as scientist-practitioners
 About the Authors

Marla R. Brassard, PhD, Associate Professor in the School Psychology Program at

Teachers College, Columbia University, has been assessing preschool children and their
families in research settings, public schools, and university clinics for over 25 years. Her
research focuses on psychological maltreatment of children—its assessment, the emo-
tional/behavioral injuries that result, and contextual factors that moderate the effect of
maltreatment (particularly the role of schools, teachers, and peer relationships). Dr.
Brassard has published two books on this topic—Psychological Maltreatment of Children
and Youth (coedited with Robert Germain and Stuart N. Hart, 1987) and Psychological
Maltreatment of Children (coauthored with Nelson J. Binggeli and Stuart N. Hart,
2001)—and many articles, chapters, special issues of journals, and pamphlets for parents
and educators. In addition, she cochaired the task force that wrote the Guidelines for the
Psychosocial Evaluation of Suspected Psychological Maltreatment (American Profes-
sional Society on the Abuse of Children, 1995). Instrument development in the area of
psychological aggression/maltreatment has been another area of focus (Psychological
Maltreatment Rating Scales, Teacher Psychological Aggression Scale). Dr. Brassard also
investigates psychological aggression in teacher–student and peer relationships, and its
impact on children’s functioning, in a longitudinal study of secondary school children.
She has worked in prisons, preschools, schools, and clinics with disabled, maltreated, and
other troubled children and youth, and has taught courses and supervised practica in the
university clinic in this area for over 25 years.

Ann E. Boehm, PhD, Professor Emerita in the School Psychology Program at Teachers
College, Columbia University, is well known for her groundbreaking work in identifying
the importance of young children’s knowledge of basic relational concepts (e.g., next to,

vii
viii About the Authors

after, first) to their understanding of teacher and text directions. She has developed two
widely used early childhood tests to assess this knowledge—the Boehm Test of Basic Con-
cepts, Third Edition, for grades K–2 (2000), and the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts, Third
Edition: Preschool (2001)—and is working on editions of both tests for children with
visual impairments. She is the author (with Richard Weinberg) of The Classroom
Observer (third edition) and has written extensively on assessment issues at the early
childhood level. Dr. Boehm also cosponsors an annual conference and teaches a graduate
course entitled “Observing and Assessing the Preschool Child.” Her research interests
include cross-cultural development of relational concepts used in different direction for-
mats, the role of comprehension in direction following, and intergenerational literacy. She
has been a preschool psychologist, a teacher, and a consultant for Head Start. Most of her
teaching has been focused on the psychoeducational assessment of young children,
practica on cognitive functioning, and issues regarding the practice of school psychology.
 Preface

T his book presents an integrated analysis of the issues and practices of preschool
assessment, from our perspective as practicing clinicians-researchers. The book is written
both for graduate students and for practicing assessors, including school and child clini-
cal psychologists, early childhood and special educators, learning disability specialists,
and speech–language specialists. Designed to be a primary text in courses on preschool/
early childhood assessment and a manual for clinical practice, the book focuses on how
to think about assessment issues, select appropriate measures and procedures (extensive
test reviews are presented), and integrate diverse information for use in decision making;
there is less emphasis on how to administer tests. The book offers a synopsis of current
research, federal laws, and practice relevant to preschool assessment, illustrated with
actual case examples. It describes our thinking as we (1) share a comprehensive develop-
mental model of preschool assessment; (2) describe how to establish and evaluate screen-
ing programs for instructional and child-finding purposes; (3) present suggestions for
establishing good working relationships with families of children ages 3–6 from diverse
backgrounds; (4) collect information relevant to understanding developmental problems
and making diagnoses; and (5) link assessment findings to intervention and program
planning.
With the passage of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, promoting chil-
dren’s early language and cognitive development has become federal policy. The require-
ments of the NCLB legislation have further prodded state policymakers into defining the
goals of formal schooling and articulating early learning standards for their preschool
populations. States are increasingly funding universal programs as legislators take note of
the research supporting the efficacy of these programs in preparing young children to

ix
x Preface

learn when they start formal schooling, especially children from low-income and minor-
ity populations.
The need for preschool programs to promote all areas of children’s development is
only gradually being acknowledged. When Scott-Little, Kagan, and Frelow (2006)
reviewed 46 early learning standards documents developed by state-level organizations
and compared them with the five domains of school readiness identified by the National
Education Goals Panel (NEGP, 1997), they found an almost universal emphasis on the
domains of language and communication development and of cognition and general
knowledge. There was a relative lack of attention to the domains of physical well-being,
social and emotional development, and approaches to learning (e.g., task persistence)—
all of which research shows to be important for school success. We hope that states’ early
learning standards will evolve into comprehensive multidomain standards that target the
whole child, as emphasized in this text.
These government initiatives expand the role of early childhood assessors—hitherto
focused primarily on assessment and placement of preschool children with disabilities—
into consultation around what to assess, what measures to use, and what curricula to
select in order to achieve these early learning standards. This book covers assessment of
all of the NEGP domains of school readiness except physical well-being. Moreover, it
goes beyond these domains by covering assessment of the strengths and needs of
preschool/kindergarten children within the contexts of the home, childcare center, school,
and other learning environments, and the integration of this information in planning
interventions that address the whole child. The focus on children 3 through 6 years of age
includes the traditional transition points from early intervention to preschool, from pre-
school to kindergarten, and from kindergarten to the formal learning demands of first
grade.
The two of us have been preschool psychologists and have taught and supervised
practica in this area for over 20 years. We contributed equally to the conceptualization
and writing of this book and flipped a coin to determine the order of authorship. The two
chapters on cognitive assessment and assessment of children with mental retardation
were written by Susan Vig, PhD, and Michelle Sanders, PsyD. We are grateful that our
readers can benefit, as have we, from their extensive experience and scholarship in these
areas.

ORIENTATION TO THE BOOK

Chapter 1 surveys the contexts (legal, demographic, social) in which preschool assessors
do their work, as well as the protective and risk factors that affect children’s functioning.
Chapter 2 presents our theoretical model of preschool assessment, describes the assess-
ment process, and notes the characteristics of preschool children that are relevant to
assessment. In Chapter 3, we review the technical characteristics of assessment measures
administered to preschool children, in order to help assessors select tests and interpret
results. Chapter 4 presents what we consider the key technique for assessment of pre-
schoolers: observation of the child. Chapter 5 describes observation of the childcare/
preschool environment. In Chapter 6, developmental screening practices and assessment
are covered in detail, so that readers can select appropriate measures for their population
and implement a program in their district or agency. Chapter 7 critiques traditional
approaches to readiness assessment and details the importance of instructional screening
 Preface xi

for emergent literacy. Curriculum-based assessment, portfolio assessment, strategy assess-

ment, and testing modifications are also presented. Chapter 8 reviews the major models
of family assessment and intervention; discusses how to develop a productive working
relationship with families; and presents a model of family assessment as a collaborative
approach to identifying critical aspects of family functioning for support and/or change.
Chapter 9, on the assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse children and their
families, examines a great deal of information on becoming culturally sensitive and self-
aware; it also discusses bilingualism, bilingual education, and culturally sensitive assess-
ment practices.
Chapter 10 covers the major areas that early childhood assessors, who are not
speech–language specialists, need to know about language development and assessment,
in order to promote development in this area. In Chapters 11 and 12, Susan Vig and
Michelle Sanders describe critical aspects of cognitive development during the preschool
period, and then review current measures in terms of how validly they capture the cogni-
tive functioning of preschool children—especially those most likely to be referred for a
cognitive evaluation, children with mental retardation. Chapter 13 discusses the screen-
ing, diagnosis, and treatment of children with autism spectrum disorders. Chapter 14 is
based on the research-supported premise that emotional development leads directly to
social development, and socioemotional competence is as important as cognitive skills in
determining school success. It presents emotional milestones and the factors that influ-
ence them; a model for assessing emotional skills, as well as curricula that promote such
skills; diagnostic models for children with emotional and behavioral problems; and an
assessment approach for these children, along with useful measures. Case studies are used
throughout the book to illustrate assessment strategies and measures, as well as possible
interventions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have encouraged us and have contributed to the development of this
book; we are very grateful to them all. Many years ago we were motivated by Sharon
Panulla, who then worked at The Guilford Press, to write the book. After Sharon’s
departure, we were encouraged by Chris Jennison, who had confidence in us through
the years of research and writing the chapters. Craig Thomas has helped us greatly to
pull everything together with high-quality suggestions. Finally, we deeply appreciate the
marvelous editing by our copy editor, Marie Sprayberry, and production editor, Anna
Nelson.
We would also like to thank the many graduate assistants who have been of great
help in finding and reviewing tests and materials, including Pooja Vekaria, Anna Ward,
Kera Miller, Natascha Crandall, Arjan Graybill, Chris Mullen, Melania Puza Pearl,
and Lindsay Reddington; the secretaries who have worked with us throughout this
project, Colleen Wood and Laura Stellato; our students, anonymous reviewers, and
colleagues (Lois Dreyer, Richard Weinberg, Virginia Stolarski, Denise Green, Maria
Hartman) who have critiqued chapters, offering many helpful recommendations; and the
family members who co-read chapters (including our husbands and Lydia and Shaina
Brassard). Most importantly, we would like to thank our husbands, George Litchford
and Neville Kaplan, for their unending patience, encouragement, and pressure to finish
“THE BOOK” that has consumed our lives for these many years.
 Contents

Chapter 1. A Framework for Preschool Assessment 1

Chapter 2. A Multifactor Ecocultural Model of Assessment 22

and the Assessment Process

Chapter 3. Technical Concerns 41

Chapter 4. Observation of the Child 64

Chapter 5. Observation of Environments 101

Chapter 6. Screening Practices and Procedures: 133

A Focus on Developmental Screening

Chapter 7. Assessment of Early Academic Learning 170

Chapter 8. Family Assessment 226

Chapter 9. Assessment of Linguistically and Culturally Diverse 279

Preschoolers: Increasing Culturally Sensitive Practices

Chapter 10. Assessment of Language Development 315

Chapter 11. Cognitive Assessment 383

SUSAN VIG and MICHELLE SANDERS

xiii
xiv Contents

Chapter 12. Assessment of Mental Retardation 420

SUSAN VIG and MICHELLE SANDERS

Chapter 13. Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders 447

Chapter 14. Assessment of Emotional Development 508

and Behavior Problems

References 577

Index 641