Ultimate Strength Principles

Principles of Ultimate Strength
16 Dec 2014 1 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
CONTENTS
Buckling Yeilding
 Achieving Ultimate Strength  Bending beyond Elastic Limit
 Local and Global Buckling  Plastic Analysis Theorems
 Elastic Beams  Equilibrium Method
 Elastic Beam Columns  Mechanism Method
 Column Buckling  Yield Method
 Column with initial imperfection  Plastic Hinge Concept
 Beam Column example  Ultimate Capacity of sections
 Moment – Curvature – Thrust Relationship  Axial and Bending interaction
 Perfectly Elastic  Collapse capacities of beams
 Elastic – Plastic  Collapse capacities of frames
 Perfectly Plastic  Limiting strain and rotation
 Kinematic limitation
 Strain Limitation
 System Analysis

Achieving Ultimate Strength of member or Frame
The ultimate strength of a member or component depends
on the following parameters.
 Section compactness – Local Buckling

 Member or component slenderness – Global Buckling
 Ability to perform as a beam column – Second order effects
 Redundancy or alternate load path – bracing arrangement
 Material with ductile characteristics - Ductility
If the anyone of the above is not satisfied, the member or the structure
may fail without achieving its full capacity possible.
Hence member/structure proportioning is very important !

Local and Global buckling
Buckling of thin walled tubes (D/t > 20) can be
classified in to the following.
 Local buckling – due to instability of local shell wall

 Global buckling – due to slenderness
In which the D is the diameter of the cylinder and t

is the wall thickness.
Local buckling is governed by the D/T ratio and the
global buckling is governed by the KL/r ratio. Local
buckling may also happen due to bending of large
diameter tubular.
Local Global
ELASTIC BEAMS
Stress variation across the depth

is assumed to be linear and is
proportional to a constant “B”
σ x = By (1)
Equilibrium of forces in x-direction gives
 σ dA = 0  B  ydA = 0  ydA = 0
A
x
A A
  ydA = yA, ∴ y = 0
A
The above indicates that the neutral
axis passes through centroid.

Strain variation Stress distribution Beam section
Equilibrium of moment gives
M z = 0  M +  (σ x dA) y = 0  M = − B  y 2 dA = − BI
σ x = By
A A
My Mc
∴σ x = By = −  σ max = (2)
I I
Moment (about z) equilibrium leads to flexure formula.

Moment – Curvature relationship
Let us define R as radius of curvature and κ as curvature
Elongation of small
Δu Δθ
segment of the beam Δu = − y Δθ  lim = − y lim (3)
using small angle principle Δs →0 Δs Δs →0 Δs
Linear strain along the du dθ

segment length ds can ε= = −y (4)
ds ds
be found by
Again using small angle Δθ dθ 1
principle Δs = R Δθ lim = = =κ (5)
Δs →0 Δs ds R
du 1
Hence using Eqn 4 & 5 ε= = − y = − yκ (6)
ds R

Using small angle principle
1 dθ dθ dx
= =
R ds dx ds
2 2 2
ds 2 = dx 2 + dv 2  ds   dx   dv 
  =   + 
 dx   dx   dx 
Hence
1
  dv  
2 2
 ds   dv 
2 2
ds
  = 1+   = 1 +   
 dx   dx  dx   dx  
dv d d 2v
tan θ =
dx
( tan θ ) = 2
dx dx
1 d v 2
dθ d v 2 d 2v 1
dθ = 2 dx = 2 cos 2 θ = 2
cos θ
2
dx dx dx (
dx 1 + tan 2 θ )
dθ d 2 v 1 1
= 2 ds   dv  
2 2
dx dx   dv 2  and = 1 +   
1 +    dx   dx  
  dx  
1 dθ dθ dx dθ d 2 v 1 1
= = = 2
R ds dx ds ds dx   dv 2  1
1 +    1 +   
 2 2
dv
 
  dx     dx  
 
1 dθ d 2 v 1 d 2v
= 2 3 = 2
R ds dx dx
  dv 2  2
1 +    For small
  dx   deflections

Based on definition of σx 1 My
ε = =-y and σ x = −
strain and stress E R I
Curvature and flexure 1 ε σ /E − My / IE M

can be related as
=− =− x =− =
R y y y EI
d 2v
Based on calculus of geometry, 1 dx 2 d 2v
curvature can be written as  = 3/2
≈ 2
R   dv  
2 dx
assuming small slope
1 +   
  dx  
The moment curvature d 2v M d 2v

relationship can be written as ∴ 2 = or M = EI 2
dx EI dx

Elastic Beam-columns
Based on small deflection principle
following assumption be made w
dv
= tan θ ≈ sin θ ≈ θ , cos θ ≈ 1, ds = dx
dx
wdx − V + (V + dV ) = 0
dx
M − Pdv − Vdx + pdx − ( M + dM ) = 0
2
From the above equations, following
relationship can be derived ignoring higher
order terms
dV
= −w (1)
dx
dM dv
V =− −P (2)
dx dx
2
d v
Substituting in (1) in (2) and using moment curvature relationship M = EI 2
d 2  d 2v  d  dv  dx
2 
EI 2  +  P  = w
dx  dx  dx  dx 
v = v( x), I = I ( x), P = P( x), p = p ( x)

Since axial force
d 2  d 2v  d 2v dP dv
2 
EI 2  + P 2 + =w can be treated as
dx  dx  dx dx dx constant along the
element
d 2  d 2v  d 2v
2 
EI 2  − P 2 = w
dx  dx  dx
If bending stiffness is constant, then
d 4v d 2v
EI 4 − P 2 = w
dx dx
ELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING
Real column; Ideal column
Load - deflection relationship Load - deflection relationship

ELASTIC COLUMN THEORY
Elastic columns may have imperfection and if subjected to pure axial loading
may bend as shown in figure above.

Equating the moment at the right end
M − Pv = 0
d 2v
Using moment curvature relationship M = EI 2
dx
d 2v d 2v  P 
EI 2 = Pv +  v = 0
dx dx  EI 
2
The above is a second order differential equation in v and can be solved using
kinematic boundary conditions of the column. The proposed solution is of the form
 P   P 
v = A cos  x  + B sin  x
 EI   EI 

At x=0, v=0, and hence A=0
 P 
At x=L, v=0, and hence v = 0 = B sin  x
 EI 
B cannot be zero since A is already equal to = 0 and
 P 
0 = sin  x
 EI 
This is possible only when
 P 
 L  = nπ
 EI 
Hence the buckling load

π 2 EI
becomes P=n 2
For n=1,2,3….
L


BEAM COLUMN WITH INITIAL DEFLECTION
πx
Let initial deflection be wi = δ o sin
l
The equation of the beam column can be written as
∂2w
EI = P ( wi + w ) = 0
∂x 2
and the equation can be

written as ∂2w πx
+ K w = − K δ o sin
2 2
∂x 2
L
The complementary and particular solution can
be taken as
w c = A sin K x + B c o s K x
δo πx
wP = sin
(π / KL ) − 12
L

Substituting EI P we get,
π 2
2
= PE and K 2
= ,
L EI
 P 
WP =
δo
sin
πx  P δo  π x
PE L =  E  S in
−1 1− P  L
P  
 PE 
Using the boundary conditions of a simply supported column with A=0, and
B=0. at supports, at x=0, & x=L
 P 
 P  πx
w =  E
 δ o S in
1− P  L
 
 P E 

The total deflection becomes  P 
π x  PE  πx
w = wi + w = δ o sin +  δ o sin
L 1− P  L
 PE 

 P   
   1  πx
PE π x =  δ o sin
= 1 +  δ o sin P
 1−
P  L  1−  L
   
 PE   PE 
The initial deflection is amplified as
 P 
 P  πx
w= E   sin
1− P o L
 
 PE 
 P  is called Amplification factor
In which  1 − 
 PE 

Strength of Beam Column in Bending
Strength of members subjected to flexure combined with axial compressive load can be
expressed in linear interaction between the thrust P l and maximum bending moment Mmax as
P M max
+ = 1.0
In which Pu Mu
P - axial load Assuming Linear
Pu -Ultimate Capacity of column interaction
Mmax -Bending moment
Mu -Ultimate Bending Capacity
The maximum moment at the mid-span can be approximated as
 
 1 
M max = M 0 + Pδ max = M 0 + Pδ 0  
1− P 
In which  
 PE 
M0 -Moment due to all loading
δ0 -initial deflection
P -A x ia l lo a d
 
 1 
 
Hence the moment is magnified by 1− P 
 
 PE 
P M0
+ = 1.0
The interaction equation can be written as Pu  P 
M u 1 − 
 PE 
  P 
 1 +ψ   π 2δ o E I
M m ax = Mo  E 
P
ψ = −1
By assuming  P  where M oL 2
 1 − P 
 E

Further, if the moment varies between supports and double curvature moments
are applied, Meq can be used
P Cm M o
+ = 1.0
Finally, Pu  P where M eq = C m M o
M u 1 − 
 PE 


Beam column with transverse uniformly distributed load
Consider a beam – column with UDL (w) and axial load

(P) with simple boundary conditions at the end.
In terms of loading d4y d2y

EI 4 − P 2 = w
dx dx
In terms of moment d2y
EI 2 − P = M
dx
Deflection and bending moment variation
The variation of deflection of the beam column can be written as
wL4  
2
2 ux 2 ux wL
y=  tan u sin + cos − 1 − x( L − x )
16 EIu 4  8 EIu
2
L L
The variation of bending moment of the beam column can be written as
d 2 y wL2  2ux 2ux 

M = − EI 2 = 2  tan u sin L + cos L − 1
dx 4u
The above equations were derived using particular and complementary

solution of the partial differential equation and apply boundary conditions
at the end of the beam.

The Calculation of ymax
The maximum deflection of the member occurs at midspan and is

expressed by
 
L wL 4
 1 − cos u  wL 4
ymax = y  =  cos u  − 32 EIu 2
 2  16 EIu  
4
=
5wL 4

12 (
2sec u − u 2
−2 ) 
384 EI  5u 4 

 12 ( 2sec u − u 2 − 2 ) 
= y0  4

P kL  5u 
k =
2
u=
EI 2
1 2 5 4 61 6 277 8
sec u = 1 + u + u + u + u + ....
2 24 720 8064
ymax = y0 1 + 0.4067u + 0.1649u + ....

 2 4
kL L P π P
u= = =
Since
2 2 EI 2 Pe
 P P
2

ymax = y0 1 + 1.003   + 1.004   + ....
  Pe   Pe  
 
  P   P 2   
1
ymax ≈ y0 1 +   +   + .... =y0  
  Pe   Pe     P 
1 −   
  Pe  
Maximum Bending Moment
 L  wL
2
M max = M   = 2 [sec u − 1]
 2  4u
wL2  2 ( sec u − 1)   2 ( sec u − 1) 

=  2  = M0  2 
8  u   u 
By Tailor Series expansion
M max = M o 1 + 0.4167 u 2 + 0.1694u 4 + 0.06870u 6 + …
 P  P
2
P  3
M max = M 0 1 + 1.028   + 1.031   + 1.032   + ……

  Pe   Pe   Pe  

   P    P  P
2

Mmax = M0 1+ 1.028  1+1.003  +1.004  +....
   Pe    Pe   Pe  
   P   P P
2
 
≈ M 0 1+ 1.028   1 +   +   +… 
   Pe    Pe   Pe   
  
  
   P   1  
≈ M 0 1+ 1.028  
   Pe    P  
 1 −    
   Pe   
1 + 0.028 ( P Pe )   1 
≈ M0   ≈ M0  
 1 − ( P Pe )  1 − ( P Pe ) 

MOMENT-CURVATURE-THRUST RELATIONSHIP M −Φ−P
Moment-Curvature-Thrust relationship relates the bending, axial and
curvature and can be defined in three cases.
Case 1: Elastic
Case 2 Primary Plastic
Case 3 Secondary Plastic
Consider a case of a rectangular section of width b and height h

subjected to axial load and bending moment with a stress strain
relationship as shown below.

Case 1: Elastic
Kinematics
From the kinematic assumption that plane sections remain plane after bending,
the strain can be expressed as
h h
ε = ε 0 + Φy for - ≤ y≤
2 2
Where ε0 is the axial strain at the centroid of the cross of the cross section
Φy is the strain due to bending.

Stress-strain relation
Since the entire cross section is elastic, the stress is related to the strain by
h h
σ = Eε for - ≤ y≤
2 2
Equilibrium
The axial force P and the internal moment M are related to the stress σ by
h h
2 2
P =  σ dA =  Eε b dy =  E (ε 0 + Φy ) b dy
A −h −h
2 2
h h
2 2
M =  σ y dA =
A

−h
Eε yb dy =  E (ε
−h
0 + Φy ) yb dy
2 2
Where, b is the width and h is the height of the cross section. By performing the
necessary integrations, we obtain
P = EAε 0 and M = EI Φ
In which the axial force P is equal to the axial stiffness EA times the strain ε 0 at
the centroid of the cross section and the equation is the familiar elastic beam
moment-curvature relation ship of
d2y
EI 2 = M
Introducing the notations dx
P
Py = Aσ y = bhσ y ρ=
Py
bh 2
M y = Sσ y = σy m=
M
6 My
2ε y 2σ y
Φy = = Φ
h Eh φ=
Φy
The above equations can be written in a non-dimensional form as
M Φ
ρ = Eε 0 σ y m =φ =
My Φy
The range of applicability of above equation is for φ ≤ (1 − ρ )
Case 2: Primary Plastic
Kinematics
h h
ε = ε 0 + Φy for - ≤ y≤
2 2
Since at y = h, ε = ε y , then ε y = ε 0 + Φh ε 0 = ε y − Φh
And substituting in to the above leads to
h h
ε = ε y − ( h − y )Φ for - ≤ y≤
2 2
h h
σ = Eε for - ≤ y≤h σ =σy for h≤ y≤
2 2
h
h 2
P =  σ dA
 E ε y − (h − y )Φ  b dy +  σ y b dy
Equilibrium
=
A −h 2 h
h
h 2
M =  σ y dA =
A

−h 2
E ε y − (h − y )Φ  yb dy +  σ y by dy
h
By performing the necessary integrations and elimination h from the resulting

expressions we obtain
2(1− P)3 2
m = 3(1− P) −
φ
Where m,φ and p are as defined in above equations.
The range of applicability of above equation is for (1− P) ≤ φ ≤ 1 (1− P)

Case 3: Secondary Plastic
Kinematics
The strain at any point y from the centroidal axis is expressed by

h h
ε = ε y − ( h − y )Φ for - ≤ y≤
2 2
In addition, to facilitate the integration, we need to establish a relationship
between the elastic-plastic boundaries g and h . This can be achieved by

using similar triangles in the strain diagram:
2ε y
g= −h
Φ

h
σ = −σ y for - ≤ y ≤ −g
2
σ = Eε for −g≤ y≤h
h
σ =σy for h≤ y≤
Equilibrium 2
h
−g
P =  σ da
h 2
A
= 
−h 2
( −σ y )b dy  E ε y − ( h − y )Φ  b dy +  σ y b dy
−g h
h
−g h 2
M =  σ y dA
A
= 
−h 2
( −σ y ) yb dy  E ε y − ( h − y )Φ  yb dy +  σ y yb dy
−g h
m = (1 − p ) − 2
3 2 1
Finally φ ≥ 1 (1 − p )
2 2φ
DESIGN COLUMN CURVES

Column curve for structural steels

a) Elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship; b) Column curve

Column Research Council (CRC) column – strength curve

The band of all 112 maximum strength column curves, based on

An initial out- of straightness δ0/L=1/1000

Structural Steel Research Council (SSRC) column – strength curves

ULTIMATE STRENGTH

Bending beyond the elastic limit
Limit state design of structures requires the prediction of the ultimate strength or
collapse load of a structure. Safe loads are then determined as a suitable
fraction of the collapse load.
As bending of a beam proceeds, strains increase steadily, but the

corresponding stress values depend on the material’s stress-strain
relationship. Some materials will fail suddenly in a brittle fashion when
the strain reaches a certain value (e.g. timber, cast iron, glass, etc).
Others will yield and flow in a plastic fashion (e.g. many types of steel).
Although some structures may fail whilst still in a fully elastic state (by
buckling, for example), most will exhibit stresses that exceed the elastic
limit before failing.

We consider now the behaviour of a

beam under steadily increasing bending
moment and assume it is made from an
elasto-plastic material with an idealised
stress-strain relationship as shown in the
plot on the right (not to scale).
We further assume that the beam cross

section has at least one axis of
symmetry which lies in the plane of
bending.

Yield moment, My
When the stress at the extreme fibre most distant from the neutral axis
just reaches yield stress. This defines the maximum moment the beam
can resist whilst still fully elastic. It follows that
M Y = Z Eσ Y
M Y Ymax
σY = , or
I
I
Where Z E = Ymax
( the elastic section modules)

Plastic Neutral axis
Under elastic conditions the neutral axis (zero strain locus) passes
through the centroid of the cross section. As parts of the cross-section
yield and the stress distribution becomes nonlinear, the need for the
tension and compression forces to remain equal causes the position of
the neutral axis to move away from the centroid (except in the case of a
doubly symmetric section).
Let the plastic neutral axis divide the section such that the areas
above and below are A1 and A2 respectively. For zero resultant axial
force:
A1σ Y = A2σ Y
∴ A1 = A2 = A / 2
Thus the plastic neutral axis divides the section into equal
areas.
PLASTIC HINGE CONCEPT
a. Moment
b. Curvature
c. Deflection

LF=0 LF=1.0 LF=2.0
LF=2.5 LF=2.6 LF=2.7

Fixed beam with concentrated load Fixed beam with distributed load

Simply supported beam with concentrated load Simply supported beam with distributed load

PLASTIC HINGE CONCEPT
-Fy
a. M<My
Fy
-Fy
b. My<M<Mp
Fy
-Fy
c. =Mp
Fy
ELASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY – RECTANGULAR SECTION
h Fy  y h   2h 
F bh 2
P= b M =  b    = Fy
2 2  2 2  3  6
PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY– RECTANGULAR SECTION
 h  h  2
h bh
Pp = Fy b M p =  Fy b  2  = Fy
2  2  4  4
PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY– CIRCULAR SECTION
4D
3π  π D3 
M z =  Fy 
 32 
πD 2  π D2   4D  D3
Pp = Fy M p = Pa =  Fy   = Fy
8  8   3π  6
PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY HOLLOW CIRCULAR SECTION
a = tds
D
ds = rd φ = dφ
2

PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY– CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION
π
2
D
MP = 4  AFy cos φ
0
2
π
 D D
2
M P = 4 Fy   t dφ  cos φ
0  2
2
π
2
M P = Fy D 2t  cos φ dφ
0
Pp = Fyπ dt M P =Fy D 2t

ELASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY HOLLOW CIRCULAR SECTION
ELASTIC MOMENT M Z = FY Z
CAPACITY
π
ELASTIC MOMENT
OF INERTIA
I=
64
( D 4
− ( D − 2t ) 4
)
π π
Expand and ignore t2
terms since t << D
I=
64
( D 4 − ( D 2 + 4t 2 − 4dt )2 ) = 64
( D 4
− ( D 2 + 4dt ) 2 )
π π D 3t
I=
64
( D 4
− ( D 4
+ 16 D 2 2
t − 8 D 3
t)) =
8
π
( t)
D 3
π D 2t
Z= 8 =
D/2 4
SHAPE FACTOR
π D3
Fy
S= 8 = 1.70
CICULAR SECTION π D3
Fy
32
bh 2
RECTANGULAR
Fy
S= 4 = 1.5
SECTION
bh 2
Fy
6
HOLLOW Fy D 2t
CIRCULAR S= = 1.27
πD t 2
SECTION Fy
4
SHAPE FACTORS FOR VARIOUS SECTIONS

RECTANGULAR SECTION
BENDING MOMENT – AXIAL LOAD INTERACTION

RECTANGULAR SECTION
bh 2 be 2
Plastic Moment in the M P,P = Fy - Fy
presence of axial load
4 4
bh 2  e 2 
M P,P = Fy 1 − 2 
4  h 
Plastic Moment capacity of bh 2
rectangular section (with MP = Fy
4
no axial load)
Hence the equation  e2 

becomes
M P,P = M P 1 − 2 
 h 
Similarly, Axial Load that e
can be applied in the PP , M = beFy = bh Fy
presence of moment h
Plastic Capacity in axial PP = bhFy

Hence the equation e e PP , M
PP , M = PP and hence =
becomes h h PP
Substituting e/h in the moment equation
Hence the equation M P,P   PP , M 2 

becomes = 1 −   
MP   PP  
 
2
M P ,P  PP , M 
+  =1
MP  PP 


Bending Moment and Axial Force Interaction
1 M P,P   PP , M  2 
= 1 −   
MP   PP  
0.8  
M P
= 1−
0.6 Ma Pa
M/Mp
Mr i
Ml i
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Nr i
P/Pp

HOLLOW CIRCULAR SECTION

Pp = Fyπ Dt
M p = Fy D 2t
D
ds = rdφ = dφ
2

Consider a small element ‘ds’ for which the moment capacity can be
written as
φO φO
D  D D
M = 4  AFy cos φ can be written as M = 4 Fy   t dφ  cos φ
0  2
0
2 2
φO
M = Fy D 2t  cos φ dφ and we get M =Fy D 2t sin φo
0
π /2 π /2
D
P = 4  AFy can be written as P = 4 Fy φ tdφ
φO O
2
π /2
π 
P = 2 Fy Dt φ dφ and we get P =2Fy Dt  − φo 
2 
O

π /2 π /2
D
P = 4  AFy can be written as P = 4 Fy φ t dφ
φO O
2
π /2
π 
P = 2 Fy Dt φ dφ and we get P =2Fy Dt  − φo 
2 
O
Plastic Moment and axial load capacity can be written as

M p = Fy D 2t Pp = Fyπ Dt
After substitution, we get a relationship of the form

M P π 2
= sin φo and =  − φo 
Mp Pp  2 π
After substitution for φο in sin φο we get a relationship of the form
M π P  2 M π P 
= sin  −  and = cos  
Mp 2 P  π Mp 
 p   2 Pp 
Bending Moment and Axial Force Interaction M π P 

= cos  

1
Mp  2 Pp 
0.8
M P
= 1−
0.6 Ma Pa
M/Mp
Mr i
Ml i
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Nr i
P/Pp

PROPERTIES OF THIN WALLED TUBULARS
The braces in the splash zone can be considered as thin–walled
tubular. A thin walled tubular is defined by : t<<D, where is the
wall thickness and D the diameter of the tubular.
This implies that simplified equations for the cross sectional area
(A), the elastic section modulus (ZE), the plastic section modulus
(ZP) and the moment of inertia (I) can be used. These are:
π
A = π .D.t I= .D 3 .t
8
π 2
ZE = .D .t Z P = D 2 .t
4
Using the yield stress (σy) the maximum elastic bending moment
and the ultimate, plastic moment of the tubular cross section are:
M el ,max = Z E .Fy M p = Z P .Fy


Simply supported beam with central concentrated load
Elastic
PL
MC =
4
PL3
δ=
48 EI
Plastic
4M p
PC =
L
L
δ= θ
2
PLASTIC COLLAPSE LOAD
L
Central displacement δ= θ
2
External work done We = PCδ
Internal work done
Wi = 2M pθ
Equating and external and internal work done

θ
PC L = 2M pθ
2
4M p
Collapse Load PC =
L
Fixed supported beam with central concentrated load
Elastic
PL
MC =
8
PL3
δ=
192 EI
Plastic
8M p
PC =
L
L
δ= θ
2
L
Central displacement δ= θ
2
External work done We = PCδ
Internal work done Wi = M pθ + 2M pθ + M pθ
θ
PC L = 4M pθ
2
8M p
Collapse Load PC =
L
Fixed supported beam with non-central concentrated load
Elastic
8 PL
MC =
27
PL3
δ = 0.00366
EI
Plastic
9M p
PC =
L
L
δ = θ1
2
Central displacement L
δ = θ1
3
External work done
We = PCδ
Internal work done
Wi = M pθ1 + M p (θ1 + θ2 ) + M pθ2
θ1
PC L = 2M p (θ1 + θ2 )
3
θ1
Since θ2 =
2
9M p
Collapse Load PC =
L
Fixed supported beam with non-central concentrated load
Elastic
9 PL
MC =
128
PL3
δ = 0.0022
EI
Plastic
32 M p
PC =
3L
L
δ = θ1
2
Central displacement L
δ = θ1
4
External work done
We = PCδ
Internal work done Wi = M pθ1 + M p (θ1 + θ2 ) + M pθ2

θ1
PC L = 2M p (θ1 + θ2 )
4
θ1
Since θ2 =
3
32M p
Collapse Load PC =
3L
PLASTIC COLLAPSE LOAD - SUMMARY
Load Position Supports Collapse Load

4M p
L/2 Simple Support PC =
L
At Both Ends
8M p
L/2 Fixed Support PC =
At Both Ends L
Fixed Support
9M p
L/3 PC =
At Both Ends L
Fixed Support 10.7 M p
L/4 PC =
At Both Ends L
PLASTIC ANALYSIS THEOREMS
Three conditions that must be satisfied by a structure on the point of

collapse are:
1. EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
At collapse, the bending moments must correspond to a state of
equilibrium between the external loads and the internal actions.
2. MECHANISM CONDITION
At collapse there must be sufficient plastic hinges to create a
partial or complete collapse mechanism.
3. YIELD CONDITION
At collapse the bending moments must everywhere be ≤ MP.
Using these conditions we can now state three fundamental theorems of

plastic analysis

LOWER BOUND THEOREM
If the bending moments are in equilibrium with the external load and M ≤
MP everywhere, the load is a lower bound (i.e. load is ≤ collapse load).
UPPER BOUND THEOREM
For an assumed mechanism in which the virtual work done in the plastic
hinges equals the virtual work done by the external loads, the load is an
upper bound (i.e. load is ≥ collapse load).
UNIQUENESS THEOREM
If a bending moment distribution can be found that satisfies the three

conditions of equilibrium, mechanism and yield, then the corresponding
load is the collapse load.

The three theorems are summarised diagrammatically below:
 MECHANISM UPPERBOUND
load ≥ true collapse load
UNIQUENESS  EQUILIBRIUM
load=true collapse load  LOWERBOUND
 YIELD load ≤ true collapse load
There are a number of corollaries (easily proved consequences) of the

theorems:
1. The collapse load of a structure cannot be decreased by increasing

the strength of any part of it (corollary of lower bound theorem).
2. If the collapse loads are determined for all possible mechanisms, the
actual collapse load will be the smallest of these (corollary of upper
bound theorem).

Mechanism Method of Analysis
This method of analysis is based directly on the upper bound theorem. The
basic idea is to try all the likely collapse mechanisms and select the one
which gives the lowest collapse load. The steps involved are as follows:
1. Identify the likely plastic hinge locations (under point loads, at supports,
at joints, at zero shear positions under spread loads).
2. Sketch all the likely collapse mechanisms.
3. For each mechanism use virtual work to calculate the collapse load
factor.
4. Select the mechanism which gives the lowest load.
5. For this chosen case check that M ≤ MP (this is just to check that the
selected mechanism is indeed the correct one). If this condition is not
satisfied the correct mechanism has been overlooked.
Note
1. The uniqueness theorem does not assert that the BM distribution at
collapse is unique. The BM distribution at collapse may depend on
factors such as initial state of stress and loading history. Nor does it
assert that the collapse mechanism is unique. There may be
alternative mechanisms, but they will lead to the same collapse load.
2. An assumed plastic mechanism leading to a collapse load need not

imply that a BM distribution in equilibrium with the external loads
can exist for such a mechanism – as shown below:

Example – Fixed end beam with point loads

Yield check on mechanism giving lowest load:
We only need to find the moment at C, MC, since we know the bm at
A, B and D is MP. Using virtual work again, we take the known bms
and load from the chosen mechanism (1) and use mechanism (2) as a
virtual displacement to determine MC:
M P (θ + 5θ ) + M C (6θ ) = 2(62.61)(θ )2 + 3.5(62.61(5θ )1

M C = 104.35kNm (≤ M P , OK ) Giving the collapse BM diagram below

The same result could be found by ‘conventional’ methods
Consider segment BD and take moments about B:
M P + 3.5 × 62.61× 3 + M P − 4VD = 0
VD = 224.35kN
Summing moments about C for segment CD:
M C + M P = VD ×1
MC = 224.35×1−120 =104.35kNm (≤ MP , OK)

Example – Fixed base rectangular frame, varying MP, point
loads
(examples of frame analyses can be found in Megson II from p.613)

1. Likely plastic hinge positions identified at points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Note: At the joints between beam and columns, a plastic hinge will form
in the weaker member (the column) as soon as the moment reaches
40kNM.
2. Sketch candidate collapse mechanisms:
Note that the ‘combined’ mechanism is obtained by combining (adding)

the ‘sway’ and ‘beam’ mechanisms. In the process the plastic hinge
rotations at hinge location 2 cancel each other, removing the plastic hinge
and leaving the beam and column meeting at right angles.

3. Calculate collapse load factor (W) for each mechanism using virtual
work equation:
SWAY
M P ( column ) (4θ ) = 6W .4.θ
W = 6.67
BEAM
M P ( column ) (2θ ) + M P (beam ) (2θ ) = 8W .6.θ
40 × 2 + 60 × 2
W=
8× 6
= 4.167

Combined
M P ( column ) (4θ ) + M P (beam ) (2θ ) = 6W .4.θ + 8W .6.θ
40 × 4 + 60 × 2
W=
24 + 48
=3.889
4. Conclude collapse load, W = 3.889 (upper bound theorem)
5. Check yield condition to ensure M ≤ MP for selected mechanism:

Need to find the moments at points 1 to 5.
However, we know that the moments at 1, 3, 4 and 5 are the MP
values for those locations. This leaves just M2 to find.

Using the beam mechanism as a virtual

displacement to find
M2:
M 2 (θ ) + 60(2θ ) + 40(θ ) = 31.11× 6 × θ
M 2 = 26.7kNm
Hence collapse bm diagram as shown with

M ≤ MP everywhere proving solution is
correct (uniqueness theorem).


MARSHALL JOINT ROTATION CRITERIA
Marshal (1977) proposed a criteria based on experimental studies on beam
with axial loads as a lower and upper bound limits
2.5 3
 t   t 
θ min = 122   and θ max = 12800  
D D
The were based on materials and welding technology during mid 70’s and it has
been improved drastically over last few decades. Hence a a proposed log-mean
average of the above two will be representative for the current practice
2.75
 t 
θ min = 1250  
D
Appropriate D/t ratio shall be used to exhibit good plastic properties and D/t of 38
is suitable based on API RP 2A LRFD code
D
= 13000 / Fy
t
16 Dec 2014 97
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
STRESS – STRAIN CURVE FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

STRAIN HARDENING EFFECT

Strain hardening is slowing down of the strain rate or increase in stress after
the initial plastic deformation
Ultimate Strength (Fu)

Ultimate strength (Fu) is the failure load after which the material fails by
unloading with larger strain.
Yield Strength (Fy)

Yield strength (Fy) is the load at which the first yielding occurs after which the
material strains plastically

IDEALISED STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

PLASTIC HINGE : SINGULAIRTY

Refer to the elastic – perfectly plastic stress strain material behaviour.
During the transformation from elastic stresses to the plastic deformation, the
stress at the extreme fibre will reach yield. Since the stress strain relationship
is elastic – perfectly plastic, this point will undergo infinite strain while the
neighbouring section increases to higher stress or strain levels.
The plastic hinge shall have a finite strain and will extend over a length and it
is not be a point or plane. Hence, for formation of plastic hinge, stress-strain
relationship shall have a strain hardening or non-perfectly plastic.

IDEALISED ELASTIC-PLASTIC STRESS STRAIN

RELATIONSHIP WITH STRAIN HARDENING

IDEALISED ELASTIC-PLASTIC STRESS STRAIN

RELATIONSHIP WITH STRAIN HARDENING
In this model the elastic strain are disregarded. This seems acceptable,
because εel<< εall. More specifically, εel approximately 0.2% and εall is
approximately 10%.
MAXIMUM ROTATION ANGLE (KINEMATICALLY ADMISSIBLE)
Using small angle L  L

δ =  + δ L  × θ max ≈ θ max
approximation 2  2
2 2
L  L
Deflection calculated  + δ L =
   + δ 2
from change in length  2  2

2
L2
L L  L  2

Substituting and + (δ L ) + 2 .δ L = +   θ max 
2
expanding, we get 4 2 4  2  
Assuming δL is small, δL2 can be ignored
L2 L2 L2 2
+ Lδ L = + θ max
4 4 4
L
δ L = θ 2 max
4
δL
Strain can be defined as ε=
L/2
Substituting the strain δL 1 2

and rearranging = ε = θ max
L/2 2
∴θ max = 2ε

Ultimate Strength Principles

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Ultimate Strength Principles

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Principles of Ultimate Strength

16 Dec 2014 1 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 2 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

 Section compactness – Local Buckling

Hence member/structure proportioning is very important !

 Local buckling – due to instability of local shell wall

In which the D is the diameter of the cylinder and t

Stress variation across the depth

Equilibrium of forces in x-direction gives

16 Dec 2014 5 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Equilibrium of moment gives

16 Dec 2014 6 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Let us define R as radius of curvature and κ as curvature

Linear strain along the du dθ

16 Dec 2014 7 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 9 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Curvature and flexure 1 ε σ /E − My / IE M

The moment curvature d 2v M d 2v

16 Dec 2014 10 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

v = v( x), I = I ( x), P = P( x), p = p ( x)

Real column; Ideal column

Load - deflection relationship Load - deflection relationship

16 Dec 2014 14 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 15 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Hence the buckling load

16 Dec 2014 16 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 17 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

and the equation can be

16 Dec 2014 18 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 19 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 20 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 22 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 23 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Consider a beam – column with UDL (w) and axial load

In terms of loading d4y d2y

The variation of deflection of the beam column can be written as

The variation of bending moment of the beam column can be written as

d 2 y wL2  2ux 2ux 

The above equations were derived using particular and complementary

16 Dec 2014 25 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

The maximum deflection of the member occurs at midspan and is

ymax = y0 1 + 0.4067u + 0.1649u + ....

wL2  2 ( sec u − 1)   2 ( sec u − 1) 

M max = M o 1 + 0.4167 u 2 + 0.1694u 4 + 0.06870u 6 + …

M max = M 0 1 + 1.028   + 1.031   + 1.032   + ……

16 Dec 2014 28 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 29 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Case 2 Primary Plastic

Case 3 Secondary Plastic

Consider a case of a rectangular section of width b and height h

16 Dec 2014 30 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

16 Dec 2014 31 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

And substituting in to the above leads to

By performing the necessary integrations and elimination h from the resulting

Where m,φ and p are as defined in above equations.

The range of applicability of above equation is for (1− P) ≤ φ ≤ 1 (1− P)

16 Dec 2014 35 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

The strain at any point y from the centroidal axis is expressed by

between the elastic-plastic boundaries g and h . This can be achieved by

16 Dec 2014 36 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

DESIGN COLUMN CURVES

16 Dec 2014 38 Dr. S. Nallayarasu

Column curve for structural steels

16 Dec 2014 39 Dr. S. Nallayarasu