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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Energy remains primary to the existence of man. Several energy sources exist for human use and
can be broadly categorized into renewable (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass and hydro) and
non-renewable (fossil fuels- coal, crude oil and natural gas) sources. According to the statistical
review of world energy published in June 2016, coal, natural gas and crude oil accounted for
30%, 24% and 33% respectively while all other energy sources accounted for the remaining
13%. The importance of all fossil fuels especially crude oil can therefore not be overemphasized.
Crude oil exploration and exploitation has several phases, prominent among this is the drilling
phase. Drilling is the planning, development, costing and supervision of all operations involved
in the boring of hole through the earth with the intent to produce hydrocarbons. Safety remains
an integral part of the drilling process. The presence of overpressures in the subsurface however
poses major problems for safety and cost effective well design (Guiterrez, 2006).
Formations with pressures higher than hydrostatic are encountered at varying depths in many
areas. These formations are referred to as being abnormally pressured, abnormally high
pressured, or overpressured. Formation pressures up to twice the, hydrostatic pressure have been
observed and these formations require extreme care and much expense to drill and exploit. .
Pore pressure itself is the pressure of fluid (either oil, gas or water) which exists within the pores
of a formation and is thus referred to as formation fluid pressure (Hottman and Johnson, 1965).
Pore pressure can be classified as normal, subnormal and abnormal or overpressure by the
magnitude of the corresponding pressure grad ient in a given area. Normal pressures refer to
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formation pressures which are approximately equal to the hydrostatic head of a column of water
of equal depth. If the formations were opened to the atmosphere, a column of water from the
ground surface to the subsurface formation depth would balance the formation pressure. On the
Gulf Coast, the shallow, predominantly sand formations contain fluids which are under
hydrostatic pressure. These formations are said to be normally pressured or to have a normal
pressure gradient. Experience has shown that the normal pressure gradient on the Gulf Coast is
approximately 0.465 psi/ft of depth. (Hottman and Johnson, 1965). Normal pressure gradients
correspond to the hydrostatic gradient of fresh or saline water with small variations which
depend on the geographic area and depositional basin. The general gradient in the area of study
(Niger Delta) is 0.442 psi/ft of which any pore pressure greater than this is regarded as abnormal
pressure gradient, while pore pressure less than this is subnormal pressure (Lisa, 1997).
Overpressure shale adjacent to reservoir has been observed to boost the reservoir performance
during production by contributing shale water drive to the existing reservoir drive (Wallace,
1965). Furthermore, geopressures impact prospect and play appraisal and economics in a number
of ways. Several issues are associated with subsurface geopressure, amongst which are drilling
safety & cost (rig selection, well kicks & blowouts, lost wells, wellbore stability problems, mud
expense and mud loss, stuck pipe, formation damage, extra casing runs), environmental risks,
faults, top seal capacity, aquifer continuity / pressure support during production, volumetric and
economics) and impact on rock and fluid properties (reservoir quality, sediment and fluid
2
Overpressures can be generated by many mechanisms, such as compaction disequilibrium
compression (lateral stress), mineral transformations and osmosis, hydraulic head and
hydrocarbon buoyancy (Gutierrez et al, 2006; Swarbrick and Osborne, 1998). In nearly all cases
overpressuring, the age of the rocks is geologically young as we have in the U.S. Gulf Coast,
Alaska Cook Inlet; Beaufort Sea, Mackenzie Delta, North Sea, Adriatic Sea, Niger Delta,
Mahakam Delta, the Nile Delta, Malay Basin, Eastern Venezuelan Basin (Trinidad) and the
Potwar Plateau of Pakistan (Law and Spencer, 1998; Burrus, 1998; Heppard, et al., 1998;
Powley, 1990; Nelson and Bird, 2005; Morley et al., 2011). In these areas, the abnormally
pressured rocks are mainly located in Tertiary and late Mesozoic sedimentary formations, the
depositional setting are dominantly deltaic, and the lithology is dominantly shale. (Zhang,2011)
Compaction dis-equilibrum is the most common cause of abnormal pressure (Thomeer and
Boateman, 1961). This is true in rapidly filing (Tertiary) sedimentary basins like Niger Delta
(Lisa, 1997). During burial, the sediments deposited at the De lta front will dewater as the matrix
material reshuffles itself under the influence of gravity and the overburden crested by the
deposition of more overlying sediments. The dewatering process relies on continuous slow
permeability that ultimately connects with the surface/water table, allowing fluid pressure to
When seasonal changes in load (the switching of a channel) or a change in sediment source
occurs, the quantity and/or type of sediment can change abruptly. A change from a clay/silt/sand
mixture to clay alone can easily restrict the dewatering processes to those clays/silts adjacent to a
sand layer. Rapid loading by a high thickness of clay/silt sediments may tip the dewatering
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balance temporarily in favour of overpressure. The lack of dewatering causes the matrix stress
between the grains to become locked as burial continues and causes the pore fluids to be
responsible for carrying the remaining overburden. The process will continue until the fluid
pressure finds relief by rupturing the seal. The rupture can occur at pressures below the
overburden if the block is brittle or even as much as 40% above the overburden if the rocks have
1.2 JUSTIFICATION
Overpressure if encountered suddenly during drilling can lead to a kick or even a blowout. An
economic and reservoir quality problems and may cause loss of human lives, the well and e ven
the entire drilling rig. Overpressure is however strongly associated with Niger Delta fields due to
compaction disequilibrium.
Several works have been done on overpressure prediction and modelling. These works include
Hottman and Johnson(1965), Eaton (1975), Bowers(1995), Tau(2004), Zhang (2011), Boboye
and Ogunkerode (2014) amongst others. Many have achieved huge successes in overpressure
prediction and researches into how to improve existing works continue daily. To the best of the
This study is targeted at creating a mathematical model and software that efficiently and easily
predicts pore pressure using a particular field in the Niger Delta (Field DAS) as reference.
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1.3 LOCATION OF STUDY AREA
The Niger Delta is situated on the continental margin of the Gulf of Guinea in Equatorial West
Africa, between latitude 30º N and 60ºN and longitude 50ºE a nd 80ºE (Fig. 1.1) (Oyedele et. al.,
2012). DAS field is located within the offshore part of the Niger Delta. The Niger Delta is an
extensional rift basin. The northern boundary is the Benin flank, an east-northeast trending hinge
line south of the West Africa basement massif. The northeastern boundary is defined by outcrops
of the Cretaceous on the Abakaliki High. The eastern part is bounded by the Calabar flank, a
hinge line bordering the adjacent Precambrian. The offshore boundary of the province is defined
by the Cameroon volcanic line to the east and the eastern boundary of the Dahomey basin to the
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STUDY AREA
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1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
3) To write a computer program and create a software that can efficiently and easily predict
pore pressure
Mathematical modeling
Software development
Mathematical modeling: Existing mathematical models are first studied, then existing
mathematical models are modified to create a new model that better predicts pore pressure than
all existing models and in a simpler form than the existing models.
Model Validation and Pore Pressure prediction: The created model is afterwards validated to
confirm its accuracy using field data. The validated model is then used to predict pore pressure in
another field.
A program and software to predict pore pressure: Finally, a computer program will be
written in Fortran programming language for the mathematical mode l created, to predict pore
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pressure. This program will be further developed into a software that will generate good pore
pressure prediction.
Brun et al (1985) worked on predicting overpressure in Nigeria using Vertical Seismic Profile
(VSP) techniques. They discovered that for complex growth fault systems like the Niger Delta,
the VSP iterative modeling inversion gives a more accurate predictive profile of acoustic
impedance even when recorded at several hundred meters above the overpressured zones when
compared to the use of regional correlation and surface seismic interpretation which were the
prevalent techniques then. The results were valid for even non- horizontal pressure fronts. The
inversion technique used is independent of the low frequency content in the seismic signal,
contrary to other inversion techniques based on integration. The method used was valid assuming
a continuity in the trend of acoustic velocities in the well down to the top of overpressure.
Work on both pore and fracture pressure prediction using well logs and seismic data was done by
Chukwuemeka (2002). He introduced the effect of anisotropy into pore pressure prediction. He
developed a new model which predicted the depth and magnitude of both subnormal pressure
and overpressure.
Zhang (2011) worked on pore pressure prediction from well logs. He introduced pore pressure
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disequilibrium and effective stress- porosity compaction theory. He used deep water oil well as
case study.
Work on the uncertainty in pore pressure prediction and analysis was done by Kumar et al
(2012) by examining the spread in the predicted pore pressure obtained using parameter
combinations of both seismic and well log data. They employed such methods as the Eaton’s
resistivity model and Bower’s sonic model for the pore pressure gradient analysis and also using
Eaton’s approach for the fracture gradient analysis. They were able to estimate pore pressure
from seismic velocity using a Velocity –Over Burden Gradient – Normal Compaction Trend
(OBG-NCT) to pore pressure transform. Their work was however limited in that the velocity –
OBG- NCT-to- pore pressure transform created is only suitable for one layer and other layers of
different lithology or geologic age require a different transform model. Effects such as centroid
effect due to structural relief of reservoir bed and basin modeling for pressure taking structural
Yan and Han (2012) stated that Eaton’s equation is the most popularly used model for pore
pressure prediction, but it is based on over-simplified stress velocity relation. They created a new
model for pore prediction based on stress effect modeling of lab core measurement. The new
model requires exactly the same inputs as the Eaton’s model and gave better performance in pore
pressure prediction than the Eaton’s model. They also compared performances of pore pressure
prediction by using differential pressure and effective pressure respectively. Their model has
Nton and Ayeni (2014) worked on pore pressure detection and risk assessment of OBL oil field,
offshore Niger Delta, Nigeria. They utilized 3D seismic data and well logs from four wells to
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examine the risks involved in drilling such zones. They discovered that sealing faults that
penetrated the basin could have also influenced overpressure development in the study wells
Ugwu (2015) worked on pore pressure prediction using offset well logs. He predicted for an
onshore Niger Delta area. The result showed an overpressure area, ranging from mild- to-
moderate overpressure. He discovered Bower and Tau models predicted pore pressure better than
Olayinka et al (2015) analysed porosity dependent parameters such as Interval Transit Time
(ITT) and Interval Velocities from seismic records of a field in the Western Niger Delta. They
identified an overpressured zone at a particular depth using this analysis. The plot of ITT against
depth gave a positive deflection from the normal at the zone of overpressure while the interval
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CHAPTER TWO
The Niger Delta basin is located at the southernmost extremity of the elongated intracontinental
Benue Trough. To the west, it is separated from the Dahomey (or Benin) basin by the Okitipupa
basement high, and to the east it is bounded by the Cameroun volcanic line. Its northern margin
transects several older (Cretaceous) tectonic elements—the Anambra basin, Abakaliki basin,
Afikpo syncline, and the Calabar Flank (Fig. 2.1a). The evolution of the Niger delta is controlled
by pre- and synsedimentary tectonics described by Evamy et al. (1978), Ejedawe (1981), Knox
and Omatsola (1989) and Stacher (1995). The tectonic framework of the continental margin
along the West Coast of equatorial Africa is controlled by Cretaceous fracture zones expressed as
trenches and ridges in the deep Atlantic. The fracture zone ridges (Fig. 2.1b) subdivide the
margin into individual basins, and, in Nigeria, form the boundary faults of the Cretaceous Benue-
Abakaliki trough, which cuts far into the West African shield. The trough represents a failed arm
of a rift triple junction associated with the opening of the South Atlantic. Rifting started in the
Late Jurassic and persisted into the Middle Cretaceous (Lehner and De Ruiter 1977). In the Niger
Delta region, rifting diminished altogether in the Late Cretaceous. Figure 2.2a, b show the gross
paleogeography of the region as well as the relative position of the African and South American
plates since rifting began. After rifting ceased, gravity tectonics became the primar y
deformational process. For any given depobelt, gravity tectonics were completed before
deposition of the Benin Formation and are expressed in complex structures, including shale
diapirs, roll-over anticlines, collapsed growth fault crests, back-to-back features, and steeply
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dipping, closely spaced flank faults (Evamy et al. 1978; Xiao and Suppe 1992). These faults
mostly offset different parts of the Agbada Formation and flatten into detachment planes near the
of Tertiary clastics up to 12 km thick (Weber and Daukoru 1975; Evamy et al. 1978). It is
informally divided into three gross lithofacies: (i) marine claystones and shales of unknown
thickness, at the base; (ii) alternation of sandstones, siltstones and claystones, in which the sand
percentage increases upwards; (iii) alluvial sands, at the top (Doust 1990).
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Fig. 2.1 Tectonic setting and structural elements of the Niger Delta Basin. a) Tectonic Map
showing the Niger Delta (After Kogbe 1989). b) Regional structural provinces map of the Niger
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Fig. 2.2 Paleogeography showing the opening of the South Atlantic, and development of the
paleogeography (50.3 Ma to present). Plots generated with PGIS software (Tuttle et al. 1999)
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Three lithostratigraphic units have been recognized in the subsurface of t he Niger Delta (Short
and Stauble 1967; Frankl and Cordy 1967; Avbovbo 1978). These are from the oldest to the
youngest, the Akata, Agbada and Benin Formations all of which are strongly diachronous (Fig.
2.3a, b)
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Fig. 2.3 Stratigraphy of Niger Delta Basin. a Stratigraphic column showing the three formations
of the Niger Delta (modified from Lawrence et al. 2002). b Diagrammatic representation of the
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2.2 REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING
The Akata Formation (Eocene–Recent) is the oldest lithostratigraphic unit in the Niger Delta. It
is a marine sedimentary succession that is laid in front of the advancing delta and ranges from
1,968 to 19,680 ft in thickness. It consists of mainly uniform under-compacted shales, clays, and
silts at the base of the known delta sequence with lenses of sandstone of abnormally high
pressure at the top (Avbovbo 1978). These streaks of sand are possibly of turbidite origin, and
were deposited in holomarine (delta-front to deeper marine) environments. The shales are rich in
both planktonic and benthonic foraminifera and were deposited in shallow to deep marine
environments (Short and Stauble 1967). Marine shales form the base of the sequence in each
depobelt and range from Paleocene to Holocene in age. They outcrop offshore as diapirs along
the continental slope, and onshore in the northeastern part of the delta, where they are known as
shale with a thickness of over 3000 m (Reijers 1996). These paralic clastics are the truly deltaic
portion of the sequence and were deposited in a number of delta- front, delta-topset, and fluvio-
deltaic environments. The top of Agbada Formation is defined as the first occurrence of shale
with marine fauna that coincides with the base of the continental-transitional lithofacies (Adesida
and Ehirim 1988). The base is a significant sandstone body that coincides with the top of the
Akata Formation (Short and Stauble 1967). Some shales of the Agbada Formation were thought
to be the source rocks, however; Ejedawe et al. (1984) deduced that the main source rocks of the
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Niger Delta are the shales of the Akata Formation. The Agbada Formation forms the
hydrocarbon-prospective sequence in the Niger Delta. As with the marine shales, the paralic
sequence is present in all depobelts, and ranges in age from Eocene to P leistocene. Most
The Benin Formation is the youngest lithostratigraphic unit in the Niger Delta. It is Miocene—
Recent in age with a minimum thickness of more than 6000 ft and made up of continental sands
and sandstones (>90 %) with few shale intercalations. The shallowest part of the sequence is
composed almost entirely of nonmarine sand. The sands and sandstones are coarse-grained, sub-
angular to well-rounded and are very poorly sorted. It was deposited in alluvial or upper coastal
plain environments following a southward shift of deltaic deposition into a new depobelt. The
oldest continental sands are probably Oligocene, although they lack fauna required to date them
directly. Offshore, they become thinner and disappear near the shelf edge.
2.3 DEPOBELTS
Deposition of the three formations occurred in each of five offlapping siliciclastic sedimentation
cycles that comprise the Niger Delta (Fig. 2.4a, b). These cycles (depobelts) are 30–60 km wide,
prograde southwestward 250 km over oceanic crust into the Gulf of Guinea, and are defined by
sediment supply rates (Doust and Omatsola 1990; Stacher 1995). Depobelts become successively
younger basinward, ranging in age from Eocene in the north to Pliocene offshore of the present
shoreline. These depobelts are separate unit that corresponds to a break in regional dip of the
delta and is bounded landward by growth faults and seaward by large counter-regional faults or
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the growth fault of the next seaward belt. Each depobelt contains a distinct shallowing-upward
depositional cycle with its own tripartite assemblage o f marine, paralic, and continental deposits.
Depobelts define a series of punctuations in the progradation of this deltaic system. As deltaic
sediment loads increase, underlying delta front and prodelta marine shale begin to move upward
Caused structural collapse along normal faults, and created accommodation for additional deltaic
leaving little room for further sedimentation. As declining accommodation forces a basinward
progradation of sediment, a new depocenter develops basin-ward. The northern delta province,
which overlies relatively shallow basement, has the oldest growth faults that are generally
rotational, evenly spaced, and increase in steepness seaward. The central delta province has
depobelts with well-defined structures such as successively deeper rollover crests that shift
seaward for any given growth fault. The distal delta province is the most structurally complex
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Fig. 2.4 Depositional belts showing the study area and Dip section of the Niger Delta Basin. a
Depobelt map with the structural play segments, onshore and offshore Niger Delta Basin
showing the study area. Source Shell (2007). b Schematic Dip section of the Niger Delta (After
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The methodology employed in this study entails; mathematical modeling, model validation and
There are several existing models to predict pore pressure. Prominent among these are the:
Hottman and Johnson (1965) were probably the first ones to make pore pressure prediction from
shale properties derived from well log data (acoustic travel time/velocity and resistivity). They
indicated that porosity decreases as a function of depth from analyzing aco ustic travel time in
Miocene and Oligocene shales in Upper Texas and Southern Louisiana Gulf Coast. This trend
represents the ―normal compaction trend‖ as a function of burial depth, and fluid pressure
exhibited within this normal trend is the hydrostatic. If intervals of abnormal compaction are
penetrated, the resulting data points diverge from the normal compaction trend. They contended
that porosity or transit time in shale is abnormally high relative to its depth if the fluid pressure is
abnormally high.
Analyzing the data presented by Hottmann and Johnson (1965), Gardner et al. (1974) proposed
an equation that can be written in the following form to predict pore pressure:
( )( )
Pf= σv – ……………………(1)
21
Where; Pf is the formation fluid pressure (psi)
σv is expressed in psi
Eaton presented four different equations to predict pore pressure. The following equation is to
Png is the hydrostatic pore pressure gradient (normally 0.45 psi/ft or 1.03 MPa/km,
22
Eaton’s resistivity method is applicable in pore pressure prediction, particularly for young
If one desires to use the direct conductivity log values, rather than log resistivities Equation 3 is
transformed as follows:
Just before the models were created, it was discovered that if one calculates end plots the
corrected d exponent from drilling parameters, the resulting plot is very similar to a log
resistivity plot. Therefore, the following equation was developed for geopressured prediction
Where; dco and dcn are the observed and normal d exponent respectively
The sonic log was also used in creating a model. The following empirical equation for pore
Where; ∆t n is the sonic transit time or slowness in shales at the normal pressure
∆t is the sonic transit time in shales obtained from well logging, and it can also be derived
23
This method is applicable in some petroleum basins, but it does not consider unloading effects.
This limits its application in geologically complicated area, such as formations with uplifts. To
apply this method, one needs to determine the normal transit time (∆t n )
Bowers (1995) calculated the effective stresses from measured pore pressure data of the shale
and overburden stresses and analyzed the corresponding sonic interval velocities from well
logging data in the Gulf of Mexico slope. He proposed that the sonic velocity and effective stress
Vp = Vml + A ………………………………….….(7)
Vml is the compressional velocity in the mudline (i.e., the sea floor or the ground surface,
A and B are the parameters calibrated with offset velocity versus effective stress data.
σe = σv – p(α)…………………………………….(8)
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–* + ………………………..…….(9)
The Miller sonic method describes a relationship between velocity and effective stress that can
be used to relate sonic/seismic transit time to formation pore pressure. In Miller’s sonic method
an input parameter ―maximum velocity depth‖, dmax , controls whether unloading has occurred
or not. If dmax is less than the depth (Z), unloading has not occurred, the pore pressure can be
………………………………….(10)
λ is the empirical parameter defining the rate of increase in velocity with effective stress
(normally 0.00025)
introducing a ―Tau‖ variable into the effective stress eq uation (Lopez et al., 2004; Gutierrez et
al, 2006)
…………………………………………..……..(11)
25
τ is the Tau variable, and ;
…………………………………………….…..(12)
Where; ∆t is the compressional transit time either from sonic log or seismic velocity
C is the constant related to the mudline transit time (normally C = 200 µs/ft)
and D is the constant related to the matrix transit time (normally D = 50 µs/ft)
Then, the pore pressure can be calculated from Equation 12 using Equation 8, i.e.:
– * + ……………………………………..(13)
The best fitting parameters in the Gulf of Mexico are As = 1989.6 and Bs = 0.904 (Gutierrez et
al, 2006).
Tau model and Miller’s method are similar to Bowers’ method. The advantage of Miller’s
method and Tau model is that both the effects of the matrix and mudline velocities are
Athy proposed an equation to determine porosity in 1930. The equation is stated below:
……………………………………….…(14)
…………………………………….…(15)
26
Where σn is the porosity under normal compaction
Also, ……………………………………(16)
………………………………………..……(17)
…………………………………….……….(18)
Dividing equation 17 by 18
………………………………………..……..(19)
……………………………………………(20)
( )* +……………………..…(21)
Equation (21) is the Zhang model. It is a pore pressure model which is based on porosity. The
main difference between the Zhang model and other existing pore pressure-porosity equations is
that the pressures calculated from Eq.20 are dependent on depths. In other words, the normal
27
When porosity (υ) at an interested depth is greater than the normal porosity (υ n ) at the same
The model proposed by Zhang (2011) had a number of deficiencies. The two main deficiencies
are that;
1) the calculated porosity solely using the sonic transit time whereas the industry standard is
to use a combination of two or more porosity logs which gives better porosity values than
2) the Biot coefficient was assumed to be 1 whereas a number of existing literature have
………………………………………(22)
28
Cb is the volumetric compressibility of the minerals comprising the matrix.
A second method used to measure Biot’s coefficient is to measure the fluid volume released
from a saturated sample during a drained, jacketed test. It can be shown that Biot’s coefficient
………………………………………..(23)
29
Figure 3.1: Example of the variation in Biot’s coefficient with stress (redrawn from Franquet &
30
3.2.2 Porosity
The model developed by Zhang (2011) is predominantly dependent on the accuracy of the
porosity values. Hence the best method to obtain porosity must be used while calculating
porosity.
The combination of the density and neutron logs provides a good source of porosity data,
especially in formations of complex lithology. Better estimates of porosity are possible with the
combination than using either tool or sonic separately because inferences about lithology and
Therefore the combined density and neutron logs was used for the model generation as opposed
…………………………………….(24)
Where; ΦD = porosity
ρf = density of the fluid saturating the rock immediately surrounding the borehole—
usually mud filtrate (use 1.0 for freshwater and 1.1 for saltwater mud)
The neutron log mainly measures hydrogen concentration in a formation. The logging device is a
noncontact tool that emits neutrons from a source. Emitted neutrons collide with nuclei of the
formation and lose some of their energy. Maximum energy loss occurs when emitted neutrons
31
collide with hydrogen atoms because a neutron and a hydrogen atom have almost the same mass.
Therefore, most neutron energy loss occurs in the part of the formation that has the highest
hydrogen concentration.
Neutron energy loss can be related to porosity because in porous formations, hydrogen is
concentrated in the fluid filling the pores. Reservoirs whose pores are gas filled may have a
lower porosity than the same pores filled with oil or water because gas has a lower concentration
The density–neutron log is a combination log that simultaneously records neutron and density
porosity. In some zones, porosities recorded on the logs differ for three reasons:
The matrix density used by the logging program to calculate porosity is different from the
The porosity value used for this study was therefore computed using
( ) ……………………………………. (25)
From the changes made to the Zhang model, a new pore pressure prediction model was created
32
* ( )* ++/α……………………………….(26)
Overburden stress
………………………………………(27)
……………………………………….…(28)
( ) …………………………….…….(29)
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Where; σv (1) is the overburden stress in the first formation beneath the sea floor
ρb1 is the bulk density of the first formation beneath the sea floor
( ) ( ) …………………………..………..(30)
The general format for determining the overburden pressure is given below
( ) ( ) ………………………………(31)
Each basin has its unique normal pore pressure gradient. The normal pore pressure gradient for
the Niger Delta is about 0.442psi/ft. The normal pore pressure P n was thus calculated by
Porosity
Porosity was calculated using the combined density neutron plot as explained in section 3.2
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3.4 MODEL VALIDATION AND PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
The values derived from the equations 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31 are inputted into the model
developed using data from 2 different wells in Field DAS. The values determined are compared
against both the existing RFT data for the wells and the Zhang model. The results obtained are
shown in both tabular form and as a graph for each of the 2 wells in chapter four.
After the model has been validated, the validated model is then used to predict pore pressure for
A Software that easily reads the input data and subsequently generates the output is thereafter
created based on the model developed. It has a user friendly interface to prevent users from
going through stress while using it. The software is written in frontend programming language.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Two wells were used in the pore pressure model validation. They are wells 10 and 11 in Field X
in the Niger Delta. The field is an offshore field in the Southern part of the N iger Delta and it is a
Well 10 has a log start depth of 1985.77m and a log stop depth of 4499.91m. The well has over
16000 data points which were all used in the pore pressure model validation. Most data points
had all the needed inputs to validate the model while some null values were present in a few of
the data points. The well penetrated four (4) hydrocarbon zones and the water depth above the
Well 11 has a log start depth of 1469.14m and a log stop depth of 4127.91m. The well has over
17000 data points which were all used in the pore pressure model validation. Most data points
had all the needed inputs to validate the model while some null values were present in a few of
the data points. The well penetrated four (4) hydrocarbon zones and the water depth above the
Table 4.1 presents the well details for both wells 10 and 11 in a tabular form and Figures 4.1 and
4.2 show extracts from the completed well log suite of wells 10 and 11 respectively.
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Table 4.1: Well details of wells 10 and 11
HYDROCARBON HYDROCARBON
RESERVOIR FLUID
GAS/CONDENSATE GAS/CONDENSATE
37
Fig 4.1: An extract from the completed well log suite of well 10
38
Fig 4.2: An extract from the completed well log suite of well 11
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4.2 PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE PORE PRESSURE FROM THE INPUTS
1) Determine the lithology of each of the layers using the lithology logs – preferably the gamma
ray log
2) For each of the identified lithology, use the corresponding matrix density to determine the
3) Combine the neutron porosity and density porosity to determine the porosity for that particular
4) Determine the overburden gradient for each depth data available by using the procedure
5) Determine the normal pressure at the depths of interest by a product of the normal pressure
6) The parameters ϕ0 and c are to be determined from field data and basin data respectively
7) All parameters, both given and determined will then be inputted into the new model to
Wells 10 and 11 were used in the validation of the new pore pressure model. The results of the
prediction from the new pore pressure model were compared against the Repeated Formation test
(RFT) data for each of the wells. The data from the Repeated Formation test were also compared
against the new model (assuming that the Biot coefficient is one 1) to analyze the effect of the
40
Biot coefficient (α) on the model and also against the Zhang model to investigate the effect of
porosity and the Biot coefficient on the results. All these are discussed in the following sections.
The new model gave a high degree of accuracy in comparison to the Repeated formation Test
data while the new model (assuming that the Biot coefficient is one) and the Zhang model gave
Tables 4.2 and 4.3 show the pore pressure values derived from the Repeated Formation
Test(RFT), the Zhang model, the New Model created with Biot coefficient of 1 and the New
Model created with varying Biot coefficient for both wells 10 and 11. The tables also include the
Biot coefficient data, the sonic porosity data, the neutron-density porosity data, the depth,
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show a comparison between the new pore pressure model and the RFT data
for wells 10 and 11 respectively. They give almost exactly equal values and overlie each other on
the chart. Five (5) different data points were used for each of the wells to validate the model. The
determined overburden pressure, normal pore pressure, Biot coefficient, density neutron
porosity, depth and compaction constant were all inputed into the new model to give the
predicted pore pressure values. For each meter (depth point), 6 or 7 data points were available to
calculate all parameters. Hence, all parameters used was an average of the various data values for
The predicted pore pressure values and the RFT data were then plotted against depth to give the
charts derived in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 with very high correlation.
Figures 4.5 and 4.6 are plots of the overburden pressure, normal pressure and results from the
new pore pressure model against depth for both well 10 and 11. The values predicted fell in
41
between the overburden and normal pressure thereby giving a logical and scientific proof of the
42
Table 4.2: Table showing the pore pressure values derived from the Repeated Formation Test(RFT), the Zhang model, the New Model
created with Biot coefficient of 1 and the New Model created with varying Biot coefficient for well 10
(m) φ stress(psi) Pressure (psi) α RFT(psi) (α=1)(psi) MODEL(psi) porosity Zhang model
3533.469 0.137856 12002.68663 5122.682452 0.89 5072 4503.841152 5060.495677 0.193905495 6553.8
4097.502 0.089763 13831.49898 5940.393775 0.59 7782 4578.397742 7759.996172 0.180939744 8457.4
4245.482 0.110835 14372.1655 6154.929694 0.75 7993 5979.492515 7972.656686 N/A N/A
4386.528 0.131588 14888.71397 6359.412833 0.63 11466 7199.04403 11427.05402 0.145469231 8675
4497.475 0.133468 15287.57276 6520.259646 0.66 11631 7639.7671 11575.4047 0.061554945 5366
43
Table 4.3: Table showing the pore pressure values derived from the Repeated Formation Test(RFT), the Zhang model, the New Model
created with Biot coefficient of 1 and the New Model created with varying Biot coefficient for well 11
3825.5 0.124 13043.3 5546 0.88 5687.7 5034.105953 5720.574946 0.3363 9376
3941 0.121 13442.3 5714.3 0.87 6165.7 5321.882692 6117.106542 0.3864 10381
3942 0.122 13445.7 5715.7 0.87 6148.7 5361.107112 6162.192083 0.3861 10381.6
3945 0.122 13455.61 5720 0.87 6168.7 5371.30221 6173.910586 0.4193 10748
4027 0.126 13737.72 5838.87 0.75 7782.7 5791.524356 7722.032474 N/A N/A
44
PORE PRESSURE (PSI)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
3000
3200
3400
3600
RFT(psi)
DEPTH (m)
4000
4200
4400
4600
Figure 4.3: A plot of pore pressure versus depth showing the RFT data, the new model plot and
45
PORE PRESSURE (PSI)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
3800
3850
3900
RFT
DEPTH (m)
NEW MODEL
3950
4000
4050
Figure 4.4: A plot of predicted pore pressure and RFT data versus depth for well 11
46
PRESSURE (PSI)
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
3000
3200
3400
overburden stress(psi)
3800 normal Pressure (psi)
4000
4200
4400
4600
Figure 4.5: A plot of the overburden pressure, normal pressure and the new model for well 10
47
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
3800
3850
3900
overburden stress
DEPTH (m)
normal P
NEW MODEL
3950
4000
4050
Figure 4.6: A plot of the o verburden pressure, normal pressure and the new model for well 11
48
4.4 EFFECT OF BIOT COEFFICIENT ON PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
Figure 4.3 helps visualize the effect of Biot coefficient on pore pressure prediction and on the
new pore pressure prediction model. The values derived from the new pore pressure model while
using varying Biot coefficient and the values derived while using a fixed Biot coefficient of 1
were plotted against depth to properly view the effect Biot coefficient has on the newly created
model. Both results were compared against the RFT data. The results from the model with Biot
coefficient of 1 gave significant variation from the RFT data while that with varying Biot
This goes to show that the usual assumption of α being one (1) leads to wrong pore pressure
prediction whereas accurate values of Biot coefficient will give almost accurate predictions of
From tables 4.1 and 4.2, Biot coefficient generally showed decrease with depth (overburden
pressure increases with depth). There were however some variations to this trend. This variation
can be attributed to the individual properties of the formation at points where these variations
occured. Biot coefficient is predominantly dependent on the properties of the rock layer of
interest and also on the depth and pressure acting on that layer. Therefore, a particular trend
should not be expected for Biot coefficient values of different rock layers.
Two major modifications were made to the Zhang model to arrive at the new pore pressure
prediction model. The modifications are the method of obtaining porosity and the re- introduction
of a varying Biot coefficient. The effect the Biot coefficient has on the pore pressure values has
49
been analyzed in the preceding section. This section focuses on the effect porosity has on pore
pressure prediction.
Zhang model purely utilized sonic data in the prediction of porosity while the new model uses a
combined neutron-density data (which is also the generally accepted method in the oil industry)
to predict porosity. From tables 4.1 and 4.2, it can be seen that the values derived for porosity
using the sonic data gave significantly different values from those obtained while using the
These values of porosity when inputted into the respective models gave results as presented in
tables 4.1 and 4.2. Figures 4.7 and 4.8 are plots of the results of the Zhang model, the new model
(assuming a Biot coefficient of 1) and the RFT data against depth for wells 10 and 11.
Both the Zhang model and the new model (assuming a Biot coefficient of 1) gave significant
variations from the RFT data. They however all showed similar trends except for some
anomalously low value of pore pressure values for the Zhang model in well 10. These low values
can be attributed mainly to the porosity as that is the only diffecre nce between itself and the the
new model (assuming a Biot coefficient of 1). The sonic data for this field was also not available
at some data points in the well thereby making it impossible to determine sonic porosity at these
points and also pore pressure prediction using the Zhang model. This is evidenced in the blanks
available in tables 4.1 and 4.2 under the Zhang model and the sonic porosity values
This result buttresses the effect of accurate porosity estimation on pore pressure prediction as a
little error in porosity values may lead to significantly wrong pore pressure predictions and at
The effect of porosity in pore pressure prediction can therefore not be overemphasized.
50
PORE PRESSURE (PSI)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
3000
3200
3400
3600 RFT(psi)
DEPTH (m)
Zhang model
3800 NEW MODEL (α=1)(psi)
4000
4200
4400
4600
Figure 4.7: A plot of the RFT data, the results from the Zhang model and the results from the
51
PORE PRESSURE (PSI)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
3800
3850
ZHANG MODEL
RFT
3950
4000
4050
Figure 4.8: A plot of the RFT data, the results from the Zhang model and the results from the
52
CHAPTER FIVE
A model for predicting pore pressure in reservoir has been developed. The new model requires
the overburden pressure data and the normal pore pressure data at depth of interest, the depth of
interest, surface porosity, porosity at the depth of investigation, the Biot coefficient and the
compaction constant. The new model has been successfully validated and compared with an
older model (Zhang model) and with well data from a Niger Delta field. The model created is an
advancement of the Zhang model with two major adjustments made to the Zhang model. These
are the inclusion of the Biot coefficient and a different approach (the use of a combined density-
neutron porosity data) to determining porosity as opposed to the use of sonic porosity in the
Zhang model
The new model predicted pore pressure better than the Zhang model and gave an almost perfect
match with the Repeated Formation Test (RFT) data. A software to easily predict pore pressure
using the existing models and the new model was also created.
It is recommended that the new model be tested on another Niger Delta field, a field outside of
53
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