Environment

Environemnt Notes By www.pmfias.com--.
pdf
Environment.01.UPSC Questions P+M.pdf
Environment.01.UPSC Solved Prelims Questions.pdf
Environment.02.Ecosystem.pdf
Environment.03.Trophic Levels.pdf
Environment.04.Chemical Cycles.pdf
Environment.05.Terrestrial Ecosystem.pdf
Environment.06.Aquatic Ecosystem.pdf
Environment.07.Wetland Ecosystem.pdf
Environment.08.Degradation.pdf
Environment.09.Air Pollution.pdf
Environment.10.Ozone Depletion.pdf
Environment.11.Ocean Acidification.pdf
Environment.12.Water Pollution.pdf
Environment.13.Other Pollution.pdf
Environment.14.Solid Waste.pdf
Environment.15.EIA.pdf
Environment.16.Biodiversity (Conservation) of India-Hotspots.pdf
Environment.17.Red Data Book-Important Flora Fauna.pdf
Environment.19.Climate Change.pdf
Environment.20.Fighting CC-Protecting Biodiversity.pdf
Environment.21.National Environmental Legislation.pdf
Environment.22.Green Revolution-Suistainable Agriculture.pdf
Environment.23.Renewable-Non-Renewable.pdf
IG.Soil Conservation.pdf
IG.Soil Degradation.pdf
ENVIRONMENT NOTES FOR UPSC/IAS CSE
BY
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Geography Notes for General Studies UPSC CSE

 Geomorphology: http://imojo.in/cklijt
 Climatology: http://imojo.in/4zbjw9 & http://imojo.in/2f1d4t
 Oceanography: http://imojo.in/dqvaim
 Indian Geography: http://imojo.in/1yd876
 Economic Geography: http://imojo.in/559vyc
Biology Notes for Prelims UPSC CSE

 Biology: http://imojo.in/76hnkb
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Prelims Questions From Previous Papers 1 b) Oryx is poached for its antlers
whereas Chiru is poached for its
Environment Based Questions asked musk.
under Geography GS I (2013-15) ...........17 c) Oryx exists in western India only
whereas Chiru exists in north-east
Environment Based Questions asked India only.
Page
d) None of the statements a, b, and c
under GS III (2013-15)...........................17 given above is correct. |1
Geography Optional Mains Questions ....18 Q3. Among the following States, which
one has the most suitable climatic
Prelims Questions From Previous conditions for the cultivation of a large
Papers variety of orchids with minimum cost
of production, and can develop an
 The questions from the previous 3-4 export oriented industry in this field ?
years’ prelims papers help us
understand the nature of questions a) Andhra Pradesh
asked in prelims and the trend the b) Arunachal Pradesh
UPSC is following. c) Madhya Pradesh
 Don’t worry about the answers. Answer d) Uttar Pradesh
for each question with explanation is Q4. Consider the following:
given under respective topics.
 A file at the end will have all the solved 1) Black-necked crane
prelims questions with explanation. 2) Cheetah
 Environment is the high priority topic 3) Flying squirrel
for prelims and can be studied in 4) Snow leopard
relatively less hours compared to other
subjects [Very High Cost to Benefit Which of the above are naturally found in
Ration]. India ?
I advise you to first go through the full a) 1, 2 and 3 only

notes before trying to understand these b) 1, 3 and 4 only
question. c) 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2011-2012
Q1. Which one of the following is not a
site for in-situ method of conservation
of flora?
a) Biosphere Reserves
b) Botanical Garden
c) National Park
d) Wildlife Sanctuary
Q2. What is the difference between the

antelopes Oryx and Chiru?
a) Oryx is adapted to live in hot and

arid areas whereas Chiru is adapted
to live in steppes and semi-desert
areas of cold high mountains. .
1) Endemic plant and animal species

present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2) Threatened plant and animal
species.
3) Protected sites for conservation of
nature & natural resources in
Page
various countries.
|2
Which of the statement given above is/are
correct ?
a) 1 &3
b) 2 only
c) 2 &3
d) 3 only
Q8. Which one of the following groups

of animals belongs to the category of
endangered species?
a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer,

Red Panda and Asiatic Wild Ass
Q5. A sandy and saline area is the b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull
natural habitat of an Indian animal and Great Indian Bustard
species. The animal has no predators in c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus
that area but its existence is Monkey and Saras (Crane)
threatened due to the destruction of its d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull,
habitat. Which one of the following Hanuman Langur and Cheetal
could be that animal?
Q9. The Himalayan Range is very rich
a) Indian wild buffalo in species diversity. Which one among
b) Indian wild ass the following is the most appropriate
c) Indian wild boar reason for this phenomenon?
d) Indian Gazelle
a) It has a high rainfall that supports
Q6. Consider the following kinds of luxuriant vegetative growth.
organisms b) It is a confluence of different bio
geographical zones.
1) Bat c) Exotic and invasive species have not
2) Bee been introduced in this region.
3) Bird d) It has less human interference.
Which of the above is/are pollinating
agent/agents?
a) 1 and 2 only Q10. If a tropical rain forest is

b) 2 only removed, it does not regenerate quickly
c) 1 and 3 only as compared to a tropical deciduous
d) 1, 2 and 3 forest. This is because
Q7. The ‘Red Data Books’ published by a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in
the International Union for nutrients
Conservation of Nature and Natural b) propagules of the trees in a rain
Resources (IUCN) contain lists of forest have poor viability
c) the rain forest species are slow- 1) Carbon dioxide

growing 2) Oxides of Nitrogen
d) exotic species invade the fertile soil 3) Oxides of Sulphur
of rain forest.
Which of the above is/are the emission /
emissions from coal combustion at
Q11. When the bark of a tree is thermal power plants ? Page
removed in a circular fashion all around |3
near its base, it generally dries up and a) 1 only
dies because b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
a) Water from soil cannot rise to aerial d) 1, 2 and 3
parts.
b) Roots are starved of energy Q15. The increasing amount of carbon
c) Tree is infected by soil microbes dioxide in the air is slowly raising the
d) Roots do not receive oxygen for temperature of the atmosphere,
respiration because it absorbs
a) the water vapour of the air and

Q12. Consider the following: retains its heat.
b) the ultraviolet part of the solar
1) Photosynthesis radiation.
2) Respiration c) all the solar radiations.
3) Decay of organic matter d) the infrared part of the solar radiation
4) Volcanic action
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to Q16. The formation of ozone hole in
the carbon cycle on Earth ? the Antarctic region has been a cause of
concern. What could be the reason for
a) 1 and 4 only the formation of this hole?
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2,3 and 4 only a) Presence of prominent tropospheric
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 turbulence; and inflow of
chlorofluorocarbons
Q13. Consider the following b) Presence of prominent polar front and
statements: Chlorofluorocarbons, stratospheric clouds; and inflow of
known as ozone-depleting substances, chloro fluorocarbons
are used c) Absence of polar front and
stratospheric clouds; and inflow of
1) in the production of plastic foams
2) in the production of tubeless tyres methane and chloro fluorocarbons.
3) in cleaning certain electronic d) Increased temperature at polar region
due to global warming
components
4) as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans Q17. The acidification of oceans is
increasing. Why is this phenomenon a
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? cause of concern?
a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1) The growth and survival of calcareous

b) 4 only phytoplankton will be adversely
affected.
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 2) The growth and survival of coral reefs
will be adversely affected.
Q14. Consider the following:
3) The survival of some animals that which of the following provisions of the
have phytoplanktonic larvae will be Constitution of India?
adversely affected.
4) The cloud seeding and formation of 1) Right to healthy environment,
clouds will be adversely affected. construed as a part of part of Right to
life under Article 21.
Which of statements given above is / are 2) Provision of grants for raising the Page
correct? level of administration in the |4
Scheduled Areas for the welfare of
a) 1, 2 and 3 only Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only Which of the statements given above
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 is/are correct ?
Q18. Regarding "carbon credits", which a) 1 only

one of the following statements is not b) 2 only
correct? c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
a) The carbon credit system was ratified
in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol Q21. How does National Biodiversity
b) Carbon credits are awarded to Authority (NBA) help in protecting the
countries or groups that have reduced Indian agriculture?
greenhouse gases below their
emission quota 1) NBA checks the biopiracy and
c) The goal of the carbon credit system protects the indigenous and
is to limit the increase of carbon traditional genetic resources.
emission quota 2) NBA directly monitors and supervises
d) Carbon credits are traded at a price the scientific research on genetic
fixed from time to time by the United modification of crop plants.
Nations Environment Programme. 3) Application for intellectual Property
Rights related to genetic / biological
resources cannot be made without
Q19. With reference to India, consider the approval of NBA.
the following Central Acts:
1) Import and Export (Control) Act, is/are correct?
1947.
2) Mining and Mineral Development a) 1 only
(Regulation) Act, 1957 b) 2 and 3 only
3) Customs Act, 1962 c) 1 and 3 only
4) Indian Forest Act, 1927 d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of above Acts have relevance Q22. Recently, ‘oilzappee’ was in the
to/bearing on the biodiversity news. What is it?
conservation in the country ? a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the
a) 1 and 3 only remediation of oil sludge and oil
b) 2,3 and 4 only spills.
c) 1,2,3 and 4 b) It is the latest technology developed
d) None of the above Acts for under- sea oil exploration.
c) It is a genetically engineered high
Q20. The National Green Tribunal Act, biofuel yielding maize variety.
2010 was enacted in consonance with
d) It is the latest technology to control 2013

the accidentally caused flames from
oil wells. Q1. Consider the following pairs:
Q23. Government of India encourages 1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve : Garo
the cultivation of 'sea buckthorn'. What Hills
is the importance of this plant ? 2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range Page
3. Namdapha National Park : Dafla |5
a) It helps in controlling soil erosion and Hills
in preventing desertification.
b) It is a rich source of biodiesel. Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
c) It has nutritional value and is well- matched?
adapted to live in cold areas of high
altitudes. a) 1 only
d) Its timber is of great commercial b) 2 and 3 only
value. c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Q24. Two important rivers - one with
its source in Jharkhand (and known by Q2. Consider the following pairs about
a different name in Odisha), and parks and rivers passing through them:
another, with its source in Odisha -
1. Corbett National Park: Ganga
merge at a place only a short distance
2. Kaziranga National Park: Manas
from the coast of Bay of Bengal before
3. Silent Valley National Park: Kaveri
flowing into the sea. This is an
important site of wildlife and bio- Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
diversity and a protected area. Which matched?
one of the following could be this ?
a) 1 and 2
a) Bhitarkanika b) 3 only
b) Chandipur-on-sea c) 1 and 3
c) Gopalpur-on-sea d) None
d) Simlipal
Q3. In which of the following States is
Q25. A particular State in India has the lion-tailed macaque found in its natural
following characteristics: habitat?
1) It is located on the same latitude 1. Tamil Nadu
which passes through northern 2. Kerala
Rajasthan. 3. Karnataka
2) It has over 80% of its area under 4. Andhra Pradesh
forest cover.
3) Over 12% of forest cover constitutes Select the correct answer using the codes
Protected Area Network in this given below.
State.
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
Which one among the following States has b) 2 only
all the above characteristics? c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
a) Arunachal Pradesh
b) Assam Q4. Which of the following is/are
c) Himachal Pradesh unique characteristic/characteristics of
d) Uttarakhand equatorial forests?
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees c) 2 and 3 only

with crowns forming a continuous d) 1, 2 and 3
canopy
2. Coexistence of a large number of Q8. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been
species used in rehabilitating degraded sites
3. Presence of numerous varieties of because mycorrhiza enables the plants
to Page
epiphytes
|6
Select the correct answer using the code 1. resist drought and increase
given below: absorptive area
2. tolerate extremes of pH
a) 1 only 3. Resist disease infestation
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only Select the correct answer using the codes
d) 1, 2 and 3 given below:
Q5. Consider the following fauna of a) 1 only

India: b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
1. Gharial d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Leatherback turtle
3. Swamp deer Q9. Consider the following organisms
Which of the above is/are endangered? 1. Agaricus

2. Nostoc
a) 1 and 2 only 3. Spirogyra
b) 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the above is / are used as
d) None biofertilizer / biofertilizers
Q6. Consider the following a) 1 and 2

b) 2 only
1. Star tortoise c) 2 and 3
2. Monitor lizard d) 3 only
3. Pygmy hog
4. Spider monkey Q10. Which of the following adds/add
nitrogen to the soil?
Which of the above found in India?
1. Excretion of urea by animals
a) 1, 2 and 3 only 2. Burning of coal by man
b) 2 and 3 only 3. Death of vegetation
c) 1 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Select the correct answer using the codes
given below.
Q7. Consider the following animals:
a) 1 only
1. Sea cow b) 2 and 3 only
2. Sea horse c) 1 and 3 only
3. Sea lion d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the above is/are Q11. Contour bunding is a method of
mammal/mammals? soil conservation used in
a) 1 only a) desert margins, liable to strong wind

b) 1 and 3 only action
b) low flat plains, close to stream 2) Sorbitol

courses, liable to flooding 3) Fluoride
c) scrublands, liable to spread of weed 4) Formaldehyde
growth 5) Uranium
d) None of the above
Select the correct answer using the codes
Q12. With reference to the usefulness given below. Page
of the by-products of sugar industry, |7
which of the following statements is / a) 1 and 3 only
are correct? b) 2, 4 and 5 only
c) 1, 3 and 5 only
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
fuel for the generation of energy.
2. Molasses can be used as one of the Q15. Which one among the following
feedstocks for the production of industries is the maximum consumer of
synthetic chemical fertilizers. water in India?
3. Molasses can be used for the a) Engineering
production of ethanol. b) Paper and pulp
Select the correct answer using the codes c) Textiles
given below. d) Thermal power
a) 1 only Q16. Acid rain is caused by the

b) 2 and 3 only pollution of environment by
c) 1 and 3 only a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen
d) 1, 2 and 3 b) carbon monoxide and carbon
Q13. Due to improper / indiscriminate dioxide
disposal of old and used computers or c) ozone and carbon dioxide
their parts, which of the following are d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide
released into the environment as e- Q17. Photochemical smog is a resultant
waste? of the reaction among
1. Beryllium a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in
2. Cadmium the presence of sunlight
3. Chromium b) CO, 02 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in
4. Heptachlor the presence of sunlight
5. Mercury c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low
6. Lead temperature
7. Plutonium d) High concentration of N02, O3 and
Select the correct answer using the codes CO in the evening
given below. Q18. With reference to food chains in
a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only ecosystems, consider the following
b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only statements:
c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only 1. A food chain illustrates the order in
d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 which a chain of organisms feed
Q14. Which of the following can be upon each other.
found as pollutants in the drinking 2. Food chains are found within the
water in some parts of India? populations of a species.
1) Arsenic
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands,

of each organism which are eaten by mangroves
others. b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands,
lakes
Which of the statements given above is / c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes,
are correct? oceans
Page
d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes,
a) 1 only
grasslands |8
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
2014
d) None
Q19. Which one of the following terms Q1. Which one of the following is the
describes not only the physical space process involved in photosynthesis?
occupied by an organism, but also its a) Potential energy is released to form
functional role in the community of free energy
organisms? b) Free energy is converted into
a) Ecotone potential energy and stored
b) Ecological niche c) Food is oxidized to release carbon
c) Habitat dioxide and water
d) Home range d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide
and water vapour are given out
Q20. With reference to the food chains
in ecosystems, which of the following Q2. Which of the following adds/add
kinds of organism is / are known as carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on
decomposer organism/organisms? the planet Earth?
1. Virus 1. Volcanic action

2. Fungi 2. Respiration
3. Bacteria 3. Photosynthesis
4. Decay of organic matter
given below. Select the correct answer using the code
given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only a) 1 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only b) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 c) 1, 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Q21. In the grasslands, trees do not
replace the grasses as a part of an Q3. In India, the problem of soil erosion
ecological succession because of is associated with which of the
following?
a) insects and fungi
b) limited sunlight and paucity of 1. Terrace cultivation
nutrients 2. Deforestation
c) water limits and fire 3. Tropical climate
d) None of the above Select the correct answer using the code
Q22. Which one of the following is the given below.
correct sequence of ecosystems in the a) 1 and 2 only
order of decreasing productivity? b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only a) 1 only

d) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
Q4. Lichens, which are capable of d) 1, 2 and 3
initiating ecological succession even on
a bare rock, are actually a symbiotic Q8. Consider the following pairs
association of Page
Wetlands
|9
a) algae and bacteria Confluence of rivers
b) algae and fungi
c) bacteria and fungi 1. Harike Wetlands Beas
d) fungi and mosses and Satluj/Sutlej
Q5. Conserving Biodiversity 2. Keoladeo Ghana National Park

Banas and Chambal
The most important strategy for the
conservation of biodiversity together with 3. Kolleru Lake
traditional human life is the establishment Confluence of Musi and Krishna
of Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
a) biosphere reserves matched?
b) botanical gardens a) 1 only
c) national parks b) 2 and 3 only
d) wildlife sanctuaries c) 1 and 3 only
Q6. With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive d) 1, 2 and 3
Zones’, which of the following Q9. Which of the following have coral
statements is/are correct? reefs?
1) Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas 1) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
that are declared under the Wildlife 2) Gulf of Kutch
(Protection) Act, 1972. 3) Gulf of Mannar
2) The purpose of the declaration of 4) Sunderbans
Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all
kinds of human activities, in those Select the correct answer using the code
zones except agriculture. given below.
Select the correct answer using the code a) 1, 2 and 3 only
given below. b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1 and 3 only
a) 1 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 Q10. Consider the following:
d) Neither 1 nor 2
1) Bats
Q7. Consider the following pairs 2) Bears
3) Rodents
1) Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram
2) Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim The phenomenon of hibernation can be
3) Saramati Peak : Nagaland observed in which of the above kinds of
animals?
Which of the above pairs is /are correctly
matched? a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 c) 2 and 3
d) Hibernation cannot be observed in d) 3 only
any of the above
Q15. Other than poaching, what are the
Q11. Among the following organisms, possible reasons for the decline in the
which one does not belong to the class population of Ganges River Dolphins?
of other three? Page
1. Construction of dams and barrages
| 10
a) Crab on rivers
b) Mite 2. Increase in the population of
c) Scorpion crocodiles in rivers
d) Spider 3. Getting trapped in fishing nets
accidentally
Q12. Which one of the following is the 4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other
correct sequence of a food chain? agricultural chemicals in crop-fields
a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings in the vicinity of rivers
b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings Select the correct answer using the code
c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans given below.
d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
a) 1 and 2 only
Q13. If you travel through the b) 2 and 3 only
Himalayas, you are Likely to see which c) 1, 3 and 4 only
of the following plants naturally d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
growing there?
Q16. With reference to two non-
1. Oak conventional energy sources called
2. Rhododendron ‘coal bed methane’ and ‘shale gas’,
3. Sandalwood consider the following ‘statements:
Select the correct answer using the code 1. Coal bed methane is the pure
given below methane gas extracted from coal
a) 1 and 2 only seams, while shale gas is a mixture
of propane and butane only that can
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only be extracted from fine-grained
d) 1, 2 and 3 sedimentary rocks.
2. In India abundant coal bed methane
Q14. If you walk through countryside, sources exist, but so far no shale
you are likely to see some birds gas sources have been found.
stalking alongside the cattle to seize
the insects, disturbed by their Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
movement through grasses, Which of
the following is/are such bird/birds? a) 1 only
b) 2 only
1. Painted Stork
2. Common Myna c) Both 1 and 2
3. Black-necked Crane d) Neither 1 nor 2
Select the correct answer using the code Q17. In India, cluster bean (Guar) is
traditionally used as a vegetable or
given below.
animal feed, but recently the
a) 1 and 2 cultivation of this has assumed
b) 2 only
significance. Which one of the following Select the correct answer using the code
statements is correct in this context? given below.
a) The oil extracted from seeds is used a) 1 and 2 only

in the manufacture of biodegradable b) 3 only
plastics c) 1 and 3 only
b) The gum made from its seeds is d) 1, 2 and 3 Page
used in the extraction of shale gas | 11
c) The leaf extract of this plant has the Q20. Which of the following are some
properties of anti-histamines important pollutants released by steel
d) It is a source of high quality industry in India?
biodiesel 1) Oxides of sulphur
Q18. With reference to technologies for 2) Oxides of nitrogen
solar power production, consider the 3) Carbon monoxide
following statements: 4) Carbon dioxide
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that Select the correct answer using the code
generates electricity by direct given below.
conversion of light into electricity, a) 1, 3 and 4 only
while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology b) 2 and 3 only
that utilizes the Sun’s rays to c) 1 and 4 only
generate heat which is further used d) 1,2, 3 and 4
in electricity generation process.
2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating Q21. Brominated flame retardants are
Current (AC), while Solar Thermal used in many household products like
generates Direct Current (DC). mattresses and upholstery. Why is
3. India has manufacturing base for there some concern about their use?
Solar Thermal technology, but not
for Photovoltaics. 1. They are highly resistant to
degradation in the environment.
Which of the statements given above is / 2. They are able to accumulate in
are correct? humans and animals.
a) 1 only Select the correct answer using the code
b) 2 and 3 only given below.
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None a) 1 only
b) 2 only
Q19. There is some concern regarding c) Both 1 and 2
the nanoparticles of some chemical d) Neither 1 nor 2
elements that are used by the industry
in the manufacture of various products. Q22. Consider the following countries:
Why?
1. Denmark
1) They can accumulate in the 2. Japan
environment, and contaminate 3. Russian Federation
water and soil. 4. United Kingdom
2) They can enter the food chains. 5. United States of America
3) They can trigger the production of
Which of the above are the members of the
free radicals.
‘Arctic Council ‘?
a) 1, 2 and 3 countries which are signatories to

b) 2, 3 and 4 Ramsar Convention.
c) 1, 4 and 5 2) It works at the field level to develop
d) 1, 3 and 5 and mobilize knowledge, and use
the practical experience to advocate
Q23. With reference to ‘Global for better policies.
Environment Facility’, which of the Page
following statements is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the code | 12
given below.
a) It serves as financial mechanism for
‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ a) 1 only
and ‘United Nations Framework b) 2 only
Convention on Climate Change’. c) Both 1 and 2
b) It undertakes scientific research on d) Neither 1 nor 2
environmental issues at global level
c) It is an agency under OECD to Q26. Consider the following
facilitate the transfer of technology international agreements:
and funds to underdeveloped 1) The International Treaty on Plant
countries with specific aim to Genetic Resources for Food and
protect their environment. Agriculture
d) Both (a) and (b) 2) The United Nations Convention to
Q24. If a wetland of international Combat Desertification
importance is brought under the 3) The World Heritage Convention
‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply? Which of the above has / have a bearing
a) Changes in ecological character on the biodiversity?
have occurred, are occurring or are a) 1 and 2 only
likely to occur in the wetland as a b) 3 only,
result of human interference. c) 1 and 3 only
b) The country in which the wetland is d) 1, 2. and 3
located should enact a law to
prohibit any human activity within Q27. The scientific view is that the
five kilo meters from the edge of the increase in global temperature should
wetland not exceed 2 °C above pre-industrial
c) The survival of the wetland depends level. If the global temperature
on the cultural practices and increases beyond 3°C above the pre-
traditions of certain communities industrial level, what can be its possible
living in its vicinity and therefore the impact/impacts on the world?
cultural diversity therein should not
be destroyed 1) Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a
d) It is given the status of ‘World net carbon source
Heritage Site’ 2) Widespread coral mortality will
occur.
Q25. With reference to a conservation 3) All the global wetlands will
organization called Wetlands permanently disappear.
International’, which of the following 4) Cultivation of cereals will not be
statements is/are correct? possible anywhere in the world.
1) It is an intergovernmental Select the correct answer using the code
organization formed by the given below.
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only one hour on a certain day every

c) 2, 3 and 4 only year.
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4, 3. It is a movement to raise the
awareness about the climate change
Q28. Consider the following and the need to save the planet.
statements:
Which of the statements given above is / Page
1) Animal Welfare Board of India is are correct? | 13
established under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986. a) 1 and 3 only
2) National Tiger Conservation b) 2 only
Authority is a statutory body. c) 2 and 3 only.
3) National Ganga River Basin d) 1, 2 and 3
Authority is chaired by the Prime
Minister. Q31. Every year, a month long
ecologically important
Which of the statements given above is/ campaign/festival is held during which
are correct? certain communities/ tribes plant
saplings of fruit-bearing trees. Which of
a) 1 only the following are such
b) 2 and 3 only communities/tribes?
c) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 a) Bhutia and Lepcha
b) Gond and Korku
Q29. With reference to Bombay Natural c) lrula and Toda
History Society (BNHS), consider the d) Sahariya and Agariya
following statements :
2015
1. It is an autonomous organization
under the Ministry of Environment Q1. Which of the following National
and Forests. Parks is unique in being a swamp with
2. It strives to conserve nature through floating vegetation that supports a rich
action-based research, education biodiversity?
and public awareness.
3. It organizes and conducts nature a) Bhitarkanika National Park
trails and camps for the general b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
public. c) Keoladeo Ghana National park
d) Sultanpur National park
is/are correct? Q2. What can be the impact of
excessive/inappropriate use of
a) 1 and 3 only nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?
b) 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only 1) Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing
d) 1, 2 and 3 microorganisms in soil can occur.
2) Increase in the acidity of soil can
Q30. Consider the following statements take place
regarding ‘Earth Hour’ 3) Leaching of nitrate to the ground-
1. It is an initiative of UNEP and water can occur.
UNESCO. Select the correct answer using the code
2. It is a movement in which the given below.
participants switch off the lights for
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 only

b) 2 only c) 1 and 3
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 only
d) 1,2 and 3
Q5. With reference to ‘dugong’, a
Q3. With reference to the International mammal found in India, which of the
Union for Conservation of Nature and following statements is/are correct? Page
Natural Resources (IUCN) and the | 14
Convention on International Trade in 1) It is a herbivorous marine animal.
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and 2) It is found along the entire coast of
Flora (CITES), which of the following India
statements is/are correct? 3) It is given legal protection under
Schedule 1 of the Wildlife
1) IUCN is an organ of the United (Protection) Act, 1972.
Nations and CITES is an
international agreement between Select the correct answer using the code
governments given below.
2) IUCN runs thousands of field a) 1 and 2
projects around the world to better b) 2 only
manage natural environments. c) 1 and 3
3) CITES is legally binding on the d) 3 only
States that have joined it, but this
Convention does not take the place Q6. Which one of the following is the
of national laws. national aquatic animal of India?
Select the correct using the code given a) Saltwater crocodile
below. b) Olive ridley turtle
c) Gangetic dolphin
a) 1 only d) Gharial
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only Q7. Which one of the following regions
d) 1, 2 and 3 of India has a combination of mangrove
forest, evergreen forest and deciduous
Q4. With reference to ‘fly ash’ produced forest?
by the power plants using the coal as
fuel, which of the following statements a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
is/are correct? b) South-West Bengal
c) Southern Saurashtra
1) Fly ash can be used in the d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
production of bricks for building
construction Q8. Which one of the following is
2) Fly ash can be used as a associated with the issue of control and
replacement for some of the phasing out of the use of ozone-
Portland cement contents of depleting substances?
concrete
3) Fly ash is made up of silicon dioxide a) Bretton Woods Conference
and calcium oxide only, and does b) Montreal Protocol
not contain any toxic elements. c) Kyoto Protocol
d) Nagoya Protocol
Select the correct answer using the code
given below Q9. What is Rio+20 Conference, often
mentioned in the news?
a) 1 and 2
a) It is the United nations Conference a) Food Safety and Standards Act,

on Sustainable Development 2006
b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the b) Geographical Indications of Goods
World Trade Organization (Registration and Protection) Act,
c) It is a Conference of the Inter- 1999
governmental Panel on Climate c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
Page
Change d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
d) It is a Conference of the Member | 15
Countries of the Convention on Q14. ‘Basel III Accord’ or simply ‘Basel
Biological Diversity III’, often seen in the news, seeks to
Q10. Which of the following statements a) develop national strategies for the
regarding ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are conservation and sustainable use of
correct? biological diversity
b) improve banking sector’s ability to
1) It is intended to assist the deal with financial and economic
developing countries in adaptation stress and improve risk
and mitigation practices to counter management
climate change. c) reduce the greenhouse gas
2) It is founded under the aegis of emissions but places a heavier
UNEP, OECD, Asian Development burden on developed countries
Bank and World Bank d) transfer technology from developed
Countries to poor countries to
Select the correct answer using the code enable them to replace the use of
given below. chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration
with harmless chemicals
a) 1 only
b) 2 only Q15. In a particular region in India, the
c) Both 1 and 2 local people train the roots of living
d) Neither 1 nor 2 tree into robust bridges across the
streams. As the time passes these
Q11. Which one of the following
National Parks has a climate that varies bridges become stronger. These unique
from tropical to subtropical, temperate ‘Living Root Bridges’ are found in
and arctic? a) Meghalaya
a) Khangchendzonga National park b) Himachal Pradesh
b) Nandadevi National Park c) Jharkhand
c) Neora Valley National Park d) Tamil Nadu
d) Namdapha National park Q16. Consider the following States:
Q12. ‘BioCarbon Fund Initiative for 1) Arunachal Pradesh
Sustain-able Forest Landscapes’ is 2) Himachal Pradesh
managed by the 3) Mizoram
a) Asian Development Bank In which of the following states do
b) International Monetary Fund “Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests” occur?
c) United Nations Environment
Programme a) 1 only
d) World Bank b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
Q13. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal d) 1, 2 and 3
Committee is constituted under the
Q17. With reference to ‘Forest Carbon a) Tropical moist deciduous forest

Partnership Facility’, which of the b) Tropical rain forest
following statements is/are correct? c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
d) Temperate forest with grasslands
1) it is global partnership of
governments, businesses, civil Q20. Which one of the following is the
society and indigenous peoples best description of the term Page
2) it provides financial aid to “ecosystem”? | 16
universities, individual scientists
and institutions involved in a) A community of organisms
scientific forestry research to interacting with one another
develop eco-friendly and climate b) That part of the Earth which is
adaptation technologies for inhabited by living organisms
sustainable forest management c) A community of organisms together
3) It assists the countries in their with the environment in which they
‘REDD+ (Reducing Emission from live.
Deforestation and Forest d) The flora and fauna of a
Degradation+)’ efforts by providing geographical area.
them with financial and technical Q21. With reference to bio-toilets used
assistance. by the Indian Railways, consider the
Select the correct answer using the code following statements:
given below 1. The decomposition of human waste
a) 1 only in the bio-toilets is initiated by a
b) 2 and 3 only fungal inoculum.
c) 1 and 3 only 2. Ammonia and water vapour are the
d) 1, 2 and 3 only end products in this
decomposition which are released
Q18. With reference to an organization into the atmosphere.
known as ‘Birdlife International’ which
of the following statements is/are Which of the statements given above
correct? is/are correct?
1) It is a Global Partnership of a) 1 only

Conservation Organizations. b) 2 only
2) The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ c) Both 1 and 2
originated from this organization. d) Neither 1 nor 2
3) It identifies the sites known/referred Q22. With reference to the Indian
to as ‘Important Bird and Renewable Energy Development Agency
Biodiversity Areas’. Limited (IREDA), which of the following
Select the correct answer using the code statements is/are correct?
given below. 1) It is a Public Limited Government
a) 1 only Company.
b) 2 and 3 only 2) It is a Non – Banking Financial
c) 1 and 3 only Company.
d) 1, 2 and 3 Select the correct answer using the code
Q19. In India, in which one of the given below.
following types of forests is teak a a) 1 only
dominant tree species? b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2  Phase IV of tiger monitoring

d) Neither 1 or 2 programme (5 marks)
 Tiger tourism (25 marks)
Environment Based Questions  E-waste (5 marks) Permaculture (12
asked under Geography GS I marks)
(2013-15)  Diminishing population of Vulture (5 Page
marks)
1. India is well endowed with fresh water  CBD (5 marks) | 17
resources. Critically examine why it  Billion Acts of Green (2 marks)
still suffers from water scarcity.  Environment Sustainability (5 marks)
2. The states of Jammu and Kashmir,  What do you understand by run of the
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand river hydroelectricity project? How is it
arc reaching the limits of their different from any other hydroelectricity
ecological carrying capacity due to project?
tourism. Critically evaluate.  Write a note on India’s green energy
3. How far do you agree that the behavior corridor to alleviate the problems of
of the Indian monsoon has been conventional energy.
changing due to humanizing  What are the consequences of illegal
landscapes? Discuss. mining? Discuss the ministry of
4. Most of the unusual climatic environment and forests’ concept of
happenings are explained as an “GO AND NO GO” zones for coal
outcome of the El-Nino effect. Do you mining.
agree?
 Enumerate the National Water Policy of
5. Bring out the relationship between the
India. Taking river Ganges as an
shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the
example, discuss the strategies which
symptoms of climate change in the
may be adopted for river water
Indian sub-continent.
pollution control and management.
6. What do you understand by the
What are the legal provisions for
phenomenon of temperature inversion
management and handling of
in meteorology? How does it affect the
hazardous wastes in India?
weather and the habitants of the place?
 Should the pursuit of carbon credit and
7. What are the economic significances of
clean development mechanism set up
discovery of oil in Arctic Sea and its
under UNFCCC be maintained even
possible environmental consequences?
through there has been a massive slide
8. Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the
in the value of carbon credit? Discuss
three mega cities of the country but the
with respect to India’s energy needs for
air pollution is much more serious
economic growth.
problem in Delhi as compared to the
 Drought has been recognized as a
other two. Why is this so?
disaster in view of its party expense,
Environment Based Questions temporal duration, slow onset and
lasting effect on various vulnerable
asked under GS III (2013-15)
sections. With a focus on the
September 2010 guidelines from the
 Evolution of Green Benches (12 marks)
National disaster management
 Causes and the Extent of
authority, discuss the mechanism for
'Desertification' in India and Remedial
preparedness to deal with the El Nino
Measures (25 marks)
and La Nina fallouts in India.
 Impact of C.C. on Indian water
 Environmental impact assessment
resources (12 marks)
studies are increasingly undertaken
 Endosulphan (25 marks) before project is cleared by the
government. Discuss the environmental  Discuss the method of conserving

impacts of coal-fired thermal plants biodiversity for sustainable
located at Pitheads. development.
 To what factors can the recent  Man-induced famines are becoming
dramatic fall in equipment costs and more common than nature-induced
tariff of solar energy be attributed? ones. Comment. Page
What implications does the trend have  Discuss an account of the nature of
for the thermal power producers and biosphere as an ecosystem. | 18
the related industry?
 Should the pursuit of carbon credit and 2013 and 2014
clean development mechanism set up
under UNFCCC be maintained even  Enumerate the major causes of
through there has been a massive slide increasing degradation of
in the value of carbon credit? Discuss environment in hills and hill slopes,
with respect to India’s energy needs for and state its down-valley impact.
economic growth.  Give a critical account of reasons
 Environmental impact assessment and consequences of marine
studies are increasingly undertaken pollution.
before project is cleared by the  Discuss environmental and
government. Discuss the environmental economic problems associated with
impacts of coal-fired thermal plants coal production.
located at Pitheads.  “Food productivity with purity of the
 Write a note on India’s green energy ecosystem is the need of the hour.”
corridor to alleviate the problems of Elaborate.
conventional energy.  Explain how eco-tourism, activities
 The Namami Gange and National could be important livelihood
mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) options in the Himalayan and
programmes and causes of mixed North-Eastern regions of the
results from the previous schemes. country
What quantum leaps can help preserve  Why has agro and social forestry
the river Ganga better than incremental has failed to achieve its objectives?
inputs?  Suggest the measures of wild-life
conservation with reference to
Geography Optional Mains extinction of rare species.
Questions  ‘In spite of various negative impacts
of Green Revolution, there is a
 Applies only for students with demand for New Green Revolution.’
geography optional. Elaborate.
 Under Physical Geography there two  Types of endemic plants and their
topics namely Biogeography and degree of vulnerability to extinction.
Environmental Geography.  What are the characteristics that
 All questions in 150-250 word limit make CHC [Chlorinated hydrocarbons]
[15-20-25 marks questions] a serious threat to the ecosystem?
Give examples.
2015  Explain the levels of Noise pollution
and the legislative measures to
 Explain the characteristics of control it.
ecological succession.  “Urban Solid Waste Management
poses the greatest challenge in
Metropolitan planning.’ Elaborate.
2012
 Discuss how different types of
mining lead to different types of
environmental problems.
 Impact of Cryopsphare on global Page
climate.
| 19
2011
 Write short note on Marine
Ecosystem. (150 words each, 12
marks)
 Contemporary global climate change
is an anthropogenic phenomenon.
Discuss. (30 marks)
 Define the term biome. List the
terrestrial biomes and describe the
characteristics of Savanna biome.
(30 marks)
 Ingredients of Sustainable
Development (12 marks)
Solved Environment Prelims Ex situ conservation = conserving the

Questions From Previous 3-4 organism in an artificial habitat by
displacing it from its natural habitat.
Papers
Botanical Garden = Plants are bred in a
 The questions from the previous 3-4 protected environment far from their
years’ prelims papers help us natural home, especially for research Page
understand the nature of questions purposes. So its Ex situ conservation. |1
asked in prelims and the trend the
UPSC is following. Rest all along with protected forests and
 Environment is the high priority topic reserved forests are In situ conservation
for prelims and can be studied in methods.
relatively less hours compared to other
subjects [Very High Cost to Benefit Answer: b) Botanical Garden
Ration]. Q2. What is the difference between the
Hence I have not given explanation to antelopes Oryx and Chiru?
location based question [Location of a) Oryx is adapted to live in hot and
Biosphere reserves, Tiger reserves, arid areas whereas Chiru is adapted
National Parks etc.]. to live in steppes and semi-desert
I will come up with a separate notes on areas of cold high mountains. .
Location Based Question that are b) Oryx is poached for its antlers
important for Prelims under Geography whereas Chiru is poached for its
and Environment. musk.
c) Oryx exists in western India only
Most of the questions below are explained whereas Chiru exists in north-east
in detail under respective headings. India only.
If you found any mistakes, inform me at given above is correct.
poormansfriend2485@gmail.com or My
FB Page:
https://www.facebook.com/PoorMansFri
end2485
I advise you to first go through the full

notes before trying to understand these
question.
2011-2012
Q1. Which one of the following is not a
site for in-situ method of conservation
of flora?
a) Biosphere Reserves
b) Botanical Garden
c) National Park
d) Wildlife Sanctuary
In situ conservation = on the site

conservation without displacing the
affected organism.
They are both antelopes. Black-necked crane is commonly found in

Tibetan and trans-Himalayan region. In
Answer: a) winters they migrate to less colder regions
Q3. Among the following States, which of Indian Himalayas.
one has the most suitable climatic Cheetah is an extinct species. They have
conditions for the cultivation of a large gone extinct during pre-independence era. Page
variety of orchids with minimum cost Reason: They were hunted down by |2
of production, and can develop an various Indian kings and British officers.
export oriented industry in this field ?
Flying Squirrels are found in many Indian
a) Andhra Pradesh forests.
b) Arunachal Pradesh
c) Madhya Pradesh Snow leopard is an ‘endangered’ specie
d) Uttar Pradesh found in the Himalayan ranges.
Orchids are decorative flowering plants. Answer: b) 1, 3 and 4 only

They grow in regions with moderate
climatic conditions [Sub-tropics with Q5. A sandy and saline area is the
decent rainfall] natural habitat of an Indian animal
species. The animal has no predators in
They are typical to North-Eastern states. that area but its existence is
threatened due to the destruction of its
Great demand for these decorative habitat. Which one of the following
flowering plants exists in South-East could be that animal?
Asian region.
a) Indian wild buffalo
Answer: b) b) Indian wild ass
c) Indian wild boar
d) Indian Gazelle
1) Black-necked crane
2) Cheetah Sandy saline area = Kutch region
3) Flying squirrel Indian wild buffalo = Terai region
4) Snow leopard
Indian wild boar = can survive in different
Which of the above are naturally found in types of habitat: grasslands,
India ? taiga, tropical rainforests, but they prefer
a) 1, 2 and 3 only life in deciduous forests.
b) 1, 3 and 4 only Chinkara (Indian gazelle) = Thar desert
c) 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: b) Indian wild ass
Q6. Consider the following kinds of

organisms
1) Bat
2) Bee
3) Bird
Which of the above is/are pollinating

agent/agents?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus

c) 1 and 3 only Monkey and Saras (Crane)
d) 1, 2 and 3 d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull,
Hanuman Langur and Cheetal
Pollination = transfer of pollen from
stamen to pistil. As of 2016, the status of most of these
animals has changed. Outdated question. Page
Bees are well known pollinators.
|3
Birds help in pollination while trying to Q9. The
catch insects or trying to suck nectar. Himalayan
Bats help in pollination while trying to Range is very
rich in
catch insects. [Bats are pollinators –
Mentioned several times in NCERT] species
diversity.
Answer: All Which one
among the
Q7. The ‘Red Data Books’ published by following is
the International Union for the most
Conservation of Nature and Natural appropriate
Resources (IUCN) contain lists of reason for
this
1) Endemic plant and animal species
present in the biodiversity hotspots.
phenomenon?
species. a) It has a high rainfall that supports
3) Protected sites for conservation of luxuriant vegetative growth.
nature & natural resources in b) It is a confluence of different bio
various countries. geographical zones.
c) Exotic and invasive species have not
Which of the statement given above is/are
been introduced in this region.
correct ?
d) It has less human interference.
a) 1 &3
Explanation:
b) 2 only
c) 2 &3 Options c) and d) are wrong statements.
d) 3 only
Options a) and b) are correct statements.
IUCN is an NGO. It publishes Red data
book which contains a list of ‘Threatened Greater Diversity is due to
species’ (vulnerable, endangered and
1. various types of forests found along the
critically endangered).
Himalayas Ranges [Shiwaliks,
Answer: b) 2 only Himachal and Himadri].
2. Vertical zonation of vegetation [chief
Q8. Which one of the following groups characteristic of Himachal and
of animals belongs to the category of Himadri].
endangered species?
Answer is b)
b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull Q10. If a tropical rain forest is
and Great Indian Bustard removed, it does not regenerate quickly
as compared to a tropical deciduous spore [Asexual Reproduction in plants].

forest. This is because Seed bearing plants are more
significant than Propagules in
a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in rainforest. So propagules don’t really
nutrients matter.
b) propagules of the trees in a rain c) the rain forest species are slow-
forest have poor viability Page
growing: The plant species in
c) the rain forest species are slow- rainforests compete for sunlight. So |4
growing they grow as rapidly as they can.
d) exotic species invade the fertile soil d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of
of rain forest. rain forest: this statement is wrong as
Explanation: the rainforest soil is heavily leached.
Hence they are not fertile. But exotic
a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in invasive species are a threat to rain
nutrients: Rainforest = Rainfall through forests (E.g. Most plantation crops like
the year. It rains almost every day = rubber, palm etc.).
The top soil is continuously washed
Answer: a)
away = nutrients are also washed away
= leaching of nutrients = very little Q11. When the bark of a tree is
fertility remains in top soil = most of removed in a circular fashion all around
the seeds don’t germinate for years = near its base, it generally dries up and
regeneration is very slow (it takes dies because
decades). But the layer below top soil
(sub-soil) is very fertile. So plants grow a) Water from soil cannot rise to aerial
very quickly once their roots reach the parts.
sub-soil and if they receive enough b) Roots are starved of energy
sunlight. c) Tree is infected by soil microbes
b) propagules of the trees in a rain forest d) Roots do not receive oxygen for
have poor viability: Propagule = respiration
detachable structure that can give rise
to a new plant, e.g. a bud, sucker, or
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
Answer: b) roots are starved of energy as c) 1 and 3 only
the phloem (food carrying tissue) is cut off. d) 1, 2 and 3
Q12. Consider the following: Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen – air Page
1) Photosynthesis
2) Respiration pollutants. |5
3) Decay of organic matter Answer: d) 1, 2 and 3.
4) Volcanic action
Q15. The increasing amount of carbon
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to dioxide in the air is slowly raising the
the carbon cycle on Earth ? temperature of the atmosphere,
a) 1 and 4 only because it absorbs
b) 2 and 3 only a) the water vapour of the air and
c) 2,3 and 4 only retains its heat.
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 b) the ultraviolet part of the solar
Answer: c) Photosynthesis takes out radiation.
c) all the solar radiations.
CO2 from carbon cycle. Rest all ads CO2.
d) the infrared part of the solar radiation
Q13. Consider the following
statements: Chlorofluorocarbons,
known as ozone-depleting substances, Answer: d) the infrared part of the solar
radiation (outgoing radiation).
are used
1) in the production of plastic foams Among GHGs, only water vapor has the
ability to absorb both incoming (UV) and
2) in the production of tubeless tyres
3) in cleaning certain electronic outgoing (infrared) radiation.
components Q16. The formation of ozone hole in
4) as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans the Antarctic region has been a cause of
concern. What could be the reason for
is/are correct? the formation of this hole?
a) Presence of prominent tropospheric

a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 4 only turbulence; and inflow of
c) 1, 3 and 4 only chlorofluorocarbons
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 b) Presence of prominent polar front and
Answer: b) CFCs are used as refrigerants chloro fluorocarbons
and pressurizing agents c) Absence of polar front and
Q14. Consider the following: methane and chloro fluorocarbons.
d) Increased temperature at polar region
1) Carbon dioxide
2) Oxides of Nitrogen
3) Oxides of Sulphur Answer: b) Presence of prominent polar
front and stratospheric Clouds and inflow
Which of the above is/are the
of chlorofluorocarbons. [Explained in the
emission/emissions from coal combustion
Post on Ozone Depletion]
at thermal power plants ?
Q17. The acidification of oceans is b) Carbon credits are awarded to

increasing. Why is this phenomenon a countries or groups that have reduced
cause of concern? greenhouse gases below their
emission quota
1) The growth and survival of calcareous c) The goal of the carbon credit system
phytoplankton will be adversely is to limit the increase of carbon
affected. Page
emission quota
2) The growth and survival of coral reefs d) Carbon credits are traded at a price |6
will be adversely affected. fixed from time to time by the United
3) The survival of some animals that Nations Environment Programme.
have phytoplanktonic larvae will be
adversely affected. Answer: c) The goal of the carbon credit
4) The cloud seeding and formation of system is to limit the increase of
clouds will be adversely affected. carbon emission quota
Which of statements given above is / are Q19. With reference to India, consider
correct? the following Central Acts:
a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1) Import and Export (Control) Act,

b) 2 only 1947.
c) 1 and 3 only 2) Mining and Mineral Development
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Regulation) Act, 1957
3) Customs Act, 1962
Explanation: 4) Indian Forest Act, 1927
Ocean acidification decreases the Which of above Acts have relevance
calcifying ability of corals, calcareous to/bearing on the biodiversity
plankton, crustaceans etc. It also conservation in the country?
adversely affects cloud formation and
cloud seeding. So Options 1, 2 and 4 are a) 1 and 3 only
correct [Detailed explanation is given b) 2,3 and 4 only
under “Ocean Acidification”]. c) 1,2,3 and 4
d) None of the above Acts
Answer: d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: c) all
Q18. Regarding "carbon credits", which
one of the following statements is not Central Acts and Rules having Relevance
correct? to Biodiversity Conservation
a) The carbon credit system was ratified

in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol
 Fisheries Act, 1897  Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,
 Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 1960
 The Indian Forest Act, 1927  Customs Act, 1962
 Agricultural Produce (Grading and  Cardamom Act, 1965
Marketing) Act,1937  Seeds Act, 1966
 Indian Coffee Act, 1942 Import and  The Patents Act, 1970
Export (Control) Act, 1947  Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
 Rubber (Production and Marketing)  Marine Products Export Development
Act, 1947 Authority Act,1972
 Tea Act, 1953  Water (Prevention and Control of
 Mining and Mineral Development Pollution) Act, 1974
(Regulation) Act,1957
 Tobacco Board Act, 1975 hazardous microorganisms/ genetically

 Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, engineered organisms or cells, 1989
Exclusive Economic Zone and other  Foreign Trade (Development and
Maritime Zones Act, 1976 Regulation) Act, 1992 [Imports and
 Water (Prevention and Control of Exports (Control) Act, 1947 got
Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 repealed with the enactment of Page
 Maritime Zones of India (Regulation Foreign Trade (Development And
and Fishing by Foreign Vessels) Act. Regulation) Act, 1992.] |7
1980  Protection of Plant Varieties and
 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 Farmers’ Rights (PPVFR) Act, 2001
 Air (Prevention and Control of  Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Pollution) Act, 1981  Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import
 Agricultural and Processed Food into India) Order, 2003
Products Export Development  Biological Diversity Rules, 2004
Authority Act, 1985/1986  The Food Safety and Standards Act,
 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 2006
 Spices Board Act, 1986  Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
 National Dairy Development Board, Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
1987 Rights) Act, 2006.
 Rules for the manufacture,
use/import/export and storage of
Q20. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2) NBA directly monitors and supervises
2010 was enacted in consonance with the scientific research on genetic
which of the following provisions of the modification of crop plants.
Constitution of India? 3) Application for intellectual Property
Rights related to genetic / biological
1) Right to healthy environment, resources cannot be made without
construed as a part of part of Right to the approval of NBA.
life under Article 21.
2) Provision of grants for raising the Which of the statements given above
level of administration in the is/are correct?
Scheduled Areas for the welfare of
Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1) a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above c) 1 and 3 only
is/are correct ? d) 1, 2 and 3
a) 1 only The top biotech regulator in India for

b) 2 only Genetically Modified Organisms is Genetic
c) Both 1 and 2 Engineering Appraisal Committee
d) Neither 1 nor 2 (GEAC).
Answer: a) Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
Q21. How does National Biodiversity Q22. Recently, ‘oilzapper’ was in the
Authority (NBA) help in protecting the news. What is it?
Indian agriculture?
a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the
1) NBA checks the biopiracy and remediation of oil sludge and oil
protects the indigenous and spills.
traditional genetic resources. b) It is the latest technology developed
for under- sea oil exploration.
c) It is a genetically engineered high b) Chandipur-on-sea

biofuel yielding maize variety. c) Gopalpur-on-sea
d) It is the latest technology to control d) Simlipal
the accidentally caused flames from
oil wells. Simlipal National Park is far away from
coast.
Explanation: Page
Chandipur-on-sea and Gopalpur-on-sea
|8
Using bioremediation techniques, TERI are tourist destinations with resorts. There
has developed a mixture of bacteria called is no significant wildlife or bio-diversity.
‘Oilzapper and Oilivorous-S’ which
degrades the pollutants of oil- Answer: a) Bhitarkanika
contaminated sites, leaving behind no Q25. A particular State in India has the
harmful residues. This technique is not following characteristics:
only environment friendly, but also highly
cost-effective. 1) It is located on the same latitude
which passes through northern
Answer: a) remediation of oil sludge and Rajasthan.
oil spills 2) It has over 80% of its area under
Q23. Government of India encourages forest cover.
the cultivation of 'sea buckthorn'. What 3) Over 12% of forest cover constitutes
is the importance of this plant ? Protected Area Network in this
State.
a) It helps in controlling soil erosion and
in preventing desertification. Which one among the following States has
b) It is a rich source of biodiesel. all the above characteristics?
c) It has nutritional value and is well- a) Arunachal Pradesh
adapted to live in cold areas of high b) Assam
altitudes. c) Himachal Pradesh
d) Its timber is of great commercial d) Uttarakhand
value.
Which of the statements given above is

2013
/are correct ?
Q1. Consider the following pairs:
a) 2, 3 and 4 only
1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve: Garo
b) 1 and 3 only
Hills
c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range
d) 1 only
3. Namdapha National Park : Dafla
Q24. Two important rivers - one with Hills
its source in Jharkhand (and known by
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
a different name in Odisha), and
matched?
another, with its source in Odisha -
merge at a place only a short distance a) 1 only
from the coast of Bay of Bengal before b) 2 and 3 only
flowing into the sea. This is an c) 1, 2 and 3
important site of wildlife and bio- d) None
diversity and a protected area. Which
one of the following could be this ? Q2. Consider the following pairs about
parks and rivers passing through them:
a) Bhitarkanika
1. Corbett National Park: Ganga Equatorial Vegetation

2. Kaziranga National Park: Manas
3. Silent Valley National Park: Kaveri  High temperature
and abundant
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly rainfall support a
matched? luxuriant
tropical rain Page
a) 1 and 2 forest. |9
b) 3 only  In the Amazon
c) 1 and 3 lowlands, the
d) None forest is so dense
Q3. In which of the following States is that it is called ‘selvas'. [selvas: A
lion-tailed macaque found in its natural dense tropical rainforest usually having
habitat? a cloud cover (dense canopy)]
 All plants struggle upwards (most
1. Tamil Nadu ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a
2. Kerala peculiar layer arrangement [Canopy].
3. Karnataka
4. Andhra Pradesh Answer: Too easy. d) All
Select the correct answer using the codes Q5. Consider the following fauna of
given below. India:
a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1. Gharial

b) 2 only 2. Leatherback turtle
c) 1, 3 and 4 only 3. Swamp deer
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Which of the above is/are endangered?
Lion-tailed macaque is found in Western
a) 1 and 2 only
Ghats. So AP is the odd option.
b) 3 only
Answer: a) 1, 2 and 3 only c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Q4. Which of the following is/are
unique characteristic/characteristics of 1 and 2 are ‘Critically Endangered’ 3 is
equatorial forests? ‘Vulnerable’. Outdated question
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees Q6. Consider the following

with crowns forming a continuous
1. Star tortoise
canopy
2. Monitor lizard
2. Coexistence of a large number of
3. Pygmy hog
species
4. Spider monkey
3. Presence of numerous varieties of
epiphytes Which of the above found in India?
Select the correct answer using the code a) 1, 2 and 3 only
given below: b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 4 only
a) 1 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only Google results don’t show Spider Monkey
d) 1, 2 and 3 in India.
Spider monkeys are New World monkeys. Answer: d) all [Explained in “Agriculture”]
Monkeys and apes of the Old World.
Q9. Consider the following organisms
The New World monkeys are found in
Mexico, Central America, and South 1. Agaricus
America, and the Old World monkeys are 2. Nostoc
located in Africa, central to southern Asia, 3. Spirogyra Page
Japan, and India. Which of the above is/are used as | 10
Source: biofertilizer/biofertilizers
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/en a) 1 and 2
try/Spider_monkey b) 2 only
Answer: a) 1, 2 and 3 only c) 2 and 3
d) 3 only
Q7. Consider the following animals:
1. Sea cow
2. Sea horse
3. Sea lion
Which of the above is/are

mammal/mammals?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 3 only
Answer: b) 2 only [Not sure]
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 Nostoc is a nitrogen fixing
 Sea cow (Dugong) found in shallow cyanobacteria.
Indian seas is a herbivorous
mammal Q10. Which of the following adds/add
 Sea lion is also a mammal. nitrogen to the soil?
 Sea horse is a Bony Fish.
1. Excretion of urea by animals
Answer: b) 1 and 3 only 2. Burning of coal by man
3. Death of vegetation
Q8. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been
used in rehabilitating degraded sites Select the correct answer using the codes
because mycorrhiza enables the plants given below.
to
a) 1 only
1. resist drought and increase b) 2 and 3 only
absorptive area c) 1 and 3 only
2. tolerate extremes of pH d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Resist disease infestation
Explanation:
All the above three adds to nitrogen cycle.
given below:
Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur
a) 1 only
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen – air
b) 2 and 3 only
pollutants.
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 Oxides of nitrogen fall on earth as acid
rain. Acidic rain is a complex mixture of
nitrous, nitric, sulfurous and sulfuric nitrates thus formed may be utilized by
acids which all combine to lower the pH. plants as a nutrient (so, soil gets nitrogen
from acid rain).”
But, the question says “Which of the
following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?” So, soil gets nitrogen from acid rain.
1. Animal Waste like Urea, Uric acid From this, I feel Burning of coal by man Page
and Death of vegetation add adds nitrogen to soil but indirectly though
| 11
nitrogen in the form of nitrates acid rain.
directly into soil.
2. Coal combustion ads nitrogen to The answer depends on how you interpret
atmosphere and from there it falls the question.
back to earth in the form of acid Answer: Official UPSC Key says answer
rain and acid rain adds nitrogen to is c) 1 and 3 only.
soil.
If you have anything more to add write it
http://www.ehow.com/how- at poormansfriend2485@gmail.com
does_5117705_burning-fuels-affect-
nitrogen-cycle.html says: Q11. Contour bunding is a method of
soil conservation used in
“The release of nitric oxides into the air in
large quantities causes smog and acid a) desert margins, liable to strong wind
rain that pollutes the atmosphere, soil action
and water and affects plants and animals. b) low flat plains, close to stream
The increase in nitrogen and nitrous oxide courses, liable to flooding
is caused by automobiles, power plants c) scrublands, liable to spread of weed
and a wide variety of industries. growth
d) None of the above
As nitrous oxides filter into soil, it loses
nutrients like calcium and potassium, Counter bunding is used along with
which are essential for maintaining a terracing to protect sloped surfaces.
balance in plant ecosystems. With the loss
of these compounds, soil fertility declines. Answer: d) None
Also, soils become significantly more
Q12. With reference to the usefulness
acidic.”
of the by-products of sugar industry,
And also which of the following statements
http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchemboo is/are correct?
k/307nitrogen.html says:
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass
“The main component of the nitrogen cycle fuel for the generation of energy.
starts with the element nitrogen in the air. 2. Molasses can be used as one of the
Two nitrogen oxides are found in the air as feedstocks for the production of
a result of interactions with oxygen. synthetic chemical fertilizers.
Nitrogen will only react with oxygen in the 3. Molasses can be used for the
presence of high temperatures and production of ethanol.
pressures found near lightning bolts and
in combustion reactions in power plants
given below.
or internal combustion engines. Nitric
oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2, are a) 1 only
formed under these conditions. Eventually b) 2 and 3 only
nitrogen dioxide may react with water in c) 1 and 3 only
rain to form nitric acid, HNO3. The
d) 1, 2 and 3 d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Explanation:
Q13. Due to improper/indiscriminate Easiest option is 3) Fluoride. So, (b) can be

disposal of old and used computers or eliminated.
their parts, which of the following are Page
released into the environment as e- Next easiest option is Arsenic (Heavy
metal). Damn! | 12
waste?
1. Beryllium Nest easiest option is Uranium. Many

2. Cadmium columns are written on uranium mining
3. Chromium and its ill-effects. So, (a) also can be
4. Heptachlor elevated. (a) and (b) eliminated. (c) and (d)
5. Mercury remains.
6. Lead The knowledge of either “Sorbitol” or
7. Plutonium “Formaldehyde” will tell us the answer.
Select the correct answer using the codes Formaldehyde is more known than
given below. sorbitol. Googling didn’t give me any
a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only authentic source that called formaldehyde
b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only a water pollutant. It is used a preservative
c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only to preserve human organs. It finds some
d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 application in textile, resign and wood
industry.
Explanation:
Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only
Heptachlor is a Chlorohydrocarbon (CHC)
which is used as an insecticide. Sorbitol (glucitol) is a sugar alcohol with a
sweet taste which the human body
Plutonium is a radioactive metal and metabolizes slowly.
hence not used in computers.
Q15. Which one among the following
So, answer should not contain either 4) or industries is the maximum consumer of
7). water in India?
Answer: b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only a) Engineering

b) Paper and pulp
Q14. Which of the following can be c) Textiles
found as pollutants in the drinking d) Thermal power
water in some parts of India?
1) Arsenic
2) Sorbitol
3) Fluoride
4) Formaldehyde
5) Uranium

given below.
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2, 4 and 5 only
c) 1, 3 and 5 only
 When pollutants such as nitrogen

oxides (primary pollutant) and volatile
organic compounds (primary
pollutant) react together in the
presence of SUNLIGHT, OZONE
(Secondary pollutant) and peroxyacetyl Page
nitrate (PAN) (Secondary pollutant) are
formed. | 13
Reactions involved
Q16. Acid rain is caused by the

pollution of environment by
a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen

b) carbon monoxide and carbon  Photochemical (summer smog) is
dioxide formed when the primary pollutant
c) ozone and carbon dioxide NO2 reacts with secondary pollutants
d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the
presence of sunlight.
Explanation:
Answer: a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl
Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides nitrate in the presence of sunlight
of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur in
atmosphere can cause acid rains. Q18. With reference to food chains in
ecosystems, consider the following
Both b) and d) are correct. But d) has statements:
more influence than b)
1. A food chain illustrates the order in
Answer: d) nitrous oxide and sulphur which a chain of organisms feed
dioxide upon each other.
2. Food chains are found within the
Q17. Photochemical smog is a resultant populations of a species.
of the reaction among 3. A food chain illustrates the numbers
of each organism which are eaten by
a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in
others.
the presence of sunlight
b) CO, 02 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in Which of the statements given above is /
the presence of sunlight are correct?
c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low
temperature a) 1 only
d) High concentration of N02, O3 and b) 1 and 2 only
CO in the evening c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Explanation:
Explanation:
1. A food chain illustrates the order in Explanation:

which a chain of organisms feed
upon each other. (True)  Fungi and Bacteria are
2. Food chains are found within the decomposers. They breakdown
populations of a species. (Man won’t organic matter into simple inorganic
eat man – so, false) substances.
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers  Virus represents dormant life. They Page
of each organism which are eaten by are metabolically inactive as long as | 14
others (food web illustrates the they are outside a host body. They
number not the food chain). are not decomposers. They invade
host cells and use their nucleus
Answer: a) (DNA machinery) to carry out their
life processes.
Q19. Which one of the following terms
 Protists are unicellular organisms,
describes not only the physical space
such as paramecium and euglena.
occupied by an organism, but also its
They're not decomposers either.
functional role in the community of
organisms? Answer: b)
a) Ecotone Q21. In the grasslands, trees do not
b) Ecological niche replace the grasses as a part of an
c) Habitat ecological succession because of
d) Home range
a) insects and fungi
Answer: b) Niche b) limited sunlight and paucity of
nutrients
Explanation:
c) water limits and fire
 Ecotone – zone of transition between d) None of the above
two ecosystems. E.g. grasslands, Answer: c)
mangroves etc.
 Habitat – surroundings in which an Explanation:
organism lives.
 Home Range - A home range is the  Grasses have this one good trick to
area in which an animal lives and monopolize a place. In dry season the
moves on a daily or periodic basis. grasses dry up and cause fires which
destroy other plant species and their
Q20. With reference to the food chains seeds.
in ecosystems, which of the following  Also grasslands develop in regions with
kinds of organism is / are known as scanty rainfall where plant growth
decomposer organism/organisms? cannot be achieved.
 Though forests form the climax
1. Virus
community in most of the ecosystems,
2. Fungi
but in grassland ecosystem [In the
3. Bacteria
grasslands, trees do not replace the
Select the correct answer using the codes grasses as a part of an ecological
given below. succession] grasses form the climax
community. Thanks to fire and lack of
a) 1 only water.
b) 2 and 3 only  Grasslands are almost irreversible once
c) 1 and 3 only deforestation in water scarce areas
d) 1, 2 and 3
gives way to grasslands. [Ecological Also surface water in oceans are very poor
Damage] in nutrients. Nutrient rich cold water flows
as a sub-surface flow lying in the aphotic
Q22. Which one of the following is the zone. Sunlight and nutrients are far apart
correct sequence of ecosystems in the and hence primary productivity is very low
order of decreasing productivity? except in regions where there is upwelling
Page
of nutrient rich cold water [Cold and
a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands,
Warm current mixing zones]. | 15
mangroves
b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, So open ocean ecosystem has the least
lakes productivity. [Desert ecosystem also has
c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, very low productivity, lesser than oceans].
oceans
d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, So, the answer will look like Mangroves,
grasslands ………., ………, Oceans.
Explanation: The only such option is c)
Productivity = production/unit area/unit Answer: c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes,

time oceans.
Production/unit area depends on number Lakes just like oceans have low
and diversity of producers. productivity. But due to some plants in
photic zone, lakes have productivity
From the topics discussed in this post, we slightly greater than that of oceans.
can say that transitional zones (Ecotones)
have very high productivity compared to 2014
normal ecosystems. [Tropical Rainforests
is an exception as it has productivity Q1. Which one of the following is the
comparable to wetlands because of its rich process involved in photosynthesis?
diversity of primary producers]
a) Potential energy is released to form
In the options, mangroves are transitional free energy
ecosystems while the rest are normal b) Free energy is converted into
ecosystems. potential energy and stored
c) Food is oxidized to release carbon
Remember: Grasslands are not dioxide and water
transitional all the time. E.g. Steppe. Non d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide
transitional grasslands have very low and water vapour are given out
productivity because of very limited
diversity of primary producers. Answer: b) Sunlight (free energy) is
[Grasslands become transitional only converted into carbohydrates (potential
when they are narrow] energy) using water and carbon dioxide.
Oxygen is released in the process.
So the order of decreasing productivity will
be like Q2. Which of the following adds/add
carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on
Mangroves ,…… , …… , …….. the planet Earth?
Oceans = very deep and hence 1. Volcanic action
productivity is limited to surface only 2. Respiration
(Below in the aphotic zone productivity is 3. Photosynthesis
negligible. Aphotic zone in oceans is few 4. Decay of organic matter
kilometers).
Select the correct answer using the code c) national parks

given below. d) wildlife sanctuaries
a) 1 and 3 only Answer: a) biosphere reserves [Explained

b) 2 only under “Biodiversity Conservation”]
c) 1, 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Q6. With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Page
Zones’, which of the following
| 16
Q3. In India, the problem of soil erosion statements is/are correct?
is associated with which of the
following? 1) Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas
that are declared under the Wildlife
1. Terrace cultivation (Protection) Act, 1972.
2. Deforestation 2) The purpose of the declaration of
3. Tropical climate Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all
kinds of human activities, in those
Select the correct answer using the code zones except agriculture.
given below.
a) 1 and 2 only given below.
b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only a) 1 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
Terrace cultivation is a method to prevent d) Neither 1 nor 2
soil erosion.
Eco-Sensitive Zones are declared under
Soil erosion occurs in all climates. Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
Answer: b) 2 only Eco-Sensitive Zones are transitional areas
Q4. Lichens, which are capable of where human activity is regulated but not
initiating ecological succession even on prohibited.
a bare rock, are actually a symbiotic Answer: d) Neither
association of
Q7. Consider the following pairs
a) algae and bacteria
b) algae and fungi 1) Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram
c) bacteria and fungi 2) Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim
d) fungi and mosses 3) Saramati Peak : Nagaland
More of a biology question. Fungus Which of the above pairs is /are correctly
provides shelter, water and minerals to the matched?
algae and, in return, the alga provides
food (photosynthesis). a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
Q5. Conserving Biodiversity c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
The most important strategy for the
conservation of biodiversity together with Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
traditional human life is the establishment
of Q8. Consider the following pairs
a) b iosphere reserves Wetlands

b) botanical gardens Confluence of rivers
1. Harike Wetlands Beas

and Satluj/Sutlej
2. Keoladeo Ghana National Park

Banas and Chambal
3. Kolleru Lake Page

Confluence of Musi and Krishna
| 17
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
matched?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: a) 1 only
Q9. Which of the following have coral

reefs?
1) Andaman and Nicobar Islands

2) Gulf of Kutch
3) Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs don’t form in areas where there
4) Sunderbans is significant intrusion of fresh water and
cold water.
given below. Most of the mighty Indian Rivers flow into
Bay of Bengal and hence coral reefs are
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2 and 4 only absent on the east coast of India.
c) 1 and 3 only Coral reefs are also absent on west coast
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Africa (Benguela Current), South
America (Peruvian or Humboldt Current),
Explanation:
Europe (Canaries Current) and other
continents due to cold currents.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of

Kutch and Gulf of Mannar are regions
where there is not significant freshwater
intrusion. But Sunderbans are the mouth
of Ganga-Brahmaputra river system and
hence there is no coral reef formation
there.
Answer: a) 1, 2 and 3 only
1) Bats
2) Bears
3) Rodents
The phenomenon of hibernation can be

observed in which of the above kinds of
animals?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 Page
d) Hibernation cannot be observed in | 18
any of the above
http://www.pmfias.com/classification-
vertebrata-phylum-chordata/#warm-
blooded-vs-cold-blooded-animals
[Hibernation also explained]
Answer: c) All Crustaceans

Q11. Among the following organisms,  Crustaceans make up a large group of
which one does not belong to the class arthropods that includes animals such
of other three? as crabs, lobsters, crayfish and shrimp.
a) Crab They breathe with gills and have two
b) Mite pairs of antennae.
c) Scorpion
d) Spider
Insects, Arachnids and Crustaceans are

subphylum of Arthropoda.
Mite, Scorpion and spider are Arachnids,

while Crab is a Crustacean.
I missed this concept in biology. So I am

updating here.
Arachnids
Insects
 Spiders, harvestmen, mites, ticks and
other arachnids are members of the
 In general, insects have three-part
class Arachnida.
bodies, six jointed legs, compound eyes
and two antennae.
 Bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies,
grasshoppers, ants, butterflies and
moths, and dragonflies and damselflies
are common types of insects.
animal or plant. Don’t worry.. rest 95 will

be easy!
Q13. If you travel through the

Himalayas, you are Likely to see which
of the following plants naturally
growing there? Page
| 19
1. Oak
2. Rhododendron
3. Sandalwood

Q12. Which one of the following is the given below
correct sequence of a food chain? a) 1 and 2 only
a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings b) 3 only
b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings c) 1 and 3 only
c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans d) 1, 2 and 3
d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms Explanation:
Explanation: Oaks occur in Sub-tropical Broad-leaved
Hill Forests, Montane Wet Temperate
 Food chain starts with a producer and
Forests and Himalayan Dry Temperate
ends with a top consumer.
Forests [All these forest types are found in
 Phytoplankton are the primary
Himalayan regions]
producers in the oceans. They include:
1. diatoms (unicellular algae), Rhododendron occur in sub-alpine cold
2. coccolithophores (unicellular, desert regions [Himalayan regions].
eukaryotic protist),
3. cyanobacteria (Bluegreen Sandalwood (Red Sanders) occur in Dry
algae) – Deciduous forests [Ganga plains, South
synechococcus, prochlorococcus, and Central India. ].
nostoc, spirogyra etc..
4. dinoflagellates (flagellated Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
protists). Q14. If you walk through countryside,
So answer is between (a) and (c) you are likely to see some birds
stalking alongside the cattle to seize
 Crustaceans form a very large group of the insects, disturbed by their
arthropods which includes crabs, movement through grasses, Which of
lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and the following is/are such bird/birds?
barnacles.
1. Painted Stork
 Herrings is a fish.
2. Common Myna

3. Black-necked Crane
http://octopus.gma.org/herring/biolog
y/ecology/default.asp says Herrings Select the correct answer using the code
eat crustaceans. given below.
Answer: (a). Tough question. There will be a) 1 and 2
3-5 questions like this one where you b) 2 only
might have not even heard the name of the c) 2 and 3
d) 3 only
Page
| 20
‘coal bed methane’ and ‘shale gas’,

consider the following ‘statements:
Black-necked crane feeds on meadows in
higher altitudes of Tibetan plateau. 1. Coal bed methane is the pure
methane gas extracted from coal
Q15. Other than poaching, what are the seams, while shale gas is a mixture
possible reasons for the decline in the of propane and butane only that can
population of Ganges River Dolphins? be extracted from fine-grained
1. Construction of dams and barrages sedimentary rocks.
2. In India abundant coal bed methane
on rivers
2. Increase in the population of sources exist, but so far no shale
crocodiles in rivers gas sources have been found.
3. Getting trapped in fishing nets Which of the statements given above
accidentally is/are correct?
4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other
agricultural chemicals in crop-fields a) 1 only
in the vicinity of rivers b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
Select the correct answer using the code d) Neither 1 nor 2
given below.
CBM = Methane
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only Shale gas = Lot of Methane + Little
c) 1, 3 and 4 only Ethane, Propane, & Butane + very little
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and
hydrogen sulfide.
'Susu' or Ganges River Dolphin shares its
habitat with crocodiles, freshwater turtles Abundant shale reserves occur in India
and wetland birds, many of which are fish
eaters and are potential competitors with [Explained in “Economic Geography Notes”
dolphins. http://imojo.in/7rxa1g]
http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endan Q17. In India, cluster bean (Guar) is

gered_species/cetaceans/about/river_dolp traditionally used as a vegetable or
hins/ganges_river_dolphin/ animal feed, but recently the
cultivation of this has assumed
Q16. With reference to two non- significance. Which one of the following
conventional energy sources called statements is correct in this context?
a) The oil extracted from seeds is used current is nothing but movement of
in the manufacture of biodegradable electrons from high potential to low
plastics potential area (more electrons to less
b) The gum made from its seeds is electrons region)]
used in the extraction of shale gas
c) The leaf extract of this plant has the Solar thermal = converting light into heat
= solar cooker, solar water heater. Page
properties of anti-histamines
d) It is a source of high quality | 21
Photovoltaics generate direct current (DC).
biodiesel [Rotating = AC, Stationary = DC. Electric
Gaur is used to make water viscous before generator, wind turbine generate AC while
pumping into ground for hydraulic solar panels generate DC]
franking used to extract shale gas. Solar thermal is mostly used for water
[Explained in “Economic Geography Notes” heating purposes. Electricity can be
http://imojo.in/7rxa1g] generated by using hot water steam to
rotate turbine = AC current.
Q18. With reference to technologies for
solar power production, consider the In India both solar panels and solar
following statements: cookers are manufactured. [Remember
India – USA WTO ‘domestic content’
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that dispute?]
generates electricity by direct
conversion of light into electricity, Answer: a) 1 only
while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology Q19. There is some concern regarding
that utilizes the Sun’s rays to the nanoparticles of some chemical
generate heat which is further used elements that are used by the industry
in electricity generation process. in the manufacture of various products.
2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating Why?
Current (AC), while Solar Thermal
generates Direct Current (DC). 1) They can accumulate in the
3. India has manufacturing base for environment, and contaminate
Solar Thermal technology, but not water and soil.
for Photovoltaics. 2) They can enter the food chains.
3) They can trigger the production of
Which of the statements given above is / free radicals.
are correct?
a) 1 only given below.
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 a) 1 and 2 only
d) None b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
Explanation: d) 1, 2 and 3
Photoelectric effect = When light strikes on Explained under “Air Pollution”
a material, electrons are dislodged
[photons dislodge electrons]. Q20. Which of the following are some
important pollutants released by steel
Photovoltaic = The dislodged electrons if industry in India?
channeled through a conductor will create
electric current (voltage Or potential 1) Oxides of sulphur
difference) = Solar Panels. [Electric 2) Oxides of nitrogen
3) Carbon monoxide b) 2, 3 and 4

4) Carbon dioxide c) 1, 4 and 5
d) 1, 3 and 5
Select the correct answer using the code  The Arctic Council consists of the eight
given below. Arctic States: Canada, the Kingdom of
a) 1, 3 and 4 only Denmark (including Greenland and Page
b) 2 and 3 only the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland,
Norway, Russia, Sweden and the | 22
c) 1 and 4 only
d) 1,2, 3 and 4 United States.
Explanation: Q23. With reference to ‘Global

Environment Facility’, which of the
Coke is used as fuel in blast furnace. following statements is/are correct?
Combustion of coke releases both CO and
CO2. a) It serves as financial mechanism for
‘Convention on Biological Diversity’
Oxides of sulphur and oxides of nitrogen and ‘United Nations Framework
are common pollutants released when any Convention on Climate Change’.
fossil fuel is burnt. (Coal and iron ore b) It undertakes scientific research on
contains small amount of sulphur. environmental issues at global level
Presence of sulphur makes iron weak) c) It is an agency under OECD to
facilitate the transfer of technology
Answer: d) All and funds to underdeveloped
countries with specific aim to
Q21. Brominated flame retardants are
protect their environment.
used in many household products like
d) Both (a) and (b)
mattresses and upholstery. Why is
there some concern about their use? Explanation:
1. They are highly resistant to GEF is an independent financial
degradation in the environment. organization.
2. They are able to accumulate in
humans and animals. It may fund scientific research but it is not
directly involved in scientific research.
given below. IPCC takes care of the most of the
research work.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only Answer: a)
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2 Q24. If a wetland of international
importance is brought under the
Q22. Consider the following countries: ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply?
1. Denmark a) Changes in ecological character

2. Japan have occurred, are occurring or are
3. Russian Federation likely to occur in the wetland as a
4. United Kingdom result of human interference.
5. United States of America b) The country in which the wetland is
located should enact a law to
Which of the above are the members of the prohibit any human activity within
‘Arctic Council’? five kilo meters from the edge of the
wetland
a) 1, 2 and 3
c) The survival of the wetland depends 3) The World Heritage Convention

on the cultural practices and
traditions of certain communities Which of the above has/have a bearing on
living in its vicinity and therefore the the biodiversity?
cultural diversity therein should not a) 1 and 2 only
be destroyed b) 3 only, Page
d) It is given the status of ‘World c) 1 and 3 only
Heritage Site’ | 23
d) 1, 2. and 3
The Montreux Record is a register of World Heritage Convention explained in
wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of “Biodiversity”, Rest two under “Fighting
International Importance where changes Climate Change-Biodiversity Protection”
in ecological character have occurred, are
occurring, or are likely to occur as a result Q27. The scientific view is that the
of technological developments, pollution or increase in global temperature should
other human interference. It is maintained not exceed 2 °C above pre-industrial
as part of the Ramsar List. level. If the global temperature
increases beyond 3°C above the pre-
Answer: a) industrial level, what can be its possible
Q25. With reference to a conservation impact/impacts on the world?
organization called Wetlands 1) Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a
International’, which of the following net carbon source
statements is/are correct? 2) Widespread coral mortality will
1) It is an intergovernmental occur.
organization formed by the 3) All the global wetlands will
countries which are signatories to permanently disappear.
Ramsar Convention. 4) Cultivation of cereals will not be
2) It works at the field level to develop possible anywhere in the world.
and mobilize knowledge, and use Select the correct answer using the code
the practical experience to advocate given below.
for better policies.
a) 1 only
Select the correct answer using the code b) 1 and 2 only
given below. c) 2, 3 and 4 only
a) 1 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
b) 2 only Explanation:
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2 Taiga and temperate forests act as an
important carbon sink. Global warming by
Answer: b) 2 only. Wetlands 3°C will turn these forests into carbon
International is an NGO source.
Q26. Consider the following Corals are very sensitive to temperature
international agreements: changes. 3°C rise in global temperature
1) The International Treaty on Plant will lead to widespread coral mortality.
Genetic Resources for Food and 3°C rise in global temperature will lead to
Agriculture submergence of many low lying coastal
2) The United Nations Convention to wetlands (not all) due to rise in sea levels.
Combat Desertification Inland wetlands like Keoladeo Ghana
National Park will not be effected (it is 2. It strives to conserve nature through
100s of kilometers away from coast). action-based research, education
Because of the slow inertia, long response 3. It organizes and conducts nature
time for parts of the climate system, it has trails and camps for the general
been estimated that we are already public.
committed to a sea-level rise of Page
approximately 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) for each Which of the statements given above | 24
degree Celsius of temperature rise within is/are correct?
the next 2,000 years.
a) 1 and 3 only
http://www.pnas.org/content/110/34/13 b) 2 only
745.abstract?sid=26fd1d37-7276-46e2- c) 2 and 3 only
9192-0931e6ebf6ab d) 1, 2 and 3
 The Bombay Natural History Society,
Cultivation of cereals in tropics will take a founded in 1883, is one of the largest
hit. But in temperate regions their non-governmental organizations in
production increases in the short run. India engaged in conservation and
Answer: b) 1 and 2 only biodiversity research.
 It supports many research efforts
Q28. Consider the following through grants and publishes the
statements: Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society.
1) Animal Welfare Board of India is  It organizes and conducts nature trails
established under the Environment and camps for the general public.
(Protection) Act, 1986.  Many prominent naturalists, including
2) National Tiger Conservation the ornithologists Sálim Ali and S.
Authority is a statutory body. Dillon Ripley, have been associated
3) National Ganga River Basin with it.
Authority is chaired by the Prime
Minister. Answer: c) 2 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/ Q30. Consider the following statements
are correct? regarding ‘Earth Hour’
a) 1 only 1. It is an initiative of UNEP and
b) 2 and 3 only UNESCO.
c) 2 only 2. It is a movement in which the
d) 1, 2 and 3 participants switch off the lights for
one hour on a certain day every
Animal Welfare Board of India is year.
established under Prevention of Cruelty to 3. It is a movement to raise the
Animals Act. awareness about the climate change
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only and the need to save the planet.
Q29. With reference to Bombay Natural Which of the statements given above is /
History Society (BNHS), consider the are correct?
following statements : a) 1 and 3 only
1. It is an autonomous organization b) 2 only
under the Ministry of Environment c) 2 and 3 only.
and Forests. d) 1, 2 and 3
Earth Hour 1) Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing

microorganisms in soil can occur.
 Earth Hour is a worldwide movement 2) Increase in the acidity of soil can
for the planet organized by the World take place
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 3) Leaching of nitrate to the ground-
 The event is held worldwide annually water can occur.
encouraging individuals, communities, Page
households and businesses to turn off Select the correct answer using the code | 25
their non-essential lights for one hour, given below.
from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. towards the end
of March, as a symbol for their a) 1 and 3 only
commitment to the planet. b) 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
 It was famously started as a lights-off
d) 1,2 and 3
event in Sydney, Australia in 2007.
 Earth Hour engages a massive Explanation:
mainstream community on a broad
range of environmental issues. Nitrification is important in agricultural
systems, where fertilizer is often applied
Answer: c) 2 and 3 only as ammonia. Conversion of this ammonia
to nitrate increases nitrogen leaching
Q31. Every year, a month long
because nitrate is more water-soluble than
ecologically important
ammonia.
campaign/festival is held during which
certain communities/ tribes plant Agricultural fertilization and the use of
saplings of fruit-bearing trees. Which of nitrogen fixing plants also contribute to
the following are such atmospheric NOx, by promoting nitrogen
communities/tribes? fixation by microorganisms. Excess NOx
leads to acid rain. Acid rain lowers pH of
a) Bhutia and Lepcha
soil (increase in acidity of soil)
b) Gond and Korku
c) lrula and Toda The legume–rhizobium symbiosis is a
d) Sahariya and Agariya classic example of mutualism—rhizobia
supply ammonia or amino acids to the
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-
plant and in return receive organic acids
paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/their-
as a carbon and energy source.
own-green-revolution/article3823031.ece
So, excessive/inappropriate use of
2015 nitrogenous fertilizers can make the plants
independent of both symbiotic and free
Q1. Which of the following National
living nitrogen fixers. Fixers don’t get the
Parks is unique in being a swamp with
food from the plants due to broken
floating vegetation that supports a rich
relationship and other factors. So their
biodiversity?
population decreases.
a) Bhitarkanika National Park
Answer: c) 2 and 3 only
b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
c) Keoladeo Ghana National park Q3. With reference to the International
d) Sultanpur National park Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) and the
Q2. What can be the impact of
Convention on International Trade in
excessive/inappropriate use of
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?
Flora (CITES), which of the following Fly ash does contain heavy toxic elements
statements is/are correct? like arsenic, cobalt, lead etc.
1) IUCN is an organ of the United Answer: a) 1 and 2

international agreement between Q5. With reference to ‘dugong’, a
governments mammal found in India, which of the Page
2) IUCN runs thousands of field following statements is/are correct?
| 26
projects around the world to better 1) It is a herbivorous marine animal.
manage natural environments. 2) It is found along the entire coast of
3) CITES is legally binding on the India
States that have joined it, but this 3) It is given legal protection under
Convention does not take the place Schedule 1 of the Wildlife
of national laws. (Protection) Act, 1972.
Select the correct using the code given Select the correct answer using the code
below. given below.
a) 1 only a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3 only b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only c) 1 and 3
d) 1, 2 and 3 d) 3 only
Explanation: Explanation:
IUCN is an NGO. CITES is an
 Dugong (sea cow) is an herbivorous
international agreement between
animal. It eats sea grass and aquatic
governments (multilateral treaty).
plants found in shallow oceans (At
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only depths sea grass and aquatic plants
don’t grow due to absence of sunlight).
Q4. With reference to ‘fly ash’ produced  Dugong ‘vulnerable’ herbivorous
by the power plants using the coal as marine mammal.
fuel, which of the following statements
is/are correct? Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
1) Fly ash can be used in the  Harming endangered (vulnerable,

production of bricks for building endangered, critically endangered)
construction species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act
2) Fly ash can be used as a is prohibited throughout India.
replacement for some of the  Hunting species, like those requiring
Portland cement contents of special protection (Schedule II), big
concrete game (Schedule III), and small game
3) Fly ash is made up of silicon dioxide (Schedule IV), is regulated through
and calcium oxide only, and does licensing.
not contain any toxic elements.  A few species classified as vermin
(Schedule V), may be hunted without
Select the correct answer using the code restrictions.
given below
Answer: c) 1 and 3
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only Q6. Which one of the following is the
c) 1 and 3 national aquatic animal of India?
d) 3 only
a) Saltwater crocodile in the atmosphere to “a level that would

b) Olive ridley turtle prevent dangerous anthropogenic
c) Gangetic dolphin interference with the climate system”. It is
d) Gharial binding on the parties.
Q7. Which one of the following regions Nagoya Protocol is a supplementary

of India has a combination of mangrove agreement to the 1992 Convention on Page
forest, evergreen forest and deciduous Biological Diversity (CBD) on “Access to | 27
forest? Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from
a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh their Utilization”.
b) South-West Bengal
c) Southern Saurashtra Answer: b)
d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Q9. What is Rio+20 Conference, often
Explanation: mentioned in the news?
North Coastal Andhra Pradesh has a) It is the United nations Conference

deciduous and mangrove forests. on Sustainable Development
b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the
South West Bengal has mangrove, semi- World Trade Organization
evergreen and moist deciduous. c) It is a Conference of the Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate
Southern Saurashtra has dry deciduous
and tropical thorn. Change
d) It is a Conference of the Member
Answer: d) Andaman and Nicobar Countries of the Convention on
Islands Biological Diversity
Q8. Which one of the following is Explanation:

associated with the issue of control and
phasing out of the use of ozone-  Earth Summit 1992 is also known as
depleting substances? The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development
a) Bretton Woods Conference (UNCED).
b) Montreal Protocol  As a follow-up, the World Summit on
c) Kyoto Protocol Sustainable Development (Rio+10)
d) Nagoya Protocol was held in 2002 in Johannesburg,
South Africa.
Explanation:  In 2012, the United Nations
Bretton Woods Conference established the Conference on Sustainable
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was also held in Rio, and
Development (IBRD) and the International is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio
Monetary Fund (IMF). Earth Summit 2012.
Montreal Protocol is an international Answer: a) United nations Conference

treaty to protect the ozone layer by on Sustainable Development
phasing out the production of ozone Q10. Which of the following statements
depleting substances. It is legally binding. regarding ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are
Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective correct?
of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by 1) It is intended to assist the
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations developing countries in adaptation
and mitigation practices to counter from tropical to subtropical, temperate

climate change. and arctic. It is tropical and subtropical in
2) It is founded under the aegis of the southern region while it is of arctic
UNEP, OECD, Asian Development type in the northern part of the park.
Bank and World Bank
Answer: d) Namdapha National park
Select the correct answer using the code Page
given below. Q12. ‘BioCarbon Fund Initiative for
| 28
Sustain-able Forest Landscapes’ is
a) 1 only managed by the
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 a) Asian Development Bank
d) Neither 1 nor 2 b) International Monetary Fund
c) United Nations Environment
Green Climate Fund Programme
d) World Bank
 The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a
fund within the framework of Explanation:
the UNFCCC.
 It is a mechanism to redistribute The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for
money from the developed to the Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL) is
developing world. a multilateral fund, supported by donor
governments and managed by the World
 GCF will help developing countries
Bank.
financially in adapting mitigation
practices to counter climate change. Answer: d) World Bank
Answer: a) 1 only Q13. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee is constituted under the
Q11. Which one of the following
National Parks has a climate that varies a) Food Safety and Standards Act,
from tropical to subtropical, temperate 2006
and arctic? b) Geographical Indications of Goods
(Registration and Protection) Act,
a) Khangchendzonga National park
1999
b) Nandadevi National Park
c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
c) Neora Valley National Park
d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
d) Namdapha National park
Explanation:
Explanation:
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Khangchendzonga National park and
Committee (GEAC) is the apex body
Nandadevi National Park lies in Greater
constituted in the Ministry of Environment
Himalayas (Conifer to Alpine climate)
and Forests under 'Rules for Manufacture,
Neora Valley National Park lies near Use, Import, Export and Storage of
Darjeeling (Shiwaliks) [Sub-tropical broad Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically
leaved hill and Sub-tropical moist hill Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989',
(pine) forests]. under the Environment Protection Act,
1986.
Namdapha National park lies in
Purvanchal hills in Arunachal Pradesh. Answer: c)
In the Namdapha National Park, located in Q14. ‘Basel III Accord’ or simply ‘Basel
Arunachal Pradesh, the climate varies III’, often seen in the news, seeks to
a) develop national strategies for the Purvanchal hills start at the syntaxial
conservation and sustainable use of bend (Namcha Barwa) which is in
biological diversity Arunachal Pradesh. Wet Evergreen
b) improve banking sector’s ability to forests are scattered all along the
deal with financial and economic Purvanchal hills.
stress and improve risk
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Page
management
c) reduce the greenhouse gas | 29
Q17. With reference to ‘Forest Carbon
emissions but places a heavier Partnership Facility’, which of the
burden on developed countries following statements is/are correct?
d) transfer technology from developed
Countries to poor countries to 1) it is global partnership of
enable them to replace the use of governments, businesses, civil
chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration society and indigenous peoples
with harmless chemicals 2) it provides financial aid to
universities, individual scientists
Basel III accord is about improving and institutions involved in
banking by dealing with financial and scientific forestry research to
economic stress. develop eco-friendly and climate
Answer: b) improve banking sector’s adaptation technologies for
ability sustainable forest management
3) It assists the countries in their
Q15. In a particular region in India, the ‘REDD+ (Reducing Emission from
local people train the roots of living Deforestation and Forest
tree into robust bridges across the Degradation+)’ efforts by providing
streams. As the time passes these them with financial and technical
bridges become stronger. These unique assistance.
‘Living Root Bridges’ are found in
a) Meghalaya given below
b) Himachal Pradesh
c) Jharkhand a) 1 only
d) Tamil Nadu b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
Q16. Consider the following States: d) 1, 2 and 3
1) Arunachal Pradesh It provide financial incentives to countries

2) Himachal Pradesh (only) in their REDD+ efforts.
3) Mizoram
In which of the following states do
“Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests” occur? Q18. With reference to an organization
known as ‘Birdlife International’ which
a) 1 only of the following statements is/are
b) 2 and 3 only correct?
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 1) It is a Global Partnership of
Conservation Organizations.
Explanation: 2) The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’
originated from this organization.
Himachal Pradesh has many varieties
of forests but not wet evergreen.
3) It identifies the sites known/referred Q21. With reference to bio-toilets used

to as ‘Important Bird and by the Indian Railways, consider the
Biodiversity Areas’. following statements:
Select the correct answer using the code 1. The decomposition of human waste
given below. in the bio-toilets is initiated by a
fungal inoculum. Page
a) 1 only 2. Ammonia and water vapour are the | 30
b) 2 and 3 only only end products in this
c) 1 and 3 only decomposition which are released
d) 1, 2 and 3 into the atmosphere.
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Which of the statements given above
Q19. In India, in which one of the is/are correct?
following types of forests is teak a a) 1 only
dominant tree species? b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
b) Tropical rain forest d) Neither 1 nor 2
c) Tropical thorn scrub forest Decomposition of human waste in bio-
d) Temperate forest with grasslands toilets is carried out by anaerobic bacteria.
Answer: a) The final waste is CO2 and CH4.
Q20. Which one of the following is the [Explained in detail under “Water
Pollution”]
best description of the term
“ecosystem”? Answer: d) Neither 1 nor 2
a) A community of organisms Q22. With reference to the Indian
interacting with one another Renewable Energy Development Agency
b) That part of the Earth which is Limited (IREDA), which of the following
inhabited by living organisms statements is/are correct?
c) A community of organisms together
with the environment in which they 1) It is a Public Limited Government
live. Company.
d) The flora and fauna of a 2) It is a Non – Banking Financial
geographical area. Company.
Answer: c) Select the correct answer using the code

given below.
Explanation
a) 1 only
a) A community of organisms b) 2 only
interacting with one another – no c) Both 1 and 2
specific term. d) Neither 1 or 2
b) That part of the Earth which is
inhabited by living organisms – IREDA is Public Limited Government
biosphere. Company established as a Non-Banking
c) A community of organisms together Financial Institution in 1987 engaged in
with the environment in which they promoting, developing and extending
live – ecosystem. financial assistance for setting up projects
d) The flora and fauna of a relating to new and renewable sources of
geographical area – biodiversity.
energy and energy efficiency/conservation

with the motto: “Energy For Ever”.
Answer: c) Both
Page
| 31
Environment .......................................... 1 particular species of plants, animals,

fungi, etc. Many habitats make up the
Habitat ................................................... 1 environment.
 A single habitat may be common for
Biosphere ............................................... 2 more than one organism which have
similar requirements. Page
Ecosystem .............................................. 2
 For example, a single aquatic habitat
Components of an Ecosystem ................. 3 may support a fish, frog, crab, | 1
phytoplankton and many other kinds of
Functions Of An Ecosystem .................... 6 organisms.
 The various species sharing a habitat
Ecology .................................................. 8 thus have the same ‘address’. Forest,
river etc. are other examples of habitat.
Ecotone .................................................15  All habitats are environments but all
environments are not habitats.
Ecological Niche ....................................15
Ecological Succession ............................17
Environment
 Environment is the natural component

in which biotic (living) and abiotic
(nonliving) factors interact with each
other. These interactions shape the
habitat and ecosystem of an organism.
 In biological sense, environment
constitute the physical (nutrients,
water, air etc.) and biological factors
(biomolecules, organisms) along with
their chemical interactions (chemical
cycles – carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle
etc.) that affect an organism or a group Difference between Habitat and
of organisms. Environment?
 All organisms are dependent on the
environment to carry out their natural Source: http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-
habitat-and-vs-environment/
life processes (birth to death) and to
meet their physical requirements (food,  A habitat always has life in it, whereas
energy, water, oxygen, shelter etc.). the environment does not necessarily
 The environment is not static. Both have life in it.
biotic and abiotic factors are in a  The habitat is a defined place or area of
constant flux and keep changing the environment according to the
continuously. requirements of a particular life form.
Therefore, a habitat is always an
Habitat environment, but an environment is
not always a habitat.
 Habitat is the physical environment in
 A habitat is always a preference of one
which an organism lives (it corresponds
species, whereas an environment could
to address of an organism).
be a preference of many species that
 It is an ecological
or environmental area inhabited by
could eventually become many themselves and also with the

habitats. surrounding physical environment.
 Usually, the environment governs the  Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a
properties of a habitat, but not vice small pond to a large forest or a sea.
versa.  Forest, grassland and desert are some
examples of terrestrial ecosystems; Page
Biosphere pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary
are some examples of aquatic | 2
 The biosphere is the biological ecosystems. Crop fields and an
component (supporting life) of earth aquarium may also be considered as
which includes the lithosphere, man-made ecosystems.
hydrosphere and atmosphere.  In the ecosystem, biotic and abiotic
 The biosphere includes all living components are linked together
organisms on earth, together with the through nutrient cycles and energy
dead organic matter produced by them. flows.
 An ecosystem can be of any size but
usually encompasses specific and
limited species. Eg: Aquatic
Ecosystem. [This is how ecosystem is
different from Environment]
 Everything that lives in an ecosystem is
dependent on the other species and
elements that are also part of that
ecological community. If one part of
an ecosystem is damaged or
disappears, it has an impact on
everything else.
Picture Credits:
https://briangrimmerblog.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/image.
jpg
 Biosphere is absent at extremes of the

North and South poles, the highest
mountains and the deepest oceans,
since existing hostile conditions there
do not support life [Life is the
characteristic feature of biosphere].
 Occasionally spores of fungi and
bacteria do occur at great height
beyond 8,000 metres, but they are
metabolically inactive, and hence
represent only dormant life.
Aquatic Ecosystem
Ecosystem Picture Credits: http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/152248/
 An ecosystem can be visualised as a Difference Between Ecology,

functional unit of nature, where living Environment & Ecosystem
organisms [producers, consumers,
and decomposers] interact among
 Ecology is the study of the ecosystems a) A community of organisms

and the environment. interacting with one another – no
 Environment is a group of ecosystems. specific term.
 Ecosystem is a functional unit of b) That part of the Earth which is
environment (mostly biosphere). inhabited by living organisms –
biosphere.
Page
c) A community of organisms together
with the environment in which they | 3
live – ecosystem.
d) The flora and fauna of a
geographical area – biodiversity.
Components of an Ecosystem
 The components of the ecosystem are

categorized into abiotic or non-living
and biotic or living components. Both
the components of ecosystem and
environment are same.
Environment → Can be Almost

Everything or a Small region.
Habitat → Area where an organism

lives.
Biosphere → The region on earth that

supports life.
Ecosystem → Producers, Consumers, Abiotic Components

Decomposers and their relationships
(tiny environment). It is the functional  Abiotic components are the inorganic
unit of the environment. and non-living parts which act as
major limiting factors.
Q0. Which one of the following is the
best description of the term Limiting factor
“ecosystem”?
 Lot of factors determine the survival
a) A community of organisms of an organism. One single factor
interacting with one another can limit the range of an organism.
b) That part of the Earth which is This single factor is called as a
inhabited by living organisms limiting factor.
c) A community of organisms together  For example, seeds don’t germinate
with the environment in which they quickly in evergreen rain forests in
live. spite of good rains and vegetation as
d) The flora and fauna of a the surface soil is heavily leached
geographical area. (nutrients washed away by running
water). Here, poor soil is the limiting
Answer: c)
factor.
Explanation
 Likewise, germinated saplings may the rainforest soil is heavily leached.

not survive due to lack of light Hence they are not fertile. But exotic
because of the dense canopy. Here, invasive species are a threat to rain
light [shade of the forest] is the forests (E.g. Most plantation crops like
limiting factor. rubber, palm etc.).
Q1. If a tropical rain forest is removed, Answer: a) Page

it does not regenerate quickly as |4
compared to a tropical deciduous  Light: The spectral quality of solar
forest. This is because [Prelims radiation is important for life. The UV
Question] component of the spectrum is harmful
to many organisms.
a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in  Rainfall: Majority of biochemical
nutrients reactions take place in an aqueous
b) propagules of the trees in a rain medium. These biochemical reactions
forest have poor viability are important for survival of an
c) the rain forest species are slow- organism. So rainfall is an important
growing limiting factor.
d) exotic species invade the fertile soil  Temperature: Latitudinal insolation
of rain forest. decides the temperature range of a
region. A few organisms can tolerate
Explanation: and thrive in a wide range of
a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in temperatures (they are called
nutrients: Rainforest = Rainfall through eurythermal), but, a vast majority of
the year. It rains almost every day = them are restricted to a narrow range
The top soil is continuously washed of temperatures (such organisms are
away = nutrients are also washed away called stenothermal).
= leaching of nutrients = very little  Atmosphere: 21% oxygen helps in
fertility remains in top soil = most of survival of many organisms, 78%
the seeds don’t germinate for years = nitrogen prevents spontaneous
regeneration is very slow (it takes combustion and 0.038% carbon dioxide
decades). But the layer below top soil helps primary producers in the
(sub-soil) is very fertile. So plants grow synthesis of carbohydrates.
very quickly once their roots reach the  Organic compounds: Proteins,
sub-soil and if they receive enough carbohydrates, lipids etc. are essential
sunlight. for energy transfer in the living world.
b) propagules of the trees in a rain forest  Inorganic compound: Carbon, carbon
have poor viability: Propagule = dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates,
detachable structure that can give rise phosphates, and ions of various metals
to a new plant, e.g. a bud, sucker, or are essential for organisms to survive.
spore [Asexual Reproduction in plants].  Altitude: Vertical zonation of
Seed bearing plants are more vegetation is caused due to altitude.
significant than Propagules in Change in temperature with altitude is
rainforest. So propagules don’t really the limiting factor.
matter.  Buffering capacity of earth: The
c) the rain forest species are slow- most unique feature of the earth is its
growing: The plant species in buffering action due to which a neutral
rainforests compete for sunlight. So pH (pH- 7) is maintained in the soil and
they grow as rapidly as they can. water bodies. The neutral pH is
d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of conducive for the survival and
rain forest: this statement is wrong as sustenance of living organisms.
 Salinity: Some organisms are tolerant colloid results in death of plant. Also,
of a wide range of salinities frost leads to formation of canker.
(euryhaline) but others are restricted
to a narrow range (stenohaline). So Snow
salinity is a limiting factor.  Snow acts as blanket, prevents further
Effect Of Abiotic Components On drop in temperature and protects Page
Terrestrial Primary Producers – Plants seedlings from excessive cold and frost.
|5
 Accumulation of snow on tree parts can
 Plants are the reason that the other break the branches or even uproot the
animals are able to survive on land. So tree.
the effect of abiotic factors on plants is  Snow shortens the period of vegetative
crucial. growth.
Light Temperature
 Extremely high intensity favors root  High temperature results in death of

growth than shoot growth which plant due to coagulation of
results in increased transpiration, protoplasmic proteins [Some bacteria
short stem, smaller thicker leaves. can survive high temperatures because
 On the other hand low intensity of light of their protoplasmic proteins that
retards growth, flowering and fruiting. don’t coagulate at normally high
 When the Intensity of light is less than temperatures].
the minimum, the plants ceases to  High temperature disturbs the balance
grow due to accumulation of CO2 and between respiration and photo
finally dies. synthesis thereby causes depletion of
 Out of 7 colours in the visible part of food resulting in greater susceptibility
spectrum, only red and blue are to fungal and bacterial attack.
effective in photosynthesis.  It also results in desiccation of plant
 Plant grown in blue light are small, red tissues and depletion of moisture.
light results in elongation of cells
Die back
results in etiolated plants. Plants grown
in ultraviolet and violet light are dwarf.  Refers the progressive dying usually
backwards from the tip of any portion
Frost of plant.
 This is one of the adaptive mechanisms
 Frost results in freezing the soil to avoid adverse conditions like
moisture. The plants growing in such drought.
soil, get exposed to direct sun light in  In this mechanism, the root remains
the morning, they are killed due to alive for years together but the shoots
increased transpiration when their dies.
roots are unable to supply moisture.  E.g. Sal, Red sanders, Silk cotton tree
This is the main reason for etc..
innumerable death of sal seedlings.
Biotic Components
 As a result of frost, water in the
intercellular spaces of the plant gets Primary producers - Autotrophs (self-
frozen into ice which withdraws water nourishing)
from the interior of the cells. This
results in increasing concentration of  Primary producers are basically green
salts and dehydration of cells. Thus plants, certain bacteria and algae that
coagulation and precipitation of the cell carry out photosynthesis.
 In terrestrial ecosystem, grasses, plants

and trees are the primary producers
while in aquatic ecosystem,
microscopic algae [plankton] are the
primary producers.
Consumers — Heterotrophs or Page

Phagotrophs (other nourishing) |6
 Consumers are incapable of producing
their own food. They depend on organic
food derived from plants, animals or
both.
 Consumers can be divided into two
broad groups namely micro and macro
consumers.
Macro consumers
 Herbivores are primary consumers

which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow.
 Secondary consumers feed on primary
consumers e.g. wolves, dogs, etc.
 Carnivores which feed on both primary
and secondary consumers are called
tertiary consumers e.g. lion which can
eat wolves, snakes etc.
 Omnivores are organisms which
consume both plants and animals e.g.
man, bear, etc.
Micro consumers - Saprotrophs Functions Of An Ecosystem

(decomposers or osmotrophs)
 They are bacteria and fungi which  The function of an ecosystem include
obtain energy and nutrients from dead 1. Energy flow through food chain
organic substances (detritus) of plant 2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical
and animals. cycles)
 The products of decomposition such as 3. Ecological succession or
inorganic nutrients which are released ecosystem development
in the ecosystem are reused by 4. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or
producers and thus recycled. feedback control mechanisms
 Earthworm and certain soil organisms Each will be discussed in detail in the
(such as nematodes, and arthropods) subsequent posts.
are detritus feeders and help in the
decomposition of organic matter and Homeostasis
are called detrivores.
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a
Classification of Ecosystems stable equilibrium, especially through
physiological (through bodily part
functions. E.g. Cooling your body
through sweating) processes.
 Organisms try to maintain the which produces heat and raises the
constancy of its internal environment (a body temperature.
process called homeostasis) despite  Plants, on the other hand, do not have
varying external environmental such mechanisms to maintain internal
conditions that tend to upset its temperatures.
homeostasis. Page
 For humans, it could be achieved at Conform
home by using an air conditioner in |7
 An overwhelming majority (99 per cent)
summer and heater in winter. of animals and nearly all plants cannot
 Here the person’s homeostasis is maintain a constant internal
accomplished, not through environment. Their body temperature
physiological, but artificial means. How changes with the ambient temperature.
do other living organisms cope with the  In aquatic animals, the osmotic
situation? concentration of the body fluids change
Regulate with that of the ambient water osmotic
concentration. These animals and
 Some organisms are able to maintain plants are simply conformers.
homeostasis by physiological  Considering the benefits of a constant
(sometimes behavioral – migrating to internal environment to the organism,
tree shade) means which ensures we must ask why these conformers had
constant body temperature, constant not evolved to become regulators.
osmotic concentration, etc.  Thermoregulation is energetically
 All birds and mammals, and a very few expensive for many organisms. This is
lower vertebrate and invertebrate particularly true for small animals like
species are indeed capable of such shrews and humming birds.
regulation (thermoregulation and  Heat loss or heat gain is a function of
osmoregulation). surface area. Since small animals have
a larger surface area relative to their
[http://www.pmfias.com/classification- volume, they tend to lose body heat
vertebrata-phylum-chordata/#warm- very fast when it is cold outside; then
blooded-vs-cold-blooded-animals] they have to expend much energy to
 The ‘success’ of mammals is largely due generate body heat [lot of food goes into
to their ability to maintain a constant heat generation] through metabolism.
This is the main reason why very small
body temperature and thrive whether
they live in Antarctica or in the Sahara animals are rarely found in polar
desert. regions.
 The mechanisms used by most  During the course of evolution, the
mammals to regulate their body costs and benefits of maintaining a
temperature are similar to the ones constant internal environment are
that we humans use. We maintain a taken into consideration.
constant body temperature of 37 °C.  Some species have evolved the ability to
 In summer, when outside temperature regulate, but only over a limited range
of environmental conditions, beyond
is more than our body temperature, we
sweat profusely. The resulting which they simply conform.
evaporative cooling brings down the  If the stressful external conditions are
body temperature. In winter when the localised or remain only for a short
temperature is much lower than 37 °C, duration, the organism has two other
we start to shiver, a kind of exercise alternatives.
Migrate
 The organism can move away of ecosystem of self-regulation is known

temporarily from the stressful habitat as homeostasis.
to a more hospitable area and return  In ecology the term applies to the
when stressful period is over tendency for a biological systems to
 Every winter the famous Keolado resist changes.
National Park (Bhartpur) in Rajasthan  For example, in a pond ecosystem, if Page
host thousands of migratory birds the population of zooplankton
coming from Siberia and other increased, they would consume large | 8
extremely cold northern regions. number of the phytoplankton and as a
result food would become scarce for
Suspend zooplankton as well as other small
fishes.
 In bacteria, fungi and lower plants,
 When the number zooplankton is
various kinds of thick-walled spores are
formed which help them to survive reduced because of starvation,
unfavorable conditions - these phytoplankton population start
increasing. After some time the
germinate on availability of suitable
environment. population size of zooplankton also
increases and this process continues at
 In higher plants, seeds and some other
all the trophic levels of the food chain.
vegetative reproductive structures serve
as means to tide over periods of stress
besides helping in dispersal - they
germinate to form new plants under
favourable moisture and temperature
conditions. They do so by reducing
their metabolic activity and going into a
date of ‘dormancy’.
 In animals, the organism, if unable to
migrate, might avoid the stress by
escaping in time. The familiar case of
bears going into hibernation during
winter is an example of escape in time.  Note that in a homeostatic system,
negative feedback mechanism [here its
[http://www.pmfias.com/classification- scarcity of food] is responsible for
vertebrata-phylum- maintaining stability in an ecosystem.
chordata/#hibernation]  However, homeostatic capacity of
ecosystems is not unlimited as well as
 Some snails and fish go into
not everything in an ecosystem is
aestivation to avoid summer-related
always well regulated. Humans are the
problems-heat and desiccation.
greatest source of disturbance to
 Under unfavorable conditions many ecosystems.
zooplankton species in lakes and ponds
are known to enter diapause, a stage of Ecology
suspended development.
 The term ecology was derived from two
Homeostasis in Ecosystem Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning home and
‘logos’ meaning study.
 Ecosystems are capable of maintaining
 Ecology is the branch of biology
their state of equilibrium. They can
concerned with the relations of
regulate their own species structure
organisms to one another (energy flow
and functional processes. This capacity
and mineral cycling) and to their as the basic unit of taxonomy and
physical surroundings (environment). denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo
 Ecology encompasses study of sapiens.
individual, organisms, population,
community, ecosystem, biome and
biosphere which form the various levels Page
of ecological organization.
 The Indian texts of Vedas, the |9
Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the
Aranyakas-Upanishads contain many
references to ecological concepts. The
Indian treatise on medicine, the
Caraka-Samhita and the surgical text
Susruta-Samhita, show that people
during this period had a good
understanding of plant and animal
ecology.
Levels Of Organizations In
Ecology
 Ecology not only deals with the study of  Population: Population is a
the relationship of individual organisms community of interbreeding organisms
with their environment, but also with [same species], occupying a defined
the study of populations, communities, area during a specific time.
ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere as  Population growth rate is the
a whole. percentage variation between the
number of individuals in a population
at two different times. It can be positive
due to birth and/or immigration or
negative due to death and/or
emigration.
 The number of individuals per unit
area at a given time is termed as
population density.
 In case of large, mobile animals like
tigers, leopards, lions, deer etc., the
density may be determined by counting
individual animals directly or by the
pugmarks (foot imprints) left by the
animals in a defined area.
 Pugmarks of each individual animals
 Individual: Organism is an individual are unique and different from one
others. Study of pug marks can provide
living being that has the ability to act
the following information reliably if
or function independently. It may be
analyzed skillfully:
any organism.
1. Presence of different species in the
 Species: Species are a group of living
area of study.
organisms consisting of similar
2. Identification of individual
individuals capable of exchanging
animals.
genes or of interbreeding, considered
3. Population of large cats (tigers, lions variety of habitats (habitat: the natural
etc.). home or environment of an organism).
4. Sex ratio and age (young or adult)  Biosphere: The biosphere is the
of large cats. [Even sex of tigers can biological component of earth which
be determined using pugmarks. includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere
http://assets.wwfindia.org/downloa and atmosphere. The biosphere Page
ds/reading_pugmarks.pdf also says includes all living organisms on earth,
the same] together with the dead organic matter | 10
 Community: Communities in most produced by them.
instances are named after the
dominant plant form (species). For Principles of Ecology
example: A grassland community is
dominated by grasses, though it may  On planet Earth, life exists not just in a
contain herbs, shrubs, and trees, along few favourable habitats but even in
with associated insects and animals of extreme and harsh habitats – scorching
different species. A community is not Rajasthan desert, perpetually rain-
fixed or rigid. soaked Meghalaya forests, deep ocean
 On the basis of size and degree of trenches, torrential streams,
relative independence communities permafrost polar regions, high
may be divided into two types: Major mountain tops, boiling thermal springs,
Communities and Minor Communities. and stinking compost pits, to name a
1. Major Communities: These are few. Even our intestine is a unique
large sized and relatively habitat for hundreds of species of
independent. They depend only on microbes. How is this possible?
the sun’s energy from outside. Eg:
Adaptation
Tropical evergreen forests.
2. Minor Communities: These are  Each organism is adapted to its
dependent on neighboring particular environment. An adaptation
communities and are often called is thus, “the appearance or behavior or
societies. They are secondary structure or mode of life of an organism
aggregations within a major that allows it to survive in a particular
community. Eg: A mat of lichen on a environment”. E.g. Neck of a giraffe.
cow dung pad.  Adaptation is any attribute of the
 Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a organism (morphological – when trees
community of organisms interacting grew higher, the giraffes neck got
with each other and with their longer; physiological – in the absence of
environment such that energy is an external source of water, the
exchanged and system-level processes, kangaroo rat in North American deserts
such as the cycling of elements, is capable of meeting all its water
emerge. requirements through its internal fat
 Biome: Biome is a large naturally oxidation; behavioral – animals
occurring community of flora and migrating temporarily to a less stressful
fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g. habitat) that enables the organism to
Rainforest biome or tundra biome. survive and reproduce in its habitat.
 Plants and animals in a biome have  We need to breathe faster when we are
common characteristics due to similar on high mountains. After some days,
climates and can be found over a range our body adjusts to the changed
of continents. conditions on the high mountain.
 Biomes are distinct from habitats,  Such small changes that take place in
because any biome can comprise a the body of a single organism over
short periods, to overcome small have experienced what is called

problems due to changes in the altitude sickness.
surroundings, are called  Its symptoms include nausea, fatigue
acclimatization. and heart palpitations. This is because
in the low atmospheric pressure of high
Examples of Adaptation altitudes, the body does not get enough Page
 Many adaptations have evolved over a oxygen. But, gradually you get
long evolutionary time and are acclimatized and stop experiencing | 11
altitude sickness.
genetically fixed.
 In the absence of an external source of  How did your body solve this problem?
The body compensates low oxygen
water, the kangaroo rat in North
American deserts is capable of meeting availability by increasing red blood
all its water requirements through its cell production, decreasing the
binding capacity of hemoglobin and
internal fat oxidation (in which water
is a byproduct). by increasing breathing rate.
 Archaebacteria flourish in hot springs
 It also has the ability to concentrate
its urine so that minimal volume of and deep sea hydrothermal vents
where temperatures far exceed 100
water is used to remove excretory
products. degree C. How is this possible?
 Many desert plants have a thick  A hyper thermophile is an organism
cuticle on their leaf surfaces and have that thrives in extremely hot
their stomata arranged in deep pits to environments — from 60 °C. Hyper
thermophiles are a subset of
minimise water loss through
transpiration. extremophiles (can tolerate
temperatures of around 100 °C).
 They also have a special photosynthetic
pathway (CAM) that enables their  They are able to survive because of the
stomata to remain closed during day protein structure and the nature of
time. the cell membrane. The protein
molecules in the hyper thermophiles
 Some desert plants like Opuntia, have
exhibit hyper thermo stability—that is,
no leaves - they are reduced to spines-
they can maintain structural stability
and the photosynthetic function is
(and therefore function) at high
taken over by the flattened stems [less
temperatures. The cell membrane
leaves = less area available for
contains high levels of saturated
transpiration].
fatty acids to retain shape at high
 Mammals from colder climates
temperatures.
generally have shorter ears and limbs
 Desert lizards lack the physiological
to minimise heat loss. (This is called
ability that mammals have to deal with
the Allen’s Rule.) Guess why an
the high temperatures of their habitat,
elephant has a huge ear.
but manage to keep their body
 In the polar seas aquatic mammals like
temperature fairly constant by
seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber)
behavioral means.
below their skin that acts as an
 They bask in the sun and absorb heat
insulator and reduces loss of body
when their body temperature drops
heat.
below the comfort zone, but move into
 Some organisms possess adaptations
shade when the ambient temperature
that are physiological which allow them
starts increasing.
to respond quickly to a stressful
 Some species are capable of burrowing
situation. If you had ever been to any
into the soil to hide and escape from
high altitude place (>3,500m) you must
the above-ground heat.
Variation mechanism by which speciation is

brought about.
 Variations are induced by changes in  A species comprises of many
genetic makeup due to addition or populations. Often different
deletion of certain genes. populations of a species remain
 Mutations, change in climate, isolated due to some geographic Page
geographical barriers etc. induce barrier such as mountain, ocean, river,
variations over a period of time. etc. | 12
 Species are generally composed of a  The most common way a population
number of distinct populations which undergoes speciation is by geographic
freely interbreed even though they isolation (Allopatric speciation or
appear to be different in appearance geographic speciation).
[E.g. American man and Chinese
women can interbreed. They sub
species under Homo Sapiens].
 Difference in colour of skin, type of
hair; curly or straight, eye colour, blood
type among different ethnic groups
represent variation within human
species.
Adaptive radiation
 In evolutionary biology, adaptive

radiation is a process in which
organisms diversify rapidly from an
ancestral species into a multitude of
new forms, particularly when a change
in the environment makes new
resources available, creates new
challenges, or opens new
environmental niches.  After a long period of time, the sub-
populations become very different and
get isolated, reproductively, i.e. they no
longer interbreed.
 Later even when the barrier is removed
the sub-populations are unable to
interbreed and thus subsequently the
sub-populations become two different
species.
Mutation
 Mutation (a change in genetic material

that results from an error in
replication of DNA) causes new genes
to arise in a population.
Speciation  Further, in a sexually reproducing
population, meiosis and fertilization
 Speciation is the process by which new produce new combination of genes
species are formed and evolution is the
every generation, which is termed  Those offsprings which are suited to

recombination. their immediate environment have a
 Thus members of the same species better chance of surviving, reaching
show ‘variation’ and are not exactly reproductive age and passing on the
identical. Variations are heritable. suitable adaptations to their progeny.
Natural Selection Evolution Page

| 13
 Natural Selection is the mechanism  Evolution is the change which gives
proposed by Darwin and Wallace. rise to new species. It happens in order
Natural selection is the process by to make the organism better suit to the
which species adapt to their present environment.
environment.
 It is an evolutionary force that selects
among variations i.e. genes that help
the organism to better adopt to its
environment. Such genes are
reproduced more in a population due to
natural selection.
species. The variations over a period of

time lead to the creation of a new
 Climate change, competition, species.
adaptability, need, changing  Evolution involves the processes of
environment etc. are the major forces natural selection, adaptation, variation
behind evolution. etc.. Evolution leads to speciation or
 Mutation and recombination are formation of new species.
sources of ‘variation’ or differences in  A valid theory of evolution was
the genetic makeup or gene pool of a propounded by Charles Darwin and
Alfred Wallace in 1859. This theory has Answer: b)

been extended in the light of progress
in genetics and is known as Neo- Explanation:
Darwinism. 1. The presence of specific features or
Extinction certain habits, which enable a plant or
an animal to live in its surroundings, is Page
 Ever since life evolved on earth, new called Adaptation and not evolution.
| 14
species better suited or adapted to the E.g. Hibernation.
environment have appeared and older 2. The surroundings where an organism
less successful forms have died or lives is called its habitat. (True)
become extinct. 3. Small changes that take place in the
 The primary reason for these body of a single organism over short
extinctions is environmental change or periods, to overcome small problems
biological competition. due to changes in the surroundings, is
 Extinction occurs when species cannot called acclimatization (True). E.g.
evolve fast enough to cope with the Soldiers undergo rigorous
changes taking place in their acclimatization training before they can
environment. serve in harsh climatic regions like
 Extinction may take place due to Siachen Glacier.
catastrophic natural phenomena such 4. Gradual changes in an organism to
as tsunami, volcanoes etc. survive in an environment is call
 In recent time, human activities such Evolution and not Adaptation. E.g. The
as deportation, over exploitation, evolution of Giraffes neck over a period
environmental pollution and of time.
environmental change are other factors Q3. Choose the incorrect pairs
responsible for extinction.
Characteristic feature
Q2. Which of the following are true? Vegetation
1. The presence of specific features or 1) Sloping branches and needle like
certain habits, which enable a plant or leaves Desert
an animal to live in its surroundings, is vegetation
called Evolution. 2) Deep roots
2. The surroundings where an organism Taiga vegetation
lives is called its habitat. 3) Waxy stem, thick leaves or no leaves
3. Small changes that take place in the Tundra vegetation
body of a single organism over short 4) Canopy
periods, to overcome small problems Tropical vegetation
due to changes in the surroundings, is
called acclimatization Codes:
4. Gradual changes in an organism to
survive in an environment is call a) All
Adaptation b) 4 only
c) 1,2,3 only
Codes: d) 2,3 only
a) All Answer: c) – incorrect pairs

b) 2,3 only
c) 1,2,4 only Explanation:
d) 1,2,3 only 1) Sloping branches (prevent
accumulation of snow) and needle
like leaves (reduce transpiration) – Picture Credits:

http://apesnature.homestead.com/files/fg02_002.jpg
Taiga vegetation.
2) Deep roots – Desert vegetation Characteristics of Ecotone
3) Waxy stem, thick leaves or no leaves
– Desert vegetation  It may be narrow (between grassland
4) Canopy – characteristic feature of and forest) or wide (between forest and Page
tropical forests – rainforests, desert).
deciduous forests etc.  As it is a zone of transition, it has | 15
conditions intermediate to the adjacent
Ecotone ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of
tension.
 An ecotone is a zone of junction or a  Usually, the number and the
transition area between two biomes population density of the species of an
[diverse ecosystems]. It is where two outgoing community decreases as we
communities meet and integrate. move away from community or
 For e.g. the mangrove forests ecosystem.
represent an ecotone between marine  A well-developed ecotones contain some
and terrestrial ecosystem. Other organisms which are entirely different
examples are grassland (between forest from that of the adjoining communities.
and desert), estuary (between fresh
water and salt water) and river bank or Edge Effect – Edge Species
marsh land (between dry and wet).
 In ecology, edge effects refer to the
changes in population or community
structures that occur at the boundary
of two habitats (ecotone).
 Sometimes the number of species and
the population density of some of the
species in the ecotone is much greater
than either community. This is called
edge effect.
 The organisms which occur primarily
or most abundantly in this zone are
known as edge species.
 In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect
Picture Credits:
is especially applicable to birds. For
https://ec0l0gical.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/ecotone.jpg example the density of birds is greater
in the mixed habitat of the ecotone
between the forest and the desert.
Ecological Niche
 Niche refers to the unique functional

role and position of a species in its
habitat or ecosystem.
 In nature, many species occupy the
same habitat but they perform different
functions.
 The functional characteristics of a factors of its environment [habitat

species in its habitat is referred to as niche - where it lives, food niche - what
“niche” in that common habitat. is eats or decomposes & what species it
 Habitat of a species is like its ‘address’ competes with, reproductive niche -
(i.e. where it lives) whereas niche can how and when it reproduces, physical
be thought of as its “profession” (i.e. & chemical niche - temperature, land
Page
activities and responses specific to the shape, land slope, humidity & other
species). requirement]. | 16
 A niche is unique for a species while  An ecological niche describes how an
many species share the habitat. No two organism or population responds to the
species in a habitat can have the same distribution of resources and
niche. This is because of the competitors (for example, by growing
competition with one another until when resources are abundant, and
one is displaced. when predators, parasites and
 For example, a large number of pathogens are scarce) and how it in
different species of insects may be turn alters those same factors (for
pests of the same plant but they can example, limiting access to resources
co-exist as they feed on different parts by other organisms, acting as a food
of the same plant. source for predators and a consumer of
prey).
 Niche plays an important role in
conservation of organisms. If we have
to conserve species in its native habitat
we should have knowledge about the
niche requirements of the species and
should ensure that all requirements of
its niche are fulfilled.
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/
Q4. Which one of the following terms

describes not only the physical space
occupied by an organism, but also its
functional role in the community of
organisms?
a) Ecotone
b) Ecological niche
c) Habitat
 A species' niche includes all of its
d) Home range
interactions with the biotic and abiotic
Answer: b) Niche time. The process by which

communities of plant and animal
Explanation: species in an area are replaced or
changed into another over a period of
 Ecotone – zone of transition between
time is known as ecological succession.
two ecosystems. E.g. grasslands,
mangroves etc.  Succession is a universal process of Page
directional change in vegetation, on an
 Habitat – surroundings in which an
ecological time scale. | 17
organism lives (home).
 Succession occurs when a series of
 Home Range – A home range is the
communities replace one another due
area in which an animal lives and
to large scale destruction (natural or
moves on a daily or periodic basis (a
manmade). This process continues with
little bigger than habitat – home →
one community replacing another, until
office → home).
a stable, mature community develops.
Ecological Succession  Succession is a progressive series of
changes which leads to the
 Biotic communities are dynamic in establishment of a relatively stable
nature and change over a period of climax community.
Page
| 18
termed sere. Succession that occurs on

land where moisture content is low for
 The first plant to colonize an area is e.g. on bare rock is known as xerarch.
called the pioneer community. The Succession that takes place in a water
final stage of succession is called the body, like ponds or lake is called
climax community. The stage leading hydrarch.
to the climax community are called
successional stages or seres. Each Primary Succession
transitional (temporary) community
that is formed and replaced during  Primary succession takes place an over
succession is called a stage in a bare or unoccupied areas such as
succession or a seral community. rocks outcrop, newly formed deltas and
 Succession is characterized by the sand dunes, emerging volcano islands
following: increased productivity, the and lava flows as well as glacial
shift of nutrients from' the reservoirs, moraines (muddy area exposed by a
increased diversity of organisms with retreating glacier) where no community
increased niche development, and a has existed previously.
gradual increase in the complexity of  In primary succession on a terrestrial
food webs. site the new site is first colonized by a
 Succession would occur faster in area few hardy pioneer species that are often
existing in the middle of the large microbes, lichens and mosses. The
continent. This is because, here seeds pioneers over a few generations alter
of plants belonging to the different the habitat conditions by their growth
seres would reach much faster, and development.
establish and ultimately result in
Q5. Lichens, which are capable of
climax community.
initiating ecological succession even on
 The terminal (final) stage of succession
a bare rock, are actually a symbiotic
forms the community which is called as
association of
climax community. A climax
community is stable, mature, more a) algae and bacteria
complex and long lasting. b) algae and fungi
 The entire sequence of communities in c) bacteria and fungi
a given area, succeeding each other, d) fungi and mosses
during the course of succession is
More of a biology question. Fungus tall grasses and herbaceous plants.

provides shelter, water and minerals to the These dominate the ecosystem for some
algae and, in return, the alga provides years along with mice, rabbits, insects
food (photosynthesis). and seed-eating birds.
 Eventually, some trees come up in this
 These new conditions may be area, seeds of which may be brought by Page
conducive to the establishment of wind or animals. And over the years, a
additional organisms that may forest community develops. Thus an | 19
subsequently arrive at the site. The abandoned farmland over a period
pioneers through their death any decay becomes dominated by trees and is
leave patches of organic matter in transformed into a forest.
which small animals can live.
 The organic matter produced by these Difference Between Primary and
pioneer species produce organic acids Secondary Succession
during decomposition that dissolve and
etch the substratum releasing  Unlike in the primary succession, the
nutrients to the substratum. Organic secondary succession starts on a well-
debris accumulates in pockets and developed soil already formed at the
crevices, providing soil in which seeds site. Thus secondary succession is
can become lodged and grow. relatively faster as compared to
 As the community of organisms primary succession which may often
continues to develop, it becomes more require hundreds of years.
diverse and competition increases, but
Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
at the same time new niche
opportunities develops.
 When succession is brought about by
 The pioneer species disappear as the
living inhabitants of that community
habitat conditions change and invasion
itself, the process is called autogenic
of new species progresses, leading to
succession, while change brought
the replacement of the preceding about by outside forces is known as
community.
allogenic succession.
Secondary Succession  Autogenic succession (caused by plants
themselves) is succession driven by the
 Secondary succession occurs when biotic components of an ecosystem. In
plants recognize an area in which the contrast, allogenic succession (caused
climax community has been disturbed. by drought, fire, flooding etc.) is driven
 Secondary succession is the sequential by the abiotic components of the
development of biotic communities ecosystem.
after the complete or partial
Q6. In the grasslands, trees do not
destruction of the existing
replace the grasses as a part of an
community.
ecological succession because of
 A mature or intermediate community
may be destroyed by natural events a) insects and fungi
such as floods, droughts, fires, or b) limited sunlight and paucity of
storms or by human interventions such nutrients
as deforestation, agriculture, c) water limits and fire
overgrazing, etc. d) None of the above
 This abandoned farmland is first
invaded by hardy species of grasses Answer: c)
that can survive in bare, sunbaked soil.
Explanation:
These grasses may be soon joined by
 Grasses have this one good trick to Succession in Water

monopolize a place. In dry season the
grasses dry up and cause fires which  In primary succession in water, the
destroy other plant species and their pioneers are the small phytoplanktons,
seeds. they are replaced with time by free-
 Also grasslands develop in regions with floating angiosperms, then by rooted Page
scanty rainfall where plant growth hydrophytes, sedges, grasses and
cannot be achieved. finally the trees. The climax again | 20
 Though forests form the climax would be a forest. With time the water
community in most of the ecosystems, body is converted into land.
but in grassland ecosystem [In the  Another important fact is to
grasslands, trees do not replace the understand that all succession whether
grasses as a part of an ecological taking place in water or on land,
succession] grasses form the climax proceeds to a similar climax
community. Thanks to fire and lack of community - the mesic.
water.
 Grasslands are almost irreversible once
deforestation in water scarce areas
gives way to grasslands. [Ecological
Damage]
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic

succession
 Succession in which, initially the green

plants are much greater in quantity is
known as autotrophic succession; and
the ones in which the heterotrophs are
greater in quantity is known as
heterotrophic succession.
Succession in Plants
 Based on the nature of the habitat -
whether it is water (or very wet areas)
or it is on very dry areas - succession of
plants is called hydrach or xerarch,
respectively.
 Hydrarch succession takes place in
wetter areas and the successional
series progress from hydric to the
mesic (intermediate) conditions.
 As against this, xerarch succession
takes place in dry areas and the series
progress from xeric to mesic conditions.
 Hence, both hydrarch and xerach
successions lead to medium water
conditions (mesic) - neither too dry
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric). With time
the xerophytic habitat gets converted
into a Mesophytic one.
Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem – (Trophe = Nourishment)

Trophic Levels ........................................ 1  The flow of energy from producer to top
consumers is called energy flow which
Food Chain............................................. 1 is unidirectional.
Food Web ............................................... 3  To understand the energy flow through
the ecosystem we need to study about Page
Ecological Pyramids................................ 4 the trophic levels [tropical level | 1
interaction].
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (CHC) or  Trophic level is the representation of
energy flow in an ecosystem.
Organochloride – Pollutants And Trophic
The trophic level of an organism is the
Level ...................................................... 7 position it occupies in a food chain.
 Trophic level interaction deals with how
Biotic Interaction .................................... 9 the members of an ecosystem are
connected based on nutritional needs.
Functions Of An Ecosystem
 The functions of an ecosystem include

1. Energy flow through food chain
[This post]
2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical
cycles) [Next post]
3. Ecological succession or
ecosystem development [Previous
Post]
4. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or
feedback control mechanisms
[Previous Post]
Pic Credits:
http://www.daviddarling.info/images3/trophic_levels.jpg
Energy Flow Through an
Ecosystem – Trophic Levels
Trophic levels
Autotrophs Green plants (producers)
Heterotrophs Herbivore (primary consumers)
Heterotrophs Carnivores (secondary consumers)
Heterotrophs Carnivore (tertiary consumers)
Heterotrophs Top carnivores (Quarternary consumers)
 Energy flows through the trophic levels  The trophic level interaction involves
from producers to subsequent trophic three concepts namely
levels is unidirectional. 1. Food Chain
 Energy level decreases from the first 2. Food Web
trophic level upwards due to loss of 3. Ecological Pyramids
energy in the form of heat at each
trophic level. Food Chain
 This energy loss at each tropic level is
quite significant. Hence there are  Transfer of food energy from green
usually not more than four-five trophic plants (producers) through a series of
levels [beyond this the energy available organisms with repeated eating and
is negligible to support an organism]. being eaten link is called a food chain.
E.g. Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog →  This type of food chain starts from dead
Snake → Hawk/Eagle. organic matter of decaying animals and
 Each step in the food chain is called plant bodies.
trophic level. A food chain starts with  Dead organic matter or detritus feeding
producers and ends with top organisms are called detrivores or
carnivores. decomposer. The detrivores are eaten Page
 The trophic level of an organism is the by predators.
position it occupies in a food chain. |2
Types of Food Chains
 The two food chains are linked. The

initial energy source for detritus food
chain is the waste materials and dead
Grazing food chain organic matter from the grazing food
chain.
 The consumers which start the food  In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing
chain, utilizing the plant or plant part food chain is the major conduit for
as their food, constitute the grazing energy flow. As against this, in a
food chain. This food chain begins from terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger
green plants at the base and the fraction of energy flows through the
primary consumer is herbivore. detritus food chain than through the
grazing food chain.
 Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade
detritus into simpler inorganic
substances. This process is called as
catabolism.
 Humification and mineralization occur
during decomposition in the soil.
 Humification leads to accumulation of
a dark coloured amorphous substance
called humus that is highly resistant to
microbial action and undergoes
decomposition at an extremely slow
 For example, In terrestrial ecosystem,
rate.
grass is eaten by caterpillar, which is
 Being colloidal in nature, humus serves
eaten by lizard and lizard is eaten by
as a reservoir of nutrients. The humus
snake.
is further degraded by some microbes
 In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton
and release of inorganic nutrients
(primary producers) are eaten by zoo
occur by the process known as
planktons which are eaten by fishes
mineralization.
and fishes are eaten by pelicans.
 Warm and moist environment favor
Detritus food chain decomposition whereas low temperature
and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition
resulting in buildup of organic
materials.
Q1. With reference to the food chains in 4. dinoflagellates (flagellated

ecosystems, which of the following protists).
kinds of organism is / are known as
decomposer organism/organisms? So answer is between (a) and (c)
1. Virus
 Crustaceans form a very large group of
2. Fungi
arthropods which includes crabs, Page
3. Bacteria
lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and
Select the correct answer using the codes |3
barnacles.
given below.
 Herrings is a fish.
a) 1 only

b) 2 and 3 only
http://octopus.gma.org/herring/biolog
c) 1 and 3 only
y/ecology/default.asp says Herrings
d) 1, 2 and 3
eat crustaceans.
Explanation:
 Fungi and Bacteria are Answer: (a). Tough question. There will be
decomposers. They breakdown 3-5 questions like this one where you
organic matter into simple inorganic might have not even heard the name of the
substances. animal or plant. Don’t worry.. rest 95 will
 Virus represents dormant life. They be easy!
are metabolically inactive as long as
they are outside a host body. They Food Web
are not decomposers. They invade
host cells and use their nucleus  Multiple interlinked food chains make a
(DNA machinery) to carry out their food web. Food web represents all the
life processes. possible paths of energy flow in an
 Protists are unicellular organisms, ecosystem.
such as paramecium and euglena.  If any of the intermediate food chain is
They're not decomposers either. removed, the succeeding links of the
Answer: b) chain will be affected largely.
Q2. Which one of the following is the  The food web provides more than one
correct sequence of a food chain? alternative for food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem and
a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings therefore increases their chance of
b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings survival.
c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans  Also food availability and preferences of
d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms food of the organisms may shift
Explanation: seasonally e.g. we eat watermelon in
summer and peaches in the winter.
 Food chain starts with a producer and Thus there are interconnected
ends with a top consumer. networks of feeding relationships that
 Phytoplankton are the primary take the form of food webs.
producers in the oceans. They include:
1. diatoms (unicellular algae),
2. coccolithophores (unicellular,
eukaryotic protist),
3. cyanobacteria (Bluegreen
algae) –
synechococcus, prochlorococcus,
nostoc, spirogyra etc..
Ecological Pyramids
 The pyramidal representation of trophic

levels of different organisms based on
their ecological position [producer to
final consumer] is called as an Page
ecological pyramid.
 The food producer forms the base of | 4
the pyramid and the top carnivore
forms the tip. Other consumer trophic
levels are in between.
 The pyramid consists of a number of
horizontal bars depicting specific
trophic levels. The length of each bar
Pic Credits: represents the total number of
http://images.tutorvista.com/content/ecosystem/food-web-
grassland-ecosystem.jpeg
individuals or biomass or energy at
each trophic level in an ecosystem.
Q3. With reference to food chains in  The ecological pyramids are of three
ecosystems, consider the following categories.
statements: 1. Pyramid of numbers,
2. Pyramid of biomass, and
1. A food chain illustrates the order in 3. Pyramid of energy or
which a chain of organisms feed productivity.
upon each other.
2. Food chains are found within the Pyramid of Numbers
populations of a species.
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers
of each organism which are eaten by
others.
Which of the statements given above is /

are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None  Pyramid of numbers represents the
total number of individuals of
Explanation: different species (population) at each
trophic level.
1. A food chain illustrates the order in  Depending upon the size, the pyramid
which a chain of organisms feed of numbers may not always be upright,
upon each other. (True) and may even be completely inverted.
2. Food chains are found within the  It is very difficult to count all the
populations of a species. (Man won’t organisms, in a pyramid of numbers
eat man – so, false) and so the pyramid of number does not
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers completely define the trophic structure
of each organism which are eaten by for an ecosystem.
others (food web illustrates the
number not the food chain). Pyramid of numbers – upright
Answer: a)
 In this pyramid, the number of

individuals is decreased from lower
level to higher trophic level.
Page
|5
http://images.tutorvista.com/content/ecosystem/pyramid-of-
numbers-inverted-spindle-shaped.jpeg
Pyramid of Biomass
http://image.tutorvista.com/content/feed/tvcs/upright-
pyramid-of-numbers-grassland-pond.jpeg
 This type of pyramid can be seen in

grassland ecosystem and pond
ecosystem.
 The grasses occupy the lowest trophic
level (base) because of their abundance.
 The next higher trophic level is primary  Pyramid of biomass is usually
consumer - herbivore (example - determined by collecting all organisms
grasshopper). occupying each trophic level separately
 The individual number of grasshopper and measuring their dry weight.
is less than that of grass. The next  This overcomes the size difference
energy level is primary carnivore problem because all kinds of organisms
(example - rat). at a trophic level are weighed. Biomass
 The number of rats are less than is measured in g/m2.
grasshopper, because, they feed on  The biomass of a species is expressed
grasshopper. The next higher trophic in terms of fresh or dry weight.
level is secondary carnivore (example - Measurement of biomass in terms of
snakes). They feed on rats. dry weight is more accurate.
 The next higher trophic level is the top  Each trophic level has a certain mass
carnivore. (Ex: Hawk). of living material at a particular time
 With each higher trophic level, the called as the standing crop.
number of individual decreases.  The standing crop is measured as the
Pyramid of numbers - inverted mass of living organisms (biomass) or
the number in a unit area.
 In this pyramid, the number of Pyramid of Biomass – Upright
individuals is increased from lower
level to higher trophic level. E.g. Tree  For most ecosystems on land, the
ecosystem. pyramid of biomass has a large base of
primary producers with a smaller
trophic level perched on top.
 The biomass of producers (autotrophs)
is at the maximum. The biomass of
next trophic level i.e. primary

consumers is less than the producers.
The biomass of next higher trophic
level i.e. secondary consumers is less
than the primary consumers. The top,
high trophic level has very less amount
Page
of biomass.
|6
Pic credits:
http://images.tutorvista.com/content/ecosystem/aquatic-
ecosystem-inverted-pyramid.jpeg
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted
 To compare the functional roles of the

trophic levels in an ecosystem, an
 In contrast, in many aquatic energy pyramid is most suitable.
ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass  An energy pyramid represents the
may assume an inverted form. amount of energy at each trophic level
[Pyramid of numbers for aquatic and loss of energy at each transfer to
ecosystem is upright] another trophic level. Hence the
 This is because the producers are tiny pyramid is always upward, with a large
phytoplankton that grow and energy base at the bottom.
reproduce rapidly.
 Here, the pyramid of biomass has a
small base, with the consumer biomass
at any instant actually exceeding the
producer biomass and the pyramid
assumes inverted shape.
 The number of trophic levels in the

grazing food chain is restricted as the
transfer of energy follows 10 per cent
law – only 10 per cent of the energy is
transferred to each trophic level from
the lower trophic level. [above figure] Page
 The decreases at each subsequent
trophic level is due to two reasons: |7
1. At each trophic a part of the
available energy is lost in
respiration or used up in
metabolism.
2. A part of energy is lost at each
transformation, i.e. when it moves
from lower to higher trophic level as
Pic Credits:
https://endangeredspeciesbiomesprojects.wikispaces.com/file/ heat.
view/Bonobo%20Energy%20Pyramid%202.JPG/415062482/74
6x601/Bonobo%20Energy%20Pyramid%202.JPG Limitations of Ecological
 Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 Pyramids
calories of light energy in a given day.
Most of the energy is not absorbed;  It does not take into account the same
some is reflected back to space; of the species belonging to two or more
energy absorbed only a small portion is trophic levels.
utilized by green plants, out of which  It assumes a simple food chain,
the plant uses up some for respiration something that almost never exists in
and of the 1000 calories, therefore only nature; it does not accommodate a
100 calories are stored as energy rich food web.
materials.  Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus,
 Now suppose an animal, say a deer, or microorganism that lives on
eats the plant containing 100 calorie of decaying matter) are not given any
food energy. The deer uses some of it place in ecological pyramids even
for its own metabolism and stores only though they play a vital role in the
10 calorie as food energy. A lion that ecosystem.
eats the deer gets an even smaller
amount of energy. Thus usable energy Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (CHC)
decreases from sunlight to producer to or Organochloride – Pollutants
herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the And Trophic Level
energy pyramid will always be upright.
 Energy pyramid concept helps to  Pollutants, especially non-degradable
explain the phenomenon of biological ones move through the various trophic
magnification - the tendency for toxic levels in an ecosystem. Non-degradable
substances to increase in concentration pollutants mean materials, which
progressively with higher trophic levels. cannot be metabolized by the living
organisms. Example: Chlorinated
Ecological Efficiency Hydrocarbons.
 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons or
 Ecological efficiency describes Organochloride or CHC are
the efficiency with which energy is hydrocarbons whose some or most
transferred from one trophic level to the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
next.
chlorine atoms. E.g. DDT, endosulfan  Endosulfan became a highly

etc.). controversial agrichemical due to its
 A variety of simple chlorinated acute toxicity, potential for
hydrocarbons including bioaccumulation, and role as an
dichloromethane, chloroform, and endocrine disruptor (enhances the
carbon tetrachloride. effect of estrogens causing reproductive Page
and developmental damage in both
Applications of CHC animals and humans). |8
 Because of its threats to human health
 Production of vinyl chloride almost all and the environment, a global ban on
of which was converted into the manufacture and use of endosulfan
polyvinylchloride (PVC) [PVC pipes]. was negotiated under the Stockholm
 Chloroform, dichloromethane, Convention in April 2011.
dichloroethene, and trichloroethane are  Movement of these pollutants involves
useful solvents. These solvents are two main processes:
immiscible with water and effective in 1. Bioaccumulation.
cleaning applications such as 2. Biomagnification.
degreasing and dry cleaning.
 Pesticides and insecticides such as
DDT, heptachlor, and endosulfan are
CHCs.
Effects of CHC
 Dioxins (highly toxic organic compound produced
as a by-product in some manufacturing processes),
produced when organic matter is
burned in the presence of chlorine, and
some insecticides, such as DDT, are
persistent organic pollutants.
 DDT, which was widely used to control
insects in the mid-20th century,
accumulates in food chains, and
causes reproductive problems (e.g.,
eggshell thinning) in certain bird
species.
 DDT residues continue to be found in
humans and mammals across the
planet many years after production and
use have been limited.
 In Arctic areas, particularly high levels
are found in marine mammals. These
chemicals concentrate in mammals,
and are even found in human breast
milk.
 In some species of marine mammals,
particularly those that produce milk
with a high fat content, males typically
have far higher levels, as females
reduce their concentration by transfer
to their offspring through lactation.
Page
|9
http://mercurypolicy.scripts.mit.edu/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2013/01/bioaccumulation_graphic.jpg http://www.goldiesroom.org/Multimedia/Bio_Images/22%20Ec
ology/22%20Biomagnification%20of%20DDT.jpg
Bioaccumulation
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/D/D
DT_chain.gif
 It refers to how pollutants enter a food
chain.  Thus in biomagnification there is an
 In bioaccumulation there is an increase increase in concentration of a pollutant
in concentration of a pollutant from the from one link in a food chain to
environment to the first organism in a another.
food chain.  In order for biomagnification to occur,
the pollutant must be: long-lived,
Biomagnification mobile, soluble in fats, biologically
active. E.g. DDT.
 Biomagnification refers to the tendency
 If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be
of pollutants to concentrate as they
broken down before it can become
move from one trophic level to the next.
dangerous.
 If it is not mobile, it will stay in one
place and is unlikely to be taken up by
organisms.
 If the pollutant is soluble in water, it
will be excreted by the organism.
Pollutants that dissolve in fats,
however, may be retained for a long
time.
 It is traditional to measure the amount
of pollutants in fatty tissues of
organisms such as fish.
 In mammals, we often test the milk
produced by females, since the milk
has a lot of fat in it and is often more
susceptible to damage from toxins
(poisons).
Biotic Interaction
 The interaction that occurs among

different individuals of the same
species is called intraspecific beneficial, harmful or neutral to

interaction while the interaction among individuals of the species.
individuals of different species in a  Some types of interactions listed by the
community is termed as interspecific effects they have on each partner. ‘0’ is
interaction. no effect, ‘-’ is detrimental and ‘+’ is
 Specific terms are applied to beneficial. Page
interspecific interactions depending
upon whether the interaction is Possible biological interactions between | 10
two species.
S. No. Type of interaction Species Effects of interaction

1 2
Negative Interactions
i. Amensalism - 0 one species is inhibited while the other
species is unaffected
ii. Predation + - Predator—prey relationship: one species

(predator) benefits while the second species
(prey) is harmed and inhibited.
iii. Parasitism + - Beneficial to one species (parasite) and
harmful to the other species (host).
iv. Competition - - Adversely affects both species
Positive Associations
i. Commensalism + 0 One species (the commensal) benefits, while
the other species (the host) is neither
harmed nor inhibited
ii. Mutualism + + Interaction is favourable to both species
Neutral Interactions
i. Neutralism 0 0 Neither species affects the other
+ = beneficial; - = harmful, 0 = unaffected  A large tree shades a small plant,
or neutral. retarding the growth of the small plant.
The small plant has no effect on the
Amensalism large tree.
 One species harms or restricts the Predation

other species without itself being
adversely affected or harmed by the  Predators like leopards, tigers and
presence of the other species. cheetahs use speed, teeth and claws to
 Organisms that secrete antibiotics and hunt and kill their prey.
the species that get inhibited by the  They keep prey populations under
antibiotics are examples of control. But for predators, prey species
amensalism. could achieve very high population
 For example the bread mould fungi densities and cause ecosystem
Pencillium produce penicillin an instability.
antibiotic substance which inhibits the  When certain exotic species are
growth of a variety of bacteria. introduced into a geographical area,
they become invasive and start which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in
spreading fast because the invaded the nest of its host. E.g. cuckoo (koel).
land does not have its natural
predators. Competition
 Predators also help in maintaining
species diversity in a community, by  This is an interaction between two
reducing the intensity of competition populations in which both species are Page
among competing prey species. harmed to some extent. | 11
 A wide variety of chemical substances  Competition occurs when two
that we extract from plants on a populations or species, both need a
commercial scale (nicotine, caffeine, vital resource that is in short supply.
quinine, strychnine, opium, etc.,) are  The vital resource could be food, water,
produced by plants actually as shelter, nesting site, mates or space.
defences against grazers and browsers.  Such competition can be:
1. interspecific competition-
Parasitism occurring between individuals of
two different species occurring in
 In this type of interaction, one species a habitat and
is harmed and the other benefits. 2. intraspecific competition-occurs
 Parasitism involves parasite usually a between individuals of same
small size organism living in or on species.
another living species called the host  Intraspecific competition occurs
from which the parasite gets its between members of the same species
nourishment and often shelter. and so it is very intense.
 Many organisms like animal, bacteria
and viruses are parasites of plants and Commensalism
animals.
 Plants like dodder plant (Cuscuta) and  In this relationship one of the species
mistletoe (Loranthus) are parasites benefits while the other is neither
that live on flowering plants. harmed nor benefited.
 Tap worm, round worm, malarial  Some species obtain the benefit of
parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and shelter or transport from another
viruses are common parasites of species. For example sucker fish,
humans. remora often attaches to a shark by
 Parasites that feed on the external means of its sucker which is present on
surface of the host organism are called the top side of its head. This helps the
ectoparasites. E.g. lice on humans. remora get protection, a free ride as
Many marine fish are infested with well as meal from the left over of the
ectoparasitic copepods. shark’s meal. The shark does not
 The female mosquito is not considered however get any benefit nor is it
a parasite, although it needs our blood adversely affected by this association.
for reproduction. Why? Because it  Another example of commensalisms is
doesn’t live on the host. the relationship between trees and
 In contrast, endoparasites are those epiphytic plants.
that live inside the host body at  Epiphytes live on the surface of other
different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, red plants like ferns, mosses and orchids
blood cells, etc.). and use the surface of trees for support
 Brood parasitism in birds is a and for obtaining sunlight and
fascinating example of parasitism in moisture. The tree gets no benefit from
this relationship nor are they harmed.
 Cow dung provides food and shelter to the bees which benefit by getting nectar
dung beetles. The beetles have no effect from the plants and both cannot
on the cows. survive without the other.
  Example: in pollination mutualisms,
 Another example of commensalism is the pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar),
the interaction between sea anemone and the plant has its pollen transferred Page
that has stinging tentacles and the to other flowers for cross-fertilization
clown fish that lives among them. (reproduction). | 12
 The fish gets protection from predators  Lichens represent an intimate
which stay away from the stinging mutualistic relationship between a
tentacles. The anemone does not fungus and photosynthesizing algae or
appear to derive any benefit by hosting cyanobacteria.
the clown fish.  Similarly, the mycorrhizae are
associations between fungi and the
Mutualism roots of higher plants. The fungi help
the plant in the absorption of essential
 This is a close association between two nutrients from the soil while the plant
species in which both the species in turn provides the fungi with energy-
benefit. For example the sea anemone, yielding carbohydrates.
a cnidarian gets attached to the shell
of hermit crabs for benefit of transport Neutralism
and obtaining new food while the
anemone provides camouflage and  Neutralism describes the relationship
protection by means of its stinging cells between two species which do interact
to the hermit crab. but do not affect each other.
 However, some mutualisms are so  True neutralism is extremely unlikely
intimate that the interacting species and impossible to prove.
can no longer live without each other
as they depend totally on each other to
survive. Such close associations are
called symbiosis (symbiosis is intense
mutualism – E.g. coral and
zooxanthellae).
 An example of such close mutualistic
association is that of termite and their
intestinal flagellates. Termites can eat
wood but have no enzymes to digest it.
However, their intestine contains
certain flagellate protists (protozoans)
that have the necessary enzymes to
digest the cellulose of the wood eaten
by termites and convert it into sugar.
 The flagellates use some of this sugar
for their own metabolism while enough
is left for the termite. Both termite and
flagellates cannot survive without each
other.
 Another familiar example of symbiosis
is seen in pollination of flowers where
flowering plants are cross pollinated by
Biogeo Chemical Cycling or Nutrient non-living to living and then back to

the non-living components of the
Cycling ................................................... 1
ecosystem in a more or less circular
Nutrient Cycles....................................... 1 fashion. This circular fashion is known
as biogeochemical cycling (bio for
Carbon Cycle [Gaseous Cycle]................. 2 living; geo for atmosphere).
Page
Nitrogen Cycle [Gaseous Cycle] ............... 4 |1
Phosphorus Cycle [Sedimentary cycle] .... 8
Sulphur Cycle [Sedimentary cycle] .......... 8
Functions Of An Ecosystem
 The functions of an ecosystem include

1. Energy flow through food chain
[Previous Post]
2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical
cycles) [This post]
3. Ecological succession or
ecosystem development [Previous
Posts]
4. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or
feedback control mechanisms
[Previous Posts]
Biogeo Chemical Cycling or Pic Credits:

http://www.biorecycle.com/images/nutrient_cycle_new_450w.j
Nutrient Cycling pg
 Energy flow and nutrient circulation  Among the most important nutrient
are the major functions of the cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle
ecosystem. We have studied about and the nitrogen nutrient cycle.
energy flow through trophic levels in  There are many other nutrient cycles
the previous posts. that are important in ecology, including
 Energy is lost as heat forever in terms a large number of trace mineral
of the usefulness of the system. On the nutrient cycles.
other hand, nutrients of food matter
never get used up. They can be Nutrient Cycles
recycled again and again indefinitely.
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen  Based on the replacement period, a
and phosphorus as elements and nutrient cycle is referred to as Perfect
compounds make up 97% of the mass or Imperfect cycle.
of our bodies and are more than 95% of 1. A perfect nutrient cycle is one in
the mass of all living organisms. which nutrients are replaced as fast
 In addition to these, about 15 to 25 as they are utilized. Most gaseous
other elements are needed in some cycles are generally considered as
perfect cycles.
form for the survival and good health of
plants and animals. 2. In contrast sedimentary cycles are
considered relatively imperfect, as
 These elements or mineral nutrients
some nutrients are lost from the
are always in circulation moving from
cycle and get locked into sediments  Carbon cycle involves a continuous
and so become unavailable for exchange of carbon between the
immediate cycling. atmosphere and organisms.
 Based on the nature of the reservoir,  Carbon from the atmosphere moves to
there are two types of cycles namely- green plants by the process of
1. Gaseous Cycle — where the photosynthesis, and then to animals. Page
reservoir is the atmosphere or the  By process of respiration and
hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon decomposition of dead organic matter | 2
cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc. and it returns back to atmosphere. It is
2. Sedimentary Cycle — where the usually a short term cycle.
reservoir is the earth's crust  Some carbon also enters a long term
[elements mostly found in earth’s cycle. It accumulates as un-
crust] — phosphorous cycle, decomposed organic matter in the
sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, peaty layers of marshy soil or as
magnesium cycle etc. insoluble carbonates in bottom
sediments of aquatic systems which
Carbon Cycle [Gaseous Cycle] take a long time to be released.
 In deep oceans such carbon can
 Carbon is a minor constituent of the remained buried for millions of years
atmosphere as compared to oxygen and till geological movement may lift these
nitrogen. rocks above sea level. These rocks may
 However, without carbon dioxide life be exposed to erosion, releasing their
could not exist because it is vital for carbon dioxide, carbonates and
the production of carbohydrates bicarbonates into streams and rivers.
through photosynthesis by plants.  Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and
 It is the element that anchors all natural gas etc. are organic compounds
organic substances from coal and oil to that were buried before they could be
DNA (deoxyribonudeic acid: the decomposed and were subsequently
compound that carries genetic transformed by time and geological
information). processes into fossil fuels. When they
 Carbon is present in the atmosphere, are burned the carbon stored in them
mainly in the form of carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere as
(CO2). carbon-dioxide.
Page
|3
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Carb
on_cycle.jpg
1) Photosynthesis
2) Respiration
3) Decay of organic matter
4) Volcanic action
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to

the carbon cycle on Earth ?
a) 1 and 4 only
b) 2 and 3 only http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/images/carb
oncycle.jpg
c) 2,3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Q2. Which one of the following is the
process involved in photosynthesis?
Answer: c) Photosynthesis takes out
CO2 from carbon cycle. Rest all ads CO2. a) Potential energy is released to form
free energy
b) Free energy is converted into
potential energy and stored
c) Food is oxidized to release carbon
dioxide and water
d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide
and water vapour are given out
Answer: b) Sunlight (free energy) is

converted into carbohydrates (potential
energy) using water and carbon dioxide.  Certain microorganisms are capable of
Oxygen is released in the process. fixing atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions
Nitrogen Cycle [Gaseous Cycle] (NH4+).
 Apart from carbon, hydrogen and Ammonia is a molecule consisting of

oxygen, nitrogen is the most prevalent nitrogen and hydrogen having molecular Page
element in living organisms. NH3, while ammonium (NH4+) is an ion | 4
 Nitrogen is a constituent of amino of ammonia that is formed by accepting
acids, proteins, hormones, hydrogen ion.
chlorophylls and many of the
vitamins. [All of these explained under  The enzyme, nitrogenase which is
Biology (http://imojo.in/76hnkb)] capable of nitrogen reduction is
present exclusively in prokaryotes.
 Plants compete with microbes for the
Such microbes are called N2-fixers.
limited nitrogen that is available in soil.
These include:
Thus, nitrogen is a limiting nutrient
1. free living nitrogen fixing bacteria
for both natural and agricultural
(non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing
ecosystems.
bacteria or nitrogen fixing soil
 Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms
bacteria) (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter
(N2) joined by a very strong triple
and Beijemickia; anaerobic
covalent bond (N ≡ N).
Clostridium and Rhodospirillum),
 In nature, lightning and ultraviolet
2. symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria
radiation provide enough energy to
(e.g. Rhizobium) living in
convert nitrogen to nitrogen oxides (NO,
association with leguminous plants
NO2, N2O).
and non-leguminous root nodule
 Industrial combustions, forest fires, plants and
automobile exhausts and power- 3. some cyanobacteria (major source of
generating stations are also sources of nitrogen fixation in oceans)(blue
atmospheric nitrogen oxides. green algae. E.g. Nostoc,
Anabaena, Spirulina etc.).
Nitrogen Fixing – Nitrogen to
Ammonia (N2 to NH3) Leguminous: denoting plants of the pea
family (Leguminosae), typically having
 There is an inexhaustible supply of seeds in pods, distinctive flowers, and root
nitrogen in the atmosphere but the nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
elemental form cannot be used directly
by most of the living organisms. Nitrification – Ammonia to
 Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that is, Nitrates
converted to ammonia, nitrites or
nitrates, before it can be taken up by  Ammonium ions can be directly taken
plants. up as a source of nitrogen by some
 Nitrogen fixation on earth is plants.
accomplished in three different ways:  Others absorb nitrates which are
1. By microorganisms (bacteria and obtained by oxidizing ammonia and
blue-green algae), ammonium ions.
2. By man using industrial processes  Ammonia and ammonium ions are
(fertilizer factories) and oxidized to nitrites or nitrates by two
3. To a limited extent by atmospheric groups of specialized bacteria.
phenomenon such as thunder and
lighting.
1. Ammonium ions are first oxidized  Nitrate present in the soil is reduced to
to nitrite by the bacteria nitrogen by the process of
Nitrosomonas and/or Nitrococcus. denitrification.
2. The nitrite is further oxidized to  In the soil as well as oceans there are
nitrate with the help of the special denitrifying bacteria
bacterium Nitrobacter. (Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus), Page
 These steps are called nitrification. which convert the nitrates/nitrites to
These nitrifying bacteria are elemental nitrogen. This nitrogen | 5
chemoautotrophs. escapes into the atmosphere, thus
 The nitrate thus formed is absorbed by completing the cycle.
plants and is transported to the leaves.
 In leaves, it is reduced to form
ammonia that finally forms the amine
group of amino acids, which are the
building blocks of proteins. These then
go through higher trophic levels of the
ecosystem.
Nitrification is important in agricultural

systems, where fertilizer is often applied as
ammonia. Conversion of this ammonia to
nitrate increases nitrogen leaching
because nitrate is more water-soluble than
ammonia.
Nitrification also plays an important role in

the removal of nitrogen from municipal
wastewater. The conventional removal is
nitrification, followed by
denitrification.
Ammonification – Urea, Uric Acid

to Ammonia
 Living organisms produce nitrogenous
waste products such as urea and uric
acid (organic nitrogen).
 These waste products as well as dead
remains of organisms are converted
back into inorganic ammonia and
ammonium ions by the bacteria. This
process is called ammonification.
 Some of this ammonia volatilizes and
re-enters the atmosphere but most of it
is converted into nitrate by soil
bacteria.
Denitrification – Nitrate to
Nitrogen
Step 1: N2 Fixing  Nitrogen → Ammonia
or Ammonium Ions
Step 2: Nitrification  Ammonia or Step 4: Denitrification  Nitrate →

Ammonium Ions → Nitrite → Nitrate Nitrogen.
Step 3: Ammonification  Dead Matter +  The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man

Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → through industrial process has far
Ammonia or Ammonium Ions. exceeded the amount fixed by the
Natural Cycle. Page
Dead Matter + Animal Waste (Urea, Uric  As a result Nitrogen has become a | 6
Acid) → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions pollutant which can disrupt the
[most of it escapes into atmosphere. Rest balance of nitrogen. It may lead to Acid
is Nitrified (Step 2) to nitrates] rain, Eutrophication and Harmful
Nitrate [some of it is available for plants. Algal Blooms.
Rest is Denitrified (Step 4)]

given below.
Q3. Which of the following adds/add
nitrogen to the soil? a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
1. Excretion of urea by animals c) 1 and 3 only
2. Burning of coal by man d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Death of vegetation
Explanation:
All the above three adds to nitrogen cycle. presence of high temperatures and
pressures found near lightning bolts and
Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur in combustion reactions in power plants
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen – air or internal combustion engines. Nitric
pollutants. oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2, are
Oxides of nitrogen fall on earth as acid formed under these conditions. Eventually
Page
nitrogen dioxide may react with water in
rain. Acidic rain is a complex mixture of
nitrous, nitric, sulfurous and sulfuric rain to form nitric acid, HNO3. The | 7
acids which all combine to lower the pH. nitrates thus formed may be utilized by
plants as a nutrient (so, soil gets nitrogen
But, the question says “Which of the from acid rain).”
following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?”
So, soil gets nitrogen from acid rain.
1. Animal Waste like Urea, Uric acid
From this, I feel Burning of coal by man
and Death of vegetation add
nitrogen in the form of nitrates adds nitrogen to soil but indirectly though
directly into soil. acid rain.
2. Coal combustion ads nitrogen to The answer depends on how you interpret
atmosphere and from there it falls the question.
back to earth in the form of acid
rain and acid rain adds nitrogen to Answer: Official UPSC Key says answer
soil. is c) 1 and 3 only.
http://www.ehow.com/how- If you have anything more to add write it

does_5117705_burning-fuels-affect- at poormansfriend2485@gmail.com
nitrogen-cycle.html says:
“The release of nitric oxides into the air in
large quantities causes smog and acid 1) Carbon dioxide
rain that pollutes the atmosphere, soil 2) Oxides of Nitrogen
and water and affects plants and animals. 3) Oxides of Sulphur
The increase in nitrogen and nitrous oxide Which of the above is/are the
is caused by automobiles, power plants emission/emissions from coal combustion
and a wide variety of industries. at thermal power plants ?
As nitrous oxides filter into soil, it loses a) 1 only
nutrients like calcium and potassium, b) 2 and 3 only
which are essential for maintaining a c) 1 and 3 only
balance in plant ecosystems. With the loss d) 1, 2 and 3
of these compounds, soil fertility declines.
Also, soils become significantly more Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur
acidic.” dioxide and oxides of nitrogen – air
pollutants.
And also
http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchemboo Answer: d) 1, 2 and 3.
k/307nitrogen.html says:
Q5. What can be the impact of
“The main component of the nitrogen cycle excessive/inappropriate use of
starts with the element nitrogen in the air. nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?
Two nitrogen oxides are found in the air as
a result of interactions with oxygen. 1) Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing
Nitrogen will only react with oxygen in the microorganisms in soil can occur.
2) Increase in the acidity of soil can a mineral in phosphate rocks and

take place enters the cycle from erosion and
3) Leaching of nitrate to the ground- mining activities.
water can occur.  This is the nutrient considered to be
the main cause of excessive growth of
Select the correct answer using the code rooted and free-floating microscopic Page
given below. plants (phytoplankton) in lakes
[Eutrophication]. |8
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2 only  The main storage for phosphorus is in
c) 2 and 3 only the earth's crust. On land phosphorus
d) 1,2 and 3 is usually found in the form of
phosphates.
Explanation:  By the process of weathering and
erosion phosphates enter rivers and
Nitrification is important in agricultural streams that transport them to the
systems, where fertilizer is often applied ocean.
as ammonia. Conversion of this ammonia  In the ocean phosphorus accumulates
to nitrate increases nitrogen leaching on continental shelves in the form of
because nitrate is more water-soluble than insoluble deposits.
ammonia.  After millions of years, the crustal
Agricultural fertilization and the use of plates rise from the sea floor and
nitrogen fixing plants also contribute to expose the phosphates on land.
atmospheric NOx, by promoting nitrogen  After more time, weathering will release
fixation by microorganisms. Excess NOx them from rock and the cycle's
leads to acid rain. Acid rain lowers pH of geochemical phase begins again.
soil (increase in acidity of soil)
The legume–rhizobium symbiosis is a

classic example of mutualism—rhizobia
supply ammonia or amino acids to the
plant and in return receive organic acids
as a carbon and energy source.
So, excessive/inappropriate use of

nitrogenous fertilizers can make the plants
independent of both symbiotic and free
living nitrogen fixers. Fixers don’t get the
food from the plants due to broken
relationship and other factors. So their
population decreases.
Phosphorus Cycle [Sedimentary

cycle]
 Phosphorus plays a central role in

aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Sulphur Cycle [Sedimentary cycle]
 Unlike carbon and nitrogen, which
come primarily from the atmosphere,  The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and
phosphorus occurs in large amounts as sediments where it is locked in organic
(coal, oil and peat) and inorganic decomposition. Atmospheric hydrogen

deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur sulphide also gets oxidized into sulphur
rock) in the form of sulphates, dioxide.
sulphides and organic sulphur.  Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried
 It is released by weathering of rocks, back to the earth after being dissolved
erosional runoff and decomposition of in rainwater as weak sulphuric acid. Page
organic matter and is carried to  Whatever the source, sulphur in the
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in form of sulphates is take up by plants | 9
salt solution. and incorporated through a series of
 The sulphur cycle is mostly metabolic processes into sulphur
sedimentary except two of its bearing amino acid which is
compounds – hydrogen sulphide (H2S) incorporated in the proteins of
and sulphur dioxide (SO2) which add a autotroph tissues. It then passes
gaseous component. through the grazing food chain.
 Sulphur enters the atmosphere from  Sulphur bound in living organism is
several sources like volcanic carried back to the soil, to the bottom
eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels of ponds and lakes and seas through
(coal, diesel etc.), from surface of excretion and decomposition of dead
ocean and from gases released by organic material.
Natural Ecosystem ................................. 1  Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert

Biome
Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems ........... 1
Aquatic ecosystem
Indian Biomes – Indian Forest Types .....11
 Plants and animal community found in
Grassland Ecosystem in India ...............21 water bodies. These can be further Page
classified into two sub groups.
|1
Desert Ecosystem ..................................22  Fresh water ecosystems, such as rivers,
lakes and ponds.
Natural Ecosystem  Marine ecosystems, such as oceans,
estuary and mangroves.
 A natural ecosystem is an assemblage
of plants and animals which functions Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems
as a unit and is capable of maintaining
its identity. There are two main  The terrestrial part of the biosphere is
categories of ecosystems. divisible into enormous regions called
biomes, which are characterized, by
Terrestrial ecosystem distinct climate [precipitation and
 Ecosystems found on land e.g. forest, temperature mainly], vegetation,
grasslands, deserts, tundra. animal life and general soil type.
 [They are nothing but ‘Climatic
Tundra Regions’
http://www.pmfias.com/climatic-
 Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome regions-upsc-ias-geography/ explained
under Geography Section]
Forest
 No two biomes are alike. The climate
 Taiga or Boreal Biome [Coniferous determines the boundaries of a biome
forests] and abundance of plants and animals
 Temperate Deciduous Biome [North found in each one of them. The most
Western Europe] important climatic factors are
 Temperate Rainforest Biome temperature and precipitation.
 Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in
Eastern China, South Eastern USA
 Temperate Deciduous Biome
[Mediterranean Region]
 Tropical Deciduous Biome [Monsoon
Climate]
 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry
Biome
 Tropical Rain Forest Biome
Grassland
 Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome

 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry
Biome [Tropical Grasslands]
Desert
Page
|2
Pic Credits:
http://www.chlive.org/pbeck/eastlibrary/BIOMES.gif
Pic Credits: http://sites.sinauer.com/ecology3e/problem/hop-

03-01-textfig03-04.jpg
Siberia and island group of Arctic

Ocean.
Tundra Biome  On the south pole, tundra is very small
since most of it is covered by ocean.
 There are two types of tundra – arctic  Alpine tundra occurs at high
and alpine. mountains above the tree line. E.g.
High ranges of Himalayas, Andes, Alps
Distribution
etc.
 Arctic tundra extends as a continuous
belt below the polar ice cap and above
the tree line (taiga) in the northern
hemisphere.
 It occupies the northern fringe of
Canada, Alaska, European Russia,
 Mammals of the tundra region have

large body size and small tail and ear
to avoid the loss of heat from the
surface [less surface area = less heat
loss = less food required to produce
heat]. Page
Taiga or Boreal Biome |3
Temperature
 The tundra climate is characterized by

a very low mean annual temperature.
 In mid-winter temperatures are as low
as 40 – 50 °C below freezing.
Precipitation
 Precipitation is mainly in the form of

snow and sleet.
Temperature
Natural Vegetation
 Summers are brief and warm reaching
 There are no trees in the tundra 20-25 °C whereas winters are long and
(Ground is frozen). Lowest form of brutually cold – 30-40 °C below
vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are freezing.
found here and there.
Precipitation
 Coastal lowlands support hardy
grasses and the reindeer moss which  Typical annual precipitation ranges
provide the only pasturage for from 38 cm to 63 cm.
reindeers.  It is quite well distributed throughout
 In the brief summer, berry-bearing the year, with a summer maxima.
bushes and Arctic flowers bloom.  In winter the precipitation is in the
 In the summer, birds migrate north to form of snow.
prey on the numerous insects which
emerge when the snow thaws. Soil
 Insects have short life cycles which are
completed during favourable period of  Boreal forest soils are characterized by
the year. thin podozols and are rather poor.
 Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox,  This is because the weathering of rocks
wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, proceeds slowly in cold environments
lemming, arctic hare, arctic willow and because the litter derived from
etc. live in tundra region. conifer needle (leaf) is decomposed very
 Reptiles and amphibians are almost slowly and is not rich in nutrients.
absent. Moreover conifers don not shed their
leaves frequently.
 Most of the animals have long life e.g.
arctic willow has a life span of 150 to  Most podzols are poor soils for
300 years. agriculture due to the sandy portion,
resulting in a low level of moisture
 They are protected from chillness by
and nutrients.
the presence of thick cuticle and
epidermal hair or fur.
 Some are sandy and excessively thick, leathery and needle-shaped to

drained. Others have shallow rooting check excessive transpiration.
zones and poor drainage due to subsoil  The soils of the coniferous forests are
cementation. poor. They are excessively leached and
 A low pH (acidic) further compounds very acidic.
issues, along with phosphate  Humus content is also low as the Page
deficiencies and aluminium toxicity. evergreen leaves barely fall and the rate
 The low pH (acidic) factor is due to of decomposition is slow. |4
excessive leaching of alkaline  Under-growth is negligible because of
oriented cations which if present the poor soil conditions.
would neutralize the organic acids of  Absence of direct sunlight and the
the accumulating litter. short duration of summer are other
contributory factors.
Natural Vegetation  Coniferous forests are also found in
 The predominant vegetation is regions with high elevation [Example:
evergreen coniferous forest. The forests just below the snowline in
 Conifers are evergreen plant species Himalayas].
such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc.  But on very steep slopes where soils
 The conifers require little moisture are are immature or non-existent, even the
best suited to this type of sub-Arctic conifer cannot survive [Example:
climate. Southern slopes of Greater Himalayas].
 The productivity and community Temperate Deciduous Biome
stability of a boreal forest are lower
than those of any other forest
[North Western Europe]
ecosystem.
 Animals found in this region include
Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf,
bear, red fox, squirrel, and amphibians
like Hyla, Rana, etc.
Characteristics of Coniferous forests
 Unlike the equatorial rain forests,

Coniferous forests are of moderate
density and are more uniform. The  Moderately warm summers and fairly
trees in coniferous forests grow straight mild winters.
and tall. Temperature
 Almost all conifers are evergreen.
There is no annual replacement of new  The mean annual temperatures are
leaves as in deciduous trees. usually between 5° C and 15° C.
 The same leaf remains on the tree for  Winters are abnormally mild. This is
as long as five years. Food is stored in because of the warming effect brought
the trunks, and the bark is thick to by warm North Atlantic Drift.
protect the trunk from excessive cold. [Eastern Australian warm current in
 Conifers are conical in shape. Their case of New Zealand]
conical shape and sloping branches
prevent snow accumulation. It also Precipitation
offers little grip to the winds.
 Rainfall occurs throughout the year
 Transpiration can be quite rapid in the
with winter maxima.
warm summer. So, leaves are small,
 Adequate rainfall throughout the year.
Seasons Temperate Rainforest Biome

 As in other temperate regions there are  Temperate rain forests receive an
four distinct seasons. annual precipitation of 200 cm, mostly
 Winter is the season of cloudy skies, due to on shore westerlies.
foggy and misty mornings, and many  Precipitation occurs in the form of fog, Page
rainy days from the passing rain as well as snow. Fog is quite
depressions. (Trees shed their leaved in common and is an important source of | 5
winter to prevent snow accumulation water.
and protect themselves from severe
cold) Distribution
 Spring is the driest and the most
refreshing season when people emerge  This is a small biome in terms of area
from the depressing winter to see covered. The main stretch of this
everything becoming green again. habitat is along the northwestern coast
 This is followed by the long, sunny of North America from northern
summer. California though southern Alaska.
 Next is the autumn with the roar of There are also small areas in southern
gusty winds; and the cycle repeats Chile, New Zealand, Australia and a
itself. few other places around the world.
 This type of climate with its four
distinct seasons is something that is
conspicuously absent in the tropics.
[Rainforest == Only Rainy season,
Tropical Monsoon == Summer, Winter
and Rainy, Tropical Savanna ==
Summer (rains) and Winter]
Natural Vegetation
 Soils of temperate forests are podozolic

and fairly deep. Natural Vegetation
 The natural vegetation of this climatic
type is deciduous forest.  Big coniferous trees dominate this
 The trees shed their leaves in the cold habitat, including Douglas fir,
season. Western red cedar, Mountain
 This is an adaptation for protecting hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka
themselves against the winter snow spruce and Lodgepole pine.
and frost.  In addition to the trees, mosses and
 Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ lichens are very common, often growing
season. Growth begins in spring. as epiphytes.
 Some of the common species include  Grizzly Bears are the common
oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and mammals found in Alaska.
poplar.
 In the wetter areas grow willows (Light
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in
weight cricket bats are made from Eastern China, South Eastern USA
willows. In India willows are found in
Kashmir).
 Most animals are the familiar
vertebrates and invertebrates.
Steppe or Temperate Grassland

Biome
Page
Climate |6
 Characterized by a warm moist

summer and a cool, dry winter (one
exception: winters are also moist in
Natal Type).
Temperature
 The mean monthly temperature varies

Name of the Region
between 4° C and 25° C and is strongly
Temperate
modified by maritime influence.
Grassland
Precipitation Pustaz Hungary and
surrounding regions
 Rainfall is more than moderate, Prairies North America
anything from 60 cm to 150 cm. [between the
 There is the fairly uniform foothills of the
distribution of rainfall throughout Rockies and the
the year. Great Lakes]
Pampas Argentina and
Natural Vegetation Uruguay [Rain-
 Supports a luxuriant vegetation. shadow effect]
 The lowlands carry both evergreen Bush-veld (more Northern South
broad-leaved forests and deciduous tropical) Africa
trees [hardwood]. High Veld (more Southern South
 On the highlands, are various species temperate) Africa
of conifers such as pines and cypresses Downs Australia: Murray-
which are important softwoods. Darling basin of
southern Australia
 Perennial plant growth is not checked
by either a dry season or a cold season. Canterbury New Zealand
Page
|7
Trees
Temperature  Polewards, an increase in precipitation

gives rise to a transitional zone of
 Climate is continental with extremes wooded steppes where some conifers
of temperature. gradually appear.
 Temperatures vary greatly between
summer and winter. Animals
Precipitation  Does not have much animal diversity.

 Horses are common in Asian Steppes.
 The average rainfall may be taken as
about 45 cm, but this varies according Temperate Deciduous Biome
to location from 25 cm to 75 cm. [Mediterranean Region]
Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate
Grasses
 Greatest difference from the tropical

savanna is that steppes are practically
treeless and the grasses are much
shorter.
 Grasses are fresh and nutritious. This
is typical of the grass of the wheat-
lands in North America, the rich black
earth or chernozem areas of Russian
Ukraine and the better watered areas
of the Asiatic Steppes.
 Parts of the world that have  Monthly mean temperatures above 18

Mediterranean type of climate are °C.
characterized by warm, dry summers  Temperatures range from 30-45° C in
and cool, moist winters. summer.
 Trees with small broad leaves are  In winters, temperature range is 15-30°
widely spaced and never very tall. C with mean temperature around 20- Page
 Regions with adequate rainfall are 25° C.
inhabited by low broad leafed evergreen |8
trees [mostly evergreen oaks]. Precipitation
 Fire is an important hazardous factor  Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-
in this ecosystem and the adaptation of 250 cm. In some regions it is around
the plants enable them to regenerate 350 cm.
quickly after being burnt.
 Places like Cherrapunji & Mawsynram
 Plants are in a continuous struggle receive an annual rainfall of about
against heat, dry air, excessive 1000 cm.
evaporation and prolonged droughts.
 They are, in short xerophytic [drought Tropical Monsoon Forests
tolerant], a word used to describe the
drought-resistant plants in an  Also known as drought-deciduous
environment deficient in moisture. forest; dry forest; dry-deciduous
forest; tropical deciduous forest.
Tropical Deciduous Biome  Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham,
[Monsoon Climate] sandalwood, khair, mulberry are
some of the important species found
 Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon here.
climate is characterized by distinct
wet and dry seasons associated with Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry
seasonal reversal of winds. Biome
 Floods in wet season and droughts in
dry season are common.  This type of biome has alternate wet
 Usually there are three seasons namely and dry seasons similar to monsoon
summer, winter and rainy season. climate but has considerably less
annual rainfall.
 Also, there is no distinct rainy season
like in monsoon climate. [Only two
seasons – winter and summer. Rains
occur in summer].
 Floods and droughts are common.
 Vegetation, wildlife and human life are
quite different from monsoon climate
regions.
Temperature
 Many trees are umbrella shaped,

exposing only a narrow edge to the
strong winds.
 In true savanna lands, the grass is tall
and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet high.
The elephant grass may attain a Page
height of even 15 feet.
 Grasses appear greenish and well- | 9
nourished in the rainy season but
turns yellow and dies down in the dry
season that follows.
 As the rainfall diminishes towards the
deserts the savanna merges into thorny
scrub.
Animal Life of the Savanna

Rainfall  There are two main groups of animals
in the savanna, the grass-eating
 Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – herbivorous animals and the fleshing-
160 cm [Rainfall decreases with eating carnivorous animals.
distance from equator].  The herbivorous include the zebra,
Temperature antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle, elephant
etc. [most of the National geographic
 Mean annual temperature is greater and Animal Planet documentaries on
than 18° C. wild animals are shot in savanna
 The monthly temperature hovers regions] and carnivorous animals
between 20° C and 32° C for lowland include the lion, tiger, leopard, hyena,
stations. panther, jaguar, jackal etc..
 Species of reptiles and mammals
Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate including crocodiles, alligators, giant
lizards live together with the larger
 The savanna landscape is typified by
rhinoceros and hippopotamus in rivers
tall grass and short trees.
and marshy lakes.
 The grasslands are also called as
‘bush-veld’. Tropical Rain Forest Biome
 The trees are deciduous, shedding
their leaves in the cool, dry season to  Also known as ‘The Hot, Wet
prevent excessive loss of water through Equatorial Climate’, ‘Equatorial
transpiration, e.g. acacias. Rainforest Climate’.
 Trees usually have broad trunks, with  The regions are generally referred as
water-storing devices to survive ‘Equatorial Rainforests’, ‘Equatorial
through the prolonged drought. Evergreen Forests’, ‘Tropical Moist
Broadleaf Forest’, ‘Lowland  All plants struggle upwards (most

Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest’. ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a
peculiar layer
arrangement
[Canopy].
Epiphyte Page
(Commensalism – | 10
Epiphyte benefits
without troubling
the host):
An epiphyte is a
Temperature plant that grows harmlessly upon
another plant (such as a tree) and
 Temperature is uniform throughout derives its moisture and nutrients from
the year. the air, rain, and sometimes from
 The mean monthly temperatures are debris accumulating around it.
always around 27° C with very little
variation. Q1. Which of the following is/are
 There is no winter. [Typical to unique characteristic/characteristics of
Equatorial Rainforest Climate] equatorial forests?
Precipitation 1. Presence of tall, closely set trees

with crowns forming a continuous
 Precipitation is heavy and well canopy
distributed throughout the year. 2. Coexistence of a large number of
 Annual average is always above 150 species
cm. In some regions the annual 3. Presence of numerous varieties of
average may be as high as 250 – 300 epiphytes
cm.
Equatorial Vegetation given below:
 High temperature and abundant a) 1 only

rainfall support a luxuriant tropical b) 2 and 3 only
rain forest. c) 1 and 3 only
 In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is d) 1, 2 and 3
so dense that it is called ‘selvas'.
Answer: Too easy. d) All
[selvas: A dense tropical rainforest
usually having a cloud cover (dense Desert Biome
canopy)]
 Unlike the temperate regions, the  Deserts are regions where evaporation
growing season here is all the year exceeds precipitation.
round-seeding, flowering, fruiting and  There are mainly two types – hot like
decaying do not take place in a the hot deserts of the Saharan type
seasonal pattern. and temperate as are the mid-latitude
 The equatorial vegetation comprises a deserts like the Gobi.
multitude of evergreen trees that yield
tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany,
ebony, dyewoods etc.
 In the coastal areas and brackish
swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
 Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude

have an annual precipitation of less
than 25 cm.
Temperature of Hot deserts
 There is no cold season in the hot Page

deserts and the average summer
| 11
temperature is high around 30°C.
 The highest temperature recorded is
57.77° C in 1922 at A1 Azizia, Libya.
Hot Deserts
Desert Vegetation
 They include the biggest Sahara Desert
(3.5 million square miles), Great  The predominant vegetation of both hot
Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic
Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari or drought-resistant.
and Namib Deserts.  This includes the cacti, thorny bushes,
 In North America, the desert extends long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered
from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called dwarf acacias.
by different names at different places,  Trees are rare except where there is
e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian abundant ground water to support
and Mexican Deserts. clusters of date palms.
 In South America, the Atacama or  Most desert shrubs have long roots and
Peruvian Desert is the driest of all are well spaced out to gather moisture,
deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall and search for ground water. Plants
annually. have few or no leaves and the foliage is
either waxy, leathery, hairy or
Mid-Latitude Deserts needle-shaped to reduce the loss of
water through transpiration.
 The temperate deserts are rainless  The seeds of many species of grasses
because of either continentiality or and herbs have thick, tough skins to
rain-shadow effect. [Gobi desert is protect them while they lie dormant.
formed due to continentiality and
Patagonian desert due to rain-shadow
effect]
 Amongst the mid-latitude deserts,
many are found on plateau and are at a
considerable distance from the sea.
These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum,
Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi
deserts of Central Asia, drier
portions of the Great Basin Desert of
the western United States and
Patagonian Deserts of Argentina etc..
 The Patagonian Desert is more due to
its rain-shadow position on the leeward
side of the lofty Andes than to
continentiality.
Indian Biomes – Indian Forest
Types
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)
 Classification of Natural Vegetation of 2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen

India is primarily based on spatial and 3. Tropical Moist Deciduous
annual variations in rainfall. 4. Littoral and Swamp
Temperature, soil and topography are
also considered. B. Dry Tropical Forest
1. Tropical Dry Evergreen Page

Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation
2. Tropical Dry Deciduous
200 cm or Evergreen Rain | 12
3. Tropical Thorn
more Forests
100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests
Forests
50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or 1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
Tropical Savanna 2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen
25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub
(Semi-arid) D. Montane Temperate Forests
Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)
 Temperature is the major factor in 1. Montane Wet Temperate
Himalayas and other hilly regions with 2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
an elevation of more than 900 metres. 3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
 As the temperature falls with altitude E. Alpine Forests
in the Himalayan region the vegetal
cover changes with altitude from 1. Sub-Alpine
tropical to sub-tropical, temperate 2. Moist Alpine scrub
and finally alpine. 3. Dry Alpine scrub
 Soil is an equally determining factor in
few regions. Mangrove forests, swamp Forest Type in India % of Total Area
forests are some of the examples where Tropical Moist 37
soil is the major factor. Deciduous
 Topography is responsible for certain Tropical Dry 28
minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal Deciduous
forests, etc.. Tropical Wet 8
 India's vegetation can be divided into 5 Evergreen
main types and 16 sub-types as given Sub-Tropical Moist 6
below. Hill
Tropical Semi- 4
A. Moist Tropical Forests Evergreen
Rest below 4 %
1. Tropical Wet Evergreen
Page
| 13
c) Exotic and invasive species have not

been introduced in this region.
The above map is very important. d) It has less human interference.
Questions like “Which type of
vegetation is found in which state” are
very frequently asked.
Q2. The Himalayan Range is very rich

in species diversity. Which one among
the following is the most appropriate
reason for this phenomenon?
a) It has a high rainfall that supports
luxuriant vegetative growth.
b) It is a confluence of different bio
geographical zones.
Explanation: 2. The annual temperature is about

25°-27°C
Options c) and d) are wrong statements. 3. The average annual humidity
Options a) and b) are correct statements. exceeds 77 per cent and
4. The dry season is distinctly short.
Greater Diversity is due to Page
Characteristics
1. various types of forests found along the | 14
Himalayas Ranges [Shiwaliks,  Evergreen: Due to high heat and
Himachal and Himadri]. high humidity, the trees of these
2. Vertical zonation of vegetation [chief forests do not shed their leaves
characteristic of Himachal and together.
Himadri].  Trees are Mesosphytic: Plants
adopted to neither too dry nor too
Answer is b) wet type climate.
Q3. Which one of the following regions What are mesophytes?

of India has a combination of mangrove  Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as
forest, evergreen forest and deciduous water lily or pondweed, that grow in
forest? saturated soil or water, or
xerophytic plants, such as cactus,
a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh that grow in extremely dry soil,
b) South-West Bengal
mesophytes are ordinary plants that
c) Southern Saurashtra exist between the two extremes.
d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 Mesophytic environments are
Explanation: marked by average to hot
temperatures and soil that is
North Coastal Andhra Pradesh has neither too dry nor too wet.
deciduous and mangrove forests.  Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60
metres in height.
South West Bengal has mangrove, semi-
 Thick Canopy: From the air, the
evergreen and moist deciduous.
tropical rain forest appears like a
Southern Saurashtra has dry deciduous thick canopy of foliage, broken only
and tropical thorn. where it is crossed by large rivers or
cleared for cultivation.
Answer: d) Andaman and Nicobar  All plants struggle upwards (most
Islands ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in
a peculiar layer arrangement. The
Moist Tropical Forests entire morphology looks like a green
carpet when viewed from above.
1. Tropical Wet Evergreen
 Less undergrowth: The sun light
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen
cannot reach the ground due to
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous
thick canopy. The undergrowth is
4. Littoral and Swamp
formed mainly of bamboos, ferns,
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain climbers, orchids, etc.
Forests
Distribution
Climatic Conditions 1. Western side of the Western Ghats
1. Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm (500 to 1370 metres above sea
level).
2. Some regions in the Purvanchal Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests

hills.
3. In the Andaman and Nicobar  They are transitional forests
Islands. between tropical wet evergreen
forests and tropical deciduous
Q4. Consider the following States: forests.
Page
 They are comparatively drier areas
1) Arunachal Pradesh
compared to tropical wet evergreen | 15
2) Himachal Pradesh
forests.
3) Mizoram
Climatic Conditions
In which of the following states do
“Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests” occur?  Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm
a) 1 only  Mean annual temperature varies
b) 2 and 3 only from 24°C to 27°C
c) 1 and 3 only  The relative humidity is about 75
d) 1, 2 and 3 per cent
 The dry season is not short like in
Explanation: tropical evergreen forests.
Himachal Pradesh has many varieties Distribution
of forests but not wet evergreen.
 Western coast
Purvanchal hills start at the syntaxial  Assam
bend (Namcha Barwa) which is in  Lower slopes of the Eastern
Arunachal Pradesh. Wet Evergreen Himalayas
forests are scattered all along the  Odisha and
Purvanchal hills.  Andamans.
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Characteristics
Timber  The semi-
 Hardwood: The timber of these evergreen
forests is fine-grained, hard and forests are less
durable. dense.
 It has high commercial value but it  They are more
is highly challenging to exploit due gregarious
to dense undergrowth, absence of (living in flocks
pure stands and lack of transport or colonies –
facilities [Read previous posts on more pure
Climatic regions stands) than the wet evergreen
http://www.pmfias.com/climatic- forests.
regions-upsc-ias-geography/ to  These forests are characterized by
understand how lumbering industry many species.
works in Equatorial Rainforests  Trees usually have buttressed
(hardwood) and Taiga Climatic trunks with abundant epiphytes.
(softwood) conditions].  The important species are laurel,
 The important species of these rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo
forests are mahogany, mesua, – Western Ghats, white cedar,
white cedar, jamun, canes, Indian chestnut, champa, mango,
bamboo etc. etc. – Himalayan region.
Timber Timber
 Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical  These provide valuable timer like

evergreen forests except that these Teak.
forests are less dense with more  The main species found in these
pure stands (timber industry here is forests are teak, sal, laurel,
better than in evergreen forests). rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo, Page
etc. | 16
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests  It is comparatively easy to exploit
these forests due to their high
Climatic Conditions
degree of gregariousness (more
 Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm. pure stands).
 Mean annual temperature of about
Q5. In India, in which one of the
27°C
following types of forests is teak a
 The average annual relative dominant tree species?
humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.
 Spring (between winter and a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
summer) and summer are dry. b) Tropical rain forest
c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
Characteristics d) Temperate forest with grasslands
 The trees drop their leaves during Answer: a)
the spring and early summer when
sufficient moisture is not available. Littoral and Swamp Forests
 The general appearance is bare in
extreme summers (April-May).  They can survive and grow both in
 Tropical moist deciduous forests fresh as well as brackish water.
present irregular top storey [25 to
Brackish Water: The mixture of seawater
60 m].
and fresh water in estuaries is called
 Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
brackish water and its salinity can range
complete undergrowth.
from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
 These forests occupy a much larger
area than the evergreen forests but  Occur in and around the deltas,
large tracts under these forests have estuaries and creeks prone to tidal
been cleared for cultivation. influences (delta or tidal forests).
 Littoral (relating to or on the shore
Distribution
of the sea or a lake) forests occur at
 Belt running along the Western several places along the coast.
Ghats surrounding the belt of  Swamp forests are confined to the
evergreen forests. deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi,
 A strip along the Shiwalik range the Godavari, the Krishna and the
including terai and bhabar from 77° Cauvery.
E to 88° E.  Dense mangroves occur all along the
 Manipur and Mizoram. coastline in sheltered estuaries,
 Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh tidal creeks, backwaters, salt
and Chhattisgarh. marshes and mudflats. It provides
 Chota Nagpur Plateau. useful fuel wood.
 Most of Odisha.  The most pronounced and the
 Parts of West Bengal and densest is the Sunderban in the
 Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Ganga delta where the predominant

species is Sundri (Heriteera).
Timber
 It provides hard and durable timber

which is used for construction, Page
building purposes and making
| 17
boats.
 The important species found in  It resembles feathery conifer in
these forests are Sundri, agar, general appearance.
rhizophora, screw pines, canes  They are rapid-growing, carefree
and palms, etc. species for sites and climates as
varied as coastal sand dunes, high
Dry Tropical Forests mountain slopes, hot humid tropics,
and semi-arid regions.
1. Tropical Dry Evergreen  They have the ability to fix
2. Tropical Dry Deciduous
atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15
3. Tropical Thorn to 25 metres in height on an
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests average.
Distribution
Distribution  Casuarina is the most popular farm
forestry in the states of Andhra
 Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu. Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and
Climatic Conditions
Karnataka.
 Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly Benefits
from the north-east monsoon winds  Reduces damage in the event of
in October – December]. natural calamities.
 Mean annual temperature is about  Line planting in the coastal areas
28°C. helps in controlling the wind force.
 The mean humidity is about 75 per  It is also used for tourism promotion
cent. in view of its ornamental
 The growth of evergreen forests in appearance.
areas of such low rainfall is a bit  It provides top quality firewood.
strange.  The wood is suitable for paper pulp
and useful raw material for the
Characteristics manufacture of paper for writing,
printing, and wrapping.
 Short statured trees, up to 12 m  It is got some serious medicinal
high, with complete canopy. values as well.
 Bamboos and grasses not Wasteland development
conspicuous.  The characteristics which make it a
 The important species are jamun, suitable species for wasteland
tamarind, neem, etc. development include adaptability to
 Most of the land under these forests wide range of habitats, fast growth,
has been cleared for agriculture or salt tolerant, drought resistant,
casuarina plantations. ability to reclaim land and stabilize
sand dunes.
Casuarina plantation
 Intercrops such as groundnut,
cucumber, watermelons, sesamum,  Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.

and pulses can also be raised along
with the plantation. Characteristics
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
 The trees are low (6 to 10 metres
Climatic Conditions maximum) and widely scattered.
 Acacias and Euphorbias are very Page
 Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm. prominent. | 18
 The Indian wild date is common.
Characteristics Some grasses also grow in the rainy
season.
 These are similar to moist
deciduous forests and shed their Distribution
leaves in dry season.
 The major difference is that they can  Rajasthan, south-western Punjab,
grow in areas of comparatively less western Haryana, Kachchh and
rainfall. neighbouring parts of Saurashtra.
 They represent a transitional type -  Here they degenerate into desert
moist deciduous on the wetter side type in the Thar desert.
and thorn forests on the drier side.  Such forests also grow on the
 They have closed but uneven leeside of the Western Ghats
canopy. covering large areas of Maharashtra,
 The forests are composed of a Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra
mixture of a few species of Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
deciduous trees rising up to a height  The important species are neem,
of 20 metres. babul, cactii, etc.
 Undergrowth: Enough light reaches
the ground to permit the growth of Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
grass and climbers.
1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
Distribution 2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen
 They occur in an irregular wide strip
running from the foot of the Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests
Himalayas to Kanniyakumari except
in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and Climatic conditions
West Bengal.
 Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to
 The important species are teak, 125 cm.
axle wood, rosewood, common
 Average annual temperature is 18°-
bamboo, red sanders, laurel,
21°C.
satinwood, etc.
 Humidity is 80 per cent.
 Large tracts of this forest have been
cleared for agricultural purposes. Distribution
 These forests have suffer from over
grazing, fire, etc.  Eastern Himalayas to the east of
88°E longitude at altitudes varying
Tropical Thorn Forests from 1000 to 2000 m.
Climatic Conditions Characteristics
 Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.  Forests of evergreen species.

 Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
 Commonly found species are  Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to

evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, 25 cm in December-March).
beech, sals and pines.  The summers are sufficiently hot
 Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that and winters are very cold.
grows non-parasitically on a tree or
other plant] are common. Characteristics
Page
 These forests are not so distinct in  Low scrub forest with small | 19
the southern parts of the country. evergreen stunted trees and
They occur only in the Nilgiri and shrubs.
Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres
 Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia
above sea level.
are the most predominant species.
 It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is
not so luxuriant as the true Montane Temperate Forests
tropical evergreen.
 The higher parts of the Western 1. Montane Wet Temperate
Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the 2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
summits of the Satpura and the 3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar
and Mt. Abu in the Aravali Range Montane Wet Temperate Forests
carry sub-types of these forests.
Climatic Conditions
Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
 Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m
Distribution above sea level
 Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to
 Western Himalayas between 73°E 300 cm
and 88°E longitudes at elevations  Mean annual temperature is about
between 1000 to 2000 metres above 11°C to 14°C and the
sea level.  Average relative humidity is over 80
 Some hilly regions of Arunachal per cent.
Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and
Khasi Hills. Distribution
Timber  Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and

Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan
 Chir or Chil is the most dominant region.
tree which forms pure stands.
 It provides valuable timber for Characteristics
furniture, boxes and buildings.
 It is also used for producing resin  These are closed evergreen forests.
and turpentine. Trunks have large girth.
 Branches are clothed with mosses,
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests ferns and other epiphytes.
 The trees rarely achieve a height of
Distribution more than 6 metres.
 Deodar, Chilauni, Indian
 Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks
chestnut, birch, plum, machilus,
and the western Himalayas up to
cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia,
about 1000 metres above sea level.
blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are
Climatic Conditions important species.
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions  Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul,

Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and
 Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm Sikkim.
to 250 cm
Alpine Forests
Distribution
 Occurs in the temperate zone of the  Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to Page
Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 3,500. | 20
metres.  These forests can be divided into: (1)
 Cover the entire length of this sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub
mountain range in Kashmir, and (3) dry alpine scrub.
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,  The sub-alpine forests occur lower
Darjeeling and Sikkim. alpine scrub and grasslands.
 It is a mixture of coniferous and
Characteristics broad-leaved trees in which the
coniferous trees attain a height of
 Mainly composed of coniferous about 30 m while the broad leaved
species. trees reach only 10 m.
 Species occur in mostly pure  Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are
strands. important species.
 Trees are 30 to 50 m high.  The moist alpine scrub is a low
 Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, evergreen dense growth of
etc. are most important trees. rhododendron, birch etc. which
 They form high but fairly open forest occurs from 3,000 metres and
with shrubby undergrowth extends up to snowline.
including oaks, rhododendrons and  The dry alpine scrub is the
some bamboos. uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic,
dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres
Timber
above sea level and found in dry
 It provides fine wood which is of zone. Juniper, honeysuckle,
much use for construction, timber artemesia etc. are important
and railway sleepers. species.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests Q6. If you travel through the

Himalayas, you are Likely to see which
Climatic Conditions of the following plants naturally
growing there?
 Precipitation is below 100 cm and is
mostly in the form of snow. 1. Oak
2. Rhododendron
Characteristics 3. Sandalwood
 Coniferous forests with Select the correct answer using the code
xerophytic shrubs in which given below
deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the
main trees. a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
Distribution c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
 Such forests are found in the inner
dry ranges of the Himalayas where Explanation:
south-west monsoon is very feeble.
Oaks occur in Sub-tropical Broad-leaved

Hill Forests, Montane Wet Temperate
Forests and Himalayan Dry Temperate
Forests [All these forest types are found in
Himalayan regions]
Rhododendron occur in sub-alpine cold Page

desert regions [Himalayan regions]. | 21
Sandalwood (Red Sanders) occur in Dry
Deciduous forests [Ganga plains, South
and Central India. ].
Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
Which one of the following National

Parks has a climate that varies from
tropical to subtropical, temperate and
arctic?
a) Khangchendzonga National park

b) Nandadevi National Park
c) Neora Valley National Park
d) Namdapha National park
Explanation:
Grassland Ecosystem in India
Khangchendzonga National park and
Nandadevi National Park lies in Greater  The grasslands are found where rainfall
Himalayas (Conifer to Alpine climate) is about 25-75 cm per year.
 Grasslands are generally found in
Neora Valley National Park lies near temperate climates [Steppe Grasslands
Darjeeling (Shiwaliks) [Sub-tropical broad – tree less]. In India, they are found
leaved hill and Sub-tropical moist hill mainly in the high Himalayas.
(pine) forests].  The rest of India's grasslands are
Namdapha National park lies in mainly composed of savannas [Tropical
Purvanchal hills in Arunachal Pradesh. grasslands – trees like khetri, acacias,
shrubs, cacti intersperse (scatter
In the Namdapha National Park, located in among or between other things) here
Arunachal Pradesh, the climate varies and there].
from tropical to subtropical, temperate  The major difference between Indian
and arctic. It is tropical and subtropical in steppes and savannas is that all the
the southern region while it is of arctic forage (food for horses and cattle) in the
type in the northern part of the park. steppe is provided only during the brief
wet season whereas in the savannas
Answer: d) Namdapha National park forage is largely from grasses that not
only grow during the wet season but
also from the smaller amount of
regrowth in the dry season.
Types of Grasslands in India

Semi-arid zone
 It covers the northern portion of Central Arid Zone Research institute is

Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding at Jodhpur.
Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi
and Punjab. Impact of grazing
 The topography is broken up by hill
spurs and sand dunes.  Due to heavy grazing the mulch cover
of the soil reduces and the soil is Page
Dry sub humid zone readily invaded by xerophytic plants. | 22
 Increased areas of bare soil creates a
 It covers the whole of peninsular India new habitat for burrowing animals
(except Nilgiri). such as mice, jack-rabbits, gophers,
Moist sub humid zone prairie dogs, locusts etc., which render
large areas of forage lands sterile.
 It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in  Soil surface is heavily trampled by
Northern India. cattle leading to pulverized (reduce to fine
 The topography is level, low lying and particles) top soil which is easily washed
ill-drained. away by rain.
 Soil trampled by cattle in wet season
Themeda creates puddling which reduce the
percolation of water. This leads to
 This extends to the humid montane quick water runoff and the rate of soil
regions and moist sub-humid areas of erosion increases.
Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttar
 Reduced percolation also lowers the
Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh
ground water table leading to water
and Jammu and Kashmir.
scarcity and drought in dry season.
 It is derived from the humid forests on
 Wind erosion becomes intense due to
account of shifting cultivation and
bare soil and this slowly leads to
sheep grazing.
desertification of grasslands.
Economic importance of  These changes contribute to the
reduction of energy flow, and the
grasslands disruption of the periodicity of the
primary producers.
 The livestock wealth plays a crucial role
 It results in a breakdown of the
in Indian life. It is a major source of
biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon
fuel, draught power, nutrition and raw
and nitrogen.
material for village industries.
 Grassland biomes are important to Role of fire
maintain the population of livestock
such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig,  Fire plays an important role in the
sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra, management of grasslands.
etc.  Under moist conditions fire favors
 This huge mass of livestock needs grass over trees, whereas in dry
fodder for sustenance but there is not conditions fire is often necessary to
enough of it. Only about 13 million maintain grasslands against the
hectares in the country are classified as invasion of desert shrubs. Burning
permanent grazing lands. But they increases the forage yields (burning of
exist in a highly degraded state. grasses and shrubs adds lot of
Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research nutrients to the soil).
Institute is at Jhansi
Desert Ecosystem
 Deserts are formed in regions with less  Lizards are mostly insectivorous and
than 25 cm of annual rainfall. can live without drinking water for
 At high altitudes and at greater several days.
distance from the equator the deserts  Herbivorous animals get sufficient
are cold and near the equator and at water from the seeds which they eat.
low altitudes in tropics they are hot.  A few species of nocturnal rodents can Page
 The perennial plant species like bush, live in the desert without drinking
cactus, fetrocactus are scattered water. | 23
throughout the desert biomes.
 Where soils are suitable, irrigation can Indian Desert — Thar desert (hot)
convert deserts into some of the most
productive agricultural lands.  The climate of this region is
 As the large volume of water passes characterized by excessive drought, the
through the irrigation system, salts rainfall being scanty and irregular.
may be left behind that will gradually  The winter rains of northern India
accumulate over the years until they rarely penetrate into the region.
become limiting.  The cold season starts from about the
middle of November to the middle of
Adaptation March.
 This season is characterized by extreme
Desert plants conserve water by variations of temperature and the
following methods temperature is frequently below
freezing point at night.
 They are mostly shrubs.  During April to June the heat are
 They have deep roots. Root system intense, frequent scorching winds
spread over large area. prevail with great desiccating effect.
 Their epidermal layers are made up of  The relative humidity of the
thick cuticle. atmosphere is always low.
 Leaves are absent or reduced in size.  The climate is hostile to all vegetation,
 In some plants leaves are modified into only plants and animals possessing
thorns or spines that can carry out special adaptations being able to
photosynthesis. establish themselves.
 Leaves and stem are succulent (having
thick fleshy leaves or stems adapted to Flora
storing water) and water storing.
 In some plants even the stem contains  The proper desert plants may be
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. divided into two main groups.
 The seeds germinate only during the 1. depending directly upon on rain and
short rainy season. 2. those depending on the presence of
subterranean water.
Desert animals  The first group consists of two types:
1. the ‘ephemerals’ and
 They are fast runners. 2. the ‘rain perennials’.
 They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the  The ephemerals are delicate annuals,
sun's heat during day time. apparently free from any xerophilous
 They conserve water by excreting adaptations, having slender stems and
concentrated urine. root-systems and often large flowers.
 Animals and birds usually have long  They appear almost immediately after
legs to keep the body away from the hot rain, develop flowers and fruits in an
ground. incredibly short time, and die as soon
as the surface layer of the soil dries up.
 The rain perennials are visible above  Temperature less than 00 C for most of
the ground only during the rainy the period, drops to -500 C during
season, but have a perennial winter.
underground stem.  Mean annual rainfall less than 40 cm.
 Heavy snowfall occurs between
Fauna November and march. Page
 Soil type - sandy to sandy loam.
 It is home to some of India's most | 24
magnificent grasslands and sanctuary  Soil pH - neutral to slight alkaline.
for a charismatic bird, the Great  Soil nutrient - Poor organic matter
Indian Bustard. content.
 Among the mammal fauna, the  Soil has low water retention capacity.
blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara,  Wind erosion is more common.
caracal, sandgrouse and desert fox  Narrow growing period, mostly during
inhabit the open plains, grasslands, the summer.
and saline depressions.  Due to aforesaid extreme cold
 The nesting ground of Flamingoes and conditions, growth of vegetation is slow
the only known population of Asiatic and of stunted nature.
wild Ass lies in the remote part of
Bio-diversity
Great Rann, Gujarat.
 It is the migration flyway used by  Cold desert is the home of highly
cranes and flamingos. adaptive, rare endangered fauna, such
as Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali,
Indian Cold Desert/Temperate Ladakh Uriyal, Bharal, Tibetan
Desert Antelope (chiru), Tibetan Gazelle;
Wild Yak, Snow Leopard, Brown Bear,
 Cold desert of India include areas of Tibetan Wolf, Wild Dog and Tibetan
Ladakh, Leh and Kargil of Kashmir and Wild Ass ('Kiang' a close relative of
Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and the Indian wild ass), Woolly hare,
some parts of northern Uttaranchal Black Necked Crane, etc.
and Sikkim.  Cold desert comprises of alpine
 These arid areas are not affected by the mesophytes [a plant needing only a moderate
Indian monsoons because they lie in amount of water] and desert vegetation.
the rain-shadow of the Himalayan
mountain systems. Desertification
 Characterized by extreme cold weather
and denuded terrain they are not  It is the destruction of the biological
suitable for plant growth. potential of the land which can
 Isolated, scattered and over grazed ultimately lead to desert like
herbaceous shrubs are found. Grazing conditions.
period is less than 3-4 months.  In arid and semiarid regions, the
 The flora and fauna is unique to the restoration of the fragile ecosystem is
area. Oak, pine, deodar, birch and very slow, and issues like deforestation,
rhododendron are the important trees mining enhances the desertification.
and bushes found there. Major animal  Desertification is a main problem faced
include yaks, dwarf cows, and goats. by desert adjoining areas, which
stretches across parts of Rajasthan,
Characteristics Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.
 Severe arid conditions - Dry
Atmosphere.
 The cause of this process is not

climatic changes, droughts, etc. but
human actions.
 Increase in population and lack of
alternative employment opportunities
have left the people living in the Thar Page
desert with no choice but to continue
grazing cattle even in its inhospitable | 25
conditions.
Control measures
 India as a signatory to United Nations
Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) has
submitted National Reports to UNCCD
since 2000.
 The National Action Programme for
Combating Desertification was
prepared in 2001 to take appropriate
action in addressing the problems of
desertification.
 Some of the major programmes
currently implemented that address
issues related to land degradation and
desertification are
1. Integrated Watershed Management
Programme (IWMP),
2. National Afforestation Programme
(NAP),
3. National Mission for Green India
(GIM),
4. The Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (MGNREGS),
5. Soil Conservation in the Catchment
of River Valley Project and Flood
Prone River,
6. National Watershed Development
Project for Rained Areas (NWDPRA),
7. Desert Development Programme
(DDP)
8. Fodder and Feed Development
Scheme-component of Grassland
Development including Grass
Reserves
9. Command Area Development and
Water Management (CADWM)
programme etc.
Eutrophication – Algal Bloom ................. 1 and their population explosion covers

almost entire surface layer. This
Harmful Algal Blooms ............................. 2 condition is known as algal bloom.
 Oxygen in aquatic ecosystem is
Aquatic Ecosystems................................ 3 replenished by photosynthetic aquatic
plants. Algal Blooms restrict the Page
Coral Reefs ............................................. 5
penetration of sunlight resulting in
Initiatives To Protect Marine And Coastal death of aquatic plants, and hence | 1
restricts the replenishment of oxygen.
Environments ........................................12  The oxygen level is already depleted
due to the population explosion of
Eutrophication – Algal Bloom phytoplankton.
 Phytoplankton are photosynthetic
 Eutrophic water body: it is a a body of during day time adding oxygen to
water rich in nutrients and so aquatic ecosystem. But during nights,
supporting a dense plant population, they consume far more oxygen as
the decomposition of which kills animal they respire aggressively. i.e. Algal
life by depriving it of oxygen. blooms accentuate the rate of oxygen
 Eutrophication is the response to the depletion as the population of
addition of nutrients such as nitrates phytoplankton is very high.
and phosphates naturally or  The primary consumers like small fish
artificially, fertilizing the aquatic are killed due to oxygen deprivation
ecosystem. caused by algal blooms.
 Algal blooms are the consequence of  Death of primary consumers adversely
Eutrophication. effects the food chain and leads to the
 Eutrophication occurs naturally due to destruction of higher life forms.
deposition of nutrients [such as in  Further, more oxygen is taken up by
depositional environments] carried by microorganisms during the
flood waters. It takes over centuries for decomposition process of dead algae,
eutrophication to occur naturally. plants and fishes. Due to reduced
 Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at oxygen level, the remaining fishes and
an accelerated rate is caused by other aquatic organisms also die. All
human activities [discharge of this eventually leads to degradation of
wastewaters or agricultural runoff, aquatic ecosystem.
Combustion of fossil fuel (produces  The new anaerobic conditions [absence
gases —nitrogen oxides), growing of oxygen] created promote growth of
urban population in the coastal areas) bacteria such as Clostridium
and the consequent phenomenon is botulinum which produces toxins
known as ‘cultural eutrophication’. It deadly to aquatic organisms, birds and
takes only decades. mammals.
 Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green
bacteria) thrive on the excess nutrients
Effects of Eutrophication reduced into marsh whose plant

community is transformed from an
 Loss of fresh water lakes: aquatic environment to recognizable
Eutrophication eventually creates terrestrial ecosystem. [Lakes are one of
detritus layer in lakes and produces the major sources of fresh water]
successively shallower depth of surface  New species invasion: Eutrophication
water. Eventually the water body is may cause the ecosystem competitive
by transforming the normal limiting  Toxicity: Some algal blooms when died
nutrient to abundant level. This cause or eaten, release neuro &
shifting in species composition of hepatotoxins which can kill aquatic
ecosystem. organism & pose threat to humans.
E.g. Shellfish poisoning.
Page
|2
in an attempt to filter pollution.

Sediments and nutrients are deposited
 Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to in the buffer zones instead of
decrease in water transparency deposition in water [Wetlands,
(increased turbidity). estuaries are natural riparian buffers].
 Affects navigation due to increased  Increase in efficiency of nitrogen &
turbidity; creates colour (yellow, green, phosphorous fertilizers and using them
red), smell and water treatment in adequate levels.
problems; increases biomass of inedible  Nitrogen testing & modeling: N-Testing
toxic phytoplankton, benthic and is a technique to find the optimum
epiphytic algae and bloom of gelatinous amount of fertilizer required for crop
zooplankton. plants. It will reduce the amount of
nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.
Mitigation of Eutrophication  Encouraging organic farming.
Checking water pollution is the ultimate  Reduction in nitrogen emission from
solution to eutrophication. vehicles and power plants.
 Treating Industrial effluents domestic Harmful Algal Blooms

sewage to remove nutrient rich sludge
through waste water processing.  Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic
 Riparian buffer: Interfaces between a organisms that can be found naturally
flowing body of water and land created in coastal waters.
near the waterways, farms, roads, etc.
 They are major producers of oxygen  The term "red tide" is a misnomer
and food for many of the animals that because blooms are not always red,
live in these waters. they are not associated with tides, they
 When environmental conditions are are usually not harmful, and some
favorable for their development, these species can be harmful or dangerous at
cells may multiply rapidly and form low cell concentrations that do not Page
high numbers of cells and this is called discolor the water.
an algal bloom. |3
 Water temperature has also been Aquatic Ecosystems
related to the occurrence of algal
blooms, with unusually warm water  Aquatic ecosystems refers to plant and
being conducive to blooms. animal communities occurring in water
 A bloom often results in a color change bodies. Aquatic ecosystems are
in the water. Algal blooms can be any classified on the basis of salinity into
color, but the most common ones are following types:
red or brown. These blooms are  Fresh water ecosystems — Water on
commonly referred to as red or brown land which is continuously cycling and
tides. has low salt content (always less than 5
 Most algal blooms are not harmful but ppt) is known as fresh water. There are
some produce toxins and do affect fish, two types of fresh water ecosystems: (i)
birds, marine mammals and humans. Static or still water (Lentic) ecosystems
The toxins may also make the e.g. pond, lake, bogs and swamps. (ii)
surrounding air difficult to breathe. Running water (Lotic) ecosystems e.g.
These are known as Harmful Algal springs, mountain brooks, streams and
Blooms (HABs). rivers.
 Harmful Algal Blooms are considered  Marine ecosystems — the water
an environmental hazard because these bodies containing salt concentration
events can make people sick when equal to or above that of sea water (i.e.,
contaminated shellfish or finfish are 35 ppt or above). Eg: shallow seas and
eaten, or when people breathe open ocean.
aerosolized HAB toxins near the beach.  Brackish water ecosystems — these
 HAB events adversely affect commercial water bodies have salt content in
and recreational fishing, tourism, and between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt
valued habitats, creating a significant marshes, mangrove swamps and
impact on local economies and the forests.
livelihood of coastal residents.
Aquatic Organisms
Red Tide
The aquatic organisms are classified on
 "Red Tide" is a common name for such the basis of their zone of occurrence.
a phenomenon where certain  Neuston: These organisms live at the
phytoplankton species contain air-water interface e.g. floating plants.
pigments and "bloom" such that the
 Periphyton: These are organisms
human eye perceives the water to be
which remain attached to stems and
discolored.
leaves of rooted plants or substances
 Blooms can appear greenish, brown, emerging above the bottom mud such
and even reddish orange depending as sessile algae.
upon the type of organism, the type of
 Plankton: Microscopic floating
water, and the concentration of the
organisms such as algae, diatoms,
organisms.
protozoans and larval forms are called
plankton. This group includes both  It is the upper layer of the aquatic
microscopic plants like algae ecosystems within which
(phytoplankton) and animals like photosynthetic activity is confined.
crustaceans and protozoans Both photosynthesis and respiration
(zooplankton). activity takes place.
 The locomotory power of the planktons Page
is limited so that their distribution is Aphotic zone
controlled, largely, by currents in the |4
 The lower layers of the aquatic
aquatic ecosystems.
ecosystems, where light penetration
 Nekton: This group contains powerful and plant growth are restricted forms
swimmers that can overcome the water the aphotic zone (profundal zone).
currents. Only respiration activity takes place in
 The animals range in size from the this zone.
swimming insects to the largest blue  Aphotic zone extends from the end of
whale. the photic zones to bottom of the lake.
 Benthos: The benthic organisms are
those found living in the bottom of the Dissolved oxygen
water mass.
 In fresh water the average
Factors Limiting the Productivity concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10
of Aquatic Habitats parts per million or 10 ppm by weight.
This is 150 times lower than the
 Sunlight and oxygen are the most concentration of oxygen in an
important limiting factors of the equivalent volume of air.
aquatic ecosystems.  Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem
through the air water interface and by
Sunlight the photosynthetic activities of aquatic
plants.
 Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes
 Dissolved oxygen escapes the water
as it passes down the column of water.
body through air-water interface and
 The depth to which light penetrates a
through respiration of organisms (fish,
lake determines the extent of plant
decomposers, zooplanktons, etc.).
distribution.
 The amount of dissolved oxygen
 Suspended particulate matters such as
retained in water is also influenced by
clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc. make the
temperature. Oxygen is less soluble in
water turbid.
warm water. Warm water also
 Turbidity limits the extent of light enhances decomposer activity.
penetration and the photosynthetic Therefore, increasing the temperature
activity in a significant way. of a water body increases the rate at
 Based on light penetration and plant which oxygen is depleted from water.
distribution they are classified as  When the dissolved oxygen level falls
photic and aphotic zones. below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic
Photic zone organisms are likely to die.
 Photic (or "euphotic") zone is the Winterkill

portion that extends from the lake  An ice layer on the top of a water body
surface down to where the light level is can effectively cut off light.
1% of that at the surface. The depth of Photosynthesis stops but respiration
this zone depends on the transparency continues in such water body.
of water.
 If the water body is shallow, the oxygen  Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at
gets depleted and the fish die. This an accelerated rate is caused by
condition is known as winterkill. human activities (discharge of
wastewaters or agricultural runoff) and
Temperature the consequent ageing phenomenon is
known as ‘cultural eutrophication’. Page
 Since water temperatures are less
 On the basis of their nutrient content,
subject to change, the aquatic
lakes are categorized as Oligotrophic | 5
organisms have narrow temperature
(very low nutrients), Mesotrophic
tolerance limit.
(moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic
 As a result, even small changes in (highly nutrient rich).
water temperature are a great threat to
 Vast majority of lakes in India are
the survival of aquatic organisms when
either eutrophic or mesotrophic
compared to the changes in air
because of the nutrients derived from
temperatures in the terrestrial
their surroundings or organic wastes
organisms.
entering them.
Lake Ecology Parameter Oligotrophic Eutrophic
Oxygen in the Present Absent
 Any body of standing water, generally bottom layer
large enough in area and depth is
Depth Tend to be Tend to be
known as lake.
deeper shallower
 The largest lake in the world is lake Water quality Good Poor
Superior in North America. Lake Baikal for domestic
in Siberia is the deepest. Chilka lake of & industrial
Orissa is largest lake in India. uses
 Three main zones can be differentiated Number of Many Fewer
in a lake:- plant
1. Peripheral zone (littoral zone) with and animal
shallow water. species
2. Open water beyond the littoral zone
where water is quite deep. Coral Reefs
3. Benthic zone (bottom) or the floor of
the lake.  Coral reefs are built by and made up of
thousands of tiny animals—coral
Ageing of Lakes “polyps”—that are related to
anemones and jellyfish.
 Lakes receive their water from surface  Polyps are shallow water organisms
runoff (sometimes also groundwater which have a soft body covered by a
discharge) and along with it various calcareous skeleton. The polyps
chemical substances and mineral extract calcium salts from sea water to
matter eroded from the land. form these hard skeletons.
 Over periods spanning millennia,  The polyps live in colonies fastened to
ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate the rocky sea floor.
mineral and organic matter and  The tubular skeletons grow upwards
gradually, get filled up. and outwards as a cemented
 The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes calcareous rocky mass, collectively
promotes the growth of algae, aquatic called corals.
plants and various fauna. This process  When the coral polyps die, they shed
is known as natural ‘eutrophication’. their skeleton [coral] on which new
polyps grow.
 The cycle is repeated for over millions

of years leading to accumulation of
layers of corals [shallow rock created by
these depositions is called reef].
 These layers at different stages give rise
to various marine landforms. One such Page
important landform is called coral reef.
 Coral reefs over a period of time |6
transform or evolve into coral islands
(Lakshadweep).
 The corals occur in different forms and
colours, depending upon the nature of
salts or constituents they are made of.
 Small marine plants (algae) also
deposit calcium carbonate contributing
to coral growth.
Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)
 Fringing reefs are reefs that grow

directly from a shore. They are
located very close to land, and often
Coral Reef Relief Features form a shallow lagoon between the
beach and the main body of the reef.
 Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll
(coral islands are formed on atolls)  A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-
are the most important relief features. 2 km wide]. This type of reef grows
from the deep sea bottom with the
seaward side sloping steeply into the
deep sea. Coral polyps do not extend
outwards because of sudden and large
increase in depth.
 The fringing reef is by far the most
common of the three major types of
coral reefs, with numerous examples in
all major regions of coral reef
development.
 Fringing reefs can be seen at the New
Hebrides Society islands off Australia
and off the southern coast of Florida.
Atolls
 An atoll is a roughly circular (annular)
oceanic reef system surrounding a
large (and often deep) central lagoon.
 The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres Page
and may be joined with sea water
What is a "lagoon"? through a number of channels cutting | 7
 A lagoon - as used in the context of across the reef.
coral reef typology - refers to a  Atolls are located at great distances
comparatively wide band of water that from deep see platforms, where the
lies between the shore and the main submarine features may help in
area of reef development, and contains formation of atolls, such as a
at least some deep portions. submerged island or a volcanic cone
Barrier Reefs which may reach a level suitable for
coral growth.
 Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef  An atoll may have any one of the
complexes that parallel a shore, and following three forms-
are separated from it by lagoon. 1. true atoll—a circular reef
 This is the largest (in size, not enclosing a lagoon with no island;
distribution) of the three reefs, runs 2. an atoll surrounding a lagoon with
for hundreds of kilometres and is an island;
several kilometres wide. It extends as a 3. a coral island or an atoll island
broken, irregular ring around the coast which is, in fact, an atoll reef,
or an island, running almost parallel to built by the process of erosion
it. and deposition of waves with
 Barrier reefs are far less common than island crowns formed on them.
fringing reefs or atolls, although  Atolls are far more common in the
examples can be found in the tropical Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji
Atlantic as well as the Pacific. atoll and the Funafuti atoll in the
 The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Ellice/Island are well known examples
Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the of atolls. A large 'number of atolls also
world's largest example of this reef occur in the Lakshadweep Islands.
type.  In the South Pacific, most atolls occur
 The GBR is not actually a single reef as in mid-ocean. Examples of this reef
the name implies, but rather a very type are common in French Polynesia,
large complex consisting of many the Caroline and Marshall Islands,
reefs. Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
 The Indian Ocean also contains
numerous atoll formations. Examples
are found in the Maldives and Chagos
island groups, the Seychelles, and in
the Cocos Island group.
Functions of Coral Reefs corals grow rapidly on the seaward

side.
 Corals are called the rainforests of the  Little or no pollution: Corals are
ocean because of their high highly fragile and are vulnerable to
biodiversity and productivity. climate change and pollution and even
 Coral reefs are natural protective a minute increase in marine pollution Page
barriers against erosion and storm can be catastrophic.
surge. |8
 The coral animals are highly adapted Distribution of Coral Reefs
for capturing plankton from the water,
thereby capturing nutrients.
 Largest biogenic calcium carbonate
producer on earth.
 They provide substrate for mangroves.
 Coral reefs provide habitat for a large
variety of animals and plants.
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth

Corals and Zooxanthellae
 Stable climatic conditions: Corals are
highly susceptible to quick changes.  Many invertebrates, vertebrates, and
They grow in regions where climate is plants live in close association with
significantly stable for a long period of corals, with tight resource coupling
time. and recycling, allowing coral reefs to
 Perpetually warm waters: Corals have extremely high productivity and
thrive in tropical waters [30°N and biodiversity, such that they are referred
30°S latitudes, The temperature of to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the
water is around 20°C] where diurnal Oceans’.
and annual temperature ranges are  Scleractinian corals build skeletons of
very narrow. calcium carbonate sequestered from
the water.
[Explain why coral reefs are absent on
west coast of tropical continents?  Scleractinian corals come under
Because of Cold Ocean Currents – corals Phylum Cnidaria, and they receive
like warm waters and hate cold waters] their nutrient and energy resources in
two ways.
 Shallow water: Coral require fairly 1. They use the traditional cnidarian
good amount of sunlight to survive. strategy of capturing tiny planktonic
The ideal depths for coral growth are organisms with their tentacles (All
45 m to 55 m below sea surface, where about Phylum Cnidaria is given in
there is abundant sunlight available. NCERT).
 Clear salt water: Clear salt water is 2. Having a symbiotic relationship with
suitable for coral growth, while both a single cell algae known as
fresh water and highly saline water are ZOOXANTHELLAE.
harmful.  Zooxanthellae are autorophic [prepare
 Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply their own food] microalgaes belonging
of oxygen and microscopic marine food, to various taxa in the Phylum
called plankton [phytoplankton], is Dinoflagellata.
essential for growth. As the plankton is
Coral == Phylum Cnidaria.
more abundant on the seaward side,
Zooxanthellae == Phylum environment to live within, and a

Dinoflagellata. steady supply of carbon dioxide for
its photosynthetic processes.
Symbiotic Relationship Between  The symbiotic relationship allows the
Corals And ZOOXANTHELLAE slow growing corals to compete with the
faster growing multicellular algaes. The Page
 Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within corals can feed by day through
the coral polyp tissues and assist the photosynthesis and by night through | 9
coral in nutrient production through predation.
its photosynthetic activities.
 These activities provide the coral with The tissues of corals themselves are
fixed carbon compounds for energy, actually not the beautiful colors of the
enhance calcification, and mediate coral reef, but are instead clear. The
elemental nutrient flux. corals receive their coloration from the
 The host coral polyp in return provides ZOOXANTHELLAE living within their
its zooxanthellae with a protected tissues.
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef  Recent accelerated coral reef decline is

Bleaching related mostly to anthropogenic
impacts (overexploitation,
 Disturbances affecting coral reefs overfishing, increased sedimentation
include anthropogenic and natural and nutrient overloading).
events.  Natural disturbances which cause
damage to coral reefs include violent
storms, flooding, high and low Ecological Causes of Coral

temperature extremes, El Nino Bleaching
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events,
sub aerial exposures, predatory Temperature
outbreaks and epizootics.
 Coral reef bleaching is a common  Coral species live within a relatively Page
stress response of corals to many of narrow temperature margin, and
the various disturbances mentioned anomalously low and high sea | 10
above. temperatures [corals are absent on
the west coast of tropical temperate
continents because of the cold
currents] can induce coral bleaching.
 Bleaching events occur during sudden
temperature drops accompanying
intense upwelling episodes [El-Nino],
seasonal cold-air outbreaks.
 Most reefs recovered, with low levels of
coral deaths, but damage has been
severe at places.
 This is an instance of coral reefs'
 Bleaching occurs when susceptibility to increased water
1. the densities of zooxanthellae temperatures combined with OCEAN
decline and/or ACIDIFICATION.
2. the concentration of  While the rising temperatures have
photosynthetic pigments increased the frequency and intensity
within the zooxanthellae fall. of bleaching, acidification has reduced
[it is no more useful for the corals calcifying ability.
coral and the coral will bleach  Small temperature increase over many
it] weeks or large increase (3-4 °C) over a
 When corals bleach they commonly few days will result in coral
lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae dysfunction.
and each zooxanthellae may lose 50-  Coral bleaching has occurred mostly
80% of its photosynthetic pigments. during the summer seasons or near the
 If the stress-causing bleaching is not end of a protracted warming period.
too severe and if it decreases in time,  They are reported to have taken place
the affected corals usually regain their during times of low wind velocity,
symbiotic algae within several weeks or clear skies, calm seas and low
a few months. turbidity. The conditions favor
 If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if localised heating and high ultraviolet
the stress continues and depleted (UV) radiation.
zooxanthellae populations do not  UV radiation readily penetrates clear
recover, the coral host eventually dies. sea waters. The corals actually contain
UV-absorbing compounds which can
Coral Bleaching may also be Beneficial block potentially damaging UV
radiation. But rising temperatures
 Recent research has revealed that
mean reduction in the concentration of
corals that are consistently exposed to
these UV absorbing compounds in
low levels of stress may develop some
corals.
kind of resistance to bleaching.
Sub aerial Exposure
 Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to

the atmosphere during events such as
extreme low tides, ENSO-related sea
level drops or tectonic uplift can
potentially induce bleaching.
 The consequent exposure to high or low Page
temperatures, increased solar
radiation, desiccation, and sea water | 11
dilution by heavy rains could all play a
role in zooxanthellae loss, but could
also very well lead to coral death.
Fresh Water Dilution
 Rapid dilution of reef waters from

storm-generated precipitation and
runoff has been demonstrated to cause
coral reef bleaching.
 Generally, such bleaching events are
rare and confined to relatively small,
near shore areas.
Q1. Which of the following have coral

reefs?
1) Andaman and Nicobar Islands Coral reefs don’t form in areas where there
2) Gulf of Kutch is significant intrusion of fresh water and
3) Gulf of Mannar cold water.
4) Sunderbans
Most of the mighty Indian Rivers flow into
Select the correct answer using the code Bay of Bengal and hence coral reefs are
given below. absent on the east coast of India.
a) 1, 2 and 3 only Coral reefs are also absent on west coast

b) 2 and 4 only of Africa (Benguela Current), South
c) 1 and 3 only America (Peruvian or Humboldt Current),
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Europe (Canaries Current) and other
continents due to cold currents.
Explanation:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of
Kutch and Gulf of Mannar are regions
where there is not significant freshwater
intrusion. But Sunderbans are the mouth
of Ganga-Brahmaputra river system and
hence there is no coral reef formation
there.
Inorganic Nutrients
 Rather than causing coral reef

bleaching, an increase in ambient
elemental nutrient concentrations (e.g. occurred over large geographic regions

ammonia and nitrate) actually and at all depths.
increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3
times. Cold Water Corals
 Although eutrophication is not
directly involved in zooxanthellae loss,  Cold-water corals inhabit deep, cold
water. Page
it could cause secondary adverse
effects such as lowering of coral  The United Nations Environment | 12
resistance and greater susceptibility Programme reports that there are more
to diseases. cold-water coral reefs worldwide than
tropical reefs.
Xenobiotics  There are only about 6 different coral
species associated in building with
 When corals are exposed to high these reefs. The largest cold-water coral
concentrations of chemical reef is the Rost Reef off Norway.
contaminants like copper, herbicides
and oil, coral bleaching happens. Initiatives To Protect Marine And
Epizootics
Coastal Environments
 Pathogen induced bleaching is Coastal Ocean Monitoring and

different from other sorts of bleaching. Prediction System (COMAPS)
 Most coral diseases cause patchy or  Being implemented from 1991.
whole colony death and sloughing of  Assesses the health of coastal waters
soft tissues, resulting in a white and facilitates management of
skeleton (not to be confused with pollution-related issues.
bleached corals).
Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
Spatial and temporal range of Zone (LOICZ)
coral reef bleaching
 Launched in 1995.
 Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef  Investigates the effects of global change
regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic, on the coastal zone.
eastern Pacific, central and western  Aims to develop, on a scientific basis,
Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, the integrated management of coastal
Red Sea) experienced some degree of environments.
coral bleaching and mortality during
the 1980s. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area
 Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral Management (ICMAM)
moralities were related to non-thermal  Launched in 1998.
disturbances such as storms, aerial
 Aims at integrated management of
exposures during extreme low tides,
coastal and marine areas.
and Acanthaster outbreaks.
 Model plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf
 Coral bleaching accompanied some of
of Kutch being prepared.
the mortality events prior to the 1980s
during periods of elevated sea water Society of Integrated Coastal
temperature, but these disturbances Management (SICOM)
were geographically isolated and
restricted to particular reefs zones.  Launched in 2010.
 In contrast, many of the coral  Major national initiative to protect
bleaching events observed in the 1980s coastal ecosystems.
 A professional body with experts in

various aspects of coastal science and
management was created.
Institutions for Coastal Management
 The Notification on Coastal Regulation Page

Zone (CRZ), 1991 (as amended from
| 13
time to time) aims at protecting coastal
stretches in India.
 India has created institutional
mechanisms such as National Coastal
Zone Management Authority (NCZMA)
and State Coastal Zone Management
Authority (SCZMA) for enforcement and
monitoring of the CRZ Notification.
 These authorities have been delegated
powers under Section 5 of the
Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 to
take various measures for protecting
and improving the quality of the coastal
environment and preventing, abating
and controlling environmental pollution
in coastal areas.
Wetland Ecosystem ................................ 1 Distinction from Lakes

Measures to Protect Wetlands ................. 3  Lakes are generally less important
when compared to wetland from the
Estuarine Ecosystem .............................. 9 viewpoint of ecosystem and biodiversity
conservation. Page
India Estuarine Ecosystem ....................11
 There is no clear distinction between
Mangroves .............................................11 lakes and wetlands. Wetlands are | 1
shallow water bodies whereas lakes
Wetland Ecosystem can be deep or shallow.
 National Lake Conservation Programme
 Wetlands are areas of marsh or (NLCP) considers lakes as standing
peatland with water that is static or water bodies which have a minimum
flowing, fresh, brackish or saline, water depth of 3 m, generally cover a
including areas of marine water the water spread of more than ten
depth of which at low tide does not hectares, and have no or very little
exceed 6 m. aquatic vegetation.
 Wetlands are transition zones  Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep
between terrestrial and aquatic over most of their area) are usually rich
ecosystems. E.g. Mangroves, lake
littorals (marginal areas between
highest and lowest water level of the
lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent
to the river channels beyond the
natural levees and periodically flooded
during high discharge in the river) and
other marshy or swampy areas.
 These habitats experience periodic
flooding from adjacent deep water in nutrients (derived from
habitats and therefore supports plants surroundings and their sediments) and
and animals specifically adapted to have abundant growth of aquatic
such shallow flooding or water logging. macrophytes.
 Waterlogged soil, adapted plant life  They support high densities and
(hydrophytes) and hydric soils (not diverse fauna, particularly birds, fish
enough O2) are the chief and macro invertebrates, and therefore,
characteristics of wetlands. have high value for biodiversity
 India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of conservation.
which 23,444 are inland wetlands and  Excessive growth of macrophytes (both
3,959 are coastal wetlands. submerged and free-floating;
 Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the macrophytes –aquatic plant large
country's area of which 70% are under enough to be seen by the naked eye) in
paddy cultivation. wetlands affects the water quality
 Natural wetlands in India range from adversely and interfere with the
high altitude wetlands in Himalayas; utilization of the water body.
flood plains of the major river systems;  However, marginal aquatic vegetation is
saline and temporary wetlands of the desirable as it checks erosion, serves
arid and semi-arid regions; coastal habitat for wildlife and helps
wetlands such as lagoons, improve water quality.
backwaters, estuaries, mangroves,
swamps and coral reefs, and so on.
Characteristic Lake Wetland (shallow lake)

Origin Largest are due to tectonic Mostly Fluvial, Residual lakes
forces: Fluvial, Geomorphic,
increase in water table, etc.
Water turnover Permanent Permanent or Temporary
Water level changes Relatively small Relatively Large Page
Thermal stratification Yes No
Vertical mixing Thermally regulated Wind regulated |2
Dominant Producer Phytoplankton Macrophytes
Food chain Grazing Pathway Detritus Pathway
Productivity Low High
Trophic status Oligotrophic Mostly Eutrophic
Functions-Flood control Less Significant Significant
Waste treatment No Yes
Importance of Wetlands  Habitat destruction and deforestation
creates ecological imbalance by altering
 Wetlands are indispensable for the the population of wetland species.
countless benefits or “ecosystem  Conversion of wetlands for agriculture
services” that they provide humanity, and encroachment by public and
ranging from freshwater supply, food mafia.
and building materials, and  Over fishing and fish farming (Aqua
biodiversity, to flood control, culture).
groundwater recharge, and climate  Overgrazing in marshy soils.
change mitigation.  Removal of sand from beds near seas
 Wetlands are habitat to aquatic flora makes the wetland vulnerable to wave
and fauna, numerous species of native action and tidal bore.
and migratory birds.
 Wetlands are an important resource for Mitigation
sustainable tourism.
 They carry out water purification,  Demarcation of wetlands using latest
filtration of sediments and nutrients technology, proper enforcement of laws
from surface water. and stringent punishments for
 They help in nutrients recycling, violators.
ground water recharging and  Preventing unsustainable aquaculture
stabilization of local climate.
 Play an important role in flood
mitigation by controlling rate of runoff.
 Buffer (act as riparian buffer)
shorelines against erosion and
pollutants.
 They act as genetic reservoir for various
species of plants (especially rice).
Reasons for depletion

and cultivation of shellfish.
 Excessive pollutants (Industrial  Treating industrial effluents and water
effluents, domestic waste, agricultural from farm lands before discharging into
runoff etc.) are dumped into wetlands wetlands.
beyond the recycling capacity.  Utilizing wetlands on a sustainable
basis by giving enough time for natural
regeneration. Artificial regeneration for groundwater recharge, and climate

quick recovery. change mitigation.
 Afforestation, weed control, preventing  64% of the world’s wetlands have
invasive species is the key to wetland disappeared in the last century.
conservation.
 Preventive measures to stop the What is wetland
Page
introduction of exotic invasive species  The Convention uses a broad definition
like water hyacinth. |3
of wetlands. It includes all lakes and
 Soil conservation measures & rivers, underground aquifers, swamps
afforestation. Preventing grazing in and marshes, wet grasslands, peatland,
peripherals of wetlands. oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats,
 Wildlife conservation, sustainable mangroves and other coastal areas,
tourism, eco-tourism and sensitizing coral reefs, and all human-made sites
local populace. such as fish ponds, rice paddies,
 Eutrophication abatement by reservoirs and salt pans.
processing nutrient rich discharge into
the water body. COP
 Involving local population in the
conservation of wetlands.  Conference of the Parties (COP) is the
Convention's governing body consisting
Measures to Protect Wetlands of all governments that have ratified
the treaty.
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands  Every three years, representatives of
the Contracting Parties meet as the
 International treaty for “the Conference of the Contracting Parties
conservation and sustainable use of (COP)
wetlands”.  COP is the policy-making organ of the
 It is also known as the Convention on Convention which adopts decisions
Wetlands. (Resolutions and Recommendations) to
 It is named after the city of Ramsar in administer the work of the Convention.
Iran.  The most recent COP12 was held in
 The Convention was signed on 2nd of Punta del Este, Uruguay in 2015.
February, 1971. COP13 will take place in Dubai,
 The 2nd of February each year is World United Arab Emirates, in 2018.
Wetlands Day. Under the Convention, the Contracting
 Number of parties to the convention Parties commit to:
(COP) is169.
 At the center of the Ramsar philosophy  Work towards the wise use of all their
is the “wise use” of wetlands. wetlands;
 Wise use: maintenance of ecological  Designate suitable wetlands for the List
character within the context of of Wetlands of International Importance
sustainable development. (the “Ramsar List”) and ensure their
effective management;
Need for Such Convention  Cooperate internationally on trans
 Wetlands are indispensable for the boundary wetlands, shared wetland
countless benefits or “ecosystem systems and shared species.
services” that they provide humanity, Ramsar Site
ranging from freshwater supply, food
and building materials, and
biodiversity, to flood control,
 At the time of joining the Convention, Answer: a)

each Contracting Party undertakes to
designate at least one wetland site for International Organization Partners
inclusion in the List of Wetlands of  The Ramsar Convention works closely
International Importance. with six other organizations known as
 The inclusion of a “Ramsar Site” in the International Organization Partners Page
List embodies the government’s (IOPs). These are:
commitment to take the steps |4
1. Birdlife International
necessary to ensure that its ecological 2. International Union for
character is maintained. Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
 The List of Wetlands of International 3. International Water
Importance included 2,231 Ramsar Management Institute (IWMI)
Sites in March 2016. 4. Wetlands International
 The country with the highest number of 5. WWF
Sites is the United Kingdom with 170 6. International Wildfowl &
 The country with the greatest area of Wetlands Trust (WWT)
listed wetlands is Bolivia.
Other Partners
The Montreux Record
 Convention on Biological Diversity
 The Montreux Record is a register of (CBD)
wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of  Convention to Combat Desertification
International Importance where (UNCCD),
changes in ecological character have  Convention on the Conservation of
occurred, are occurring, or are likely to Migratory Species of Wild Animals
occur as a result of technological  Convention on Migratory Species
developments, pollution or other (CMS),
human interference. It is maintained as  World Heritage Convention (WHC) and
part of the Ramsar List.
 Convention on International Trade in
Q1. If a wetland of international Endangered Species (CITES).
importance is brought under the
Project funding is done by various groups
‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply?
like multilateral development banks,
a) Changes in ecological character bilateral donors, UN agencies such as
have occurred, are occurring or are UNEP, UNDP, Non-governmental
likely to occur in the wetland as a organizations etc.
result of human interference.
Transboundary Ramsar Sites
b) The country in which the wetland is
located should enact a law to  Contracting Parties are designating
prohibit any human activity within their new and existing Ramsar Sites as
five kilo meters from the edge of the Transboundary Ramsar Sites.
wetland  These are ecologically coherent, shared
c) The survival of the wetland depends wetlands extending across national
on the cultural practices and borders, which are managed
traditions of certain communities collaboratively.
living in its vicinity and therefore the
cultural diversity therein should not Criteria for Identification of Wetlands
be destroyed under Ramsar Convention
d) It is given the status of ‘World
Heritage Site’
 If it contains a representative, rare, or  Consists of the two lakes, Bhojtal and

unique example of a natural or near- Lower Lake, located in Bhopal in
natural wetland type. Madhya Pradesh state,
 if it supports vulnerable, endangered,  Chandra Taal
or critically endangered species; or  Situated in the Spiti valley of the Lahul
threatened ecological communities. and Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh Page
 If it supports populations of plant  Chilika Lake
and/or animal species important for  Spread over the Puri district, Khurda | 5
maintaining the biological diversity of a district and Ganjam districts of Odisha
particular biogeographic region. at the mouth of the Daya River, flows
 If it supports plant and/or animal into the Bay of Bengal – 116500
species at a critical stage in their life hectares
cycles, or provides refuge during  Deepor Beel
adverse conditions.  East Calcutta Wetlands
 If it regularly supports 20,000 or more  Harike Wetland
water birds.  Hokersar Wetland
 If it regularly supports 1% of the  Located at the northwest Himalayan
individuals in a population of one biogeopgraphic province of Kashmir,
species or subspecies of water birds. back of the snow-draped Pir Panchal.
 If it supports a significant proportion of  Kanjli Wetland
indigenous fish subspecies  Keoladeo National Park
 If it is an important source of food for  Kolleru Lake – 90100 hectares
fishes, spawning ground, nursery  Loktak Lake
and/or migration path.  Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary
 If it is an important source of food and  Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird
water resource, increased possibilities Sanctuary
for recreation and eco-tourism, etc.  Pong Dam Lake
Ramsar Sites in India  Renuka Lake
 Ropar
 Ashtamudi Wetland  Rudrasagar Lake
 A chain of brackish Kerala backwaters  Sambhar Lake
lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the  Sasthamkotta Lake
Arabian Sea Malabar Coast of Kerala  Surinsar-Mansar Lakes
 Bhitarkanika Mangroves  Tsomoriri
 India's second largest mangrove are  Upper Ganga River
home of Olive Ridley Turtle in India's  Vembanad-Kol Wetland – 151250
Odisha state in the Brahmani river and hectares
Baitarani river delta  Wular Lake
 Bhoj Wetland
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Pic Credits:
http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/images/indiamap.jpg
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Pic Credits:
http://www.livemint.com/r/LiveMint/Period1/2014/09/11/Ph
otos/g-under-threat.jpg
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engagement with governments,

Credits: http://gangapedia.in/?q=hi/content/wetlands-india corporate and international policy fora
and conventions.
Wetlands International
Q1. With reference to a conservation
 Wetlands International is a global organization called ‘Wetlands
organization (NGO) that works to International’, which of the following
sustain and restore wetlands and their statements is/are correct?
resources for people and biodiversity.
1) It is an intergovernmental
 It is an independent, not-for-profit
organization formed by the
organization, supported by government
countries which are signatories to
and NGO membership from around the
Ramsar Convention.
world.
2) It works at the field level to develop
 Wetlands International's work ranges
and mobilize knowledge, and use
from research, advocacy and
the practical experience to advocate  The Central Government is

for better policies. responsible for overall coordination of
wetland conservation programmes.
Select the correct answer using the code  It also provides guidelines, financial &
given below. technical assistance to state govt.
a) 1 only  Since the land resources belong to Page
b) 2 only them, the State Governments/UT
c) Both 1 and 2 Administration are responsible for | 9
d) Neither 1 nor 2 management of wetlands.
Answer: b) 2 only. Wetlands Estuarine Ecosystem

International is an NGO
 An estuary is a place where a river or a
National Wetlands Conservation stream opens into the sea (mouth of
Programme (NWCP) the river).
 It is a partially enclosed coastal area of
 NWCP was implemented in the year brackish water (salinity varies between
1985-86. 0-35 ppt) with one or more rivers or
 Under the programme, 115 wetlands streams flowing into it, and with a free
have been identified by the MoEF connection to the open sea.
which require urgent conservation and  At the estuaries, fresh water carrying
management interventions. fertile silt and runoff from the land
 Criteria for identification of wetlands of mixes with the salty sea water.
national importance under NWCP are  Estuaries form a transition zone
same as those prescribed under the (ecotone) between river environments
‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’. and maritime environments.
 Examples of estuaries are river
Aim mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes,
lagoons and deltas.
 Conservation of wetlands to prevent
their further degradation and ensuring  Estuaries are formed due to rise in sea
their wise use for the benefit of local level, movement of sand and sandbars,
communities and overall conservation glacial processes and tectonic
of biodiversity. processes.
 All the plants and animals in the
Objectives estuaries are subjected to variations in
salinity to which they are adapted
 to lay down policy guidelines for (osmoregulation).
conservation and management of  Estuaries are greatly influenced by
wetlands. tidal action. They are periodically
 to provide financial assistance for washed by sea water once or twice a
undertaking intensive conservation day based on the number of tides.
measures.  In some narrow estuaries, tidal bores
 to monitor implementation of the are significant. Tidal bores cause great
programme. damage to the estuarine ecology.
 to prepare an inventory of Indian
wetlands. Importance of Estuaries
Federal management  They are the most productive (more
productive than wetlands) water bodies
in the world because of the mixing of
fresh water and saline water zone are ideal locations for the construction
where marine organisms of both the of ports and harbours.
ecosystems meet.  The banks of estuarine channels form a
favored location for human settlements,
Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like which use the estuaries for fishing and
mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, commerce, but nowadays also for Page
grasslands etc. have far greater dumping civic and industrial waste.
productivity compared to natural | 10
ecosystems like forest ecosystem, ocean Differences between Lagoon and
ecosystem, pond ecosystem, riverine Estuary
ecosystem, desert ecosystem etc.. This is
because of the wide ranging species from  A lagoon is a stretch of salt water
the adjacent ecosystems being present in separated from the sea by a low
the ecotone. sandbank or coral reef.
 Also, an estuary has very little wave  Backwaters in Kerala are mostly
action, so it provides a calm refuge lagoons where sea water flows inwards
from the open sea and hence becomes through a small inlet that is open
ideal for the survival of numerous towards the sea.
aquatic species.  The main difference
 Estuaries are most heavily populated between lagoons and estuaries is in the
areas throughout the world, with about flow dynamics of the water bodies:
60% of the world's population living in estuaries, the water flows fast and
along estuaries and the coast. strong, while in lagoons the water is
more shallow and flows sluggishly.
 The vast mangrove forests on the sea
ward side of an estuary act as barrier  Estuaries are usually deeper
for the costal habitat to check the wind than lagoons. Also, lagoons mostly
speed during cyclones and high velocity don’t have any fresh water source while
landward winds. the estuaries have at least one.
Lagoons more saline than estuaries.
 Mangroves act as a filter trapping
suspended mud and sand carried by  Lagoons are formed due to fall in sea
rivers which leads to delta formations levels (coastline of emergence. E.g.
around estuaries. Kerala Coast) whereas estuaries are
mostly formed due to rise in sea levels
 Precipitation of clay and alluvium
(coastline of submergence. E.g. Konkan
particles in estuarine region is high
coast)
because of the exposure to saline water
(saline water precipitates fine Estuarine Vegetation
alluvium).
 Estuaries store and recycle Nutrients,  Only certain types of plants and
traps sediment and forms a buffer animals specially adapted to the
between coastal catchments and the "brackish" estuarine waters flourish in
marine environment. the estuaries.
 They also absorb, trap and detoxify  Factors influencing the growth and
pollutants, acting as a natural water distribution of organism in an estuary
filter. are its salinity and the amount of
 Estuaries with their wetlands, creeks, flooding.
lagoons, mangroves and sea-grass beds  Estuaries support diverse habitats,
are rich in natural resources including such as mangroves, salt marshes, sea-
fisheries. grass, mudflats etc.
 They are deep and well protected from
marine transgressions and hence they
 Estuaries are very dynamic and (Eg: Hooghly, Narmada, Krishna,

productive ecosystems since the river Godavari, Pulicat etc.)
flow, tidal range and sediment  Pollution through industries and
distribution is continuously changing combined city sewage discharge.
in them.  Recreational boating and fishing.
 In general the phytoplanktons of  Navigation, dredging and shipping (e.g. Page
estuaries are diatoms, dinoflagellates, Hooghly)
green algae, blue-green algae.  Expansion of urban and rural | 11
 Towards the sea coast of the estuaries settlements, mining & industries,
there are large algae and sea grasses. agriculture and dumping of solid
Near the mouth of the rivers and deltas wastes
there are mangrove forests.  Over exploitation of target fish stock
 Estuaries are homes to all kind of due to increased demand.
terrestrial or land-based plants and  Reclaiming the fringed areas for
animals, such as wood storks, pelicans, intensive aquaculture in pens.
coniferous and deciduous trees and  Obstructing the migratory routes of fish
butterflies. and prawn recruitment (e.g., Chilka,
 Estuaries are also homes to unique Pulicat)
aquatic plants and animals, such as  Polluting the environment through
sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, feeding of stocked fish and prawn in
saltworts, eelgrass, saltgrasses, pens (Chilka)
cordgrasses, sea grass, sedge, bulrush  Destruction of biodiversity through
etc.. prawn seed collection and operation of
small-meshed nets (e.g., Hooghly,
India Estuarine Ecosystem Chilka, Pulicat)
 Submergence of catchment areas due
 The Country has 14 major, 44 medium to rise in water level.
and 162 minor rivers drains into the
sea through various estuaries. Mangroves
 Major estuaries occur in the Bay of
Bengal. Many estuaries are locations of  Mangroves represent a characteristic
some of the major seaports. littoral (near the sea shore) forest
 Most of the India's major estuaries ecosystem.
occur on the east coast. In contrast,  These are mostly evergreen forests
the estuaries on the west coast are that grow in sheltered low lying coasts,
smaller (In environmental studies, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks
deltas are considered as sub sections of backwaters (coastal waters held back
estuaries). on land), marshes and lagoons of
 Two typical examples of estuaries on tropical and subtropical regions.
the west coast are the Mandovi and  Mangroves grow below the high water
Zuari estuaries. level of spring tides. The best locations
are where abundant silt is brought
Issues of Indian Estuarine down by rivers or on the backshore of
Ecosystem accreting sandy beaches.
 Mangroves are highly productive
 Modifications of the estuarine ecosystems and the trees may vary in
catchments results in changes in water height from 8 to 20 m. They protect the
flow in various estuaries, either far in shoreline from the effect of cyclones
excess or much lower than required and tsunamis.
 They are breeding and spawning  Adventitious roots which emerged from
ground for many commercially the main trunk of a tree above ground
important fishes. level are called stilt roots.
 Since mangroves are located between  Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of
the land and sea they represent the reproduction. i.e. seeds germinate in
best example of ecotone. the tree itself (before falling to the Page
 Mangroves are shrubs or small trees ground).
that grow in coastal saline or brackish  This is an adaptive mechanism to | 12
water. overcome the problem of germination in
 Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also saline water.
called halophytes, and are adapted to
life in harsh coastal conditions. Mangroves in India
 Mangrove vegetation facilitates more
water loss. Leaves are thick and
contain salt secreting glands. Some
block absorption of salt at their roots
itself.
 They contain a complex salt filtration
system and complex root system to
cope with salt water immersion and
wave action.
 They are adapted to the low oxygen
(anoxic) conditions of waterlogged
mud.
 They produces pneumatophores (blind
roots) to overcome respiration problem
in the anaerobic soil conditions.
 Mangroves occur worldwide in the
tropics and subtropics, mainly between
latitudes 25° N and 25° S.
 They require high solar radiation to
filter saline water through their roots.
This explains why mangroves are
confined to only tropical and sub-
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x8080e/x808
0e20.jpg
tropical coastal waters.
 Mangroves occur in a variety of
configurations. Some species (e.g.
Rhizophora) send arching prop roots
down into the water. While other (e.g.
Avicennia) send vertical
“Pneumatophores” or air roots up
from the mud.
 The mangroves of Sundarbans are the  On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
largest single block of tidal holophytic the small tidal estuaries, neritic inlets
mangroves of the world. and the lagoons support a dense and
 The major species of this dense diverse undisturbed mangrove flora.
mangrove forest include Herritiera
fames, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera Importance of Mangroves
Page
spp., Ceriops decandra, Sonneratia
spp. and Avicennia spp., Nypa  Mangrove plants have (additional) | 13
fruticans are found along the creeks. special roots such as prop roots,
 This mangrove forest is famous for the pneumatophores which help to impede
Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles. water flow and thereby enhance the
Mangrove areas here are being cleared deposition of sediment in areas (where
for agricultural use. it is already occurring), stabilize the
 The mangroves of Bhitarkanika coastal shores, provide breeding
(Orissa), which is the second largest in ground for fishes.
the Indian sub-continent, harbour high  Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal
concentration of typical mangrove floods and reduce inundation of coastal
species and high genetic diversity. lowlands.
 Mangrove swamps occur in profusion  They prevents coastal soil erosion.
in the intertidal mudflats on both side  They protects coastal lands from
of the creeks in the Godavari-Krishna tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.  Mangroves enhance natural recycling of
 Mangroves of Pichavaram and nutrients.
Vedaranyam are degraded mainly due  Mangrove supports numerous flora,
to construction of aquaculture ponds avifauna and wild life.
and salt pans.  Provide a safe and favorable
 On the west coast of India, mangroves, environment for breeding, spawning,
mostly scrubby and degraded occur rearing of several fishes.
along the intertidal region of estuaries  They supplies woods, fire wood,
and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and medicinal plants and edible plants to
Karnataka. local people.
 The mangrove vegetation in the coastal  They provides numerous employment
zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin. opportunities to local communities and
 In Gujarat (north-west coast) augments their livelihood.
mangroves Avicennia marine, Avicennia
officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata Threats
are found mainly in Gulf of Kachchh
and the Kori creek.  They are destroyed for conversion of
 Mangroves are of scrubby type with area for agricultural purpose, fuel,
stunted growth, forming narrow, fodder and, salinization, mining, oil
discontinuous patches on soft clayey spills, aqua cultural (shrimp farming),
mud. use of chemical pesticides & fertilizers,
industrial purposes.
 The condition of the mangroves is
improving especially in the Kori creek Q2. Which one of the following is the
region, which is a paleodelta of the correct sequence of ecosystems in the
Indus river. order of decreasing productivity?
 In size, mangroves range from bushy
stands of dwarf mangroves found in a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands,
Gulf of Kuchchh, to taller stands found mangroves
in the Sunderbans.
b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, negligible. Aphotic zone in oceans is few

lakes kilometers).
c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes,
oceans Also surface water in oceans are very poor
d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, in nutrients. Nutrient rich cold water flows
grasslands as a sub-surface flow lying in the aphotic
zone. Sunlight and nutrients are far apart Page
Explanation: and hence primary productivity is very low | 14
except in regions where there is upwelling
Productivity = production/unit area/unit of nutrient rich cold water [Cold and
time Warm current mixing zones].
Production/unit area depends on number So open ocean ecosystem has the least
and diversity of producers. productivity. [Desert ecosystem also has
very low productivity, lesser than oceans].
From the topics discussed in this post, we
can say that transitional zones (Ecotones) So, the answer will look like Mangroves,
have very high productivity compared to ………., ………, Oceans.
normal ecosystems. [Tropical Rainforests
is an exception as it has productivity The only such option is c)
comparable to wetlands because of its rich
diversity of primary producers] Answer: c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes,
oceans.
In the options, mangroves are transitional
ecosystems while the rest are normal Lakes just like oceans have low
ecosystems. productivity. But due to some plants in
photic zone, lakes have productivity
Remember: Grasslands are not slightly greater than that of oceans.
transitional all the time. E.g. Steppe. Non
transitional grasslands have very low
productivity because of very limited
diversity of primary producers.
[Grasslands become transitional only
when they are narrow]
So the order of decreasing productivity will

be like
Mangroves ,…… , …… , ……..
Oceans = very deep and hence

productivity is limited to surface only
(Below in the aphotic zone productivity is
Page
| 15
Environmental Degradation .................... 1  Secondary air pollutants formed from

complex reactions between primary
Soil erosion ............................................ 2 pollutants, such as smog and acid rain.
 Habitat fragmentation and
Desertification ........................................ 6 destruction: Industrialization and
associated infrastructure development Page
Environmental Issues in Himalayas ........ 7
has led to the destruction of habitats of
many species. |1
Human Modified Ecosystems and
 Hazardous waste/Toxic substances:
Environmental Degradation ...................10 Use of various type of chemicals today
have serious health implications.
Environmental Degradation Incidence of cancer, genetic mutations
and damage to nervous, immune and
 Environmental degradation is making hormonal systems.
the environment unfit or less suitable  Invasive populations: Introduction of
for the survival of different life forms new alien species or non-native species
thereby causing immense ecological reduces the populations growth of
damage. native species.
 Population explosion, urbanization and  Stress due to over harvesting:
associated increase in human needs Overgrazing by livestock results in soil
and comforts have resulted in rapid erosion and loss of productivity.
industrialization. Similarly over harvesting of edible
 Rapid industrialization in turn led to fishes reduces population and may
overexploitation of natural resources. become completely extinct if the over
 The consequences of such exploitation fishing continues for long.
are evident in the form of soil erosion,  Global warming: Increasing use of
desertification, loss of biodiversity, fossil fuels is a leading cause of
pollution of land, air and water bodies. increasing levels of CO2 and other
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Major Causes of Environmental  Over exploitation of natural resources:
Degradation Rapidly growing population results in
over exploitation of resources. Over
 Air/water/soil pollution: Gaseous exploitation and introduction of a new
pollutants: Oxides of carbon, nitrogen or genetically modified species reduce
and sulphur. the productivity of natural ecosystems.
 Particulate matter: Fine metal dust, fly  Deforestation, over grazing, intensive
ash, soot, cotton dust and radioactive cultivation, over irrigation etc. results
substances. in the loss of top soil and fertility of the
 Burning of plastics: Emit poly land. Prolonged degradation of land
chlorinated biphenyles (PCBs). leads to desertification.
 Industrial and domestic effluents:
Pathogens, heavy metals in water Consequences of Environmental
bodies and soil. Degradation
 Industrial catastrophes: Accidental
release of some poisonous gases like  Increased sensitivity to diseases:
phosgene (COCl2) and methyl Cultivated species of plants, fishes and
isocynate (as it happened in Bhopal) other domesticated animals have
were fatal. become increasingly sensitive to pest
and diseases.
 Genetic resistance: An increased use
of insecticides, pesticides and
antibiotics has speeded up directional Water Erosion

natural selection and caused genetic
resistance in pathogens.  Running water is one of the main
 Effect on nutrient recycling: Use of agents, which carries away soil
fertilizers in agricultural fields particles.
interferes with the natural  Soil erosion by water occurs by means Page
biogeochemical cycles. of raindrops, waves or ice.
 Loss of biodiversity: Habitat  Soil erosion by water is termed | 2
destruction and habitat fragmentation differently according to the intensity
are threatening the survival of many and nature of erosion.
endangered species.  (i) Raindrop erosion (ii) Sheet erosion
 Climate change/global warming: Air (iii) Rill erosion (iv) Steam banks
pollution is making the plant erosion (v) Erosion due to landslides (vi)
inhospitable due to events like global Coastal erosion.
warming, acid rain, ocean acidification
etc. Raindrop erosion
 Melting of ice caps and glaciers/Sea
level change: Global warming is  Raindrops falling on land surface cause
posing serious threat to Himalayan and detachment of the soil particles. The
polar ecosystems by melting snow at a loose soil particles are washed away by
faster rate. Rise in sea level in future is flowing water.
a serious threat to costal landforms.  An average size of raindrop is
 Depletion of water resources: Water approximately 5 mm in diameter falling
pollution has created tremendous through the air hits the soil at a
scarcity of quality water resources. velocity of 32 km/hr.
 Desertification: Lot of arable land is  Larger raindrops and gusts of wind hit
converted to waste land due to erosion, the soil surface even at higher
salinity and loss of fertility. velocities.
 Change in weather patterns: The  Raindrops behave like tiny bombs
incidence of extreme weather events when falling on exposed soil, displace
and change in weather patterns have soil particles and destroy soil structure.
become common due to environmental  Presence of vegetation on land prevents
degradation. raindrops from falling directly on the
soil thus erosion of soil in areas
Many more covered by vegetation is prevented.
 With continued rainfall the displaced
Soil erosion soil particles fill in the spaces between
soil particles and so prevent water from
 Soil erosion is the loosening and seeping into the soil.
displacement of topsoil particles from  After some time this result in
the land. accumulation of water called ‘ponding’
on the land. This water begins to flow.
Pace Of Soil Erosion
This flowing water is called runoff. As
 Soil erosion in nature may be the water moves it erodes the soil
(a) a slow process (or geological erosion) surface.
or
Sheet erosion
(b) a fast process promoted by
deforestation, floods, tornadoes or  The detachment and transportation of
other human activities. These two soil particles by flowing rainwater is
processes are explained below: called sheet or wash off erosion. This is
very slow process and often remain Consequences of water erosion

unnoticed.
 The fine particles of the topsoil which
Rill erosion contain the bulk of nutrients and
organic matter needed by the plants
are lost from soil erosion. Erosion
Page
removes the most fertile part of soil.
The less fertile subsoil is left. |3
 Erosion may result in removal of seeds
or seedlings so that the soil becomes
 In rill erosion finger like rills appear on bare. Bare soil is more vulnerable to
the cultivated land after it has erosion both by wind and water.
undergone sheet erosion. These rills  Removal of seeds and seedlings reduces
are usually smoothened out every year the ability of soil to store water.
while forming. Each year the rills  Sheet, rill, gully and stream bank
slowly increase in number become erosion also cause siltation of rivers,
wider and deeper. When rills increase streams and fields. Deposition of silt
in size they are called gullies. Ravines results in damage of crops and
are deep gullies. pastures, and sedimentation of water
bodies like streams, dams, reservoirs
Stream bank erosion
etc.
 The erosion of soil from the banks  Sedimentation of water bodies
(shores) of the streams or rivers due to deteriorate water quality and damage
the flowing water is called bank aquatic habitats and organisms.
erosion.  Gully erosion also results in loss of
 In certain areas where river changes its large
course, the river banks get eroded at a
rapid rate. Stream bank erosion
damages the adjoining agricultural
lands, highways and bridges.
Landslide
 Sudden mass movement of soil is called

landslide. Landslides occur due to volumes of soil. Wider deep gullies
instability or loss of balance of land sometimes reach 30 m and thus
mass with respect to gravity. severely limit land use.
 Loss in balance occurred mainly due to  Large gullies disrupt normal farm
excessive water or moisture in the operation.
earth mass.  Stream bank erosion not only causes
 Gravity acts on such an unstable loss of land, but also changes the
landmass and causes the large chunks course
of surface materials such as soil and of a
rocks slide down rapidly. river or
stream.
Coastal erosion  Stream
banks
 Coastal erosion of soil occurs along sea
erosion
shores. It is caused by the wave action
also
of the sea and the inward movement of
damage
the sea into the land.
public roads. particles. (iii) Surface creep:

 Mass movement of land or landslides transported at ground level by high
also inhibits farm production and land velocity winds.
use.
 It also causes mortality in animals and Consequences of wind erosion
humans.
 Wind erosion removes the finer soil Page
 Coastal erosion causes the adjourning
material including organic matter, clay | 4
land to become covered by sand.
and slit, in a suspension (colloidal)
Prevention of water erosion form and leaving behind coarser, less
fertile material.
 It is essential to retain vegetation cover  Productive capacity of the soil is lost as
that soil is not exposed to rain. most of the plant nutrients which
 Plants intercept rainfall and protect soil remain attached smaller colloidal soil
from direct impact of raindrops. fraction are lost.
 Cattle grazing should be controlled.  Wind erosion also damages roads and
 Crop rotation and keeping the land fertile agricultural fields by depositing
fallow (not planting anything in the soil large quantities of air blown soil
for some time) should be adopted. particles.
 Vegetation and soil management
Prevention of wind erosion
should be improved in order to increase
soil organic matter.  The vegetation cover over sandy soils
 To prevent stream bank erosion runoff should be kept above 30%.Access of
water should be stored in the wind to the soil should be controlled by
catchment for as possible by leaving the stubble or mulch on the
maintaining vegetation cover and as by soil. (Stubble is the remains of crop left
constructing dams for storing water. after harvesting).
 For prevention or reduction of coastal  Wind speed can be broken or controlled
erosion, protective vegetation along the by planting trees in form of a shelter
beaches should be re-established. belt.
 The best method of controlling coastal  The practice of leaving the land fallow
dune erosion is not to disturb the (i.e. not planting anything in the field)
dunes and the coastal system. and use of machinery should be
 Further, construction of buildings and modified. This can be done by using
other development should be located direct- drilling techniques (ploughing
behind the dune system. the field) and by using direct-drilling
techniques.
Wind erosion  Over grazing by cattle should be
avoided.
 Soil erosion by wind is more common
in areas where the natural vegetation Soil Erosion Caused By Human
has been destroyed. Such conditions
Activities
occur mainly in arid and dry areas
along the sandy shores of oceans, lakes Deforestation
and rivers.
 The loose soil particles are blown and  Deforestation includes cutting and
transported from wind by following felling of trees, removal of forest litter.
three ways: (i) Siltation: blown by wind  Browsing and trampling by livestock,
in a series of short bounces. (ii) forest fires, also leads to cause
Suspension: transported over long deforestation etc.
distances in the form of suspended
 Deforestation leads to erosion. disruption of the delicate soil plant

Deforestation further leads to land relationship.
degradation, nutrient and the
Page
|5
 Agriculture also causes the worst type

of soil erosion on farmland in the form
Farming of wash-off or sheet erosion.
 On the arid and semiarid areas, sand
 Crops are grown, harvested, land is
blows and sand shifts act in a similar
ploughed and is exposed to wind. All
fashion as sheet erosion does, where
this prevents replenishment of
water is the chief agent. Consequently,
moisture.
a creeping effect of desertification sets
in and the fertility of the land is lost Economic activities

progressively.
 Soil erosion also occurs due to
The following agricultural practices can economic activities. The extraction of
lead to accelerated soil erosion useful natural resources such as
metals, minerals and fossil fuels etc.,
 Tilling or ploughing increases the Page
from the land causes serious
chances of erosion because it disturbs
disturbance to the land leading to soil | 6
the natural soil surface and protective
erosion and drastic changes in the
vegetation. landscape.
 Continuous cropping: Continuous
cropping of the same land and Developmental activities
extending of cultivation of marginal and
sub-marginal lands encourages soil  Soil erosion may also occur because of
erosion. various developmental activities such
 Cultivation on mountain slopes: as housing, transport, communication,
Cultivation on mountain slopes without recreation, etc.
appropriate land treatment measures  Building construction also promotes
such as bounding, terracing and soil erosion because accelerated soil
trenching cause soil erosion and loss of erosion takes place during construction
soil nutrients. of houses, roads, rail tracks etc.
 Monoculture: Monoculture refers to  The construction of such facilities
the practice of planting of the same causes massive disturbance to land,
variety of crop in the field. resulting in soil erosion and disruption
 Monoculture practices can lead to soil of natural drainage system.
erosion in three ways.
1. A monoculture crop is harvested all Soil degradation and soil conservation are
at one time, which leaves the entire already explained under “Indian
fields bare exposing it to both water Geography”
and wind.
2. Without vegetation natural rainfall
Desertification
is not retained by the soil and flows
 Desertification is diminution of the
rapidly over the surface rather than
biological potential of the land which
into the ground. It also carries away
ultimately leads to the formation of
the top soil which results in soil
desert.
erosion and degradation.
 The land that has lost its productivity
3. In the event any disease or pest
(ability to grow plants) is called a
invades the field , the entire crop is
desert.
usually wiped out leaving the bare
soil susceptible to water and wind.  A desert landscape supports a very
limited growth of sparse vegetation and
Overgrazing stunted growth of plants.
 Substantial part of earth’s terrestrial
 It means too many animals are allowed area is facing desertification due to
to feed on a piece of grassland. overexploitation and mismanage of
Trampling and grazing by cattle land resources for human activities.
destroys the vegetation of the area. Some of the principal causes, which
 In the absence of adequate vegetative promote desertification, are: over
cover the land becomes highly cultivation, overgrazing, deforestation,
susceptible to both wind and water and salt accumulation due to
erosion. irrigation.
Over Cultivation that have little access to natural water

bodies.
 Every cycle of cultivation is preceded by  The water is supplied to these growing
ploughing to remove weeds. The areas by artificial means and improved
ploughed land turns soil upside down irrigation methods. Such water brings
thus exposing rich sub-soil to wind and salts dissolved in it. Page
water erosion.  Even the best quality of irrigation water
 Such land may remain barren for most contain 200-500 ppm of salts. Water | 7
part of the year and in turn lose more used for irrigation is lost from
soil due to erosion. Such erosion is agriculture field through evaporation
most pronounced on slopes. and transpiration by crop plant. The
 Moreover, in regions where rainfall is water gets evaporated but the dissolved
low, the soil is often dry and is more salt keeps on accumulating which
susceptible to erosion. Ploughed soil makes the soils more salty.
loses more water by evaporation.  Saline accumulation retards plant
growth. Land devoid of plant cover
Overgrazing
easily becomes desertified.
 Deserts receive less rainfall. Deserts  Accumulation of excessive salt in soil
have sparse vegetation mostly or salinization makes the soil unfit for
consisting of grasses and herbs less agriculture.
and best used for grazing. Environmental Issues in
 Overgrazing by goats, domestic cattle
remove the protective vegetation and
Himalayas
expose the soil. Further the movement
of grazing animals loosen the soil Importance of Himalayan Region
surface by their hoofs.
 The Indian Himalayan Region has wide
 Unprotected loose soil becomes highly
ranging ecological and socioeconomic
susceptible to erosion by wind and
significance.
water. Such conditions leads to
progressive desertification. Ecological Services
 Natural water reservoir that feeds

Deforestation several perennial rivers.
 With wide ranging natural vegetation, it
 Forests and vegetation prevent soil acts as a giant ‘carbon sink’.
erosion and to hold water in soil. Plant  It is one of the most important regions
roots absorb and recycle nutrients of rich biodiversity, especially the
released from the decaying organic eastern Himalayan region which is a
matter. global biodiversity hotspot. It is
 Forests are often cleared to agriculture, storehouse of endemic species.
timber, construction wood, firewood,
raw material for paper etc. All this Role in Indian climate
leads to barrenness of the land leading
 The Himalayan region acts as a barrier
to desertification.
to the south-west monsoon winds
Salting due to Irrigation causing copious rainfall (orographic
rainfall) in the foothill and the Ganga-
 With demand for more land for Brahmaputra plain region. Without out
agriculture, crops are grown in areas Himalayas, this region would have been
a desert.
 It stops the cold waves from central courses which cause flash floods in wet
Asia, China and Siberian Russia from season.
entering India.
Hydroelectric power projects
Economic importance
 Hydroelectric power projects are a
 Himalayan region is ideal for serious cause of concern. Their Page
hydroelectric power generation. construction has weakened the | 8
 With the most beautiful landscapes on structural stability of the steep slopes
earth, the Himalayan region is a great causing landslides.
tourist destination.  Tunnel drilling has created new
 Himalayas are well known for their unnatural water courses that cause
cultural tourism. more soil erosion and makes the
stratum highly unstable increasing the
Degradation of Himalayan risk of landslides.
Environment  Change of river courses causes
accumulation of debris in new sites
 The Himalayan region, with its young which increase the chances of flash
and unstable topography, is one of the floods in the wet season.
most fragile ecosystems on earth.
 It has recently gained notice for its Urbanization to meet tourism demands
‘vulnerability’ due to various
 Thriving tourist industry has created
unsustainable economic and
great demand for lodging facilities.
developmental activities such as
Buildings are constructed
unchecked tourism and
indiscriminately by flouting rules.
mountaineering, hydroelectric power
General non-compliance with
projects, indiscriminate urbanization
prescribed norms and guidelines has
etc..
become very common.
Biotic pressure  The natural sites for these illegal
constructions are river banks, dried
 Population explosion has resulted in and old river courses and moderately
high biotic pressure by putting strain sloped regions.
on natural resources.  During wet seasons, landslides become
 Many species are now threatened due common along sloped regions that are
to habitat destruction and habitat affected by construction. The debris
fragmentation caused by anthropogenic from the construction sites block the
activities. river courses causing flash floods. All
 Man-animal conflict: snow Leopards these cause a great damage to the
are hunted to save livestock. fragile ecology.
Pollution and solid waste Infrastructure development
 Air pollution due to increase in vehicle  Growing population, thriving tourism,

density; water pollution and soil military (security) needs have led to
pollution due to domestic sewage are rapid construction of roads, and
making the region more vulnerable. railways on the Himalayan slopes.
 Indiscriminate solid waste dumping as  Instability caused by infrastructure
a result of urbanization and tourism development is evident in numerous
development have resulted in landslides that occur in along the
accumulation of debris along the water slopes in the region.
Cultural/Pilgrimage Tourism are moving further up the slopes. They

lose their normal pray and hence
 The Himalayas is known to be a home struggle to survive. Their natural
of saints, destination of pilgrimage habitat turns hostile leading to
since time immemorial. extinction of many critical species.
 For example, Badrinath, Kedarnath,
Initiatives to save Himalayan Page
Gangotri-Yamunotri and Hemkund
Sahib in Uttarakhand, Manimahesh, Environment |9
Jwala Devi, Chintpurni, Naina Devi in
Himachal Pradesh and Vaishnav Devi Ban on Plastic in HP
and Amarnath in Jammu & Kashmir,
Khecheopalri and other sacred lakes in  State government enacted the
Sikkim are particularly important Himachal Pradesh Non-Biodegradable
destinations. Garbage (Control) Act, 1995 in order to
 Unfortunately, most of these places prevent throwing or depositing non-
lack adequate facilities of transport, biodegradable garbage in public drains,
accommodation, waste disposal and roads.
other amenities for the ever growing  It has then increased the minimum
number of pilgrims that visit them thickness of plastic carry bags to 70
every year. microns of virgin material, which
 Also, there is a gross lack of regulatory exceeded the 20 micron thickness
mechanism for infrastructure creation, recommended by Central Rules.
management, and for controlling the  Further, the state Government has
tourist inflow in such sites. taken a Cabinet decision to ban
 As a result the sensitive ecosystems plastics altogether in the entire state
and cultural values of these areas are since 2009.
facing pressures far beyond their
Participatory Conservation of Lakes in
carrying capacities.
the Region
Deforestation
 The Nainital Lake is the sole source of
 Deforestation in rampant all over India. drinking water for Nainital town, an
In spite of their fragile ecosystem, important tourist destination in
Himalayas are no exception. Uttarakhand state.
 Trees are felled for their timber which  Increasing inflow of tourists, urban
find many domestic and industrial waste making its way into the lake is
applications. adversely affecting water quality.
 Deforestation leads to soil erosion and  To conserve the water body, the
slope instability. Landslides become residents have switched on to a
common. scientific garbage disposal system -
under the project name 'Mission
Climate change/global warming Butterfly' by Nainital Lake
Conservation Project.
 Climate change has evolved as the  The sweepers, on a small monthly
single biggest threat to the Himalayan charge, collect waste from each
ecosystem. Melting of glaciers, ice caps household and directly transfer it to
and bursting of lakes create havoc the compost pits.
downstream.  Apart from the residents, schools and
 The receding snowline has threated the hotel owners have extended full
local biodiversity. Many species cooperation to the authorities, to save
acclimatized to the cold environment its precious eco-system.
 In addition, they are able to generate  Promoting the concept of eco-cultural

income and employment by converting landscapes. Both landscapes are highly
it to manure. evolved with high level of economic and
ecological efficiencies.
Assam Hill Land and Ecological Sites  Involving them in maintenance and
Act, 2006 strengthening of sacred Page
groves/landscape (e.g., Sacred Groves
 The Assam Hill Land and Ecological
of Meghalaya: The tribal communities - | 10
Sites (Protection and Management) Act,
Khasis, Garos, and Jaintias, have a
2006 to prevent indiscriminate cutting
tradition of environmental conservation
of trees and filling up of water bodies in
based on religious beliefs and
urban areas.
customary law and are protected from
 Under the Act, the state government any product extraction.
can bring any hill under its purview for
 Himalayan Homestays: The Himalayan
protection.
Homestays programme fosters
Sikkim's Ecotourism Policy conservation-based community
managed tourism development in
 "Sikkim - the Ultimate Tourist remote settlements, by gradually
Destination" is the policy motto of the building local capacity and ownership.
state.
Promoting Ecotourism and Regulation
 The state is employing a system of
of Commercial Tourism
environmental fees, and permits for
entries, and stay time restrictions in  Eco-tourism villages, parks,
some environmentally sensitive high sanctuaries and other areas should be
altitude/pristine areas. identified to establish a primary base
 Operationalization of tourism in for ecotourism.
various modes, such as village tourism,  Village communities, especially youths,
nature tourism, wildlife tourism, and rural women should be involved in
trekking/adventure tourism, and Ecotourism.
cultural tourism in the state and
 Restrictions on the entry of vehicles
institutionalization of tourism
and visitors per day/ per group should
management at the community level.
be imposed in sensitive ecological sites.
 Promotion and use of local art & craft,
 Local art, crafts, cuisines, and dishes
cuisines, etc., along with organizing
should be promoted and made an
tourism fairs and festivals.
integral part of tourist experience in
 Imparting training in tourism related order to ensure economic benefits to
service industries. the locals and their cultural integrity/
 The efforts made by Sikkim can be a entity is not lost.
basis of responsible tourism in other  Best practices on commercial trekking
Himalayan states. should be imposed on a mandatory
basis
Measures That Can Be Taken to
 Creation of log/bamboo huts should be
Protect Himalayan Ecosystem promoted in busy mountain areas.
Harnessing Religious Sentiments for Human Modified Ecosystems and
Conservation
Environmental Degradation
 Encouraging devotees and tribals to
undertake participatory plantation for  Some examples of human modified
rehabilitation of degraded areas. ecosystems are: agro-ecosystems,
plantation forests, rural and urban smut of sugarcane, maize and sorghum
ecosystems, aquaculture etc. and rust of wheat and bajra.
 Protecting crops from pests and
Characteristics of human modified diseases requires large scale use of
ecosystems pesticides and chemicals which pollute
the environment. Page
 Highly unstable, unsustainable and
 Deplete ground water in many areas
have a devastating effect on the | 11
due to well irrigation.
environment.
 Run off water from agricultural field
 Highly simplified with a very low
laden with fertilizers and pesticides
species diversity and poor nutrient
pollute river, lakes and ponds
cycling.
(Eutrophication).
 Food chains are simple, small and
undergo frequent changes. Plantation Forest
 Depend on human (anthropogenic)
support for survival.  It is a manmade ecosystem consisting
 Species are highly susceptible to of individuals of a particular tree
epidemic diseases. species.
 Highly subjected to soil erosion and soil  The aim is to grow fast growing trees
degradation. which are commercially valuable. E.g.
 Regeneration and recovery of the Palm, rubber, eucalyptus etc.
environment is very slow. Some adverse  Trees planted on barren land, private
effects are irreversible for a very long land, village panchayat land, roadsides,
time. canal banks, along with railway line
and on land not suitable for
Agro ecosystems agriculture.
 Agro ecosystems are large areas where Characteristics of plantation forests
commercial crops are cultivated.
 Crops are mostly cultivated as  Plantation forests are generally
monoculture (growing only one type of monoculture, like oil palm plantation,
crop) on the entire field. rubber plantation, coffee plantation,
Jatropa curcare (biodiesel).
Characteristics of agro-ecosystems  Plantation forests have trees of
approximately same age.
 Attract weeds and susceptible to plant  Plantation forests are highly
diseases. susceptible to pathogens.
 Soil are poor, deficient in nutrients,
require supplement of chemical or Economic importance
fertilizers.
 Need artificial irrigation and water  Tree plantation are raised for fruits, oil,
management. rubber, coffee, timber, fire wood, pulp
wood for making rayon and paper
Disadvantages of agro-ecosystem industries.
 Trees are also planted to serve as wind
 Large scale monoculture of agricultural breaks or shelter belts.
crops results in severe loss of native  Tree plantations are also raised for
biodiversity including genetic diversity controlling soil erosion and for
of crop plants. increasing soil fertility.
 High yielding varieties of crop plants
are more susceptible to disease. E.g. Aquaculture
 Aquaculture is the artificial cultivation  Produces large amounts of fish wastes

of aquatic plants or animals. that pollute water bodies.
 It is primarily carried out for cultivating  Destroys mangrove forests or coastal
certain commercially important edible vegetation.
species of fresh and marine water  Aquaculture fishes are very sensitive to
fishes, molluscs, crustaceans and pesticide runoff from croplands. Page
aquatic plants.  In aquaculture ponds high population
 Fisheries include the extraction of food density is maintained that makes them | 12
from the sea and the fresh water highly vulnerable to diseases leading to
whereas aquaculture is rearing of the total collapse of the crop.
aquatic organisms in artificially made  Aquaculture tanks or reservoirs are
water bodies e.g. culture of fish like often get contaminated after a few
carps, tilapia (also known as aquatic years.
chicken.).
Dams, Reservoirs And Diversions
There are two types of aquaculture
 A dam is a structure built in order to
 Fish farming is cultivation of fish in a
store river or tidal water. Dams,
controlled environment often a coastal
reservoirs and diversions capture and
or inland pond, lake, reservoir or rice
store runoff water and release it as
field (paddy) and harvesting when they
needed. They are used for:
reach the desired size.
(1) controlling or moderating floods,
 Fish ranching is a practice of keeping (2) producing hydroelectric power, and
fishes in captivity for the first few years (3) supply water for irrigation, industry
in floating cages in coastal lagoons and and other uses to rural, suburban
releasing them from captivity into water and urban areas. Support
bodies. Adults are harvested when they recreational activities such as
return for spawning to the lagoons. E.g. swimming and boating.
Salmon and Hilsa which migrate to
rivers to spawn are cultivated by fish Advantages of dams
ranching method.
 Water released from dams is used to
Merits of aquaculture generate electricity.
 Hydroelectricity n reduces dependence
 Ecological efficiency is high. 2 kg. of
on coal and hence reduces CO2
grains are required to add 1 kg live
emission.
weight.
 Reduces downstream flooding.
 High yield in small volume of water.
 Reduces river silting below the dam.
 Improved qualities of fish obtained by
 Supply irrigation water for croplands.
selection and breeding and genetic
engineering. Disadvantages of dams
 Aquaculture reduces over harvesting of
fisheries.  Permanently submerge large areas of
 High profit. forests and crop lands.
 Displace large number of native people.
Demerits of aquaculture  Increase water pollution on account of
reduced water flow.
 Large inputs of feed, water and land
 Reduce nutrients replenishment of
are required.
downstream flood plains.
 Loss of native aquatic biodiversity. As it
 Disrupt spawning and migration of
replaced by monoculture of a
some fish species.
commercially important fish species.
 High costs and long gestation period.

 Large reservoirs increase the risk of
earthquakes (Killari Reservoir is
speculated to have Induced Latur
Earthquake of 1993 that has killed
more than 9,000 people). Page
| 13
Pollution................................................. 1  An ever increasing use of fossil fuels in

power plants, industries,
Air Pollution ........................................... 1 transportation, mining, construction of
buildings, stone quarries had led to air
Classification of Pollutants ..................... 1 pollution.
 Fossil fuels contain small amounts of Page
Smog ...................................................... 7
nitrogen and sulphur. Burning of
Question UPSC Mains 2015.................... 9 fossil fuels like coal (thermal power | 1
plants) and petroleum (petroleum
Prevention and Control of air Pollution ..10 refineries) release different oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur into the
Government Initiative ............................13 atmosphere.
 These gases react with the water
Pollution vapour present in the atmosphere to
form sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
 Pollution may be defined as addition of The acids drop down with rain, making
undesirable material into the the rain acidic. This is called acid rain.
environment as a result of human  Acid rain corrodes the marble
activities. The agents which cause monuments like Taj Mahal. This
environmental pollution are called phenomenon is called as “Marble
pollutants. cancer”.
 A pollutant may be defined as a  Other kinds of pollutants are
physical, chemical or biological chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are
substance released into the used in refrigerators, air conditioners
environment which is directly or and as pressurizing agents in aerosol
indirectly harmful to humans and other sprays. CFCs damage the ozone layer
living organisms. of the atmosphere.
 Pollution may be of the following types:  The combustion of fossil fuels also
Air pollution, Noise pollution, Water increases the amount of suspended
pollution, Soil pollution, Thermal particles in air. These suspended
pollution and Radiation pollution. particles could be unburnt carbon
 In order to control environmental particles or substances called
pollution, the Government of India has hydrocarbons.
passed the Environment (Protection)  Presence of high levels of all these
Act, 1986 to protect and improve the pollutants cause visibility to be
quality of our environment (air, water lowered, especially in cold weather
and soil). when water also condenses out of air.
This is known as smog and is a visible
Air Pollution indication of air pollution.
 Air pollution may be defined as the Classification of Pollutants

presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance including noise and According to the form in which they
radioactive radiation in the persist after release into the environment.
atmosphere in such concentration that
may be directly and/or indirectly  Primary pollutants: These persist in
injurious to humans or other living the form in which they are added to the
organisms, property or interferes with environment e.g. DDT, plastic.
the normal environmental processes.  Secondary Pollutants: These are
formed by interaction among the
primary pollutants. For example,
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed  Fly ash pollutes air and water and may
by the interaction of nitrogen oxides cause heavy metal pollution in water
and hydrocarbons. bodies.
 Fly ash affects vegetation as a result of
According to their existence in nature its direct deposition on leaf surfaces or
 Quantitative Pollutants: These occur indirectly through its deposition on Page
in nature and become pollutant when soil.
their concentration reaches beyond a  Fly ash in the air slowly settles on | 2
threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, leaves and crops in fields in areas near
nitrogen oxide. to thermal power plants and lowers the
 Qualitative Pollutants: These do not plant yield.
occur in nature and are man-made.  Fly ash is now being used for making
E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc. bricks and as a land fill material.
Composition
Particulate pollutants
 Fly ash particles are oxide rich and
 Particulate matter suspended in air are consist of silica, alumina, oxides of
dust and soot released from the iron, calcium, and magnesium and
industrial chimneys. Their size ranges toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic,
from 0.001 to 500 micrometers (µm) in cobalt, and copper.
diameter.  Major oxides are present are
 Particles less than 10 µm float and Aluminium silicate (in large amounts),
move freely with the air current. silicon dioxide (SiO2) and calcium
Particles which are more than 10 µm in oxide (CaO).
diameter settle down. Particles less
than 0.02 µm form persistent aerosols. Advantages
 Major source of SPM (suspended
particulate matter) are vehicles, power  Cement can be replaced by fly ash up
plants, construction activities, oil to 35%, thus reducing the cost of
refinery, railway yard, market place, construction, making roads, etc.
industries, etc.  Fly ash bricks are light in weight and
 According to Central Pollution Control offer high strength and durability.
Board (CPCB), particulate size 2.5 µm  Fly ash is a better fill material for road
or less in diameter (PM 2.5) are embankments and in concrete roads.
responsible for causing the greatest  Fly ash can be used in reclamation of
harm to human health. wastelands.
 These fine particulates can be inhaled  Abandoned mines can be filled up with
deep into the lungs and can cause fly ash.
breathing and respiratory symptoms,  Fly ash can increase the crop yield and
irritation, inflammations and it also enhances water holding capacity
pneumoconiosis – a disease of the of the land .
lungs due to inhalation of dust,
characterized by inflammation, Policy measures of MoEF
coughing, and fibrosis..  The Ministry of Environment and
Fly ash Forests has made it mandatory to use
Fly Ash based products in all
 Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal construction projects, road
power plants as byproducts of coal embankment works and low lying land
burning operations. filling works within 100 kms radius of
Thermal Power Station and mine filling
activities within 50 kms radius of long term effects on children as it

Thermal Power Station. lowers intelligence.
Q1. With reference to ‘fly ash’ produced Metallic Oxides

by the power plants using the coal as
fuel, which of the following statements  Oxides of iron, aluminum, manganese,
is/are correct? magnesium, zinc and other metals have Page
adverse effect due to deposition of dust | 3
1) Fly ash can be used in the on plants during mining operations
production of bricks for building and metallurgical processes.
construction  They create physiological, biochemical
2) Fly ash can be used as a and developmental disorders in plants
replacement for some of the and also contribute towards
Portland cement contents of reproductive failure in plants.
concrete
3) Fly ash is made up of silicon dioxide Nanoparticles – NPs
and calcium oxide only, and does
not contain any toxic elements. Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3388445/
Select the correct answer using the code  Nanoparticles are particle with
given below dimensions comparable to 1/109 of a
a) 1 and 2 meter [1 divided by 100 crores].
b) 2 only  Major natural processes that release
c) 1 and 3 NPs in the atmosphere are forest fires,
d) 3 only volcanic eruptions, weathering, dust
storms from desert etc.
Fly ash does contain heavy toxic elements  Naturally occurring NPs are quite
like arsenic, cobalt, lead etc. heterogeneous in size and can be
transported over thousands of
Answer: a) 1 and 2 kilometres and remain suspended in
Lead the air for several days.
 Nanotechnology has a global
 It is present in petrol, diesel, lead socioeconomic value, with applications
batteries, paints, hair dye products, ranging from electronics to biomedical
etc. uses (delivering drugs to target sites).
 It can cause nervous system damage  Man-made NPs are unknowingly or
and digestive problems and, in some purposely released in the environment
cases, cause cancer. Lead affects during various industrial and
children in particular. mechanical processes.
 Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as an
Effects of Nanoparticles on the
anti-knock agent in petrol for smooth
environment
and easy running of vehicles.
 The lead particles coming out from the  After release in the environment, NPs
exhaust pipes of vehicles is mixed with will accumulate in various
air. If inhaled it produces injurious environmental matrices such as air,
effects on kidney and liver and water, soil and sediments including
interferes with development of red wastewater sludge.
blood cells.  NPs in the environment influences dust
 Lead mixed with water and food can cloud formation, environmental
create cumulative poisoning. It has hydroxyl radical concentration, ozone
depletion, or stratospheric temperature There is some concern regarding the

change. nanoparticles of some chemical
elements that are used by the industry
Effect of NNPs on dust cloud formation in the manufacture of various products.
Why?
 NNPs are thought to play an important
role in dust-clouds formation after 1) They can accumulate in the Page
being released into the environment as environment, and contaminate | 4
they coagulate and form dust cloud. water and soil.
 Dust cloud formation decreases sun 2) They can enter the food chains.
light intensity. 3) They can trigger the production of
free radicals.
Asian brown clouds impact on
Himalayan glaciers Select the correct answer using the code
given below.
 Asian brown clouds carry large
amounts of soot and black carbon (NPs) a) 1 and 2 only
which are deposited on the glaciers. b) 3 only
 This could lead to higher absorption of c) 1 and 3 only
the sun's heat and potentially d) 1, 2 and 3
contributing to the increased melting of
glaciers. Major Gaseous Air Pollutants,
Their Sources & Effects
NPs and ozone depletion
Carbon monoxide (CO)
 The nanoparticles have greater
chemical reactivity. They can result in
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless,
increased production of reactive oxygen
odorless, tasteless and highly toxic gas
species (ROS), including free radicals
that is slightly less dense than air. It is
like Cl-.
short-lived (stay only few months) in
 Radicals like Cl- destroy ozone. the atmosphere.
[Explained in “Ozone Depletion”]
 Carbon monoxide is produced from the
In chemistry, a radical (a free radical) is an exhaust of internal combustion engines
atom, molecule, or ion that has unpaired and from incomplete combustion of
valence electrons. various other fuels. Iron smelting also
produce carbon monoxide as a
Effect of NPs on stratospheric byproduct.
temperature  It forms when there is not enough
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
 NPs in the troposphere interact with (CO2).
molecular hydrogen accidentally  In the presence of oxygen, carbon
released from hydrogen fuel cells and monoxide burns with a blue flame,
other sources. producing carbon dioxide.
 Molecular hydrogen along with NPs  Worldwide, the largest source of carbon
moves up to the stratosphere, resulting monoxide is natural in origin, due to
in the abundance of water vapour in photochemical reactions in the
the stratosphere. troposphere.
 This will cause stratospheric cooling  Other natural sources of CO include
due to formation Stratospheric clouds volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms
(mostly ice crystals). of combustion.
 Stratospheric clouds destroys ozone.
[Explained in “Ozone Depletion”] Health Effects
 Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most Effects on Environment

common type of fatal air poisoning.
 It is toxic to hemoglobic animals  Carbon dioxide is an important
(including humans) when encountered greenhouse gas. Burning of carbon-
in concentrations above about 35 ppm. based fuels since the industrial
 It is also produced in normal animal revolution has led to global warming.
metabolism in low quantities.  It is also a major cause of ocean Page
 It combines with hemoglobin to acidification because it dissolves in | 5
produce carboxyhemoglobin, which water to form carbonic acid.
usurps the space in hemoglobin that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
normally carries oxygen.
 Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) are used in
Environmental Effects
refrigerators, air conditioners and
 In the atmosphere, it is spatially aerosol sprays.
variable and short lived, having a role  Since the late 1970s, the use of CFCs
in the formation of ground-level ozone has been heavily regulated because of
(tropospheric ozone) and can elevate their destructive effects on the ozone
concentrations of methane. layer. (Explained in a separate post on
 Carbon monoxide reacts with hydroxyl Ozone Depletion)
radical (-OH) to produce peroxy radical.  The Montreal Protocol on Substances
Peroxy radical reacts with nitrogen that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a
oxide (NO) to form nitrogen dioxide protocol to the Vienna Convention for
(NO2) and hydroxyl radical. NO2 gives the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is
O3 via photolysis (separation of molecules an international treaty designed to
by the action of light). protect the ozone layer by phasing out
the production of numerous
Carbon dioxide (CO2) substances including CFCs which are
responsible for ozone depletion.
 Colorless and odorless gas vital to life
on Earth. It is heavier than air. Ozone (O3)
 Natural sources include volcanoes, hot
springs and geysers, and it is freed  It occurs naturally in the stratosphere.
from carbonate rocks by dissolution in Here it absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays
water and acids. of the sun.
 Because carbon dioxide is soluble in  However, at the ground level, it is a
water, it occurs naturally in pollutant (Greenhouse gas) with highly
groundwater, rivers and lakes, in ice toxic effects.
caps and glaciers and also in seawater.  Vehicles and industries are the major
source of ground-level ozone emissions.
Effects on Health  Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen dioxide
etc. play a major role in converting O2
 CO2 is an asphyxiant gas (asphyxia → to O3.
a condition arising when the body is
 Ozone makes our eyes itchy, and
deprived of oxygen, causing watery. It lowers our resistance to cold
unconsciousness or death.).
and pneumonia.
 Concentrations of 7% may cause
suffocation, even in the presence of Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
sufficient oxygen, manifesting as
dizziness, headache, and  NOx is a generic term for the various
unconsciousness. nitrogen oxides produced during
combustion.
 They are produced mainly in internal  It is a toxic gas with a pungent,

combustion engines and coal burning irritating smell. It contributes to acid
power plants. They are produced rain formation.
naturally by lightening.  It is released naturally by volcanic
activity. It is abundantly available in
[Oxygen and nitrogen do not react at the atmosphere of Venus.
ambient temperatures. But at high Page
 Sulfur dioxide is primarily produced for
temperatures they produce various oxides sulfuric acid manufacture. |6
of nitrogen. Such temperatures arise
 Inhaling sulfur dioxide is associated
inside an internal combustion engine or a
with increased respiratory symptoms
power station boiler]
and disease, difficulty in breathing, and
 Agricultural fertilization and the use premature death. It also weakens the
of nitrogen fixing plants also functioning of certain nerves.
contribute to atmospheric NOx, by It is also produced by
promoting nitrogen fixation by
microorganisms.  burning coal in thermal power plants
 NOx (contributes to global cooling) and diesel fuels.
should not be confused with nitrous  some industrial processes, such as
oxide (N2O), which is a greenhouse production of paper and smelting of
gas and has many uses as an oxidizer. metals.
 reactions involving Hydrogen Sulphide
Effects on Health and Environment
(H2S) and oxygen.
 They are believed to aggravate  The roasting of sulfide ores such as
asthmatic conditions and create pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar
many respiratory health issues, (mercury sulfide). Pollutants
especially in children.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
 The reduction of NOx emissions is one
of the most important technical  Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
challenges facing biodiesel. are a large group of carbon-based
 NOx gases react to form smog and acid chemicals that easily evaporate at
rain as well as being central to the room temperature.
formation of tropospheric ozone.  For example, formaldehyde, which
 When NOx and volatile organic evaporates from paint, has a boiling
compounds (VOCs) react in the point of only –19 °C. Formaldehyde
presence of sunlight, they form causes irritation to the eyes and nose
photochemical smog. and allergies.
 Mono-nitrogen oxides eventually form  The main indoor sources are perfumes,
nitric acid when dissolved in hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air
atmospheric moisture, forming a fresheners, moth repellents, wood
component of acid rain. preservatives, and other products.
 NOx emissions cause global cooling  Health effect - imitation of the eye, nose
through the formation of -OH radicals and throat, headaches, nausea and
that destroy methane molecules, loss of coordination.
countering the effect of greenhouse  Long term - suspected to damage the
gases. liver and other parts of the body.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Benzene and Ethylene
 Benzene is a natural constituent of  It is now known that prolonged

crude oil and is one of the elementary inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause
petrochemicals. serious and fatal illnesses including
 Because benzene has a high octane lung cancer, mesothelioma, and
number, it is an important component asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).
of gasoline. Page
 Benzene increases the risk of cancer Radon
and other illnesses. Benzene is a |7
 It is a gas that is emitted naturally by
notorious cause of bone marrow
the soil. Due to modern houses having
failure.
poor ventilation, it is confined inside
 Ethylene is widely used in the chemical
the house and causes lung cancers.
industry. Much of this production goes
toward polyethylene, a widely used Smog
plastic containing polymer chains of
ethylene units in various chain lengths.  Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog)
 Ethylene is also an important natural caused by the burning of large
plant hormone, used in agriculture to amounts of coal, vehicular
force the ripening of fruits. emission and industrial fumes
 Ethylene is of low toxicity to humans (Primary pollutants).
and exposure to excess ethylene cause  Smog contains soot particulates like
adverse health effects like headache, smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
drowsiness, dizziness and dioxide and other components.
unconsciousness.  At least two distinct types of smog
 Ethylene is not but Ethylene oxide is are recognized: sulfurous smog and
a carcinogen. photochemical smog.
Tobacco Smoke
 Tobacco smoke generates a wide range

of harmful chemicals and is
carcinogenic (cancer causing).
 Health effect - burning eyes, nose, and
throat irritation to cancer, bronchitis,
severe asthma, and a decrease in lung
function.
Biological pollutants
 It includes pollen from plants, mite, Primary and secondary pollutants

and hair from pets, fungi, parasites,
and some bacteria.  A primary pollutant is an air pollutant
 Most of them are allergens and can emitted directly from a source.
cause asthma, hay fever, and other  A secondary pollutant is not directly
allergic diseases. emitted as such, but forms when other
pollutants (primary pollutants) react in
Asbestos
the atmosphere.
 Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally  Examples of a secondary pollutant
occurring silicate fibrous minerals –– include ozone, which is formed when
chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, 1. hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen
anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. oxides (NOx) combine in the
presence of sunlight;
2. NO combines with oxygen in the large numbers of automobiles

air; and (Nitrogen oxides are the primary
 Acid rain is another example for emissions).
secondary pollutant. Acid rain is  When pollutants such as nitrogen
formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and volatile
oxides react with water. organic compounds (primary Page
pollutant) react together in the
Sulfurous smog presence of SUNLIGHT, OZONE | 8
(Secondary pollutant) and peroxyacetyl
 Sulfurous smog is also called “London nitrate (PAN) (Secondary pollutant) are
smog,” (first formed in London). formed.
 Sulfurous smog results from a high
concentration of Sulfur Oxides in the Nitrogen oxides + Sunlight +
air and is caused by the use of sulfur- Hydrocarbons = Ozone (Ozone in
bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal stratosphere it is beneficial, but near
and diesel (Coal was the mains source the earth’s surface it results in global
of power in London during nineteenth warming as it is a greenhouse gas) +
century. The effects of coal burning PAN
were observed in early twentieth
Reactions involved
century).
 This type of smog is aggravated by
dampness and a high concentration
of suspended particulate matter in
the air.
 Photochemical (summer smog) is

formed when the primary pollutant
NO2 reacts with secondary pollutants
03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the
presence of sunlight.
 The resulting smog causes a light
brownish coloration of the atmosphere,
reduced visibility, plant damage,
irritation of the eyes, and respiratory
distress.
Photochemical smog
 Photochemical smog is also known as
“Los Angeles smog”.
 Photochemical smog occurs most
prominently in urban areas that have
Page
|9
Q2. Photochemical smog is a resultant

of the reaction among
Effects of Smog
a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in  The atmospheric pollution levels of

the presence of sunlight Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Mexico City
b) CO, 02 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in and other cities are increased by
the presence of sunlight inversion that traps pollution close to
c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low the ground.
temperature  It is usually highly toxic to humans
d) High concentration of N02, O3 and and can cause severe sickness,
CO in the evening shortened life or death.
Answer: a) NO2, 03
and peroxyacetyl
nitrate in the
presence of sunlight
Haze
 Haze is
traditionally an
atmospheric
phenomenon
where dust, smoke
and other dry
particles obscure
the clarity of the sky (there is no  Smog is a combination of airborne
condensation in haze. Smog is similar particulate matter, like soot, and
to haze but there is condensation in invisible toxic gases including ozone
smog). (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
 Sources for haze particles include dioxide (SO2), which are carcinogens
farming (ploughing in dry weather), (cancer causing agents).
traffic, industry, and wildfires.  Temperature inversions are
accentuated and precipitation is
reduced.
 Smog related Haze lowers visibility.
Question UPSC Mains 2015

Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the straw in the surrounding regions also
three mega cities of the country but the adds to Delhi’s pollution levels.
air pollution is much more serious
problem in Delhi as compared to the 226 words. Not cutting those extra words
other two. Why is this so?] [200 words] can be detrimental for success.
 In spite of similar urbanization, air Q3. Which of the following are some Page
pollution is much more severe in Delhi important pollutants released by steel
| 10
compared to that in Mumbai and industry in India?
Kolkata. This is because of 1) Oxides of sulphur
Polluting Industry in close vicinity of 2) Oxides of nitrogen
Delhi. 3) Carbon monoxide
4) Carbon dioxide
 Delhi and its immediate neighborhood
is the hot bed of polluting industries Select the correct answer using the code
which are primarily coal fueled. given below.
Burning coal releases Oxides of a) 1, 3 and 4 only
sulphur which forms sulphurous smog. b) 2 and 3 only
This type of smog is more pronounced c) 1 and 4 only
in Delhi than in the other two cities d) 1,2, 3 and 4
due to geography and climate.
Explanation:
Vehicular Emissions
Coke is used as fuel in blast furnace.
 All the three cities contribute nearly Combustion of coke releases both CO and
equal vehicular emissions rich in CO2 CO2.
and NO2. NO2 results in phochemical
smog. Here again, Delhi is worst hit Oxides of sulphur and oxides of nitrogen
due to its geography and climate. are common pollutants released when any
fossil fuel is burnt. (Coal and iron ore
Geography and Climate contains small amount of sulphur.
Presence of sulphur makes iron weak)
 This the most important factor. Delhi is
a continental city while the other two Answer: d) All
are coastal. Land and See Breezes in
Mumbai and Kolkata carry pollutants Prevention and Control of air
away from the city. There is no such Pollution
advantage to Delhi as it is land locked.
 Also, the duration of monsoon winds Indoor Air Pollution
is short in Delhi compared to the other
two.  Poor ventilation due to faulty design of
 Delhi faces severe cold wave in winter buildings leads to pollution of the
compared to the other two. Cold confined space.
climate here creates temperature  Paints, carpets, furniture, etc. in rooms
inversion which traps the pollutants, may give out volatile organic
mainly smog, for a longer duration. compounds (VOCs).
Farm Straw Burning  Use of disinfectants, fumigants, etc.
may release hazardous gases.
 Delhi is at the heart of major  In hospitals, pathogens present in
agricultural region. Burning of farm waste remain in the air in the form of
spores. This can result in hospital
acquired infections and is an  Devices like filters, electrostatic

occupational health hazard. precipitators, inertial collectors,
 In congested areas, slums and rural scrubbers, gravel bed filters or dry
areas burning of firewood and biomass scrubbers are described below:
results in lot of smoke.
 Children and ladies exposed to smoke Filters
Page
may suffer from acute respiratory
 Filters remove particulate matter from | 11
problems.
the gas stream. The medium of a filter
Prevention and control of indoor air may be made of fibrous materials like
pollution cloth, granular material like sand, a
rigid material like screen, or any mat
 Use of wood and dung cakes should be like felt pad.
replaced by cleaner fuels such as  Baghouse filtration system is the most
biogas, kerosene, LPG or electricity. common one and is made of cotton or
But supply of electricity is limited. synthetic fibres (for low temperatures)
Similarly kerosene is also limited. The or glass cloth fabrics (for higher
use of solar cookers must be temperature up to 2900 C).
encouraged.
 Old stoves must be replaced with Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
improved stoves with high thermal
 There are several ways of removing
efficiency and reduced emission of
particulate matter; the most widely
pollutants including smoke.
used method is electrostatic
 The house designs should incorporate
precipitation, which can remove over
a well-ventilated kitchen.
99 per cent particulate matter present
 Those species of trees such as baval
in the exhaust from a thermal power
(Acacia nilotica) which are least smoky
plant.
should be planted and used. Charcoal
 The emanating dust is charged with
is a comparatively cleaner fuel.
ions and the ionized particulate matter
 Indoor pollution due to decay of
is collected on an oppositely charged
exposed kitchen waste can be reduced
surface.
by covering the waste properly.
 An electrostatic precipitator has
 Segregation of waste, pretreatment at
electrode wires that are maintained at
source, sterilization of rooms will help
several thousand volts, which produce
in checking indoor air pollution.
a corona that releases electrons.
Control of Industrial Pollution  These electrons attach to dust particles
giving them a net negative charge. The
 Industrial pollution can be greatly collecting plates are grounded
reduced by: (relatively positive charge) and attract
1. use of cleaner fuels such as the charged dust particles.
liquefied natural gas (LNG) in power  The velocity of air between the plates
plants, fertilizer plants etc. which is must be low enough to allow the dust
cheaper in addition to being to fall.
environmentally friendly.  The particles are removed from the
2. employing environment friendly collection surface by occasional
industrial processes so that shaking or by rapping the surface.
emission of pollutants and  ESPs are used in boilers, furnaces, and
hazardous waste is minimized. many other units of thermal power
3. installing devices which reduce plants, cement factories, steel plants,
release of pollutants. etc.
 As the exhaust passes through the

catalytic converter, unburnt
hydrocarbons are converted into
carbon dioxide and water, and carbon
monoxide and nitric oxide are changed
to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas, Page
respectively.
 Motor vehicles equipped with catalytic | 12
converter should use unleaded petrol
because lead in the petrol inactivates
the catalyst.
Apart from the use of above mentioned

Inertial collectors devices, other control measures are -
 It works on the principle that inertia of  increasing the height of chimneys.

SPM (suspended particulate matter) in  closing industries which pollute the
a gas is higher than its solvent and as environment.
inertia is a function of the mass of the  shifting of polluting industries away
particulate matter, this device collects from cities and heavily populated
heavier particles more efficiently areas.
(centrifugation is the technique).  development and maintenance of green
 ‘Cyclone’ is a common inertial collector belt of adequate width.
used in gas cleaning plants.
Steps Taken to Control Vehicular
Scrubbers Pollution
 Scrubbers are wet collectors. They  The emission standards for
remove aerosols from a stream of gas automobiles have been set which if
either by collecting wet particles on a followed will reduce the pollution.
surface followed by their removal, or Standards have been set for the
else the particles are wetted by a durability of catalytic converters which
scrubbing liquid. reduce vehicular emission.
 The particles get trapped as they travel  In cities like Delhi, motor vehicles need
from supporting gaseous medium to obtain Pollution Under Control (PUC)
across the interface to the liquid certificate at regular intervals. This
scrubbing medium. (this is just like ensures that levels of pollutants
mucus in trachea trapping dust) emitted from vehicle exhaust are not
 A scrubber can remove gases like beyond the prescribed legal limits.
sulphur dioxide.  The price of diesel is much cheaper
Catalytic converter than petrol which promotes use of
diesel. To reduce emission of sulphur
 Proper maintenance of automobiles dioxide, sulphur content in diesel has
along with use of lead-free petrol or been reduced to 0.05%.
diesel can reduce the pollutants they  Earlier lead in the form of tetraethyl
emit. lead was added in the petrol to raise
 Catalytic converters, having expensive octane level for smooth running of
metals namely platinum-palladium engines. Addition of lead in petrol has
and rhodium as the catalysts, are been banned to prevent emission of
fitted into automobiles for reducing lead particles with the vehicular
emission of poisonous gases. emission.
 Usage of alternate fuels like CNG in  According to an estimate, a substantial

public transport vehicles is made fall in CO2 and SO2 level has been
mandatory in cities like Delhi. All the found in Delhi between 1997 and 2005.
buses of Delhi were converted to run on But still their levels are not under
CNG by the end of 2002. permissible levels.
 CNG burns most efficiently, unlike  The recent odd-even formula is Page
petrol or diesel, in the automobiles and expected to improve the worsening air
very little of it is left unburnt. quality in Delhi. | 13
Moreover, CNG is cheaper than petrol  In India, the Air (Prevention and
or diesel, cannot be siphoned off by Control of Pollution) Act came into
thieves and adulterated like petrol or force in 1981, but was amended in
diesel. 1987 to include noise as an air
 The main problem with switching over pollutant. Noise is undesired high level
to CNG is the difficulty of laying down of sound.
pipelines to deliver CNG through
distribution points/pumps and Government Initiative
ensuring uninterrupted supply.
 Simultaneously parallel steps taken in National Air Quality Monitoring
Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution Programme
include phasing out of old vehicles, use
of unleaded petrol, use of low-sulphur  Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
petrol and diesel, use of catalytic has been executing a nationwide
converters in vehicles, application of programme of ambient air quality
stringent pollution- level norms for monitoring known as National Air
vehicles, etc. Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
 The Government of India through a
new auto fuel policy has laid out a The National Air Quality Monitoring
roadmap to cut down vehicular Programme (NAMP) is undertaken
pollution in Indian cities.  to determine status and trends of
 More stringent norms for fuels means ambient air quality;
steadily reducing the sulphur and  to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;
aromatics content in petrol and diesel
 to identify non-attainment cities;
fuels.
 to understand the natural process of
 The goal, according to the roadmap, is
cleaning in the atmosphere; and
to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol
 to undertake preventive and corrective
and diesel and bring down the level of
measures.
aromatic hydrocarbons to 35 per cent.
 The Bharat Stage II (equivalent to National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Euro-II norms), which is currently in (NAAQS)
place in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Chennai, Bangalore, and other major  The NAAQS have been revisited and
cities was made applicable to all revised in November 2009 for 12
automobiles throughout the country. pollutants, which include
 All automobiles in major cities were  sulphur dioxide (S02),
expected to meet the Euro III emission  nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
specifications by 2005 and Euro-IV  particulate matter having micron
norms by 2010. (PM10),
 The rest of the country was expected to  particulate matter having size
meet Euro-III emission norm by 2010. less than 2.5 micron (PM2.5),
 ozone,
 lead, Pollutants considered

 carbon monoxide (CO),
 arsenic,  The proposed AQI will consider eight
 nickel, pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2,
 benzene, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb).
 ammonia, and
Alternatives Page
 benzopyrene.
 Government is disincentivising use of | 14
National Air Quality Index (AQI) private vehicles through congestion
charging.
 Launched by the Environment Ministry
 The National Green Tribunal has
in April 2015.
ordered that diesel vehicles over 10
 Initiative under ‘Swachh Bharat’. years old not ply on Delhi roads.
AQI  Odd even formula.
 Making city roads friendly to bicycle
 It helps the common man to judge the users.
air quality within his vicinity.  Promoting rooftop solar power as an
 Index constituted as a part of alternative to coal power.
Government’s mission to improve the
culture of cleanliness.
Old vs new
 While the earlier measuring index was

limited to three indicators, the current
measurement index had been made
quite comprehensive by the addition of
more parameters.
Previously who measured Air pollution
 Central Pollution Control Board along

with State Pollution Control Boards has
been operating National Air
Monitoring Program (NAMP).
Why is AQI necessary
 Quality of data from some cities

remains weak and the standards set for
pollutants fall short of World Health
Organization recommendations.
 The pollution related analysis using
vast number of complex parameters
was complicated for the common man
to understand.
Categories of air pollution under AQI
 There are six AQI categories, namely

Good, Satisfactory, Moderately
polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.
Ozone Hole – Ozone Depletion ................ 1 Halogen == group of reactive non-

metallic elements like fluorine,
Polar Vortex ........................................... 2 chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) .......... 3 The thickness of the ozone in a column of
air from the ground to the top of the
Harmful Effects of Ozone Depletion ........ 4 atmosphere is measured in terms of Page
Dobson units (DU). |1
Measures to Prevent Ozone (O3) Layer
The ozone measurement instruments and
Depletion................................................ 5
techniques are varied. Some of them are
A layer of ozone preset in the atmosphere the Dobson spectrophotometer and the
(stratosphere) protects the biosphere from filter ozonometer called M83.
the harmful effects of UV radiation by
Halogen atoms like chlorine
absorbing them.
destroy ozone
Ozone depletion or ozone hole refer to the
damage suffered by the ozone layer due to  Photodissociation (under the
natural and anthropogenic causes. influence of sunlight) of ozone-
depleting substances (ODS) like
Each of the factors/causes responsible for 1. halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs),
ozone depletion are explained below. 2. halocarbon solvents (Methyl
Chloroform, carbon tetrachloride),
Ozone Hole – Ozone Depletion 3. propellants, and foam-blowing
agents (CFCs, HCFCs, carbon
 Polar vortex and ozone depletion are tetrachloride and trichloroethane,
two distinct but related phenomena. freons, halons [used in firefighting])
 Ozone gas is continuously formed by
the action of UV rays on molecular creates free chlorine atoms that destroy
oxygen in the stratosphere. Also, ozone ozone.
is simultaneously degraded into
molecular oxygen in the stratosphere.  Bromine containing compounds called
 There should be a balance between halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromo
production and degradation of ozone in fluorocarbons [both used in fire
the stratosphere so that there is a extinguishers and methyl bromide (a
continuous layer of ozone. widely used pesticide)] release bromine
 Of late, the balance has been disrupted atoms similar to CFCs that release
due to enhancement of ozone chlorine atoms.
degradation by chlorofluorocarbons  Each bromine atom destroys hundred
(CFCs) [chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are times of more ozone molecules than
halocarbons]. There is a steady decline what a chlorine atom does.
of about 4% in the total volume of
ozone in Earth's stratosphere.
 Much larger decrease in stratospheric
ozone is observed around Earth's polar
regions.
Halocarbon == a compound in which

the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is
replaced by halogens like chlorine,
bromine, iodine etc.
Page
|2
The ozone depletion is significant near

poles (especially south pole) than at any
other place. This is because of high
altitude polar clouds called Polar
Stratospheric Clouds formed during Polar
Vortex events.
Q1. Consider the following statements:
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-
depleting substances, are used
1) in the production of plastic foams

2) in the production of tubeless tyres
3) in cleaning certain electronic
components
4) as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans

is/are correct?
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 4 only Polar Vortex
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
 Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex) is a
Answer: b) CFCs are used as refrigerants polar cyclone.
and pressurizing agents  A polar vortex is a large pocket of very
cold air, typically the coldest air in the
But how does a chlorine atom reach to Northern Hemisphere, which sits over
such high levels of atmosphere? the polar region during the winter
season.
 Methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons  Polar vortex is closely associated with
(CFCs), nitrous oxide (N2O) and water jet streams [Rossby waves].
are injected into the stratosphere  It is formed mainly in winter and gets
through towering tropical cumulus weaker in summer.
clouds.  It surrounds polar highs and lie within
 These compounds are broken down by the polar front (boundary separating
the ultraviolet radiation in the the temperate and polar air masses).
stratosphere.
polar vortex contributes to ozone

depletion].
 A number of naturally occurring
substances like Hydrogen oxide
(HOx), Methane (CH4), Hydrogen
gas (H2), Nitrogen oxides (NOx) aid Page
the process of ozone depletion.
|3
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)
 Extend from 12 km – 22 km above the

surface.
 They are nacreous clouds.
Nacreous clouds
 Nacreous clouds, sometimes called
mother-of-pearl clouds, are rare clouds.
 They are mostly visible within two
hours after sunset or before dawn.
 They form in frigid regions of the lower
stratosphere, some 15 - 25 km (9 -16
mile) high and well above tropospheric  PSCs convert "reservoir" compounds
clouds. into reactive free radicals (Cl and
 They are bright even after sunset and ClO).
before dawn because at those heights  These free radicals deplete ozone as
shown in the animation below.
 So PSC accelerate ozone
depletion.
there is still sunlight.

 They are seen mostly during winter at
high latitudes like Scandinavia,
Iceland, Alaska and Northern Canada.
Sometimes, however, they occur as far
south as England.
 PSCs or nacreous clouds contain
water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric
acid.
 They are formed mainly during the
event of polar vertex in winter;
more intense at south pole.
 The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion is
dramatically enhanced in the
presence of polar stratospheric View this animation on site:
clouds (PSCs) [Finally this how
http://www.pmfias.com/wp- a) Presence of prominent tropospheric

content/uploads/2016/01/chlorine- turbulence; and inflow of
radical-ozone-hole-ozone-depletion.gif chlorofluorocarbons
b) Presence of prominent polar front and
http://i0.wp.com/www.pmfias.com/wp- stratospheric Clouds and inflow of
content/uploads/2016/01/chlorine- chlorofluorocarbons
radical-ozone-hole.gif Page
c) Absence of polar front and
stratospheric clouds; and inflow of | 4
methane and chlorofluorocarbons
d) Increased temperature at polar region
Answer: b) Presence of prominent polar

front and stratospheric Clouds and inflow
of chlorofluorocarbons
Harmful Effects of Ozone

Depletion
Effects on Humans
 UV rays are highly injurious to living

organisms since DNA and proteins of
living organisms preferentially absorb
UV rays, and its high energy breaks the
chemical bonds within these molecules.
 UV radiation of wavelengths shorter
than UV-B, are almost completely
absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, given
that the ozone layer is intact.
 But if UV-B manages to reach the
troposphere due to ozone depletion,
DNA and mutation may occur. It
causes aging of skin, damage to skin
cells and various types of skin cancers.
 In human eye, cornea absorbs UV-B
radiation, and a high dose of UV-B
causes inflammation of cornea, called
snow-blindness cataract, etc. Such
exposure may permanently damage the
cornea.
In short
 Increased susceptibility to skin-cancer

 Increase cataract (a medical condition
in which the lens of the eye becomes
Q2. The formation of ozone hole in the progressively opaque, resulting in
Antarctic region has been a cause of blurred vision)
concern. What could be the reason for  Damage DNA (DNA mutations)
ozone depletion at poles?
 Damage to cornea and causes retinal condensation nuclei, from the oxidation
diseases and subsequent nucleation of sulphur.
 Suppresses human immune systems
Effects on materials
Effects on terrestrial plants
 Accelerate breakdown of paints
Psychological and developmental  Accelerate breakdown of plastics Page
processes of plants are affected by UV-B  Affect temperature gradient levels in | 5
radiation. the atmosphere
 Affect atmospheric circulation pattern,
 Inhibits photosynthesis climatic changes.
 Inhibits metabolism
 Represses growth Measures to Prevent Ozone (O3)
 Destroys cells Layer Depletion
 Causes DNA mutations
 Decline in forest productivity Monitoring of ozone layer is taken up
by
Effects on aquatic ecosystems
1. World Meteorological Organization
 Exposure to solar UV-B radiation has (WMO)
been shown to affect both orientation 2. World Weather Watch (WWW)
mechanisms and motility in 3. Integrated Global Ocean Services
phytoplankton, resulting in reduced Systems (IGOSS)
survival rates for plankton population 4. Global Climate Observing System
adversely affecting marine food chain. (GCOS)
 Marine/freshwater organisms are very
sensitive to UV-rays. E.g. Corals CFC substitutes
Effects on air quality  Further, use of HCFCs (Hydrochloric

fluorocarbons) as a substitute for CFCs
 Increase in UV-B radiation result in is being recommended on temporary
higher photo dissociation rates of key basis because HCFCs are relatively less
trace gases that control the chemical damaging to ozone layer as compared
reactivity of the troposphere. to CFCs, but they are not completely
 This can increase both production and ozone safe.
destruction of ozone (03) and related
oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide International Efforts
(H202), which are known to have  Recognizing the deleterious effects of
adverse effects on human health, ozone depletion, an international
terrestrial plants, and outdoor treaty, known as the Montreal Protocol,
materials. was signed at Montreal (Canada) in
 Changes in the atmospheric 1987 (effective in 1989) to control the
concentrations of the hydroxyl radical emission of ozone depleting
(OH) may change the atmospheric substances.
lifetimes of climatically important gases
such as methane (CH4) and the CFC Vienna Convention for the
substitutes. Protection of the Ozone Layer
 Increased tropospheric reactivity could
also lead to increased production of  Multilateral Environmental Agreement.
particulates such as cloud
 It was agreed upon at the Vienna b) Montreal Protocol

Conference of 1985 and entered into c) Kyoto Protocol
force in 1988. d) Nagoya Protocol
 It acts as a framework for the
international efforts to protect the Bretton Woods Conference established the
ozone layer. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) and the International Page
 However, it does not include legally
Monetary Fund (IMF). |6
binding reduction goals for the use of
CFCs, the main chemical agents Montreal Protocol is an international
causing ozone depletion. These are laid treaty to protect the ozone layer by
out in the accompanying Montreal phasing out the production of ozone
Protocol. depleting substances. It is legally binding.
Montreal Protocol Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective
of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by
 The Montreal Protocol on Substances reducing greenhouse gas concentrations
that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a in the atmosphere to “a level that would
protocol to the Vienna Convention for prevent dangerous anthropogenic
the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an interference with the climate system”. It is
international treaty designed to protect binding on the parties.
the ozone layer by phasing out the
production of numerous substances Nagoya Protocol is a supplementary
that are responsible for ozone agreement to the 1992 Convention on
depletion. Biological Diversity (CBD) on “Access to
 It was agreed in 1987, and entered into Genetic Resources and the Fair and
force in 1989, followed by a first Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from
meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since their Utilization”.
then, it has undergone eight revisions.
Answer: b)
 As a result of the international
agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica
is slowly recovering.
 Climate projections indicate that the
ozone layer will return to 1980 levels
between 2050 and 2070.
 It is the single most successful
international agreement to date.
The two ozone treaties (Vienna Convention

and Montreal Protocol) have been ratified
by 197 parties [196 UN states + European
Union] making them the first universally
ratified treaties in United Nations history.
UN Framework Convention on Climate

Change is also ratified by 197 parties.
Q3. Which one of the following is

associated with the issue of control and
phasing out of the use of ozone-
depleting substances?
a) Bretton Woods Conference

Acid Rain – Acidification ......................... 1 The pH scale

Ocean Acidification ................................. 5  The pH scale is a measure of how
acidic or basic (alkaline) a solution is.
Acid Rain – Acidification  It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is
neutral. Page
 Acid rain refers to any precipitation  A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH
(rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more greater than 7 is basic. |1
acidic than normal (pH of less than 5.6.  It is based on hydrogen ion
[pH below 7 = acidic]). concentration in an aqueous solution.
 Acid rain is caused by atmospheric  pH values decreases as hydrogen ion
pollution from acidic gases such as levels increases.
sulphur dioxide and oxides of
 A solution with pH 4 is ten times more
nitrogen emitted from burning of fossil
acidic than solution with pH 5, and a
fuels.
hundred times more acidic than
 It is also recognized that acidic smog, solution with pH 6.
fog, mist, move out of the atmosphere
 Whilst the pH range is usually given as
and settle on dust particles which in
0 to 14, lower and higher values are
turn accumulate on vegetation as acid
theoretically possible.
depositions. When rain falls, the acid
from these depositions leak and form Acidic gases and their emission
acid dews.
sources
Acidic gases Source
CO2 (Carbon dioxide) Fossil fuel burning, industrial process, respiration.
CH4 (Methane) Paddy fields, wetlands, gas drilling, landfills, decomposition of
animals wastes and carcasses.
CO (Carbon monoxide) Biomass burning, Industrial sources: smelting of iron ore,
Biogenesis, Plant isoprene's.
SO. (Sulphur oxides) Fossil fuel burning, power plants, smelting of metal sulfide ores,
industrial sources, industrial production of sulfuric acid in
metallurgical, chemical and fertilizer industries volcanoes, seas
and oceans, decomposition of organic matter.
NO. (nitrogen oxides) Fossil fuel burning, lightening, biomass burning, forest fires,
oceans, power plants.
Formic acid (HCOOH)  Biomass burning due to forest fires causes emission of formic
acid (HCOOH) and formaldehyde (HCHO) into the atmosphere.
 Large fraction formaldehyde gets photo — oxidation and forms
formic acid in the atmosphere.
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide dissolve in water (water
vapor) to form carbonic acid.
Q1. Acid rain is caused by the pollution Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides
of environment by of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur in
atmosphere can cause acid rains.
a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen
b) carbon monoxide and carbon Both b) and d) are correct. But d) has
dioxide more influence than b)
c) ozone and carbon dioxide
d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide Answer: d) nitrous oxide and sulphur
dioxide
Explanation:
Types Of Acid Deposition gases (like NH3) to produce H2SO4

(sulphuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid)
 "Acid rain" is a broad term referring to by oxidation.
a mixture of wet and dry deposition  Acid rain containing ions of sulfate,
(form of deposition material) from the nitrate, ammonium and hydrogen
atmosphere. falls as wet deposition. Page
Wet Deposition |2
 If the acid chemicals in the air are

blown into areas where the weather is
wet, the acids can fall to the ground in
the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
 As this acidic water flows over and
through the ground, it affects a variety
of plants and animals.
Dry Deposition
 In areas where the weather is dry, the

acid chemicals may become
incorporated into dust or smoke and
fall to the ground through dry
deposition, sticking to the ground,
buildings, vegetation, cars, etc.
 Dry deposited gases and particles can
be washed from these surfaces by
rainstorms, through runoff. This runoff
water makes the resulting mixture
more acidic.
 About half of the acidity in the
atmosphere falls back to earth through Credits:
http://www.eoearth.org/files/185201_185300/185228/precip-
dry deposition. chem.jpg
Chemistry of Acid Rain

Six basic steps are involved in the
formation of acid rain:
 The atmosphere receives oxides of

sulfur and nitrogen from natural and
man-made sources.
 Some of these oxides fall back directly Harmful effects of acid rain
to the ground as dry deposition, either
close to the place of origin or some  Acid precipitation affects both aquatic
distance away. and terrestrial organisms. It also
 Sunlight stimulates the formation of damages buildings and monuments.
photo-oxidants (such as ozone) in the
atmosphere. Effects on humans
 These photo-oxidants interact with the
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and other  Acid rain affects human health is a
number of ways.
 The obvious ones are bad smells, decrease the rate of decomposition.
reduced visibility; irritation of the skin, The nitrate level of the soil is also
eyes and the respiratory tract. found to decrease.
 Some direct effects include chronic  The impact of acid rain on soil is less in
bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and India; because Indian soils are mostly
cancer. alkaline, with good buffering ability. Page
 Some indirect effects include food
poisoning vis a vis drinking water and Effects on aquatic life |3
food.  The pH of the medium is very
 An increase in the levels of toxic heavy- important for metabolic processes of
metals like manganese, copper, aquatic organisms.
cadmium and aluminium also  Eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other
contribute to the detrimental effects on aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH
human health. changes.
Effects on soil  Acid rain kills their gametes affecting
the life cycles and productivity. Death
 The exchange between hydrogen ions or their inability to increase in
and the nutrient cations like potassium numbers causes severe ecosystem
and magnesium in the soil cause imbalances.
leaching of the nutrients, making the  Acidic lake waters may kill
soil infertile. This is accompanied by a bacteria/microbes/planktons and the
decrease in the respiration of soil acidic lakes become unproductive and
organisms. life less. Such acidic and lifeless
 An increase in ammonia in the soil due ponds/lakes adversely affect fisheries
to a decrease in other nutrients and livelihood.
Naturally acidic lakes Anthropogenically acidified lakes
Brown to yellow colour caused by Very clear water caused by reduced primary
humic substances productivity
Concentrations of dissolved Dissolved organic carbon concentrations are low.
organic carbon are high while Whereas the transparency is high.
transparency is low
Low pH but well buffered. Poorly buffered
Abound with aquatic life. Some of the more sensitive taxa, such as blue-green
algae, some bacteria, snails, mussels crustaceans,
mayflies and fish either decrease or /are eliminated.
Effect on terrestrial life  Absorption of these toxic metal ions by
plants/microorganisms affect their
 Acid rain damage cuticle of plant metabolism.
leaves resulting etiolation (pale and weak)  Acid rain can directly affect the eggs
of foliage. This in turn reduces and tadpoles of frogs and salamanders
photosynthesis. that breed in small forest ponds.
 Reduced photosynthesis accompanied  It has been postulated that acid rain
by leaf fall reduces plant and crop can indirectly affect wildlife by allowing
productivity. metals bound on soils and sediments to
 Acidic medium promotes leaching of be released into the aquatic
heavy metals like aluminum, lead and environment, where toxic substances
mercury. Such metals when percolate may be ingested by animals, like birds,
into ground water affect soil micro that feed in such an environment.
flora/fauna.
 Other indirect effects of acid rain on and an increase in fungal disease in

wildlife are loss or alteration of food aquatic life and forests.
and habitat resources.
Effects on forests
Effects on micro organisms
 Acid rains kill vegetation and causes
 pH determines the proliferation of any severe damage to the forest landscape. Page
microbial species in a particular
Effect on buildings, monuments and |4
environment and the rate at which it
can produce. materials
 The optimum pH of most bacteria and  Many old, historic, ancient buildings
protozoa is near neutrality; most fungi and works of art/textile etc. are
prefer an acidic environment, most adversely affected by acid rain.
blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline  Limestone and marble are destroyed by
environment. acid rain. Smoke and soot cover such
 So after a long run of acid rain, objects. They slowly dissolve/flake
microbial species in the soil and water away the surfaces because of acid
shift from bacteria-bound to fungi- fumes in the air. Many
bound and cause an imbalance in the buildings/monuments such as Taj
micro flora. Mahal in Agra have suffered from acid
 This causes a delay in the rain.
decomposition of soil organic material,
Material Type of Impact Principal Air Pollutants
Metals Corrosion, tarnishing Sulphur Oxides and other acid gases
Paints and organic Surface erosion, discoloration, Sulphur dioxides, hydrogen sulphide
coatings soiling
Textiles Fading, colour change Nitrogen oxides, ozone
Leather Weakening, powdered surface Sulphur oxides
Rubber Cracking Ozone
Trigger Effect of Acid Rain on Aluminium
Pollutants  Acidified waters are known to leach
substantial amounts of aluminium
 A low pH of the rainwater and
from watersheds.
subsequent increased acidity in the
 Even at relatively low levels, aluminium
environment can trigger off or
has been implicated in dialysis
aggravate the effects of certain harmful
dementia, a disorder of the central
pollutants.
nervous system, which may be toxic to
Mercury individuals with impaired kidney
function.
 Methyl mercury and related short chain
alkyl mercurial compounds are most Cadmium
dangerous to humans, as they
 Cadmium can enter the drinking water
accumulate in edible fish tissue.
supply through corrosion of galvanized
 Although acid deposition may not
pipe or from the copper-zinc solder
increase the production of methyl
used in the distribution systems.
mercury, it may increase the
 A decrease in water pH from 6.5 to 4.5
partitioning of methyl mercury into the
can result in a fivefold increase in
water column.
cadmium and could cause renal
 The use of lime has helped in reducing
tubular damage.
the mercury levels in fish.
Lead  In India, the annual SO2 emission has

almost doubled in the last decade due
 Foetuses and infants are highly to increased fossil fuel consumption.
susceptible to drinking water lead  Lowering of soil pH is reported from
contamination. north-eastern India, coastal Karnataka
 High blood lead levels in children (>30 and Kerala, parts of Orissa, West Page
mug/ Ml) are believed to induce Bengal and Bihar.
biochemical and neurophysiological |5
dysfunction. Indicators
 However, lower than normal blood
levels of lead can cause mental  Lichens serve as good bio-indicators
deficiencies and behavioural problems. for air pollution.
 In the variety of pH around 6.0, several
Asbestos animals, those are important food
items for fish decline. These include the
 Asbestos in natural rock can be freshwater shrimp, crayfish, snails and
released by acidic waters. some small mussels.
Acid Rain Areas Acid Rain Control
 They are concentrated in the  Any procedure that shall reduce,
industrialized belt of the northern minimize, or halt emission of sulphur
hemisphere. and nitrogen oxides into the
 They are often upland and/or atmosphere shall control acid rain.
mountainous areas, which are well-  Use of low sulphur fuel or natural gas
watered by rain and snow. or washed coal (chemical washing of
 Due to the abundance of water, they pulverized coal) in thermal plants can
possess numerous lakes and streams reduce incidences of acid rain.
and also have more land covered with  Buffering - the practice of adding a
vegetation. Being upland, they often neutralizing agent to the acidified water
have thin soils and glaciated bedrock. to increase the pH is one of the
 Many parts of Scandinavia, Canada, important control measures. Usually
the North and Northeast United States lime in the form of calcium oxide and
and Northern Europe (particularly West calcium carbonate is used.
Germany and upland Britain) share
these features. Ocean Acidification
 Across the Atlantic there are number of
acid rain hot spots including Nova  Ocean acidification has been called the
Scotia, Southern Ontario and Quebec “evil twin of global warming” and “the
in Canada, the Adirondack Mountains other CO2 problem”.
in New York, Great Smoky mountains,  Ocean acidification is the ongoing
parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the decrease in the pH of the Earth's
Colorado Rockies of the US. oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
In India
 An estimated 30–40% of the carbon
 In India, the first report of acid rain dioxide from human activity released
came from Bombay in 1974. Instances into the atmosphere dissolves into
of acid rain are being reported from oceans, rivers and lakes.
metropolitan cities.  To achieve chemical equilibrium, some
of it reacts with the water to form
carbonic acid.
 Some of these extra carbonic acid 4. Acidification could damage the Arctic
molecules react with a water molecule tourism economy and affect the way of
to give a bicarbonate ion and a life of indigenous peoples. A major
hydronium ion, thus increasing ocean pillar of Arctic tourism is the sport
acidity (H+ ion concentration). fishing and hunting industry.
 Checking CO and CO2 emissions and 5. Increasing acidity accentuates coral
Page
controlling pollution are the only bleaching as corals are very sensitive to
means to reduce ocean acidification. changes in water composition. |6
Other contributors How ocean acidification effects

calcifying ability
 Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and
6 and has impact on surface ocean  Seawater absorbs CO2 to produce
chemistry. It has major effect on ocean carbonic acid, bicarbonate and
acidification locally and regionally but carbonate ions.
very small globally.
 The carbonate ions are essential to the
 Eutrophication leads to large plankton calcification process that allows certain
blooms, and when these blooms marine organisms to build their
collapse and sink to the sea bed the calcium carbonate shells and skeletons
subsequent respiration of bacteria (e.g. hard tropical corals, cold water
decomposing the algae leads to a corals, molluscs, crustaceans, sea
decrease in sea water oxygen and an urchins, certain types of plankton,
increase in CO2 (a decline in pH). lobsters, etc.).
Effects of Ocean Acidification  However, increase in atmospheric CO2
levels lead to decrease in pH level,
 Oceans are an important reservoir for increase in the concentration of
CO2, absorbing a significant quantity carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions,
of it (one-third) produced by causing a decrease in the concentration
anthropogenic activities and effectively of carbonate ions.
buffering climate change.  Thus carbonate ions are less available
 The uptake of atmospheric carbon and calcification is therefore harder to
dioxide is occurring at a rate exceeding achieve, and may be prevented
the natural buffering capacity of the altogether.
oceans creating new problems in the
Saturation horizons
form of ocean acidification.
1. Increasing acidity depresses metabolic
 Deep, cold ocean waters are naturally
rates and immune responses in some
under saturated with carbonate ions
organisms.
causing the shells of most calcifying
2. Other chemical reactions are triggered
organisms to dissolve.
which result in a net decrease in the
 Surface waters are oversaturated with
amount of carbonate ions available.
carbonate ions and do not readily
This makes it more difficult for marine
dissolve shells of calcifying organisms.
calcifying organisms, such as coral
 The saturation horizon is the level
(calcareous corals) and some plankton
below which calcium carbonate
(calcareous plankton), to form biogenic
minerals undergo dissolution.
calcium carbonate.
3. Commercial fisheries are threatened  Those organisms that can survive
because acidification harms calcifying below the saturation horizon do so due
organisms which form the base of the to special mechanisms to protect their
Arctic food webs. calcium carbonate from dissolving.
 As ocean acidification causes this 2) The growth and survival of coral reefs
horizon to rise vertically (upwelling) in will be adversely affected.
the water column so more and more 3) The survival of some animals that
calcifying organisms will be exposed to have phytoplanktonic larvae will be
under saturated water and thus adversely affected.
vulnerable to dissolution of their shells 4) The cloud seeding and formation of
Page
and skeletons. clouds will be adversely affected.
|7
Impact of Ocean Acidification on Which of statements given above is / are
Cloud Formation correct?
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
 The majority of sulfur in the b) 2 only
atmosphere is emitted from the ocean, c) 1 and 3 only
often in the form of dimethylsulfide d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(DMS) produced by phytoplankton.
 But in acidified ocean water, Explanation:
phytoplankton produce less DMS. This
reduction of sulfur may lead to We have already learnt that ocean
decreased cloud formation, raising acidification decreases the calcifying
global temperatures. ability of corals, calcareous plankton,
 Some of DMS enters the atmosphere crustaceans etc. It also adversely affects
and reacts to make sulphuric acid, cloud formation and cloud seeding. So
which clumps into aerosols, or Options 1, 2 and 4 are correct.
microscopic airborne particles. Answer: d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
 Aerosols seed the formation of clouds,
which help cool the Earth by reflecting
sunlight.
Artificial Cloud seeding
 Cloud seeding is the process of

spreading either dry ice, or more
commonly, silver iodide aerosols, into
the upper part of clouds to try to
stimulate the precipitation process and
form rain.
 Since most rainfall starts through the
growth of ice crystals from super-cooled
cloud droplets in the upper parts of
clouds, the silver iodide particles are
meant to encourage the growth of new
ice particles.
Q2. The acidification of oceans is

increasing. Why is this phenomenon a
cause of concern?
1) The growth and survival of calcareous
phytoplankton will be adversely
affected.
Water Pollution....................................... 1  Sewage water include discharges from

houses, commercial and industrial
Causes of Water Pollution ....................... 1 establishments connected to public
sewerage system.
Effects of Water Pollution ....................... 4  The sewage contains human and
animal excreta, food residues, cleaning Page
Water Pollution Control Measures .......... 7
agents, detergents and other wastes.
Ground Water .......................................10  Domestic and hospital sewage contain | 1
many undesirable pathogenic
Water Conservation and Management....12 microorganisms, and its disposal into a
water without proper treatment.
Water Pollution
Putrescibility is the process of
 Water pollution is the decomposition of organic matter present in
addition/presence of undesirable water by microorganisms using oxygen.
substances to/in water such as Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – Biological
organic, inorganic, biological, Oxygen Demand (BOD) – Chemical
radiological, heat, which degrades the oxygen demand (COD)
quality of water so that it becomes unfit
for use’. DO
 Water pollution is caused by a variety
of human activities such as industrial,  Presence of organic and inorganic
agricultural and domestic. wastes in water decreases the dissolved
 Natural sources of pollution of water Oxygen (DO) content of the water.
are soil erosion, leaching of minerals  Water having DO content below 8.0
from rocks and decaying of organic mg/L may be considered as
matter. contaminated. Water having DO
content below. 4.0 mg/L is considered
Point and non-point sources of to be highly polluted.
pollution  DO content of water is important for
the survival of aquatic organisms. A
 Rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, estuaries number of factors like surface
and ground water sources may be turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2
polluted by point or non-point sources. consumption by organisms and
 When pollutants are discharged from a decomposition of organic matter are the
specific location such as a drain pipe factors which determine the amount of
carrying industrial effluents discharged DO present in water.
directly into a water body it represents  The higher amounts of waste increases
point source pollution. the rates of decomposition and O2
 In contrast non-point sources include consumption, thereby decreases the
discharge of pollutants from diffused DO content of water.
sources or from a larger area such as
run off from agricultural fields, grazing BOD
lands, construction sites, abandoned  The demand for O2 is directly related to
mines and pits, roads and streets. increasing input of organic wastes and
is expressed as biological oxygen
Causes of Water Pollution demand (BOD) of water.
 Water pollution by organic wastes is
Sewage Water measured in terms of Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD).
 BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen biodegradable) and oxidizable

needed by bacteria in decomposing the inorganic compounds in the water
organic wastes present in water. It is sample.
expressed in milligrams of oxygen per
litre of water. Industrial Wastes
 The higher value of BOD indicates low
DO content of water. Since BOD is  The industries discharge several Page
limited to biodegradable materials inorganic and organic pollutants, | 2
only. Therefore, it is not a reliable which may prove highly toxic to the
method of measuring pollution load in living beings.
water.  Discharge of waste water from
industries like petroleum, paper
COD manufacturing, metal extraction and
processing, chemical manufacturing,
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a etc., that often contain toxic
slightly better mode used to measure substances, notably, heavy metals
pollution load in water. (defined as elements with density > 5
 COD measures the amount of oxygen g/cm3 such as mercury, cadmium,
in parts per million required to oxidize copper, lead, arsenic etc.) and a
organic (biodegradable and non- variety of organic compounds.
Type of Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutant
Mining Chlorides, ferrous sulphate,
sulphuric acid, hydrogen sulphide,
ferric hydroxide and heavy metals.
Iron and Steel Iron cyanide, thiocyanates, Oil, phenol and naptha
sulphides, oxides of copper,
chromium, cadmium, and
mercury.
Chemical Plants Various acids and alkalies, Aromatic compounds solvents,
chlorides, sulphates, nitrates of organic acids, nitro compound
metals, phosphorus, fluorine, silica dyes, etc.
and suspended particles.
Pharmaceutical Proteins, carbohydrates, organic
solvent intermediate products,
drugs and antibiotics
Soap and Tertiary ammonium compounds, Flats and fatty acids, glycerol,
Detergent alkalies (e.g. lime or caustic soda) polyphosphates, sulphonated
hydrocarbons.
Food processing pathogens
Paper and Pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors. organic acids.
Agricultural sources  Excess fertilizers may reach the ground
water by leaching or may be mixed with
 Agricultural runoff contains dissolved surface water of rivers, lakes and
salts such as nitrates, phosphates, ponds by runoff and drainage.
ammonia and other nutrients, and  Pesticides include insecticides,
toxic metal ions and organic fungicides, herbicides, nematicides,
compounds. rodenticides and soil fumigants. They
 Fertilizers contain major plant contain a wide range of chemicals such
nutrients such as nitrogen, as chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs.
phosphorus and potassium. E.g. DDT, Endosulfan etc.),
organophosphates, metallic salts, Radiation exposure causes mutations in

carbonates, thiocarbonates, DNA of marine organisms. If those
derivatives of acetic acid etc. Many of mutations are not repaired, the cell may
the pesticides are non-degradable and turn cancerous.
their residues have long life.
 The animal excreta such as dung, Radioactive iodine tends to be absorbed
wastes from poultry farms, piggeries by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid Page
and slaughter houses etc. reach the cancer. |3
water though run off and surface
leaching during rainy season.
Oil Spills
Thermal and Radiation Pollution  Oil spills are most glaring of all oceanic
pollution.
 Power plants – thermal and nuclear,  The most common cause of oil spill is
chemical and other industries use lot of leakage during marine transport and
water for cooling purposes and the leakage form underground storage
used hot water is discharged into tanks. Oil spill could occur during off
rivers, streams or oceans. shore oil production as well.
 Discharge of hot water may increase Impact of oil spill on marine life
the temperature of the receiving water
by 10 to 15 °C above the ambient water  Oil being lighter than water covers the
temperature. This is thermal pollution. water surface as a thin film cutting off
 Increase in water temperature oxygen to floating plants and other
decreases dissolved oxygen in water producers.
which adversely affects aquatic life.  Within hours of oil spill, the fishes,
 Unlike terrestrial organisms, aquatic shellfish, plankton die due to
organisms are adopted to a uniform suffocation and metabolic disorders.
steady temperature of environment.  Birds and sea mammals that consume
Sudden rise in temperature kills fishes dead fishes and plankton die due to
and other aquatic animals. poisoning. Death of these organisms
 Discharge of hot water in water body severely damages marine ecosystems.
affects feeding in fishes, increases their
metabolism and affects their growth. Impact of oil spills on terrestrial life
Their swimming efficiency declines.
 Bays, estuaries, shores, reefs, beaches
Running away from predators or
particularly near large coastal cities or
chasing prey becomes difficult. Their
at the mouth of rivers are relatively
resistance to diseases and parasites
more susceptible to the hazards of oil
decreases.
spills.
 One of the best methods of reducing
 A number of coastal activities,
thermal pollution is to store the hot
especially recreational such as bathing,
water in cooling ponds, allow the water
boating, angling, diving, rafting are
to cool before releasing into any
affected. As a result tourism and hotel
receiving water body
business in the coastal areas suffers
 Nuclear accidents near water bodies or
seriously.
during natural calamities like tsunami
and earthquakes poses the risk of Invasive species
radiation leakage (radiation exposure)
into water bodies. E.g. Fukushima  Plants of water hyacinth are the
Daiichi nuclear disaster. world’s most problematic aquatic weed,
also called ‘Terror of Bengal’.
 They grow abundantly in eutrophic Next easiest option is Arsenic (Heavy

water bodies, and lead to an imbalance metal). Damn!
in the ecosystem dynamics of the water
body. Nest easiest option is Uranium. Many
 They cause havoc by their excessive columns are written on uranium mining
growth leading to stagnation of polluted and its ill-effects. So, (a) also can be
water. elevated. (a) and (b) eliminated. (c) and (d) Page
remains. |4
The knowledge of either “Sorbitol” or
“Formaldehyde” will tell us the answer.
Formaldehyde is more known than

sorbitol. Googling didn’t give me any
authentic source that called formaldehyde
a water pollutant. It is used a preservative
to preserve human organs. It finds some
application in textile, resign and wood
industry.
Underground water pollution Answer: c) 1, 3 and 5 only
Sorbitol (glucitol) is a sugar alcohol with a

 In India at many places, the ground sweet taste which the human body
water is threatened with contamination metabolizes slowly.
due to seepage from industrial and
municipal wastes and effluents, sewage Marine pollution
channels and agricultural runoff.
 Pollutants like fluorides, uranium,  Oceans are the ultimate sink of all
heavy metals and nutrients like natural and manmade pollutants.
nitrates and phosphates are common  Rivers discharge their pollutants into
in many parts of India. the sea.
 The sewerage and garbage of coastal
Q1. Which of the following can be found
cities are also dumped into the sea.
as pollutants in the drinking water in
 The other sources of oceanic pollution
some parts of India?
are navigational discharge of oil,
1) Arsenic grease, detergents, sewage, garbage
2) Sorbitol and radioactive wastes, off shore oil
3) Fluoride mining, oil spills.
4) Formaldehyde
5) Uranium Effects of Water Pollution
Select the correct answer using the codes Effects of Water Pollution on
given below. Human Health
a) 1 and 3 only
 Domestic and hospital sewage contain
b) 2, 4 and 5 only
many undesirable pathogenic
c) 1, 3 and 5 only
microorganisms, and its disposal into a
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
water without proper treatment may
Easiest option is 3) Fluoride. So, (b) can be cause outbreak of serious diseases,
eliminated. such as, amoebiasis dysentery,
typhoid, jaundice, cholera, etc.
 Metals like lead, zinc, arsenic,  Presence of large amounts of nutrients

copper, mercury and cadmium in in water results in algal bloom
industrial waste waters adversely affect [excessive growth of planktonic (free-
humans and other animals. floating) algae [Harmful Algal Blooms
 Arsenic pollution of ground water has and Eutrophication are explained in
been reported from West Bengal, the previous post]. This leads to ageing Page
Orissa, Bihar, Western U.P. of lakes.
Consumption of such arsenic polluted  A few toxic substances, often present in | 5
water leads to accumulation of arsenic industrial waste waters, can undergo
in the body parts like blood, nails and biological magnification
hairs causing skin lesions, rough skin, (Biomagnification) in the aquatic food
dry and thickening of skin and chain. This phenomenon is well-known
ultimately skin cancer. for mercury and DDT.
 Mercury compounds in waste water are  High concentrations of DDT disturb
converted by bacterial action into calcium metabolism in birds, which
extremely toxic methyl mercury, causes thinning of eggshell and their
which can cause numbness of limbs, premature breaking, eventually causing
lips and tongue, deafness, blurring of decline in bird populations.
vision and mental derangement.  Thermal wastewater eliminates or
 Pollution of water bodies by mercury reduces the number of organisms
causes Minamata (neurological sensitive to high temperature, and may
syndrome) disease in humans and enhance the growth of plants and fish
dropsy in fishes. in extremely cold areas but, only after
 Lead causes lead poisoning (Lead causing damage to the indigenous flora
interferes with a variety of body and fauna.
processes and is toxic to many organs  Aquatic organisms take up pesticides
and tissues). The compounds of lead from water which get into the food
cause anaemia, headache, loss of chain and move up the food chain. At
muscle power and bluish line around higher trophic level they get
the gum. concentrated and may reach the upper
 Cadmium poisoning causes cancer of end of the food chain
lungs and liver and Itai – Itai disease [Biomagnification explained in
(a painful disease of bones and joints, ‘Trophic Levels’].
causes softening of the bones and
kidney failure) etc. Effects of Water Pollution on
 Water contaminated with cadmium can Aquatic Ecosystem
cause itai itai disease also called ouch-
ouch disease (a painful disease of  Polluted water reduces Dissolved
bones and joints) and cancer of lungs Oxygen (DO) content, thereby,
and liver. eliminates sensitive organisms like
plankton, molluscs and fish etc.
Effects of Water Pollution on  However a few tolerant species like
Environment Tubifex (annelid worm) and some
insect larvae may survive in highly
 Micro-organisms involved in polluted water with low DO content.
biodegradation of organic matter in Such species are recognized as
sewage waste consume lot of oxygen, indicator species for polluted water.
and make water oxygen deficient killing  Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls
fish and other aquatic creatures. (PCBs) and heavy metals directly
eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms.
Page
|6
Page
|7
 Hot waters discharged from industries, industrialization have already damaged

when added to water bodies, lowers its this mighty river beyond repair.
DO content.  In India, the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB), an apex body
Water Pollution Control Measures in the field of water quality
management, has developed a concept
 Realizing the importance of of “designated best use”.
maintaining the cleanliness of the  Accordingly the water body is
water bodies, the Government of India designated as A, B, C, D, E on the
has passed the Water (Prevention and basis of
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to (1) pH,
safeguard our water resources. (2) dissolved oxygen, mg/1
 An ambitious plan to save the river, (3) BOD, (200C) mg/l
called the Ganga Action Plan was (4) total coliform (MPN/100ml)
launched in 1985. It aimed to reduce (5) free ammonia mg/l,
the pollution levels in the river. (6) electrical conductivity etc.
However, the increasing population and  The CPCB, in collaboration with the
concerned State Pollution Control
Boards, has classified all the water  Bioremediation is the use of

bodies including coastal waters in the microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to
country according to their “designated degrade the environmental
best uses”. contaminants into less toxic forms.
 This classification helps the water  The microorganisms may be indigenous
quality managers and planners to set to a contaminated area or they may be Page
water quality targets and identify needs isolated from elsewhere and brought to
and priority for water quality the contaminated site. |8
restoration programmes for various  The process of bioremediation can be
water bodies in the country. monitored indirectly by measuring the
 The famous Ganga Action Plan and Oxidation Reduction Potential or
subsequently the National River redox in soil and groundwater,
Action Plan are results of such together with pH, temperature, oxygen
exercise. content, electron acceptor/donor
 Riparian buffers: A riparian buffer is a concentrations, and concentration of
vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a breakdown products (e.g. carbon
stream, usually forested, which helps dioxide)
shade and partially protect a stream
from the impact of adjacent land uses. In situ bioremediation
It plays a key role in increasing water
quality in associated streams, rivers,  In situ — It involves treatment of the
and lakes, thus providing contaminated material at the site.
environmental benefits.  Bioventing: supply of air and nutrients
 Treatment of sewage water and the through wells to contaminated soil to
industrial effluents before releasing it stimulate the growth of indigenous
into water bodies. Hot water should be bacteria. It is used for simple
cooled before release from the power hydrocarbons and can be used where
plants. the contamination is deep under the
surface.
 Excessive use of fertilizers and
pesticides should be avoided. Organic  Biosparging: Injection of air under
farming and efficient use of animal pressure below the water table to
residues as fertilizers can replace increase groundwater oxygen
chemical fertilizers. concentrations and enhance the rate of
biological degradation of contaminants
 Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed,
by naturally occurring bacteria
invasive specie) can purify water by
taking some toxic materials and a  Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are
number of heavy metals from water. imported to a contaminated site to
enhance degradation process.
 Oil spills in water can be cleaned with
the help of bregoli — a by-product of Using bioremediation techniques, TERI
paper industry resembling saw dust, oil has developed a mixture of bacteria called
zapper, microorganisms. ‘Oilzapper and Oilivorous-S’ which
 It has been suggested that we should degrades the pollutants of oil-
plant eucalyptus trees all along sewage contaminated sites, leaving behind no
ponds. These trees absorb all surplus harmful residues. This technique is not
wastewater rapidly and release pure only environment friendly, but also highly
water vapor into the atmosphere. cost-effective.
Bioremediation Q2. Recently, ‘oilzapper’ was in the
news. What is it?
a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the Disadvantages of bioremediation

remediation of oil sludge and oil
spills.  Bioremediation is limited to those
b) It is the latest technology developed compounds that are biodegradable.
for under- sea oil exploration. Not all compounds are susceptible to
c) It is a genetically engineered high rapid and complete degradation.
biofuel yielding maize variety.  Biological processes are often highly Page
d) It is the latest technology to control specific. |9
the accidentally caused flames from  It is difficult to extrapolate from bench
oil wells. and pilot-scale studies to full-scale field
operations.
Answer: a) Current Affairs based question.  Bioremediation often takes longer time
Keep track of latest developments. than other treatment process.
Ex situ bioremediation Phytoremediation
 Ex situ — involves the removal of the  Phytoremediation is use of plants to
contaminated material to be treated remove contaminants from soil and
elsewhere. water. Natural phytoremediation is
 Land farming: contaminated soil is carried out by mangroves, estuarine
excavated and spread over a prepared vegetation and other wetland
bed and periodically tilled until vegetation.
pollutants are degraded. The goal is to  Phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation:
stimulate indigenous biodegradative plants accumulate contaminants into
microorganisms and facilitate their the roots and aboveground shoots or
aerobic degradation of contaminants. leaves.
 Biopiles: it is a hybrid of land farming  Phytotransformation/phytodegradati
and composting. Essentially, on: uptake of organic contaminants
engineered cells are constructed as from soil, and their transformation to
aerated composted piles. Typically used more stable, less toxic, less mobile
for treatment of surface contamination form.
with petroleum hydrocarbons.
 Phytostabilization: plants reduce the
 Bioreactors: it involves the processing mobility and migration of contaminated
of contaminated solid material (soil, soil. Leachable constituents are
sediment, sludge) or water through an adsorbed and bound into the plant
engineered containment system. structure.
 Composting: Composting is nature's  Rhizodegradation: breakdown of
process of recycling decomposed contaminants through the activity
organic materials into a rich soil known existing in the rhizosphere (region of
as compost. soil in the vicinity of plant roots). This
Advantages and Disadvantages of activity is due to the presence of
bioremediation proteins and enzymes produced by the
plants or by soil organisms such as
Advantages of bioremediation bacteria, yeast, and fungi.
 Rhizofiltration: water remediation
 Useful for the complete destruction of a technique that involves the uptake of
wide variety of contaminants. contaminants by plant roots.
 The complete destruction of target Rhizofiltration is used to reduce
pollutants is possible. contamination in natural wetlands and
 Less expensive. estuary areas (E.g. Mangroves).
 Environment friendly.
 Mycoremediation: fungi are used to Mahatma Gandhi said: “No one need to
decontaminate the area. wait for anyone else to adopt a
 Mycofiltration: using fungal mycelia to humane and enlightened course of
filter toxic waste and microorganisms. action.”
 The bacterium Deinococcus
radiodurans has been used to detoxify Groundwater Contaminants and
Page
toluene and ionic mercury which are Their Effects
released from radioactive nuclear | 10
waste. Nitrates
Ground Water  Dissolved nitrates commonly

contaminate groundwater.
Titbit: 22 March is celebrated as the  Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts
world water day. with hemoglobin to form non-functional
methaemoglobin, and impairs oxygen
General Assembly of the United Nations transport. This condition is called
proclaimed the period 2005 – 2015 as methaemoglobinemia or blue baby
the International Decade for action on syndrome.
“Water for life”
Methemoglobin is a form of the oxygen-
carrying metalloprotein hemoglobin.
Methemoglobin cannot bind oxygen,
unlike oxyhemoglobin.
 High level of nitrates may form

carcinogens and can accelerate
eutrophication in surface waters.
Pathogens
 The moisture in the soil indicates the  Poor hygiene of wells may cause
presence of water underground. pathogenic contamination. Water
 If we dig deeper and deeper, we would seepage from solid waste dumps and
reach a level where all the space municipal drains may also cause
between particles of soil and gaps pathogenic contamination.
between rocks are filled with water. The
upper limit of this layer is called the Trace metals
water table.
 The water table may be at a depth of  Include lead, mercury, cadmium,
less than a metre or may be several copper, chromium and nickel. These
metres below the ground. The water metals can be toxic and carcinogenic.
found below the water table is called
Arsenic
groundwater.
 The process of seeping of water into the  Seepage of industrial and mine
ground is called infiltration. discharges, fly ash ponds of thermal
 At places the groundwater is stored power plants can lead to metals in
between layers of hard rock below the groundwater.
water table. This is known as an  In India and Bangladesh [Ganges
aquifer. Delta], millions of people are exposed to
 The rainwater can be used to recharge groundwater contaminated with high
the groundwater. This is referred to as levels of arsenic, a highly toxic and
water harvesting. dangerous pollutant.
 Chronic exposure to arsenic causes reduce the percolation and evaporation

black foot disease. It also causes losses, conservation efforts in domestic
diarrhoea, peripheral neuritis, uses, groundwater recharging, rain
hyperkeratosis and also lung and skin water harvesting, afforestation,
cancer. recycling and reuse are important to
combat this problem.
Organic compounds Page
Pathogenic pollution | 11
 Seepage of agricultural runoff loaded
with organic compounds like pesticides  Water borne diseases are the most
and may cause pesticide pollution of important water quality issues in India.
ground water. This is mainly due to inadequate
arrangements for transport and
Fluoride treatment of wastewaters.
 Excess fluoride in drinking water Oxygen depletion
causes neuromuscular disorders,
gastro-intestinal problems, teeth  Eutrophication [oxygen depletion due
deformity, hardening of bones and to algal blooms] is a common problem
stiff and painful joints (skeletal in most of the India lakes and rivers
fluorosis). due to discharge of untreated sewage
 Fluorisis is a common problem in and industrial effluents.
several states of the country due to
intake of high fluoride content water. Salinity
 Fluorides cause dental fluorisis,  There are number of cases where
stiffness of joints (particularly spinal salinity is increasing in both surface
cord) causing humped back. water and groundwater.
 Pain in bones and joint and outward  The increase in groundwater salinity is
bending of legs from the knees is called mainly due to increased irrigation
Knock-Knee syndrome. activities or sea water intrusion in
 High concentration of fluoride ions is coastal areas.
present in drinking water in 13 states
of India. The maximum level of fluoride, Toxic pollution
which the human body can tolerate is
1.5 parts per million (mg/L of water).  Due to discharge of toxic effluents from
Long term ingestion of fluoride ions many industries and increased use of
causes fluorosis. chemicals in agriculture and their
subsequent contribution to the water
Major Water Issues Of India bodies, many water bodies in the
country are polluted due to presence of
Water scarcity toxic substances.
 Due to un-even distribution of rainfall Ecological health

in time and space and ever-increasing
demand of water for agricultural,  A large number of areas in our aquatic
industrial and domestic activities, the environment support rare species of
water resources are over-exploited. This aquatic and amphibious plants and
is resulting in shrinking or even drying animals and are, therefore, ecologically
up of many water bodies for very sensitive. They need special
considerable periods in a year. protection.
 Reducing demands by optimum use,
minimization of wastage, efforts to
Water Conservation and the anaerobic digestion of human

Management waste.
 Bio tank: The term bio tank is used for
 Primary source of water in India is the tanks made up of concrete for the
south-west and north-east monsoons. anaerobic digestion of human waste.
Monsoon, however, is erratic and  Aerobic Bacteria: Aerobic bacteria are Page
amount of rain fall is highly variable in those which flourish in the presence of
different parts of our country. Hence, free dissolved oxygen in the waste | 12
surface runoff needs be conserved. water and consume organic matter for
their food, and thereby oxidizing it to
EcoSan toilets stable end products.
 Can you imagine the amount of water

that one can save if one didn’t have to
flush the toilet? Well, this is already a
reality. Ecological sanitation is a
sustainable system for handling
human excreta, using dry composting
toilets.
 This is a practical, hygienic, efficient
and cost-effective solution to human
waste disposal.
 With this composting method, human
excreta can be recycled into a resource
(as natural fertilizer), which reduces
the need for chemical fertilizers. There
are working ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many
areas of Kerala and Sri Lanka.
Bio-Toilets
Designed by
 Railways along with DRDO.
Why Bio Toilets in Rail?
 Direct discharge of human waste from

the existing toilet system in trains
causes corrosion of the tracks, costing
crores to replace the rail tracks.
 The bio-toilets are fitted underneath
the lavatories and the human waste
discharged into them is acted upon by
a particular kind of bacteria that
converts it into non-corrosive neutral
water.
 Anaerobic Bacteria: Anaerobic
Terms associated with Bio-Toilets bacteria flourish in the absence of free
dissolved oxygen, and survive by
 Bio-digesters: The term bio digester is utilizing the bounded molecular oxygen
used for the shells made up of steel for in compounds like nitrates (NO3) and
sulphates (SO4) etc. thereby reducing  Complete anaerobic conditions.

them to stable end products along with  More than 99% pathogen inactivation.
evolution of foul smelling gases like  Anaerobes can even degrade
H2S (hydrogen sulphide), CH4 detergents/phenyl
(methane) etc.  Sludge generation is very less.
 Facultative Bacteria: Facultative  One time bacterial inoculation is Page
bacteria can operate either as enough.
aerobically or as anaerobically.  Minimal maintenance and no recurring | 13
 Anaerobic Microbial inoculums: cost.
mixture of different types of bacteria
(hydrolytic, Acidogenic, acetogenic and With reference to bio-toilets used by
methanogenic groups) responsible for the Indian Railways, consider the
breakdown of complex polymers into following statements:
simple sugars which are further broken
down into low chain fatty acids and 1. The decomposition of human waste
finally into biogas. in the bio-toilets is initiated by a
fungal inoculum.
Anaerobic biodegradation system 2. Ammonia and water vapour are the
only end products in this
 Anaerobic digestion is a collection of decomposition which are released
processes by which microorganisms into the atmosphere.
break down biodegradable material in
the absence of oxygen. Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Decomposition of human waste in bio-

The final waste are Methane and Carbon
toilets is carried out by anaerobic bacteria.
Dioxide.
The final waste is CO2 and CH4.
Aerobic biodegradation Vs Anaerobic
biodegradation Answer: d) Neither 1 nor 2
Aerobic biodegradation Contour farming
 Forced aeration is essential which is  Contour farming is an example of
energy intensive. harvesting technique involving water
 Incomplete aeration (partial aerobic and moisture control at a very simple
condition) leads to foul smell. level.
 Less effective pathogen inactivation.  It often consists of rows of rocks placed
 Cannot tolerate detergents along the contour of steps. Runoff
 Generate large amount of sludge. captured by these barriers also allows
 Repeated addition of bacteria/enzyme for retention of soil, thereby serving as
is required for the process. erosion control measure on gentle
 Maintenance & recurring cost is high. slopes.
 This technique is especially suitable for
Anaerobic biodegradation
areas having rainfall of considerable
 No aeration is required. intensity, spread over large part i.e. in
Himalayan area, north east states and Adoption of drip sprinkler

Andaman and Nicobar islands. irrigation
 In areas where rainfall is scanty and for
a short duration, it is worth attempting  Surface irrigation methods leads to
these techniques, which will induce water loss due to evaporation and
surface runoff, which can then be percolation. Page
stored.  Drip irrigation is an efficient method of
irrigation in which a limited area near | 14
Ground water conservation the plant is irrigated by dripping water.
This method is particularly useful in
Artificial recharge
row crop.
 Increasing the surface area for  Similarly sprinkler method is also
percolation, percolation tank suitable for such water scarce areas.
construction etc. are some artificial About 80% water consumption can be
recharge methods. reduced by this method, whereas the
drip irrigation can reduce water
Catchment area protection (CAP) consumption by 50 to 70 %.
 It helps in withholding runoff water Management of growing pattern of
albeit temporarily by a check bund crops
constructed across the streams in hilly
terrains to delay the run off so that  In water scarce areas, the crop
greater time is available for water to selection should be based on efficiency
seep underground. of the crop to utilize the water. Some of
 Such methods are in use in north-east the plants suitable for water scarce
states, in hilly areas of tribal belts. This areas are:
technique also helps in soil 1. plants with shorter growth period;
conservation. Afforestation in the 2. high yielding plants that require no
catchment area is also adopted for increase in water supply;
water and soil conservation. 3. plants with deep and well trenched
roots and
Inter-basin transfer of water 4. plants which cannot tolerate surface
irrigation.
 Western and peninsular regions have
comparatively low water Selection of crop varieties
resources/cultivable land ratio.
Northern and eastern region which are  Crop performance and yield are the
drained by Ganga and Brahmaputra results of genotype expression as
have substantial water resources. modulated by continuous interactions
 Hence, the scheme of diverting water with the environment.
from region with surplus water to water  Generally, the new varieties of crop do
deficit region can be adopted. not require more water than the older
 Ganga-Cauvery link would enable the ones. However, they require timely
transfer of vast quantities of Ganga supply of water because their
basin flood water running out to sea, to productivity is high.
west and south west India.  Frequent light irrigation is more
 The transfer of the surplus Ganga conductive than heavy irrigation at
water would make up for the periodical large intervals for obtaining high yields.
shortage in Son, Narmada, Godavari,
Krishna and Cauvery. Nutritional management
 Potassium plays a major role under  Transpiration losses can be reduced by

stress conditions. It improves the reducing air movement over a crop by
tissue water potential by putting wind breaks and evolving such
osmoregulation, ultimately increasing types of crops which possess
the water use efficiency. xerophytic adaptations.
 Experiments conducted at the Water Page
Technology Centre, Coimbatore, Recycling of water
indicated that foliar application of 0.5% | 15
potassium chloride can reduce the  The wastewater from industrial or
moisture stress in soyabean, sorghum domestic sources can be used after
and groundnut. proper treatment, for irrigation,
recharging ground water, and even for
Role of antitranspirants industrial or municipal use. If
agricultural lands are available close to
 Application of antitranspirants reduces cities, municipal waste water can be
transpiration maintaining thereby the easily used for irrigation.
tissue water potential. Plants then take
up less water from soil. Reuse of wastewater
 Antitranspirants can prolong the
irrigation intervals by slowing down soil  Wastewater contains lots of nutrients.
water depletion. Application of Kaolin Its use for irrigation saves these
(3%) and lime wash (2%) was found to nutrients. It improves the productivity
maintain the water balance of plant of crops and soil fertility.
and resulted in normal yield of  Wastewater is a resource rather than a
sorghum under moisture stress waste since it contains appreciable
conditions. amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and
 Certain growth regulators reduce the potash.
plants susceptibility to water stress.  Stabilization ponds can be used for fish
Application of cycoel, a growth aquaculture. The effluent can also be
retardant increases the ability to used for cultivation of short-term and
withstand drought. long term, ornamental, commercial and
 Cycoel application also reduces fodder crops.
production of gibberellic acid which The potential applications of reusing of
leads to closing of stomata. treated wastewater are in the following
Transpiration loss of water gets fields or areas:
reduced.
 Agricultural use through irrigation of
Reducing evapotranspiration crops as well as for improving river
amenity;
 Evapotranspiration losses can be  Industrial cooling especially in large
reduced by reducing the evaporation industrial enterprises;
from soil surface and transpiration
 Reuse in municipal public areas such
from the plants, in arid zones,
as watering lawns, parks, play grounds
considerable amount of water is lost in
and trees;
evaporation from soil surface.
 Flushing toilets in hotels and
 This can be prevented by placing water
residential districts;
tight moisture barriers or water tight
 Reuse of the treated wastewater for
mulches on the soil surface. Non-
urban landscape purposes.
porous materials like papers, asphalt,
plastic foils or metal foils can also be  Treated waste water can also be used
for groundwater recharging.
used for preventing evaporation losses.
Grey water reuse directly by adapted plant species.

Artificial surfaces such as netting-
 Grey water is defined as untreated surface traps or polythene sheets can
household wastewater, which has not be exposed to fog and dew; the
come into contact with toilet waste. It resulting water can be used for crops.
can originate from the shower, bath,  Contour farming is adopted in hilly Page
bathroom, washing basin, clothes areas and in lowland areas for paddy
washing machine and laundry trough. fields. Farmers recognize the efficiently | 16
Grey water can be used in agriculture of contour based systems for
and many industries. conserving soil and water.
 Salt-resistant varieties of crops have
Reduce the loss of water due to
been also developed recently. Because
evaporation these grow in saline areas, overall
agricultural productivity is increased
 The methods that reduce evaporation without making additional demands on
from water bodies are - installing wind fresh water sources. Thus, this is a
breaks, reducing energy available for good water conservation strategy.
evaporation, constructing artificial  Desalination technologies such as
aquifers, minimizing exposed surface distillation, electro-dialysis and reverse
through reservoir regulation, reducing osmosis are available.
ratio of area/volume of water bodies,
locating reservoirs at higher altitudes Water Treatment for Domestic
and applying monomolecular firms.
Use
 There are numerous methods to reduce
losses due to evaporation and to  Substances that are removed during
improve soil moisture. Some of them the process of drinking water treatment
are listed below: include suspended solids, bacteria,
 Mulching i.e. the application of organic algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals
or inorganic materials such as plant such as iron and manganese.
debris, compost, etc., slows down the  The processes involved in removing the
surface run-off, improves soil moisture, contaminants include physical
reduces evaporation losses and processes such as settling and
improves soil fertility. filtration, chemical processes such as
 Soil covered by crops, slow down run- disinfection and coagulation and
off and minimize evaporation losses, biological processes such as slow sand
hence, fields should not be left bare for filtration.
long periods of time.
 Ploughing helps to move the soil Coagulation / Flocculation
around. As a consequence it retains
more water thereby reducing  Aluminium sulphate (alum) is the
evaporation. most common coagulant used for water
 Shelter belt of trees and bushes along purification. Other chemicals, such as
the edge of agricultural fields slow ferric sulphate or sodium aluminate,
down the wind speed and reduce may also be used.
evaporation and erosion.  During coagulation, liquid aluminium
 Planting of trees, grass, and bushes sulfate (alum) is added to untreated
breaks the force of rain and helps water.
rainwater penetrate the soil.  This causes the tiny particles of dirt in
 Fog and dew contain substantial the water to stick together or coagulate.
amounts of water that can be used
 Next, groups of dirt particles stick The risk of this is very small, however,
together to form larger particles called when chlorine is applied after
flocs. coagulation, sedimentation, and
 Flocs are easier to remove by settling or filtration.
filtration.  Ozone gas may also be used for
disinfection of drinking water. However, Page
Sedimentation since ozone is unstable, it cannot be
stored and must be produced on-site, | 17
 As the water and the floc particles
making the process more expensive
progress through the treatment
than chlorination.
process, they move into sedimentation
 Ozone has the advantage of not
basins where the water moves slowly,
causing taste or odour problems. It also
causing the heavy floc particles to
leaves no residue in the disinfected
settle to the bottom.
water.
 Floc which collects on the bottom of the
 The lack of an ozone residue, however,
basin is called sludge, and is piped to
makes it difficult to monitor its
drying lagoons.
continued effectiveness as water flows
 In Direct Filtration, the sedimentation
through the distribution system.
step is not included, and the floc is
removed by filtration only. Sludge Drying
Filtration  Solids that are collected and settled out
of the water by sedimentation and
 Water flows through a filter designed to
filtration are removed to drying
remove particles in the water. The
lagoons.
filters are made of layers of sand and
gravel, and in some cases, crushed Fluoridation
anthracite.
 Filtration collects the suspended  Water fluoridation is the treatment of
impurities in water and enhances the community water supplies for the
effectiveness of disinfection. The filters purpose of adjusting the concentration
are routinely cleaned by backwashing. of the free fluoride ion to the optimum
level sufficient to reduce dental caries.
Disinfection  Fluoride is generally present in all
natural water. Its concentration up to
 Water is disinfected before it enters the
certain level is not harmful. Beyond
distribution system to ensure that any
that level, the bones start
disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and
disintegrating. This disease is called
parasites are destroyed.
fluorosis.
 Chlorine is used because it is a very
 We have fluoride problem in many
effective disinfectant, and residual
parts of our country. Bureau of Indian
concentrations can be maintained to
Standards prescribes 1.0 mg/l as
guard against possible biological
desirable and 1.5 mg/l as maximum
contamination in the water distribution
permissible limit for drinking water.
system.
 Defluoridation at domestic level can be
 The addition of chlorine or chlorine
carried out by mixing water for
compounds to drinking water is called
treatment with adequate amount of
chlorination.
aluminum sulphate (alum) solution,
 Chlorine can combine with certain lime or sodium carbonate and
naturally occurring organic compounds bleaching powder depending upon its
in water to produce chloroform and alkalinity (concentration of
other potentially harmful byproducts.
bicarbonates and carbonates in water)  That is the region from which surface
and fluoride contents. water draws into a river, a lake, wet
land or other body of water is called its
pH Correction watershed or drainage basin.
 Lime is added to the filtered water to  Watershed management is a technique
adjust the pH and stabilize the for conservation of water and soil in a Page
naturally soft water in order to watershed.
minimise corrosion in the distribution  The presence of water in soil is | 18
system, and within customers’ essential for the growth of plants and
plumbing. vegetation. Forests and their associated
soils and litter layers are excellent
Titbit: National Environmental filters as well as sponges, and water
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) that passes through this system is
is at Nagpur. relatively pure.
 Various kinds of forest disturbances
Removal of iron can speed up the movement of water
from the system and in effect, reduce
 In many parts of our country we have
the filtering action.
problem of excess iron in drinking
water especially in North-East regions.  In mountainous terrain the forests play
Iron causes bad taste and odour to the a prominent role in prevention of soil
drinking water. Bureau of Indian erosion.
Standards prescribes desirable limit for  Erosion threat can be tackled by the
iron as 0.3 mg/l. maintenance of continual cover.
 A major part of iron is oxidized. Then Ideally, this is achieved by single stem
the water is made to react with harvesting; only one tree is felled at any
oxidizing media (lime stone). By one point, and the small gap so created
aeration and further oxidation the is soon sealed by the outward growth of
dissolved iron is converted to insoluble its neighbors.
ferric hydroxide. The insoluble iron can  Despite the uncertain balance of water
thus be easily removed through gain and loss, forests offer the most
filtration. desirable cover for water management
strategies.
Removal of arsenic  In contrast to the rapid flows of short
duration characteristics of sparsely
 Arsenic is found in ground water in vegetated land water yields are gradual,
some parts of West Bengal. Arsenic is reliable and uniform in forests.
highly toxic in nature. It may cause a Deforested land sheds water swiftly,
number of skin disorders or even causing sudden rises in the rivers
cancer. Bureau of Indian Standards below.
prescribes desirable limit for arsenic as  Over a large river system, such as that
0.05 mg/l. of the Ganga and the Yamuna, forests
 Removal of arsenic is essential. are a definite advantage since they
 Bleaching powder and alum are used lessen the risk of floods. They also
for removal of arsenic. provide conditions more favourable to
fishing and navigation than does un-
Watershed Management forested land.
 All natural streams contain varying
 Watershed is an area that contribute amounts of dissolved and suspended
water to a stream or a water body matter, although streams contain
through run-off or underground path. varying amounts of dissolved and
suspended matter, although streams Permanent conservation measures may

issuing from undisturbed watershed include:
are ordinarily of high quality.
 Waters from forested areas are not only  Subsidizing use of water-efficient
low in foreign substances, but they also faucets, toilets and showerheads
are relatively high in oxygen and low in  Public education and voluntary use
reduction. Page
unwanted chemicals.
 The belief that forests increase rainfall  Billing practices that impose higher | 19
has not been substantiated by rates for higher amounts of water use
scientific inquiry. Local effects can,  Building codes that require water-
however, prove substantial, particularly efficient fixtures or appliances
in semiarid regions where every  Leak detection surveys and meter
millimeter of rain counts. testing, repair and replacement
 The air above a forest, as contrasted  Reduction in use and increase in
with grassland, remains relatively cool recycling of industrial water
and humid on hot days, so that
showers are more frequent. Temporary cutbacks may include:
 Many areas in India used to get  Reduction of system-wide operating
significant rainfall when they were pressure
forested are now facing severe draught  Water use bans, restrictions, and
due to denudation (example Rajasthan rationing
desert).  Strengthening of local or municipal
bodies could help addressing the issue
Individual And Community Role
of water shortage and its management
 Building check dams on seasonal in cities.
rivers. Q3. Which one among the following
 Micro-watershed management project. industries is the maximum consumer of
 Constructing percolation tanks in every water in India?
residential and industrial complex.
 Roof top rain water collection for a) Engineering
drinking purposes. [2/3rds of water is b) Paper and pulp
wasted in RO – reverse osmosis c) Textiles
filtration] d) Thermal power
Government’s efforts on water

conservation
 National Water Policy 2002 strongly
emphasize conservation of water.
 Construction of large number of dams
on various river systems.
 Interlinking of rivers (proposed).
 Promotion of bunds at village level.
 Promotion of rain water harvesting.
 Promotion of reuse and recycling of
wastewater.
 Steps to protect water quality.
 Drought-proofing the future.
Soil Pollution .......................................... 1 soil and are known to create many

health hazards including cancer.
Noise Pollution ....................................... 2
Pesticides
Radioactive Pollution .............................. 3
 Pesticides are chemicals that include
Impact Of Radiation From Mobile Phone insecticides, fungicides, algicides, Page
rodenticides, weedicides sprayed in
Towers ................................................... 8 |1
order to improve productivity of
agriculture, forestry and horticulture.
Soil Pollution  Chlorohydrocarbons (CHCs) like
DDT, endosulfan, heptachlor
 Soil pollution is defined as the 'addition
accumulate in soil and cause
of substances to the soil, which
biomagnification. Some of these
adversely affect physical, chemical and
pesticides like DDT and endosulfan are
biological properties of soil and reduces
banned by most of the countries.
its productivity.
 It is build-up of persistent toxic Fertilizers and manures
compounds, chemicals, salts,
radioactive materials, or disease  Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
causing agents in soil which have reduces the population of soil borne
adverse effects on plant growth, human organisms and the crumb structure of
and animal health. the soil, productivity of the soil and
increases salt content of the soil.
Causes and Sources of Soil
Discarded materials
Pollution
 It includes concrete, asphalt, rungs,
Plastic bags leather, cans, plastics, glass, discarded
 They accumulate in soil and prevents food, paper and carcasses.
germination of seeds. They stay in soil Radioactive wastes
for centuries without decomposing
(non-biodegradable).  Radioactive elements from mining and
 Burning of plastic in garbage dumps nuclear power plants, find their way
release highly toxic and poisonous into water and then into the soil.
gases like carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, phosgene, dioxins and other Other pollutants
poisonous chlorinated compounds.
 Many air pollutants (acid rain) and
 Toxic solid residue left after burning
water pollutants ultimately become
remains in soil. The harmful gases
part of the soil and the soil also
enters soils through chemical cycles.
receives some toxic chemicals during
Industrial sources weathering of certain rocks.
 They includes fly ash, metallic Effects of soil pollution

residues, mercury, lead, copper,
zinc, cadmium, cynides, Agriculture
thiocynates, chromates, acids,
 Reduced soil fertility due to increase in
alkalies, organic substances, nuclear
alkalinity, salinity or pH.
wastes etc.
 Reduced crop yield due to reduced
 Large number of industrial chemicals,
fertility.
dyes, acids, etc. find their way into the
 Reduced nitrogen fixation due to the  Reduction of waste from construction

reduced number of nitrogen fixers. areas.
 Increased erosion due to loss of forests
and other vegetation. Noise Pollution
 Run off due to deforestation cause loss
of soil and nutrients.  Noise by definition is “sound without
Page
 Deposition of silt in tanks and value” or “any noise that is unwanted
reservoirs due to soil erosion. by the recipient”. |2
 Noise level is measured in terms of
Health decibels (dB). An increase of about 10
dB is approximately double the
 Health effects are similar to effects of increase in loudness.
water pollution.  W.H.O. (World Health Organization)
Environment has prescribed optimum noise level as
45 dB by day and 35 dB by night.
 Ecological imbalance. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.
 Foul smell and release of gases.
Effects of noise pollution
 Waste management problems.
 Noise pollution leads to irritation,
Control measures increased blood pressure, loss of
temper, mental depression and
More or less same as for water pollution
annoyance, decrease in work efficiency,
 Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste loss of hearing which may be first
should be avoided. temporary but can become permanent
 To control soil pollution, it is essential in the noise stress continues.
to stop the use of plastic bags and
Prevention and control of noise
instead use bags of degradable
materials like paper and cloth. pollution
 Sewage should be treated properly
before using as fertilizer and as  Road traffic noise can be reduced by
landfills. better designing and proper
maintenance of vehicles.
 The organic matter from domestic,
agricultural and other waste should be  Noise abatement measures include
segregated and subjected to creating noise mounds, noise
vermicomposting which generates attenuation walls and well maintained
useful manure as a byproduct. roads and smooth surfacing of roads.
 The industrial wastes prior to disposal  Retrofitting of locomotives,
should be properly treated for removing continuously welded rail track, use of
hazardous materials. electric locomotives or deployment of
quieter rolling stock will reduce noises
 Biomedical waste should be separately
emanating from trains.
collected and incinerated in proper
incinerators.  Air traffic noise can be reduced by
appropriate insulation and introduction
 Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers.
of noise regulations for takeoff and
Organic farming.
landing of aircrafts at the airport.
 Four R's: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and
 Industrial noises can be reduced by
Recycle.
sound proofing equipment like
 Afforestation and Reforestation.
generators and areas producing lot of
 Solid waste treatment.
noise.
 Power tools, very loud music and land declared as such by a competent
movers, public functions using authority.
loudspeakers, etc. should not be
permitted at night. Use of horns, Radioactive Pollution
alarms, refrigeration units, etc. is to be
restricted. Use of fire crackers which Sources
Page
are noisy and cause air pollution
should be restricted. Artificial Sources of Radioactive |3
 A green belt of trees is an efficient pollution
noise absorber.
 Accidents in nuclear power plants and
Ambient Noise Level Monitoring nuclear waste.
 Nuclear weapon testing and explosion
 Noise Pollution (Control and (Nuclear fallout). The fall Out contains
Regulation) Rules, 2000 define ambient radioactive substances such as
noise levels for various areas as follows: strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine-
131, etc.
Category of Limits in dB(A) Leq
 Uranium mining
Area/Zone
and mining of other
Day Time Night Time radioactive material
6 a.m. to 10 p.m. 10 p.m to 6 a.m like thorium etc.
Uranium
contamination is well
Industrial Area 75 70
observed in India.
Commercial Area 65 55  Radiation
Residential Area 55 45 therapy and direct
exposures to radiation
Silence Zone 50 40
for diagnostic purposes
 The Government of India on Mar 2011 (e.g. X-rays), chemotherapy etc.
launched a Real time Ambient Noise  The slow nuclear radiations can
Monitoring Network. emanate from a variety of sources viz.
 Under this network, in phase-I, five nuclear reactors, laboratories,
Remote Noise Monitoring Terminals hospitals, and direct exposures to X-
each have been installed in different rays etc.
noise zones in seven metros (Delhi,
Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Natural Sources
Bangalore, Chennai and Lucknow).
 They include cosmic rays from space
 In Phase II another 35 monitoring and terrestrial radiations from radio-
stations will be installed in the same nuclides present in earth's crust such
seven cities. Phase III will cover as radium-224, uranium-238,
installing 90 stations in 18 other cities. thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-
 Phase-III cities are Kanpur, Pune, 14, etc.
Surat, Ahmedabad, Nagpur, Jaipur,  Some species of animals and plants
Indore, Bhopal, Ludhiana, Guwahati, preferentially accumulate specific
Dehradun, Thiruvananthpuram, radioactive, materials. For example,
Bhubaneswar, Patna, Gandhinagar, oysters deposit 65Zn, fish accumulate
Ranchi, Amritsar and Raipur. 55Fe, marine animals selectively
 Silence Zone is an area comprising not deposit 90Sr.
less than 100 metres around hospitals,
educational institutions, courts, Effects of Radioactive pollution
religious places or any other area
 The use of nuclear energy has two very immune disorders and increased
serious inherent problems. criminalities.
1. accidental leakage, as occurred in  Underground bomb testing releases
the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl radiations in very small doses of
and Fukushima incidents and radicals that pollutes water and soil.
2. safe disposal of radioactive wastes.  This radioactive water is taken by Page
It has been recommended that plants through roots. The radioactivity
storage of nuclear waste, after enters food chain when such plants are | 4
sufficient pre-treatment, should be eaten by animals and humans. Such
done in suitably shielded containers radioactivity has been detected even in
buried within the rocks, about 500 the milk.
m deep below the earth’s surface.  Radiation, that is given off by nuclear
However, this method of disposal is waste is extremely damaging to
meeting stiff opposition from the biological organisms, because it causes
public. mutations to occur at a very high rate.
 The quick devastating and immediate  At high doses, nuclear radiation is
effects of nuclear radiations are well lethal but at lower doses, it creates
known as witnessed following various disorders, the most frequent of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan all being cancer.
during world war II.
 Continued small dose exposure to Ionizing and Non-Ionizing
nuclear radiation can cause childhood Radiation
leukemia, miscarriage, underweight
babies, infant deaths, increased
susceptibility to AIDS and other
http://www.arpansa.gov.au/images/basics/emr.jpg
 Radioactivity is a phenomenon of  Electromagnetic radiations such as

spontaneous emission of proton short wavelength ultra violet
(alpha-particles), electrons (beta- radiations (UV), X-rays and gamma
particles) and gamma rays (short rays and energetic particles produced
wave electromagnetic waves) due to in nuclear processes, electrically
disintegration of atomic nuclei of charged particles like alpha and beta Page
some elements. These cause radioactive particles produced in radioactive decay
pollution. and neutrons produced in nuclear | 5
 Radiations can be categorized into two fission, are highly damaging to living
groups namely the non-ionizing organisms.
radiations and the ionizing radiations.  Electrically charged particles produced
in the nuclear processes can have
Non-ionising radiations sufficient energy to knock electrons out
of the atoms or molecules of the
 Non-ionizing radiations are constituted
medium, thereby producing ions.
by the electromagnetic waves at the
 The ions produced in water molecules,
longer wavelength of the spectrum
ranging from near infra-red rays to for example, can induce reactions that
can break bonds in proteins and other
radio waves [include higher
wavelength ultraviolet rays, important molecules.
microwaves etc.].  An example of this would be when a
 These waves have energies enough to gamma ray passes through a cell, the
excite the atoms and molecules of the water molecules near the DNA might be
ionized and the ions might react with
medium through which they pass,
causing them to vibrate faster but not the DNA causing it to break.
strong enough to ionize them.  They can also cause chemical changes
 In a microwave oven the radiation by breaking the chemical bonds, which
causes water molecules in the cooking can damage living tissues.
medium to vibrate faster and thus  Short range effects include burns,
raising its temperature. impaired metabolism, dead tissues and
 They may damage eyes which may be death of the organisms.
caused by reflections from coastal  Long range effects are mutations
sand, snow (snow blindness) directly increased incidence of tumors and
looking towards sun during eclipse. cancer, shortening of life-span and
 They injure the cells of skin and blood developmental changes.
capillaries producing blisters and Non-ionising radiations affect only
reddening called sunburns. those components which absorb them
and have low penetrability.
Ionising radiations
Ionising radiations have high
 Ionizing radiations cause ionization
penetration power and cause breakage
(one or more electrons are pealed out
of macro molecules.
from the outer shells of an atom) of
atoms and molecules of the medium Biological Damage Due to Ionizing
through which they pass. Radiations
Ionization is the process by which an atom
 The biological damage resulting from
or a molecule acquires a negative or ionizing radiations is generally termed
positive charge by gaining or losing
as radiation damage.
electrons to form ions, often in
 Large amounts of radiation can kill
conjunction with other chemical changes.
cells that can dramatically affect the
exposed organism as well as possibly damage, and the cells may either be
its offspring. changed permanently or die.
 Affected cells can mutate and result in  Cells changed permanently may go on
cancer. A large enough dose of to produce abnormal cells when they
radiation can kill the organism. divide and may become cancerous.
 Radiation damage can be divided into  At even higher doses, the cells cannot Page
two types: (a) somatic damage (also be replaced fast enough and tissues fail
called radiation sickness) and (b) to function. An example of this would | 6
genetic damage. be “radiation sickness.” This is a
 Somatic damage refers to damage to condition that results after high doses
cells that are not associated with is given to the whole body (>100 rem).
reproduction.
 Effects of somatic radiation damage Damage due to radiation particles
include reddening of the skin, loss of
 Alpha particles, can be blocked by a
hair, ulceration, fibrosis of the lungs,
piece of paper and human skin.
the formation of holes in tissue, a
 Beta particles can penetrate through
reduction of white blood cells, and
skin, while can be blocked by some
the induction of cataract in the eyes.
pieces of glass and metal.
This damage can also result in cancer
and death.  Gamma rays can penetrate easily to
human skin and damage cells on its
 Genetic damage refers to damage to
way through, reaching far, and can
cells associated with reproduction. This
only be blocked by a very thick, strong,
damage can subsequently cause
massive piece of concrete.
genetic damage from gene mutation
resulting in abnormalities. Genetic Half-Life - Period of Radioactivity
damages are passed on to next
generation.  Each radioactive material has a
constant decay rate. Half-life is the
Radiation dose
time needed for half of its atoms to
decay.
 The biological damage caused by the
radiation is determined by the intensity  Half-life of a radio nuclide refers to its
of radiation and duration of the period of radioactivity. The half-life may
exposure. vary from a fraction of a second to
thousands of years.
 It depends on the amount of energy
deposited by the radiation in the  The radio nuclides with long half-time
biological system. are the chief source of environmental
radioactive pollution.
 For example, alpha particles (protons)
do much more damage per unit energy Accidents at nuclear power plants
deposited than do beta particles
(electrons).  Nuclear fission in the reactor core
 A traditional unit of human-equivalent produces lot of heat which if not
dose is the rem, which stands for controlled can lead to a meltdown of
radiation equivalent in man. fuel rods in the reactor core.
 At low doses, such as what we receive  If a meltdown happens by accident, it
every day from background radiation will release large quantities of highly
(<1 m rem), the cells repair the damage dangerous radioactive materials in the
rapidly. environment with disastrous
 At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the consequences to the humans, animals
cells might not be able to repair the and plants.
 To prevent this type of accidents and  bury it deep underground in insulated

reactor blow up, the reactors are containers. This is a strategy being
designed to have a number of safety pursued in United States.
features. Inspire of these safety  shoot it into the space or into the sun.
measures three disasters in the nuclear The cost would be very high and a
power plants are noteworthy – Three launch accident should be disastrous. Page
Mile Island’ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in  bury it under the ice sheet of
1979, Chernobyl (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 Antarctica or Greenland ice cap. The | 7
and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear ice could be destabilized by heat from
disaster in 2011. the waste. The method has been
 In the first two cases a series of prohibited by international law.
mishaps and errors resulted in over  dump it into deep oceans by keeping
heating of the reactor core and lot of the waste into glass and steel cases.
radiation was released into the But the containers might leak and
environment. contaminate the ocean.
 The leakage from Three Mile Island  change it into harmless or less harmful
reactor was apparently low and no one isotopes. Currently no method is
was injured immediately. However, in known to do that and the method
case of Chernobyl the leakage was very would be too costly.
heavy causing death of some workers  presently waste fuel rods are being
and radiation spread over large areas stored in special storage ponds at
scattered all over Europe. reactor sites or sent to reprocessing
 The latest one – Fukushima Daiichi plants. Even though reprocessing is
nuclear accident was triggered by an more expensive but some countries use
earthquake. reprocessing as an alternative to waste
 Other important nuclear power plant storage.
disasters include Chalk river, Canada,
Windscale Plutonium Production Preventive/Control Measures
Center, U.K and Monju, Japan.
 Accidents with nuclear submarines and  Prevention is the best control measure
nuclear warships is a possibility. as there is no cure available for
radiation damage.
Safe Disposal Of Nuclear Wastes  All safety measures should be strictly
enforced. UN should have more powers
 Radioactive wastes are of two types to perform safety checks in various
1. low level radioactive wastes (LLW) nuclear establishments across the
which include civilian applications world.
of radionuclides in medicine,  Worldwide monitoring of radiation
research and industry, materials leakage should be a priority.
from decommissioned reactors,  Proper technologies should be
protection clothing worn by persons developed to prevent contamination of
working with radioactive materials water and soil by radioactive waste and
or working in nuclear radioactive materials.
establishments.  More avenues for safe disposal of
2. High level radioactive wastes (HLW) radioactive must be worked out.
results from spent nuclear fuel rods  Regular monitoring through frequent
and obsolete nuclear weapons. sampling and quantitative analysis in
domestic nuclear establishments.
Some proposed methods of disposing
nuclear waste are:  Appropriate steps should be taken to
protect from occupational exposure.
 Gradually decreasing the share of  The surface area of bird is relatively

nuclear power is a necessity. larger than their body weight in
 World must unite to ban production comparison to human body so they
and use of nuclear weapons. absorb more radiation.
 Also the fluid content in the body of the
Impact Of Radiation From Mobile bird is less due to small body weight so Page
Phone Towers it gets heated up very fast.
 Magnetic field from the towers disturbs | 8
 The radiation that comes from mobile birds' navigation skills hence when
tower radiation is non-ionizing birds are exposed to EMR they
radiation. disorient and begin to fly in all
directions.
Health Impacts  A large number of birds die each year
from collisions with telecommunication
 Every antenna on cell phone tower masts.
radiates electro-magnetic radiation
(power). What are the responsibilities of
 One cell phone tower is being used by a Stakeholders?
number of operators, more the number
of antennas more is the power intensity MoEF
in the nearby area.
 The power level near towers is higher  The MoEF has to notify the impacts of
and reduces as we move away. communication towers on wildlife and
 EMR may cause cellular and human health to the concerned
psychological changes in human beings agencies for regulating the norms for
due to thermal effects that are notification of standards for safe limit
generated due to absorption of of EMR.
microwave radiation.
 The exposure can lead to genetic State/Local Bodies:
defects, effects on reproduction and
 Regular monitoring and auditing in
development, Central Nervous System
urban
behavior etc.
localities/educational/hospital/industr
 EMR can also cause non thermal
ial/ residential/recreational premises
effects which are caused by radio
including the Protected Areas and
frequency fields at levels too low to
ecologically sensitive areas.
produce significant heating and are due
 Carry out an 'Ecological Impact
to movement of calcium and other ions
Assessment' before giving permission
across cell membranes.
for construction of towers in wildlife
 Such exposure is known to be
and ecologically important areas.
responsible for fatigue, nausea,
irritability, headaches, loss of appetite State Environment and Forest
and other psychological disorders. Department
 The current exposure safety standards
are purely based on the thermal effects  State Environment and Forest
considering few evidences from Department are entrusted with the task
exposure to non-thermal effects. of providing regular awareness among
the people about the norms on cell
Impact on birds phone towers and dangers of EMR from
them.
Department of Telecommunications
 Avoid overlapping of high radiation

fields. New towers should not be
permitted within a radius of one
kilometer of the existing tower.
Page
 The location and frequencies of cell
phone towers and other towers emitting |9
EMR should be made available in the
public domain GIS mapping of all the
cell phone towers to be maintained to
monitor the population of bird and
bees in and around the wildlife
protected area and the mobile towers.
 Need to refine the Indian standard on
safe limits of exposure to EMR, keeping
in view the available literature on
impacts on various life forms.
 To undertake Precautionary
approaches to minimize the exposure
levels and adopt stricter norms
perennial, that live longer than
agricultural crops.
 Any study conducted on impact of EMF
radiation on wildlife needs to be shared
to facilitate appropriate policy
formulations.
Solid Wastes ........................................... 1  Dioxin (highly carcinogenic and toxic)

byproduct of the manufacturing
Hazardous Waste ................................... 2 process is one of the chemicals believed
to be passed on through breast milk to
Electronic waste | E – WASTE ................ 4 the nursing infant.
 Burning of plastics, especially PVC Page
Heavy Metal Toxicity And Methods Of
releases dioxin and also furan into the
Their Prevention ..................................... 6 atmosphere. |1
Occupational Health Hazards ................. 7 Dioxins are environmental pollutants. They

belong to the so-called “dirty dozen” - a
Treatment and disposal of solid waste .... 8 group of dangerous chemicals known as
persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
Solid Wastes
The name "dioxins" is often used for the
 Solid wastes or municipal solid wastes family of structurally and chemically
generally comprise paper, food wastes, related polychlorinated dibenzo para
plastics, glass, metals, rubber, leather, dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated
textile, etc. dibenzofurans (PCDFs).
 Open-burning reduces the volume of
 Plastic bags can also contaminate
the wastes, although it is generally not
foodstuffs due to leaching of toxic dyes
burnt to completion and open dumps
and transfer of pathogens.
often serve as the breeding ground for
 Careless disposal of plastic bags
rats and flies.
chokes drains, blocks the porosity of
 Sanitary landfills were adopted as the
the soil and causes problems for
substitute for open-burning dumps. In
groundwater recharge.
a sanitary landfill, wastes are dumped
 Plastic disturbs the soil microbe
in a depression or trench after
activity. The terrestrial and aquatic
compaction, and covered with dirt
animals misunderstand plastic garbage
every day.
as food items, swallow them and die.
 Landfills are also not really much of a
 Plastic bags deteriorates soil fertility as
solution since the amount of garbage
it forms part of manure and remains in
generation specially in the metros has
the soil for years.
increased so much that these sites are
getting filled too. Designing eco-friendly, biodegradable
 Also there is danger of seepage of plastics is the need of the hour.
chemicals, etc. from these landfills
polluting the underground water Remedy for Plastic Waste
resources.
 Polyblend is a fine powder of recycled
Effects of Plastic Waste and modified plastic waste. This
mixture is mixed with the bitumen
 Conventional plastics, right from their that is used to lay roads.
manufacture to their disposal are a  Blends of Polyblend and bitumen, when
major problem to the environment. used to lay roads, enhanced the
 The land gets littered by plastic bag bitumen’s water repellant properties,
garbage and becomes ugly and and helped to increase road life by a
unhygienic. factor of three.
 Conventional plastics have been
associated with reproductive Industrial solid waste
problems in both humans and wildlife.
 Thermal power plants producing coal  Instead of throw away economy which
ash/fly ash; creates huge amount of waste, the
 The integrated iron and steel mills manufacturers can make more money
producing blast furnace slag; if their product is redesigned so that it
 Non-ferrous industries like aluminium, uses minimum amount of raw
copper and zinc producing red mud materials lasts longer, easy to Page
and tailings; maintain, repair, remanufacture, reuse
 Sugar industries generating press or recycle. |2
mud;
 Pulp and paper industries producing Hazardous Waste
lime mud;
 Fertilizer and allied industries  Any substance that is present in the
producing gypsum; environment or released into the
environment causing substantial
Recoverable Matter damage to public health and welfare of
the environment is called hazardous
 Pulp and paper: Ligno-sulphate, substance.
sodium salts.  Any hazardous substance could exhibit
 Textile: Caustic soda. any one or more of the following
 Distillery: Potassium salts, yeast characteristics: toxicity, ignitability,
Fertilizer (phosphatic) Calcium corrosivity or reactivity (explosive).
sulphate, fluoride. Thus, any waste that contains
 Coke oven: Ammonia, ammonium hazardous or very hazardous
sulphate, tar, naphthalene, phenol. substance is called hazardous waste.
 Hazardous wastes can originate from
Concept Of Cleaner Technologies various sources such as: house-hold,
local areas, urban, industry,
 One way to emulate nature is to recycle agriculture, construction activity,
and reuse the chemicals used in hospitals and laboratories, power
industries instead of dumping them plants and other sources.
into the environment.  The hazardous waste when disposed of
 Industries may interact in such a way release a number of environmentally
that they establish a “resource unfriendly substance(s).
exchange” programme in which waste  Hospitals generate hazardous wastes
of one industry or manufacturer is that contain disinfectants and other
utilized as raw material by another- harmful chemicals, and also
industry- similar to food web in nature. pathogenic micro-organisms. Such
 Use of CNG by automobiles instead of wastes also require careful treatment
petrol, as an automobile fuel, is an and disposal. The use of incinerators
example of cleaner technology which (destroy, especially waste material, by
has reduced pollution of the burning) is crucial to disposal of
environment. hospital waste.
Source Disposed/used as Polluting agent Effect
Industrial Incineration of Toxic fumes e.g. Chlorine, Chlorine could cause acid rain
waste waste polyvinylchloride
Incomplete Dioxins/organochlorides Carcinogenic
combustion
Release into water Chlorophenol, fluorine Cause environmental pollution
bodies compounds, aldehydes, SO2, CO
Plastic Polythene, poly propylene, Toxic, ecological pollution
polyesters etc. on burning release
gases
Nuclear Hospitals Slow/sustained in Health hazard,

waste Laboratories medical/agriculture use carcinogenic, mutation
Agricultural Forms of Nitrogen Manure/Dung rich in NO3/N022 Accumulate in vegetables, cause
waste wastes methanoglobenemia cyanosis
Nitrosamines/ NO3/NO i Carcinogenic contribute to acid
rain
N2O – Nitrous Oxide Greenhouse effect
Page
[NOx – NO, NO2 are global
coolers, N2O is greenhouse gas] |3
NH3+ (from livestock breeding) Affect aquatic life; stimulate fungal
growth; epiphytes; cause
weathering of forests
Phosphates Eutrophication of aquatic
environment
Phytosanitary Insecticides/pesticides/fungicides Enter soil as run off, polluter water
product /herbicides table affect aquatic life,
carcinogenic, renal failure
Methane Ruminating cattle, fermentation of Powerful greenhouse effect
organic matter
Stockholm Convention on their chemical stability, including low
Persistent Organic Pollutants flammability, and physical properties,
including electrical insulating
 Stockholm Convention is an properties. They are highly toxic.
international environmental treaty  DDT: DDT is the best-known of several
 Came into effective in 2004 chlorine-containing pesticides used in
 Aims to eliminate or restrict the the 1940s and 1950s.
production and use of persistent
organic pollutants (POPs).
Basel Convention
 POPs are defined as "chemical
 Basel Convention on the Control of
substances that persist in the
Transboundary Movements of
environment, bio-accumulate through
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal.
the food web, and pose a risk of
 International treaty that was designed
causing adverse effects to human
to reduce the movements of hazardous
health and the environment".
waste between nations.
Important Listed substances  Main goal is to prevent transfer of
hazardous waste from developed to less
 Aldrin: Used as a local ectoparasiticide developed countries (LDCs).
and insecticide  It does not address the movement of
 Heptachlor: Uses as a termiticide radioactive waste.
(including in the structure of houses  182 states and the European Union are
and underground), for organic parties to the Convention
treatment and in underground cable  Location  Basel, Switzerland
boxes
 Hexachlorobenzene: Use as a Rotterdam Convention
chemical intermediate and a solvent for
pesticides  Rotterdam Convention on the Prior
 Endrin: Endrin has been used Informed Consent Procedure for
primarily as an agricultural insecticide Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
on tobacco, apple trees, cotton, sugar Pesticides in International Trade.
cane, rice, cereal, and grains.  Multilateral treaty to promote shared
 Polychlorinated biphenyl: PCB's responsibilities in relation to
commercial utility was based largely on importation of hazardous chemicals.
 The convention promotes open equipment, home appliances, audio

exchange of information and calls on and video products and all of their
exporters of hazardous chemicals to peripherals are popularly known as
use proper labeling, safe handling, and Electronic waste (E-waste).
inform purchasers of any known  E-waste is not hazardous if it is
restrictions or bans. stocked in safe storage or recycled by Page
 Signatory nations can decide whether scientific methods or transported from
to allow or ban the importation of one place to the other in parts or in | 4
chemicals listed in the treaty.. totality in the formal sector. The e-
waste can, however, be considered
Electronic waste | E – WASTE hazardous if recycled by primitive
methods.
 The discarded and end-of-life electronic
products ranging from computers, Source and health effects
Particulars Source Health Effects
Lead  Used in glass panels and gaskets  Lead causes damage to the central and
in computer monitors peripheral nervous systems, blood
 Solder in printed circuit boards systems, kidney and reproductive
and other Components system in humans. It also effects the
endocrine system, and impedes brain
development among children.
 Lead tends to accumulate in the
environment and has high acute and
chronic effects on plants, animals and
microorganisms.
Cadmium  Occurs in SMD chip resistors,  Toxic cadmium compounds accumulate
infra-red detectors, and in the human body, especially the
semiconductor chips kidneys.
 Some older cathode ray tubes
contain cadmium
Mercury  It is estimated that 22 % of the  Mercury can cause damage to organs
yearly world consumption of including the brain and kidneys, as well
mercury is used in electrical and as the foetus. The developing foetus is
electronic equipment highly vulnerable to mercury exposure.
 Mercury is used in thermostats, When inorganic mercury spreads out in
sensors, relays, switches, medical the water, it is transformed to
equipment, lamps, mobile phones methylated mercury which bio-
and in batteries accumulates in living organisms and
 Mercury, used in flat panel concentrates through the food chain,
displays, will likely increase as particularly via fish.
their use replaces cathode ray
tubes
Hexavalent  Chromium VI is used as corrosion  Chromium VI can cause damage to
Chromium/ protector of untreated and DNA and is extremely toxic in the
Chromium VI 29 galvanized steel plates and as a environment.
decorative or hardener for steel
housings Plastics (including PVC):
Dioxin is released when PVC is
burned.
 The largest volume of plastics
(26%) used in electronics has
been PVC. PVC elements are
found in cabling and computer
housings.
 Many computer moldings are now
made with the somewhat more
benign ABS plastics
Brominated flame  BFRs are used in the plastic 

retardants (BFRs):  housings of electronic
equipment and in circuit boards
to prevent flammability
Barium  Barium is a soft silvery-white  Studies have shown that short-term
metal that is used in computers in exposure to barium causes brain
the front panel of a CRT, to swelling, muscle weakness, damage to
Page
protect users from radiation the heart, liver, and spleen.
Beryllium  Beryllium is commonly found on  Exposure to beryllium can cause lung |5
motherboards and finger clips cancer. Beryllium also causes a skin
 It is used as a copper- beryllium disease that is characterized by poor
alloy to strengthen connectors wound healing and wart like bumps.
and tiny plugs while maintaining Studies have shown that people can
electrical conductivity develop beryllium disease many years
following the last exposure.
Toners  Found in the plastic printer  Inhalation is the primary exposure
cartridge containing black and pathway, and acute exposure may lead
color toners. to respiratory tract irritation. Carbon
black has been classified as a class 2B
carcinogen, possibly carcinogenic to
humans. Reports indicate that colour
toners (cyan, magenta and yellow)
contain heavy metals.
Phosphor and  Phosphor is an inorganic  The phosphor coating on cathode ray
additives  chemical compound that is tubes
applied as a coat on the interior of  contains heavy metals, such as
the CRT faceplate. cadmium, and other rare earth metals,
for example, zinc, vanadium as
additives. These metals and their
compounds are very toxic. This is a
serious hazard posed for those who
dismantle CRTs by hand.
Q1: Due to improper/indiscriminate Heptachlor is a Chlorohydrocarbon (CHC)
disposal of old and used computers or which is used as an insecticide.
their parts, which of the following are
released into the environment as e- Plutonium is a radioactive metal and
waste? hence not used in computers.
1. Beryllium So, answer should not contain either 4) or

2. Cadmium 7).
3. Chromium Answer: b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury E — Waste in India
6. Lead
7. Plutonium  India generates about 18.5 lakh metric
tonnes (MT) of electronic waste every
year, with Mumbai and Delhi-NCR
given below.
accounting for the biggest chunk. The
a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only figure is likely to reach up to 30 lakh
b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only MT per year by 2018.
c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only  Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata,
d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat
and Nagpur are other important cities
Explanation: generating substantial amount of e-
waste.
 Among the eight largest e-waste organic wastes, automobiles and coal
generating states, Maharashtra ranks based power generation.
first followed by Tamil Nadu (2nd),  Heavy metals can be carried to places
Andhra Pradesh (3rd), Uttar Pradesh far away from their source of origin by
(4th), Delhi (5th), Gujarat (6th), winds when they are emitted in
Karnataka (7th) and West Bengal (8th). gaseous form or in form of fine Page
particulates.
 Rain ultimately washes the air having | 6
metallic pollutants and brings them to
the land and to water bodies.
 Heavy metals may endanger public
health after being incorporated in food
chain.
 Heavy metals cannot be destroyed by
biological degradation.
 Incidence of heavy metal accumulation
in fish, oysters, mussels, sediments
and other components of aquatic
ecosystems have been reported from all
over the world.
 The heavy metals often encountered in
the environment include lead, mercury,
arsenic, chromium. These are known to
cause toxic effects in living organisms.
Lead
 Lead enters the atmosphere from
automobile exhaust. Tetraethyl lead
(TEL) was added to petrol as an anti-
 Over half of the e-wastes generated in knock agent for smooth running of
the developed world are exported to automobile engines.
developing countries, mainly to China,  TEL has now been replaced by other
India and Pakistan, where metals like anti-knock compounds to prevent
copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold emission of lead by automobiles. Lead
are recovered during recycling process. in petrol is being phased out by
 Unlike developed countries, which have introduction of lead free petrol.
specifically built facilities for recycling  Many industrial processes use lead and
of e-wastes, recycling in developing it is often released as a pollutant.
countries often involves manual Battery scrap also contain lead. It can
participation thus exposing workers to get mixed up with water and food and
toxic substances present in e-wastes. create cumulative poisoning.
 Lead can cause irreversible behavioral
Heavy Metal Toxicity And disturbances, neurological damage and
Methods Of Their Prevention other developmental problems in young
children and babies. It is a carcinogen
 Toxic metals are dispersed in the of the lungs and kidneys.
environment through metal smelting
industrial emissions, burning of Mercury
 In Japan, mass mercury poisoning  Surface waters are generally free from
(Minamata disease) was observed in arsenic pollution and should be
1960s, caused by eating fish from preferred for drinking and cooking.
Minamata Bay which were  Alternatively the tube well/ hand pump
contaminated with methyl mercury. water should be purified to remove
 Largest source of mercury pollution is arsenic before consumption. Page
through aquatic animals such as fish Techniques for removing arsenic from
which accumulate mercury as methyl water are available. |7
mercury.
 Mercury kills cells in the body and Cadmium
damages organs which come in contact
with mercury and thus impairs their  Mining especially of zinc and
functioning. metallurgical operations, electroplating
 Inhalation of mercury vapours is more industries, etc. release cadmium in the
dangerous than its ingestion. environment.
 Chronic exposure causes lesions in the  It may enter the human body by
mouth and skin and neurological inhalation or from aquatic sources
problems. including fish, etc.
 Typical symptoms of mercury poisoning  It may cause hypertension, liver
are irritability, excitability, loss of cirrhosis, brittle bones, kidney damage
memory, insomnia, tremor and and lung cancer.
gingivitis.  Itai-itai disease first reported from
 Exposure to mercury can be prevented Japan in 1965 was attributed to
by taking care that mercury is not cadmium contamination in water and
released in the environment as well as rice caused by discharge of effluents
by replacing mercury by other from a zinc smelter into a river.
materials.
 Mercury thermometers used earlier are
Other Heavy Metals
getting replaced by mercury free
 Metals such as zinc, chromium,
thermometer.
antimony and tin enter food from
Arsenic cheap cooking utensils.
 Preserved foods stored in tin cans also
 Arsenic is associated with copper, iron cause contamination by tin.
and silver ores.  Zinc is a skin irritant and affects
 Arsenic is also emitted from fossil fuel pulmonary system.
burning.  Problems of heavy metal toxicity can be
 Liquid effluents from fertilizer plants prevented by avoiding the use of
also contain arsenic. utensils made from materials
 Ground water contamination with containing these heavy metals or use of
arsenic is very common in areas where drinking water and consuming fish
it is present. having these heavy metals.
 Chronic arsenic poisoning causes
Occupational Health Hazards
melanosis and keratosis (dark spots on
the upper chest, back and arms are
known as melanosis. The next stage is
Black lung disease
keratosis in which palms become hard)
 In coal mining areas coal dust is the
and leads to loss of appetite, weight,
main air pollutant. The deposits of coal
diarrhoea, gastrointestinal
dust makes miners lungs look black
disturbances and skin cancer.
instead of a healthy pink and hence the  Repeated or continuous exposure to

name black lung disease. noise more than 90 dB may result in
 Black lung disease is the common permanent loss of hearing.
name for pneumoconiosis (CWP) or
anthracosis, a lung disease of older Non-auditory effects
workers in the coal industry, caused by
 Interference with speech and Page
inhalation over many years, of small
communication.
amounts of coal dust. |8
 Annoyance: Most people are annoyed
 The particles of fine coal dust
by noise and some may become
accumulate in lungs. Eventually this
neurotic. Neurotic people lose their
build-up causes thickening and
temper quickly and become irritable.
scarring making the lungs less efficient
 Efficiency: High level of noise at the
in supplying oxygen to the blood.
work place reduces working efficiency.
 In some cases a progressive massive
Quiet environment helps in increasing
fibrosis develops, in which damage
efficiency.
continues in the upper parts of the
 General change in the body: Exposure
lungs even after exposure to dust has
to noise increases blood pressure,
ended.
pulse rate, breathing and sweating or
 X-rays can detect black lung disease
headache.
before it causes any symptoms.
Chemicals and Biological Agents
Noise
 Workers in many industries are
 Workers in mining, manufacturing and
exposed to chemicals which are
construction industries are exposed to
hazardous and may be even
high levels of noise which is a very
carcinogenic such as in textiles, cement
important stress factor.
and construction industries.
 Sound levels higher than 80 to 90 dB
 Substances such as benzene,
for more than eight hours are harmful
chromium, nitrosamines and
to human ear. Some of the adverse
asbestos may cause cancers of lung,
effects of sound are –
bladder, skin, mesothelium, liver, etc.
Psychological  Occupational asthma is caused due to
exposure to organic dusts,
 Noise leads to emotional disturbances microorganisms, bacteria, fungi and
such as annoyance, disturbed sleep, moulds and several chemicals.
lack of concentration and reduced  Silicosis first reported from Kolar gold
efficiency. mines in 1947 is a common disease
among miners, pottery and ceramic
Auditory effects industry workers.
 Auditory fatigue – Occurs when noise  Pneumoconiosis and byssinosis are
level is in the range of 85 to 90 dB e.g. common among mica and textile
noise of a food blender. industry workers respectively.
 Deafness or impaired hearing – It may
Treatment and disposal of solid
be temporary or permanent. Temporary
hearing loss occurs on continuous waste
exposure to noise as in case of
telephone operators. Open dumps
 Open dumps refer to uncovered areas  Burning garbage is not a clean process
that are used to dump solid waste of all as it produces tonnes of toxic ash and
kinds. pollutes the air and water.
 The waste is untreated, uncovered, and  A large amount of the waste that is
not segregated. It is the breeding burnt here can be recovered and
ground for flies, rats, and other insects recycled. In fact, at present, Page
that spread disease. incineration is kept as the last resort
 The rainwater runoff from these dumps and is used mainly for treating the | 9
contaminates nearby land and water infectious waste.
thereby spreading disease. Treatment
by open dumps is to be phased out. Pyrolysis
Landfills  It is a process of combustion in

absence of oxygen or the material
 It is a pit that is dug in the ground. The burnt under controlled atmosphere of
garbage is dumped and the pit is oxygen. It is an alternative to
covered with soil everyday thus incineration.
preventing the breeding of flies and  The gas and liquid thus obtained can
rats. be used as fuels.
 After the landfill is full, the area is  Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like
covered with a thick layer of mud and firewood, coconut, palm waste, corn
the site can thereafter be developed as combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy
a parking lot or a park. straw and saw dust, yields charcoal
 Problems - All types of waste are along with products like tar, methyl
dumped in landfills and when water alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and fuel
seeps through them it gets gas.
contaminated and in turn pollutes the
surrounding area. This contamination Composting
of groundwater and soil through  Composting is a biological process in
landfills is known as leaching. which micro-organisms, mainly fungi
Sanitary landfills and bacteria, decompose degradable
organic waste into humus like
 Sanitary landfill is more hygienic and substance in the presence of oxygen.
built in a methodical manner to solve  This finished product, which looks like
the problem of leaching. soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and
 These are lined with materials that are is an excellent medium for growing
impermeable such as plastics and clay, plants.
and are also built over impermeable  It increases the soil's ability to hold
soil. Constructing sanitary landfills is water and makes the soil easier to
very costly. cultivate. It helps the soil retain more
plant nutrients.
Incineration plants  It recycles the nutrients and returns
 The process of burning waste in large them back to soil as nutrients.
furnaces at high temperature is known  Apart from being clean, cheap, and
as incineration. safe, composting can significantly
 In these plants the recyclable material reduce the amount of disposable
garbage.
is segregated and the rest of the
material is burnt and ash is produced. Vermiculture
 It is also known as earthworm farming.

In this method, Earth worms are added
to the compost. These worms break the
waste and the added excreta of the
worms makes the compost very rich in
nutrients. Page
 Four R's – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and
Recover. | 10
Waste Minimization Circles (WMC)

 WMC helps Small and Medium
Industrial Clusters in waste
minimization in their industrial plants.
 This is assisted by the World Bank
with the Ministry of Environment and
Forests acting as the nodal ministry.
 The project is being implemented with
the assistance of National
Productivity Council (NPC), New
Delhi.
 The initiative also aims to realize the
objectives of the Policy Statement for
Abatement of Pollution (1992), which
states that the government should
educate citizens about environmental
risks, the economic and health dangers
of resource degradation and the real
economic cost of natural resources.
 The policy also recognizes that citizens
and non-governmental organizations
play a role in environmental
monitoring, therefore, enabling them to
supplement the regulatory system and
recognizing their expertise where such
exists and where their commitments
and vigilance would be cost effective.
Environmental Impact Assessment ......... 1 activities and suggest mitigation

measures and strategies.
Benefits of EIA .................................... 2  EIA was introduced in India in 1978,
with respect to river valley projects.
Environmental Components Of EIA ..... 3 Later the EIA legislation was enhanced
to include other developmental sections Page
EIA Process And Procedures ................ 3
since 1941.
Composition of the expert committees  EIA comes under Notification on | 1
Environmental Impact Assessment
for EIA ................................................ 4 (EIA) of developmental projects 1994
under the provisions of Environment
Environmental Appraisal Procedure In (Protection) Act, 1986.
India ................................................... 4  Besides EIA, the Government of India
under Environment (Protection) Act
Environmental Clearance/Rejection 1986 issued a number of other
notifications, which are related to
Letter .................................................. 5
environmental impact assessment.
The Main Participants Of EIA .............. 5  EIA is now mandatory for 30
categories of projects, and these
Salient Features of 2006 Amendment to projects get Environmental Clearance
(EC) only after the EIA requirements
EIA Notification ................................... 6 are fulfilled.
 Environmental clearance or the ‘go
Procedure For Public Hearing .............. 6
ahead’ signal is granted by the Impact
Shortcomings of Environmental Impact Assessment Agency in the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government
Assessment ......................................... 7 of India.
Recommendations to improve EIA All projects that require clearance from
central government can be broadly
process ............................................... 8
categorized into the following
Environmental Impact 1. Industries
Assessment 2. Mining
3. Thermal power plants
 Development projects in the past were 4. River valley projects
undertaken without any consideration 5. Infrastructure and CRZ
to their environmental consequences. (Coastal Regulation Zone)
As a result the whole environment got 6. Nuclear power projects.
polluted and degraded.
 In view of the colossal damage to the Individual projects that need require
environment, governments and public clearance from central government
are now concerned about the
 Nuclear power and related projects
environmental impacts of
such as heavy water plants, nuclear
developmental activities. So, to assess
fuel complex, rare earths.
the environmental impacts, the
 River valley projects including hydel
mechanism of EIA was introduced.
power, major irrigation and their
 EIA is a tool to anticipate the likely
combination including flood control.
environmental impacts that may arise
 Ports, harbours, airports (except minor
out of the proposed developmental
ports and harbours).
 Petroleum refineries including crude  Distilleries

and product pipelines.  Raw skins and hide
 Chemical fertilizers (nitrogenous and  Pulp, paper and newsprint
phosphatic other than single  Dyes
superphosphate).  Cement
 Pesticides (technical).  Foundries (Individual) Page
 Petrochemical complexes (both olefinic  Electroplating
and aromatic) and petrochemical |2
 Meta aminophenol
intermediates such as DMT,
Caprolactam, LAB etc., and production The important aspects of EIA are
of basic plastics such as LDPE, HDPE,
PP, PVC. 1. risk assessment,
2. environmental management and
 Bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals
3. post product monitoring.
 Exploration for oil and gas and their
production, transportation and storage EIA is to
 Synthetic rubber
 Asbestos and asbestos products 1. serve as a primary environmental tool
 Hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives with clear provisions.
 Primary metallurgical industries (such 2. apply consistently to all proposals with
as production of iron and steel, potential environmental impacts.
aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, and 3. use scientific practice and suggest
ferro-alloys) strategies for mitigation.
 Chlor alkali industry 4. address all possible factors such as
 Integrated paint complex including short term, long term, small scale and
manufacture of resins and basic raw large scale effects.
materials required in the manufacture 5. consider sustainable aspects such as
of paints capacity for assimilation, carrying
 Viscose staple fibre and filament yarn capacity, biodiversity protection.
6. lay down a flexible approach for public
 Storage batteries integrated with
involvement.
manufacture of oxides of lead and lead
7. have in built mechanism of follow up
antimony alloy
and feedback.
 All tourism projects between 200m-500
8. include mechanisms for monitoring,
metres of High Water Line and at
auditing and evaluation.
locations with an elevation of more
than 1000 metres with investment of In order to carry out an environmental
more than Rs. 5 crore impact assessment, the following are
 Thermal power plants essential:
 Mining projects (with lease more than 5
hectares) 1. assessment of existing environmental
 Highway projects except projects status.
relating to improvement work including 2. assessment of various factors of
widening and strengthening of roads ecosystem (air, water, land, biological).
with marginal land acquisition along 3. analysis of adverse environmental
the existing alignments provided it impacts of the proposed project to be
does not pass through ecologically started.
sensitive areas such as National 4. impact on people in the neighborhood.
Parks, Sanctuaries, Tiger Reserves,
Reserve Forests Benefits of EIA
 Tarred roads in the Himalayas and
forest areas
 EIA provides a cost effective method to Biological environment

eliminate or minimize the adverse
impact of developmental projects.  Flora and fauna in impact zone.
 EIA enables the decision makers to  Potential damage (likely) due to project,
analyses the effect of developmental due to effluents, emissions and
activities on the environment well landscaping.
 Biological stress (prediction). Page
before the developmental project is
implemented. |3
Land environment
 EIA encourages the adaptation of
mitigation strategies in the  Study of soil characteristics, land use,
developmental plan. and drainage pattern, and the likely
 EIA makes sure that the developmental adverse impact of the project.
plan is environmentally sound and  Impact on historical monuments and
within limits of the capacity of heritage site.
assimilation and regeneration of the  Assessment of expected economic
ecosystem. benefits arising out of the project have
 EIA links environment with to be compared to the all the above
development. The goal is to ensure mentioned factors. Thus we can say
environmentally safe and sustainable that environmental concerns have to be
development. made a part of the decision to set up a
project.
Environmental Components Of
EIA EIA Process And Procedures
 The EIA process looks into the following Steps in Preparation of EIA report
components of the environment.
 Collection of baseline data from
Air environment primary and secondary sources;
 Prediction of impacts based on past
 Quality of ambient air present and experience and mathematical
predicted. modelling;
 Meteorological data: Wind speed,  Evolution of impacts versus evaluation
direction, humidity etc. of net cost benefit;
 Quantity of emission likely from  Preparation of environmental
project. management plans to reduce the
 Impact of the emission on the area. impacts to the minimum;
 Pollution control desires/air quality  Quantitative estimation of financial
standards. cost of monitoring plan and the
mitigation measures.
Noise
Environment Management Plan
 Levels of noise present and predicted
 Strategies for reducing noise pollution.  Delineation of mitigation measures
including prevention and control for
Water environment
each environmental component and
 Existing ground and surface water rehabilitation and resettlement plan.
resources, their quality and quantity
Steps in EIA process
within the zone.
 Impact of proposed project on water
resources.
EIA involves the steps mentioned below.  Once alternatives have been reviewed,
However, EIA process is cyclical with a mitigation plan should be drawn up
interaction between the various steps. for the selected option and is
supplemented with an Environmental
 Screening: The project plan is Management Plan (EMP) to guide the
screened for scale of investment, proponent towards environmental Page
location and type of development and if improvements.
the project needs statutory clearance.  Risk assessment: Inventory analysis | 4
 Scoping: The project’s potential and hazard probability and index also
impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation form part of EIA procedures.
possibilities and need for monitoring.
 Collection of baseline data: Baseline Composition of the expert
data is the environmental status of committees for EIA
study area.
 Impact prediction: Positive and  The Committees will consist of experts
negative, reversible and irreversible and in the following disciplines:
temporary and permanent impacts  Eco-system management
need to be predicted which  Air/water pollution control
presupposes a good understanding of  Water resource management
the project by the assessment agency.  Flora/fauna conservation and
 Mitigation measures and EIA report: management
The EIA report should include the  Land use planning
actions and steps for preventing,  Social Sciences/Rehabilitation
minimizing or by passing the impacts  Project appraisal
or else the level of compensation for  Ecology
probable environmental damage or  Environmental Health
loss.  Subject Area Specialists
 Public hearing: On completion of the  Representatives of
EIA report, public and environmental NGOs/persons concerned with
groups living close to project site may environmental issues
be informed and consulted.  The Chairman will be an outstanding
 Decision making: Impact Assessment and experienced ecologist or
(IA)Authority along with the experts environmentalist or technical
consult the project-in-charge along professional with wide managerial
with consultant to take the final experience in the relevant development.
decision, keeping mind EIA and EMP  The representative of Impact
(Environment Management Plan). Assessment Agency will act as a
 Monitoring and implementation of Member-Secretary.
environmental management plan:  Chairman and members will serve in
The various phases of implementation their individual capacities except those
of the project are monitored. specifically nominated as
 Assessment of Alternatives, representatives.
Delineation of Mitigation Measures  The membership of a committee shall
and Environmental Impact not exceed 15 members.
Assessment Report: For every project,
possible alternatives should be Environmental Appraisal
identified and environmental attributes Procedure In India
compared. Alternatives should cover
both project location and process  An Appraisal Committee constituted by
technologies. the Ministry of Environment and
Forests to first scrutinized a project Environmental clearance + Forestry

based on the data presented by the clearance.
project authorities.
 If necessary, the Ministry of  When a project requires both
Environment and Forests may also environmental clearance as well as
hold consultations with the investors approval under the Forest
and experts on specific issues as and (Conservation) Act, 1980, proposals for Page
when necessary. both are required to be given | 5
 After considering all the facets of a simultaneously to the concerned
projects, environmental clearance is divisions of the Ministry.
accorded subject to implementation of  The processing is done simultaneously
the stipulated environmental for clearance or rejection. If the project
safeguards. does not involve diversion of forestland,
 In case of projects where the project the case is processed only for
proponents have submitted complete environmental clearance.
information, a decision is taken within Time frame
90 days.
 The six regional offices of the Ministry  Once all the requisite documents and
functioning at Shillong, data from the project authorities are
Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh, received and public hearings (where
Bangalore, Lucknow and Bhopal required) have been held, assessment
undertake monitoring of cleared and evaluation of the project from the
projects. environment angle is completed within
 The primary objectives of this 90 days and the decision of the
procedure is to ensure adequacy of the ministry shall be conveyed within 30
suggested safeguards and also to days thereafter [120 days for final
undertake mid-course corrections if decision].
required.
 Sometimes one or more natural Post project monitoring
resources becomes limiting resource in
 Whenever a project is given
a given region and that restrict the
environment clearance, a set of
scopes of development projects.
conditions are stipulated by the
EIA of Coasts Appraisal Committee on a case to case
basis, which have to be complied with
 Coastal Zone Management Plans by the project proponent.
(CZMPs) are prepared by coastal states  The project authorities are required to
or Union Territories as per rules set by submit a half-yearly compliance report
CRZ notification 1991. to the Ministry about the compliance of
 CZMPs are prepared based on conditions stipulated.
identification and categorization of  Cases of non-compliance of the
coastal areas for different activities and recommendations and conditions by
then submitted to the MoEF for cleared projects/ units are brought to
approval. the notice of the Ministry, which may
 The ministry then forms a task force for then initiate action against the project
examining their plans. authorities.
Environmental The Main Participants Of EIA

Clearance/Rejection Letter
EIA applies to public and private sections.
Single window clearance The six main players are:
1. Those who propose the project  Thus Category A projects and Category
2. The environmental consultant who B, projects undergo the complete EIA
prepare EIA on behalf of project process whereas Category B2 projects
proponent. are excluded from complete EIA
3. Pollution Control Board (State or process.
National).
Page
4. Public has the right to express their Procedure For Public Hearing
opinion. |6
5. The Impact Assessment Agency. Notice of Public Hearing
6. Regional center of the Ministry of
 Whoever applies for environmental
Environment and Forest.
clearance of projects, should request
Salient Features of 2006 the concerned State Pollution Control
Board to initiate a public hearing.
Amendment to EIA Notification
 The State Pollution Control Board
 Environment Impact Assessment issues a notice for environmental
Notification of 2006 has decentralized public hearing which will be published
the environmental clearance projects in at least two newspapers widely
by categorizing the developmental circulated in the region around the
projects in two categories, i.e., Category project, one of which will be in the
A (national level appraisal) and vernacular language of the locality
Category B (state level appraisal). concerned.
 'Category A' projects are appraised at  State Pollution Control Board mentions
national level by Impact Assessment the date, time and place of public
Agency (IAA) and the Expert Appraisal hearing.
Committee (EAC) and Category B  Suggestions, views, comments and
projects are apprised at state level. objections of the public will be invited
 State Level Environment Impact within thirty days from the date of
Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and publication of the notification.
State Level Expert Appraisal Committee  All persons including the residents,
(SEAC) are constituted to provide environmental groups and others
clearance to Category B process. located at the project site/sites of
displacement/sites likely to be affected
After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle can participate in the public hearing.
comprises of four stages They can also make oral/written
suggestions to the State Pollution
1. Screening Control Board.
2. Scoping
3. Public hearing Composition of public hearing panel
4. Appraisal
 Category A projects require mandatory The composition of Public Hearing Panel
environmental clearance and thus they may consist of the following, namely:
do not undergo the screening process.  Representative of State Pollution
 Category B projects undergoes Control Board;
screening process and they are  District Collector or his nominee;
classified into two types.
 Representative of State Government
1. Category B, projects (Mandatory
dealing with the subject;
requires EIA).
 Representative of Department of the
2. Category B2 projects (Do not require
State Government dealing with
EIA).
Environment;
 Not more than three representatives of  The data collectors do not pay respect
the local bodies such as Municipalities to the indigenous knowledge of local
or panchayats; people.
 Not more than three senior citizens of
the area nominated by the District Quality of EIA
Collector.  One of the biggest concerns with the Page
Shortcomings of Environmental environmental clearance process is
|7
related to the quality of EIA report that
Impact Assessment are being carried out.
 The reports are generally incomplete
Applicability
and provided with false data.
 There are several projects with  Many EIA report are based on single
significant environmental impacts that season data.
are exempted from the notification  The EIA document in itself is so bulky
either because they are not listed in and technical, which makes it very
schedule I, or their investments are difficult to decipher so as to aid in the
less than what is provided for in the decision making process.
notification.
Lack of Credibility
Composition of expert committees and
standards  It is the responsibility of the project
proponent to commission the
 It is being found that the team formed preparation of the EIA for its project.
for conducting EIA studies is lacking  The EIA is actually funded by an
the expertise in various fields such as agency or individual whose primary
environmentalists, wild life experts, interest is to procure clearance for the
Anthropologists and Social Scientists project proposed.
(to study the social impact of the  There is little chance that the final
project). assessment presented is un biased,
 For example for the preparation of EIA even if the consultant may provide an
report of the proposed oil exploration in unbiased assessment that is critical of
coast of Orissa by the reliance group the proposed project.
has been given to the life science Dept  There are so many cases of fraudulent
of Berhampur university which has no EIA studies where erroneous data has
expertise on the study of turtles and its been used, same facts used for two
life cycle. totally different places etc.
 There is no accreditation of EIA
Public hearing consultants, therefore any such
consultant with a track record of
 Public comments are not taken into
fraudulent cases cannot be held liable
account at the early stage, which often
for discrepancies.
leads to conflict at the later stage of
project clearance.  It is hard to imagine any consultant
after being paid lakh of rupees,
 A number of projects with significant
preparing a report for the project
environmental and social impacts have
proponents, indicating that the project
been excluded from the mandatory
public hearing process. is not viable.
 The documents which the public are Case Study
entitled to are seldom available on
time.  The MoEF constituted the Western
Ghats Experts Ecology Panel (WGEEP)
in 2010 under the Chairmanship of clearance to local communities and

Prof. Madhav Gadgil. general public.
 The Panel submitted its report in 2011
but it was not made public immediately Applicability
due to its stringent assessment of the  All those projects where there is likely
condition of Western Ghats. to be a significant alternation of Page
 The report suggested many radical ecosystems need to go through the
changes that needs to be brought to |8
process of environmental clearance,
conserve Western Ghats. The without exception.
recommendation if implemented would  No industrial developmental activity
adversely affect mining mafia, sand should be permitted in ecologically
mafia and local encroachers. sensitive areas.
 Under pressure from various
stakeholders, MoEF set up the High Public hearing
Level Working Group (HLWG) under the
Chairmanship of Dr. K. Kasturirangan  Public hearings should be applicable to
to study recommendations of WGEEP. all hitherto exempt categories of
 The very constitution of the HLWG projects which have environmental
raised suspicions that this has been impacts.
formed to dilute the recommendations
Quality
of the WGEEP.
 The HLWG had indeed diluted many  The focus of EIA needs to shift from
recommendations of WGEEP to satisfy utilization and exploitation of natural
the interests of various mafia. resources to conservation of natural
resources.
Monitoring, compliance and
 At present EIA reports are extremely
institutional arrangements
weak when it comes to assessment of
 Often, and more so for strategic biological diversity of a project area and
industries such as nuclear energy the consequent impacts on it. This gap
projected, the EMPs are kept needs to be plugged.
confidential for political and  All EIA reports should clearly state
administrative reasons. what are the adverse impacts that a
 Details regarding the effectiveness and proposed projects will have. This
implementation of mitigation measures should be a separate chapter and not
are often not provided. hidden within technical details.
 Emergency preparedness plans are not  The sub components or subsidiary
discussed in sufficient details and the reports of EIA reports (e.g. Assessments
information not disseminated to the of Biodiversity impacts done by a sub
communities. consultant) should be made publicly
accessible as standalone reports with
Recommendations to improve EIA the EIA. This should be available on
process the websites of the MOEF.
 EIAs should be based on full studies
 Independent EIA Authority. carried out over at least one year.
 Sector wide EIAs needed. Single season data on environmental
 Creation of a centralized baseline data parameters like biodiversity, as is being
bank. done for several rapid assessments is
 Dissemination of all information related not adequate to gain understanding of
to projects from notification to the full impact of the proposed project.
 It is critical that the preparation of an notification limits itself to the stage

EIA is completely independent of the when environmental clearance is
project proponent. granted.
 State and central governments should  The MOEF should set up more regional
maintain a list of credible, independent offices with advisory Expert
and competent agencies that can carry committees, each with smaller areas of Page
out EIAs. similarly the EIA consultant jurisdiction, to effectively monitor the
those are making false reports should compliance of clearance conditions. |9
be black listed.
 A national level accreditation to Redressal
environment consultancy should be  The composition of the NGT needs to be
adopted changed to include more judicials from
Grant of clearance the field of environment.
 Citizen should be able to access the
 The notification needs to make it clear authority for redressal of all violation of
that the provision for site clearance the EIA notification as well as issues
does not imply any commitment on the relating to non-compliance.
part of the impact Assessment agency
to grant full environmental clearance. Capacity building
 The prior informed consent of local  NGOs, civil society groups and local
communities and urban wards or communities need to build their
residents association needs to be made capacities to use the EIA notification
mandatory before the grant of towards better decision making on
environmental clearance. The consent projects.
should be from the full general body.
 The language used for specifying
conditions of clearance must be clear
and specific.
Composition of expert committees
 The present executive committees

should be replaced by expert's people
from various stakeholder groups, who
are reputed in environmental and other
relevant fields.
 The process of selection of those
committees should be open and
transparent. The minutes, decisions
and advice by these committee should
be open to public.
Monitoring, compliance and

institutional arrangements
 The EIA notification needs to build

within it an automatic withdrawal of
clearance if the conditions of clearance
are being violated, and introduce more
stringent punishment for
noncompliance. At present the EIA
Biodiversity ............................................ 1  It is a measure of the overall diversity

for the different ecosystems within a
Loss of Biodiversity................................. 4 region.
Biodiversity Conservation ....................... 7 Species evenness
Biodiversity of India ...............................12  It measures the proportion of species at Page

a given site, e.g. low evenness indicates
|1
Historic Citizen Movements to Conserve that a few species dominate the site.
Biodiversity ...........................................14
Genetic diversity
Wildlife Of India.....................................15
 Genetic diversity is the total number
Biodiversity Hot Spots ...........................17 of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup of a species.
Indian Biodiversity Hot Spots ................18  A single species might show high
diversity at the genetic level [E.g. Man:
World Heritage Sites ..............................20 Chinese, Indian American, African etc.].
India has more than 50,000 genetically
Biodiversity different strains of rice, and 1,000
varieties of mango.
 Biodiversity is the variety of plant and  Genetic diversity allows species to
animal life in the world or in a adapt to changing environments. This
particular habitat. diversity aims to ensure that some
species survive drastic changes and
Measurement of Biodiversity thus carry on desirable genes.
 Biodiversity is measured by two major
Species diversity
components:
1. species richness, and
 It is the ratio of one species population
2. species evenness.
over total number of organisms across
Species richness all species in the given biome. ‘Zero’
would be infinite diversity, and ‘one’
 It is the measure of number of species represents only one species present.
found in a community  Species diversity is a measure of
the diversity within an ecological
Alpha diversity community that incorporates both
species richness (the number
 It refers to the diversity within a
of species in a community) and the
particular area or ecosystem, and is
evenness of species.
usually expressed by the number of
species (i.e., species richness) in that  For example, the Western Ghats have a
ecosystem. greater amphibian species diversity
than the Eastern Ghats. There are
Beta diversity more than 200000 species in India of
which several are confined to India
 It is a comparison of diversity between (endemic).
ecosystems, usually measured as the  Endemism is the ecological state of a
change in amount of species between species being unique to a defined
the ecosystems. geographic location, such as an island,
nation, country or other defined zone,
Gamma diversity
or habitat type; organisms that are
indigenous to a place are not endemic

to it if they are also found elsewhere. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a
country. The extreme opposite of
endemism is cosmopolitan
Page
distribution.
 Species differ from one another, |2
markedly in their genetic makeup, do
not inter-breed in nature. Closely-
related species however have in
common much of their hereditary
characteristics. For instance, about
98.4 per cent of the genes of humans
and chimpanzees are the same.
 According to the IUCN (2004), the total
number of plant and animal species
described so far is slightly more than
1.5 million, but we have no clear idea
of how many species are yet to be
discovered and described. A large  The number of fungi species in the
proportion of the species waiting to be world is more than the combined total
discovered are in the tropics. Estimate of the species of fishes, amphibians,
place the global species diversity at reptiles and mammals.
about 7 million.  It should be noted that these estimates
 More than 70 per cent of all the species do not give any figures for prokaryotes.
recorded are animals, while plants Biologists are not sure about how many
(including algae, fungi, bryophytes, prokaryotic species there might be.
gymnosperms and angiosperms)  In general, species diversity decreases
comprise no more than 22 per cent of as we move away from the equator
the total. towards the poles. With very few
 Among animals, insects are the most exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of
species-rich taxonomic group, making 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour more
up more than 70 per cent of the total. species than temperate or polar areas.
That means, out of every 10 animals on  India, with much of its land area in the
this planet, 7 are insects. tropical latitudes, has more than 1,200
species of birds.
 The largely tropical Amazonian rain
forest in South America has the
greatest biodiversity on earth- it is
home to more than 40,000 species of
plants, 3,000 of fishes, 1,300 of birds,
427 of mammals, 427 of amphibians,
378 of reptiles and of more than
1,25,000 invertebrates.
Why tropics have greater biological

diversity?
 Speciation is generally a function of

time, unlike temperate regions
subjected to frequent glaciations in the leads to major changes in occurrence of

past, tropical latitudes have remained at least one other species.
relatively undisturbed for millions of  Certain species in an ecosystem is
years and thus, had a long evolutionary considered more important in
time for species diversification. determining the presence of many
 Tropical environments, unlike other species in that ecosystem. Page
temperate ones, are less seasonal,  All top predators (Tiger, Lion,
relatively more constant and Crocodile, Elephant) are considered as | 3
predictable. Such constant keystone species because it regulates
environments promote niche all other animal population indirectly.
specialization and lead to a greater Hence top predators are given much
species diversity. consideration in conservation.
 There is more solar energy available in  If keystone species is lost, it will result
the tropics, which contributes to higher in the degradation of whole ecosystem.
productivity; this in turn might For example certain plant species
contribute indirectly to greater (ebony tree, Indian-laurel) exclusively
diversity. depends upon bats for its pollination. If
the bat population is reduced then
The importance of Species Diversity to regeneration of particular plants
the Ecosystem becomes more difficult.
 Foundation species is a dominant
 For many decades, ecologists believed
primary producer in an ecosystem both
that communities with more species,
in terms of abundance and influence.
generally, tend to be more stable than
Example: kelp in kelp forests and
those with less species.
corals in coral reefs.
 What exactly is stability for a biological
Flagship species
community? A stable community
should not show too much variation in  A flagship species is a species chosen
productivity from year to year; it must to represent an environmental cause,
be either resistant or resilient to such as an ecosystem in need of
occasional disturbances (natural or conservation.
man-made), and it must also be  These species are chosen for their
resistant to invasions by alien species. vulnerability, attractiveness or
 Although, we may not understand distinctiveness in order to engender
completely how species richness support and acknowledgement from the
contributes to the well-being of an public at large.
ecosystem, we know enough to realize  Example: Indian tiger, African
that rich biodiversity is not only elephant, giant panda of China,
essential for ecosystem health but mountain gorilla of Central Africa,
imperative for the very survival of the orangutan of Southeast Asia and the
human race on this planet. leatherback sea turtle.
Ecological diversity
Bioprospecting: nations endowed with
rich biodiversity explore molecular, genetic  Ecological diversity refers to the
and species-level diversity to derive different types of habitats. A habitat is
products of economic importance. the cumulative factor of the climate,
vegetation and geography of a region.
Keystone species and Foundation
 It includes various biological zones, like
Species
lake, desert, coast, estuaries, wetlands,
 Keystone species is a species whose mangroves, coral reefs etc.
addition to or loss from an ecosystem
 At the ecosystem level, India, for estuaries, and alpine meadows has a
instance, with its deserts, rain forests, greater ecosystem diversity than a
mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, Scandinavian country like Norway.
Services provided by Biodiversity  Wood products.
 Ornamental plants.
 Ecosystem services.  Breeding stocks, population reservoirs. Page
 Protection of water resources.  Future resources. |4
 Soils formation and protection.  Diversity in genes, species and
 Nutrient storage and recycling. ecosystems.
 Pollution breakdown and absorption.
 Contribution to climate stability. Social services
 Maintenance of ecosystems.  Research, education and monitoring.
 Recovery from unpredictable events.  Recreation and tourism.
Biological services  Cultural values.
 Food and shelter.

 Medicinal resources.
Loss of Biodiversity Cause for the loss of biodiversity
 The IUCN Red List (2004) documents  There are four major causes ‘The Evil
the extinction of 784 species in the last Quartet’ are:
500 years. Some examples of recent
extinctions include the three Habitat loss and fragmentation
subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of
 This is the most important cause
tiger.
driving animals and plants to
 During the long period (> 3 billion
extinction.
years) since the origin and
 Due to the growing human population,
diversification of life on earth there
wetlands are being made dry through
were five episodes of mass extinction of
landfills, as the demand for land
species.
increases.
 Sixth Extinction, presently is in
 Natural forests are cleared for industry,
progress with current species
agriculture, dams, habitation,
extinction rates estimated to be 100 to
recreational sports, etc.
1,000 times faster than in the pre-
human times.  The most dramatic examples of habitat
loss come from tropical rain forests.
 Ecologists warn that if the present
trends continue, nearly half of all the  Once covering more than 14 per cent of
species on earth might be wiped out the earth’s land surface, these rain
within the next 100 years. forests now cover no more than 6 per
cent. They are being destroyed fast.
 In general, loss of biodiversity in a
region may lead to  The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge
(a) decline in plant production, that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’)
(b) lowered resistance to environmental harboring probably millions of species
perturbations such as drought and is being cut and cleared for cultivating
(c) increased variability in certain soya beans or for conversion to
ecosystem processes such as plant grasslands for raising beef cattle.
productivity, water use, and pest  Besides total loss, the degradation of
and disease cycles. many habitats by pollution also
threatens the survival of many species.
 For example, pollution that leads to in atmosphere, nuclear radiation; UV-

greenhouse effect results in global exposure; oil spills, etc.
warming. All those species that are  When large habitats are broken up into
slow to adjust to the changed small fragments due to various human
environment are eventually lost. activities, mammals and birds
 A vast array of factors causing requiring large territories and certain Page
environmental degradation may result animals with migratory habits are
in the loss of biodiversity. badly affected, leading to population | 5
 Some of these factors are: global declines.
warming, increased CO2 concentration
Page
|6
 In the last 500 years, many species

extinctions (Steller’s sea cow,
Over-exploitation passenger pigeon) were due to over
exploitation by humans.
 Humans have always depended on
 Presently many marine fish
nature for food and shelter, but when
populations around the world are over
‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to over-
harvested, endangering the continued
exploitation of natural resources.
existence of some commercially where extinction of one invariably leads

important species. to the extinction of the other.
 Whales for oil, fish for food, trees for
wood, plants for medicines etc. are Poaching
being removed by humans at higher
 Large mammals such as the tiger,
rates than they can be replaced.
rhinoceros and the elephant once faced Page
 Excessive cutting of trees, overgrazing,
the distinct possibility of complete | 7
collection of fire-wood, hunting of wild
extinction due to rampant hunting and
animals for skin (for example tigers
poaching.
from reserve forests of India), ivory etc.
all result in gradual loss of species. Global warming (Climate change), natural
calamities are other reasons for loss of
Alien species invasions
biodiversity.
 When alien species are introduced
Biodiversity Conservation
unintentionally or deliberately for
whatever purpose, some of them turn
 When we conserve and protect the
invasive, and cause decline or
whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all
extinction of indigenous species.
levels is protected. E.g. we save the
 The Nile perch introduced into Lake entire forest to save the tiger. This
Victoria in east Africa led eventually to approach is called in situ (on site)
the extinction of an ecologically unique conservation.
assemblage of more than 200 species of
 However, when there are situations
cichlid fish in the lake.
where an animal or plant is endangered
 You must be familiar with the or threatened and needs urgent
environmental damage caused and measures to save it from extinction, ex
threat posed to our native species by situ (off site) conservation is the
invasive weed species like carrot grass desirable approach.
(Parthenium), Argemone, Lantana
and water hyacinth (Eicchornia). Benefits of Biodiversity
 The recent illegal introduction of the conservation
African catfish Clarias gariepinus for
aquaculture purposes is posing a  Conservation of biological diversity
threat to the indigenous catfishes in leads to conservation of essential
our rivers. ecological diversity to preserve the
 The colonization of tropical Pacific continuity of food chains.
Islands by humans is said to have led  The genetic diversity of plants and
to the extinction of more than 2,000 animals is preserved.
species of native birds.  It ensures the sustainable utilization of
Co-extinctions life support systems on earth.
 It provides a vast knowledge of
 When a species becomes extinct, the potential use to the community.
plant and animal species associated  A reservoir of wild animals and plants
with it in an obligatory way also is preserved, thus enabling them to be
become extinct. introduced, if need be, in the
 When a host fish species becomes surrounding areas.
extinct, its unique assemblage of  Biodiversity conservation assures
parasites also meets the same fate. sustainable utilization of potential
 Another example is the case of a resources.
coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism
In situ conservation  National Board for Wildlife (NBWL),

chaired by the Prime Minister of India
 Faced with the conflict between provides for policy framework for
development and conservation, many wildlife conservation in the country.
nations find it unrealistic and  The National Wildlife Action Plan
economically not feasible to conserve (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, Page
all their biological wealth. emphasizing the people’s participation
 On a global basis, this problem has and their support for wildlife | 8
been addressed by eminent conservation.
conservationists. They identified for
maximum protection certain Reserved & Protected Forests
‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with
 As of present, reserved forests and
very high levels of species richness
protected forests differ in one important
and high degree of endemism (that is,
way:
species confined to that region and not
1. Rights to all activities like hunting,
found anywhere else).
grazing, etc. in reserved forests are
 Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were
banned unless specific orders are
identified but subsequently nine more
issued otherwise.
have been added to the list, bringing
2. In protected areas, rights to
the total number of biodiversity
activities like hunting and grazing
hotspots in the world to 34.
are sometimes given to communities
 These hotspots are also regions of
living on the fringes of the forest,
accelerated habitat loss. Three of these
who sustain their livelihood partially
hotspots - Western Ghats and Sri
or wholly from forest resources or
Lanka, Indo-Burma and Eastern
products.
Himalayas cover our country’s
 The first reserve forest in India was
exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
Satpura National Park in Madhya
 Although all the biodiversity hotspots
Pradesh.
put together cover less than 2 percent
 Typically, reserved forests are often
of the earth’s land area, the number of
upgraded to the status of wildlife
species they collectively harbour is
sanctuaries, which in turn may be
extremely high and strict protection of
upgraded to the status of national
these hotspots could reduce the
parks, with each category receiving a
ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30
higher degree of protection and
per cent.
government funding.
 In India, ecologically unique and
biodiversity-rich regions are legally Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges
protected as biosphere reserves,
national parks, sanctuaries, reserved  Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges
forests, protected forests and nature are home to various endangered
reserves. species.
 India now has 14 biosphere reserves,  They are safe from hunting, predation
90 national parks and 448 wildlife or competition.
sanctuaries.  They are safeguarded from extinction in
 Plantation, cultivation, grazing, their natural habitat.
felling trees, hunting and poaching  Certain rights of people living inside the
are prohibited in biosphere reserves, Sanctuary could be permitted.
national parks and sanctuaries.  Grazing, firewood collection by tribals
is allowed but strictly regulated.
Protected Area Network in India
 Settlements not allowed (few With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’,

exceptions: tribal settlements do exist which of the following statements
constant; efforts are made to relocate is/are correct?
them).
 A Sanctuary can be promoted to a 1) Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas
National Park. that are declared under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972. Page
 There are more than 500 wildlife
2) The purpose of the declaration of | 9
sanctuaries in India.
Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all
National Park kinds of human activities, in those
zones except agriculture.
 National parks are areas reserved for
wild life where they can freely use the Select the correct answer using the code
habitats and natural resources. given below.
 The difference between a Sanctuary a) 1 only
and a National Park mainly lies in the b) 2 only
vesting of rights of people living inside. c) Both 1 and 2
 Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain d) Neither 1 nor 2
rights can be allowed, in a National
Park, no rights are allowed. Answer: d) Neither
 No grazing of any livestock shall also be
permitted inside a National Park while Biosphere Reserve
in a Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife
 Large areas of protected land for
Warden may regulate, control or
conservation of wild life, plant and
prohibit it.
animal resources and traditional life of
Eco-Sensitive Zones the tribals living in the area.
 May have one more national parks or
 The National Wildlife Action Plan wildlife sanctuaries in it.
(2002–2016) of MoEFCC stipulated
that state governments should declare Core area
land falling within 10 km of the  Comprises a strictly protected
boundaries of national parks and
ecosystem for conserving ecosystems,
wildlife sanctuaries as eco fragile zones species and genetic variation. In core or
or ESZs under the Environmental
natural zone human activity is not
(Protection) Act, 1986.
allowed.
 The purpose of the ESZ was to provide
more protection to the parks by acting Buffer zone
as a shock absorber or transition zone.
 Eco-Sensitive Zones would minimise  Used for scientific research,
forest depletion and man-animal monitoring, training and education.
conflict.
 The protected areas are based on the Transition area
core and buffer model of management.  Ecologically sustainable human
 The core area has the legal status of settlements and economic activities
being a national park. (tourism) are permitted.
 The buffer area, however, does not have  With the cooperation of reserve
legal status of being a national park management and local people several
and could be a reserved forest, wildlife human activities like settlements,
sanctuary or tiger reserve. cropping, recreation, and forestry are
carried out without disturbing the  Later introduced in India in 1986.

environment.
Aim
1. Studying the effects of human

interference and pollution on the biotic
and abiotic components of ecosystems. Page
2. Conservation the ecosystems for the
| 10
present as well as future.
The main objects of MAB programme are

to:
1. Conserve representative samples of

ecosystem.
2. Provide long term in situ conservation
of genetic diversity.
Credits: http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/31346/InTech- 3. Provide opportunities for education
Biosphere_reserves.pdf
and training.
4. Provide appropriate sustainable
managements of the living resources.
5. Promote infer national co-operation.
Tiger Reserves
 Same as sanctuaries. But they are

monitored by NTCA under Project tiger.
 The various tiger reserves were created
in the country based on 'core-buffer'
strategy.
Core area
 The core areas are freed of all human

activities.
Conserving Biodiversity
 It has the legal status of a national
The most important strategy for the park or wildlife sanctuary.
conservation of biodiversity together with  Collection of minor forest produce,
traditional human life is the establishment grazing, and other human disturbances
of are not allowed.
a) biosphere reserves Buffer areas

b) botanical gardens
 Twin objectives:
c) national parks
1. providing habitat supplement to
d) wildlife sanctuaries
spillover population of wild animals
Answer: a) from core area.
2. provide site specific co-
Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB developmental inputs to
programme) surrounding villages for relieving
their impact on core area.
 It was first started by UNESCO in
1971.
 Collection of minor forest produce and Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya
grazing by tribals is allowed on a Pradesh.
sustainable basis.  In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the
 The Forest Rights Act passed by the last refuges for a large number of rare
Indian government in 2006 recognizes and threatened plants.
the rights of some forest dwelling Page
communities in forest areas. Ex situ Conservation
| 11
Conservation Reserves  In this approach, threatened animals
and plants are taken out from their
 Conservation Reserves can be declared natural habitat and placed in special
by the State Governments in any area setting where they can be protected
owned by the Government, particularly and given special care.
the areas adjacent to National Parks  Zoological parks, botanical gardens,
and Sanctuaries and those areas which wildlife safari parks and seed banks
link one Protected Area with another. serve this purpose.
 Such declaration should be made after  There are many animals that have
having consultations with the local become extinct in the wild but continue
communities. to be maintained in zoological parks.
 The rights of people living inside a  In recent years ex situ conservation has
Conservation Reserve are not affected. advanced beyond keeping threatened
species. Now gametes of threatened
Community Reserves
species can be preserved in viable and
 Community Reserves can be declared fertile condition for long periods using
by the State Government in any private cryopreservation techniques, eggs can
or community land, not comprised be fertilized in vitro, and plants can be
within a National Park, Sanctuary or a propagated using tissue culture
Conservation Reserve, where an methods.
individual or a community has  Seeds of different genetic strains of
volunteered to conserve wildlife and its commercially important plants can be
habitat. kept for long periods in seed banks.
 As in the case of a Conservation  The national gene bank at National
Reserve, the rights of people living Bureau Of Plant Genetic Resources
inside a Community Reserve are not (NBPGR), Delhi is primarily
affected. responsible for conservation of unique
accessions on long-term basis, as base
Sacred Groves collections for posterity, predominantly
in the form of seeds.
 India has a history of religious/cultural
traditions that emphasised protection Botanical garden
of nature.
 In many cultures, tracts of forest were  Botanical garden refers to the
set aside, and all the trees and wildlife scientifically planned collection of living
within were venerated and given total trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and
protection. other plants from various parts of the
globe.
 Such sacred groves are found in Khasi
and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Purpose of botanical gardens
Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western
Ghat regions of Karnataka and  To study the taxonomy as well as
Maharashtra and the Sarguja, growth of plants.
 To study the introduction and natural home, especially for research

acclimatization process of exotic plants. purposes. So its Ex situ conservation.
 It acts as a germplasm collection.
Rest all along with protected forests and
 It helps development of new hybrids.
reserved forests are In situ conservation
 It augments conserving rare and
methods.
threatened species. Page
 It facilitates training of staff. Answer: b) Botanical Garden
 It acts as a source of recreation. | 12
Constraints in biodiversity
Zoo conservation
 Zoo is an establishment, whether  Low priority for conservation of living

stationary or mobile, where captive natural resources.
animals are kept for exhibition to the  Exploitation of living natural resources
public and includes a circus and for monetary gain.
rescue centers but does not include an  Values and knowledge about the
establishment of a licensed dealer in species and ecosystem inadequately
captive animals. known.
 The initial purpose of zoos was  Unplanned urbanization and
entertainment, over the decades, zoos uncontrolled industrialization.
have got transformed into centers for
wildlife conservation and Biodiversity of India
environmental education.
 Apart from saving individual animals,  India is a recognized as one of the
zoos have a role to play in species mega-diverse countries, rich in
conservation too (through captive biodiversity and associated traditional
breeding). knowledge.
 Zoos provide an opportunity to open up  India has 23.39% of its geographical
a whole new world, and this could be area under forest and tree cover.
used in sensitizing visitors regarding  With just 2.4% of the land area, India
the value and need for conservation of accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded
wildlife. species even while supporting almost
18% of human population.
Which one of the following is not a site  In terms of species richness, India
for in-situ method of conservation of ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in
flora? birds and fifth in reptiles.
a) Biosphere Reserves  In terms of endemism of vertebrate
b) Botanical Garden groups, India's position is tenth in
c) National Park birds with 69 species, fifth in reptiles
d) Wildlife Sanctuary with 156 species and seventh in
amphibians with 110 species.
In situ conservation = on the site  India's share of crops is 44% as
conservation without displacing the compared to the world average of 11%.
affected organism.
India Represents
Ex situ conservation = conserving the
organism in an artificial habitat by  Two ‘Realms’
displacing it from its natural habitat.  Five Biomes
 Ten Bio-geographic Zones
Botanical Garden = Plants are bred in a  Twenty five Bio-geographic provinces
protected environment far from their
Realms  Biogeographic zones were used as a

basis for planning wildlife protected
 Biogeographic realms are large spatial areas in India.
regions within which ecosystems share  There are 10 biogeographic zones
a broadly similar biota. which are distinguished clearly in
 Realm is a continent or sub-continent India. They are as follows: Page
sized area with unifying features of
geography and fauna & flora. Trans-Himalayas | 13
 The Indian region is composed of two
 An extension of the Tibetan plateau,
realms. They are:
harboring high-altitude cold desert in
1. the Himalayan region represented
Laddakh (J&K) and Lahaul Spiti (H.P)
by Palearctic Realm and
comprising 5.7 % of the country's
2. the rest of the sub-continent
landmass.
represented by Malayan Realm
 In world Eight terrestrial biogeographic Himalayas
realms are typically recognized. They
are  The entire mountain chain running
1. Nearctic Realm from north-western to northeastern
2. Palaearctic Realm India, comprising a diverse range of
3. Africotropical Realm biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % of
4. Indomalayan Realm the country's landmass.
5. Ocenaia Realm
6. Australian Realm Desert
7. Antarctic Realm
 The extremely arid area west of the
8. Neotropical Realm
Aravalli hill range, comprising both the
Biomes of India salty desert of Gujarat and the sand
desert of Rajasthan. 6.9% of the
 The term biome means the main country's landmass.
groups of plants and animals living in
Semi-arid
areas of certain climate patterns.
 It includes the way in which animals,  The zone between the desert and the
vegetation and soil interact together. Deccan plateau, including the Aravalli
The plants and animals of that area hill range. 15.6 % of the country's
have adapted to that environment. landmass.
The five biomes of India are: Western Ghats
1. Tropical Humid Forests  The hill ranges and plains running
2. Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests along the western coastline, south of
(including Monsoon Forests) the Tapti river, covering an extremely
3. Warm deserts and semi-deserts diverse range of biotic provinces and
4. Coniferous forests and biomes. 5.8% of the country's
5. Alpine meadows. landmass.
Bio-geographic Zones Deccan Peninsula
 Biogeography deals with the  The largest of the zones, covering much
geographical distribution of plants and of the southern and southcentral
animals. plateau with a predominantly
deciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the
country's landmass.
Gangetic plain set of biomes. 0.03% of the country's

landmass.
 Defined by the Ganges river system,
these plains are relatively homogenous. Coasts
11% of the country's landmass.
 A large coastline distributed both to the
North-east India west and east, with distinct differences Page
between the two; Lakshadweep islands
 The plains and non-Himalayan hill | 14
are included in this with the percent
ranges of northeastern India, with a area being negligible.
wide variation of vegetation. 5.2% of
the country's landmass. Bio-geographic provinces
Islands  Bio-geographic Province is a

ecosystematic or biotic subdivision of
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in realms. India is divided into 25 bio
the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverse geographic zones.
S.No. Biogeographic Zones (10) Biogeographic Provinces (25)
1. Trans Himalaya 1A: Himalaya – Ladakh Mountains
1B: Himalaya – Tibetan Plateau
1C: Trans – Himalaya Sikkim
2. The Himalaya 2A: Himalaya - North West Himalaya
2B: Himalaya - West Himalaya
2C: Himalaya - Central Himalaya
2D: Himalaya - East Himalaya
3. The Indian Desert 3A: Desert - Thar
3B: Desert - Katchchh
4. The Semi-Arid 4A: Semi - Arid - Punjab Plains
4B: Semi - Arid - Gujarat Rajputana
5. The Western Ghats 5A: Western Ghats - Malabar Plains
5B: Western Ghats - Western Ghats Mountains
6. The Deccan Peninsula 6A: Deccan Peninsular - Central Highlands
6B: Deccan Peninsular - Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular - Eastern Highlands
6D: Deccan Peninsular - Central Plateau
6E: Deccan Peninsular - Deccan South
7. The Gangetic Plains 7A: Gangetic Plain - Upper Gangetic Plains
7B: Gangetic Plain - Lower Gangetic Plains
8. The Coasts 8A: Coasts - West Coast
8B: Coasts - East Coast
8C: Coasts - Lakshadweep
9. Northeast India 9A: North - East - Brahmaputra Valley
9B: North - East - North East Hills
10. Islands 10A: Islands - Andaman
10B: Islands - Nicobars
Historic Citizen Movements to  It is a social-ecological movement that
Conserve Biodiversity practiced the Gandhian methods of
satyagraha and nonviolent resistance,
Chipko Movement through the act of hugging trees to
protect them from falling.
 The modern Chipko movement started  Appiko movement gave birth to a new
in the early 1970s in the Garhwal awareness all over southern India.
Himalayas of Uttarakhand, with
growing awareness towards rapid Wildlife Of India
deforestation.
 The landmark event in this struggle Himalayan mountain system Page
took place on March 26, 1974, when a
group of peasant women in Reni village,  The west Himalayas have low rainfall, | 15
Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, heavy snowfall (temperate conditions),
Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent whereas in east Himalayas, there is
the cutting of trees and reclaim their heavy rainfall, snowfall only at very
traditional forest rights that were high altitudes, whereas at lower
threatened by the contractor system of altitudes conditions are similar to the
the state Forest Department. tropical rain forests. Flora and fauna of
 Their actions inspired hundreds of both Himalayas differ.
such actions at the grassroots level
Himalayan foothills
throughout the region.
 By the 1980s the movement had  Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and
spread throughout India and led to semi-evergreen forests; dominant
formulation of people-sensitive forest species are sal, silk-cotton trees, giant
policies, which put a stop to the open bamboos; tall grassy meadow with
felling of trees in regions as far savannahs in terai.
reaching as Vindhyas and the Western
 Fauna: Includes big mammals of like
Ghats.
elephant, sambar, swamp deer, cheetal,
 The first recorded event of Chipko hog deer, barking deer, wild boar tiger,
however, took place in village Khejarli, panther, hyena, black bear, sloth bear,
Jodhpur district, in 1730 AD, when Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros,
363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi wild buffalo, Gangetic gharial, golden
sacrificed their lives while protecting langur.
green Khejri trees, considered sacred
by the community, by hugging them, [Some of these which are threatened are
and braved the axes of loggers sent by explained in the next post: Red Data Book]
the local ruler, today it is seen an
inspiration and a precursor for Chipko Western Himalayas (High altitude
movement of Garhwal. region)
Appiko Movement  Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and

semi-evergreen forests;
 Appiko movement was a revolutionary rhododendrons; dwarf hill bamboo and
movement based on environmental birch forests mixed with alpine
conservation in India. pastures.
 The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand  Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang) [Don’t
in the Himalayas inspired the villagers confuse this with Asiatic wild ass which
of the district of Karnataka province in in found in Kutch region], wild goats
southern India to launch a similar (thar, ibex) and blue sheep; antelopes
movement to save their forests. (Chiru and Tibetan gazelle), deers
 In September 1983, men, women and (hangul of Kashmir stag and shou or
children of Salkani ‘hugged the trees’ in Sikkim stag, musk deer); golden eagle,
Kalase forest. (The local term for snow cocks, snow partridges; snow
‘hugging’ in Kannada is appiko.) leopard, black and brown bears; birds
like Griffon vultures.
What is the difference between the  Fauna: Red panda, hog badgers, forest
antelopes Oryx and Chiru? badgers, crestless porcupines, takins
etc.
a) Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid
areas whereas Chiru is adapted to live Peninsular - Indian sub-region
in steppes and semi-desert areas of
cold high mountains. .  It has two zones. Page
b) Oryx is poached for its antlers whereas 1. peninsular India and its extension into | 16
Chiru is poached for its musk. the drainage basin of the Ganges river
c) Oryx exists in western India only system, and
whereas Chiru exists in north-east 2. desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of
India only. Indian desert region.
given above is correct. Peninsular India
 It is home to tropical moist deciduous

to tropical dry deciduous and scrub
vegetation depending upon the
variation in rainfall and humidity.
 Flora: Sal in north and east extensions
(higher rainfall) and teak in southern
plateau are dominant trees.
 West Ghats have evergreen vegetation
(flora and fauna similar to evergreen
rainforests of north eastern of India. In
dry areas of Rajasthan and Aravalli
hills, trees are scattered and thorny
scrub species predominate. The forests
give way to more open savannah habit.
 Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers
(cheetal or axis deer), hog deer swamp
deer or barasinga, sambar, muntjak or
barking deer, antelopes (four-hourned
antelope, nilgiri, blackbuck, chinkara
gazelle), wild dog or dhole, tiger,
leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig,
They are both antelopes. monkey, striped hyena, jackal, gaur.
Answer: a) Indian desert
Eastern Himalayas
 Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique
flora and fauna.
 Flora: Oaks, magnolias, laurels and
birches covered with moss and ferns;  Flora: Thorny trees with reduced
coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and leaves; cacti, other succulents are the
junipers with undergrowth of scrubby main plants.
rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos;  Fauna: Animals are mostly burrowing
lichens, mosses, orchids, and other ones. Among mammals rodents are the
epiphytes dominant (due to high largest group. The Indian desert gerbils
humidity and high rainfall). are mouse like, rodents, other animals
are, Asiatic wild ass, black buck, desert
cat, caracal, red fox; reptiles (snackes,
lizards and tortoise) well represented. (the largest being water monitor), 40
Desert lizards include agamids, and species of snakes including cobra,
geckos. Among birds the most viper, voral and sea snake, python, etc.
discussed is Great Indian bustard. are present.
Tropical rain forest region Mangrove swamps of Sunderbans

Page
 Distributed in areas of western Ghats  Sunderbans are delta of the Ganges | 17
and north east India. where both the Brahmaputra and
 Flora: Extensive grass lands Ganges join and drain into the Bay of
interspersed with densely forested Bengal.
gorges of evergreen vegetation known  Flora: Various species of mangroves.
as sholas occur in the Nilgiris (an  Fauna. In the higher regions of
offshoot of Western Ghats). Sholas also mangroves, there are spotted deer,
occur in Anamalai and Palani hills. pigs, monitor lizard, monkeys. The
 The rain forests of the Western Ghats most interesting animal of Sunderbans
have dense and lofty trees with much is the Royal Bengal Tiger.
species diversity. Mosses, ferns,
epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, Biodiversity Hot Spots
herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat.
Ebony trees predominate in these  Hot spots are the richest and most
forests. threatened reservoirs of plant and
 Fauna: It is very rich with all kinds of animal life of the earth. They have
animals. There are wild elephants, gaur maximum number of endemic
and other larger animals. Most species species.
are tree dwellers. The most prominent  25 terrestrial hot spots have been
are hoolock gibbon (only ape found in identified for the conservation of
India), golden langur, capped langur or biodiversity. They occupy 1.4% of the
leaf monkey, Assam macaque and the earth’s surface and 20% of worlds the
pig-tailed macaque, lion-tailed human population lives in these areas.
macaque, Nilgiri langur slender loris, Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas
bats, gaint squirrel, civets, flying (Includes some parts of Indo-Burma or
squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose, spiny Purvanchal Hills) are two hot spots of
mouse. India.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands To qualify as a hot spot, a region must

meet two strict criteria:
 Flora: These are home for tropical rain
1. Species endemism: the region
forests. Mangroves are distributed in
must contain at least 1,500 species
the coastal areas.
of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the
 Fauna: Among mammals, bats and world's total) as endemics, and
rats; Andaman pig, crab-eating 2. Degree of threat: the region has to
macaque, palm civet and deers (spotted have lost at least 70% of its original
deer, barking deer, hog deer, sambar). habitat.
 Among marine mammals there are  Each biodiversity hot spot represents a
dugong, false killer whale, dolphin. remarkable universe of extraordinary
 Among birds are rare one is floral and faunal endemism struggling
Narcondum hornbill, white-bellied sea- to survive in rapidly shrinking
eagle. ecosystems.
 Salt-water crocodile, a number of
marine turtles, coconut crab, lizards
 Over 50 percent of the world's plant Biodiversity Hotspots Across the

species and 42 percent of all terrestrial World
vertebrate species are endemic to the
34 biodiversity hot spots. The eight hottest hot spots in terms of the
 Some hot spots are much richer than above five factors are:
others in terms of their numbers of Page
endemics. Five key factors have been 1. Madagascar
taken into consideration and those 2. Philippines | 18
biodiversity hot spot that tops the list 3. Sundaland [South East Asia]
with respect to these five factors are 4. Brazil's Atlantic Forest
considered as hottest hot spots. 5. Caribbean
6. Indo-Burma
Factors 7. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of
1. Endemic plants, Tanzania/Kenya
2. Endemic vertebrates,
3. Endemic plants/area ratio (species per These eight ‘hottest hot spots’, appear at
100km2), least three times in the top ten listings for
4. Endemic vertebrates/area ratio (species each factor.
per 100km2) and
5. Remaining primary vegetation as % of
original extent.
2. Indo-Burma and [Purvanchal Hills,

Arakan Yoma, Eastern Bangladesh]
Indian Biodiversity Hot Spots 3. The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
There are 3 biodiversity hot spots present Indo-Burma Region

in India. They are:
 The Indo-Burma region encompasses
1. The Eastern Himalayas [Arunachal several countries.
Pradesh, Bhutan, Eastern Nepal]  It is spread out from Eastern
Bangladesh to Malaysia and includes
North-Eastern India south of in the higher hills, and alpine meadows

Brahmaputra river, Myanmar, the above the tree line.
southern part of China's Yunnan
province, Lao People's Democratic Biodiversity of the Eastern Himalayas
Republic, Cambodia, Vietnam and
Thailand.  The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has
nearly 163 globally threatened species Page
 The Indo-Burma region is spread over 2
(both flora and fauna) including the | 19
million sq. km of tropical Asia.
One-horned Rhinoceros [Vulnerable],
 Since this hotspot is spread over such
the Wild Asian Water buffalo
a large area and across several major
[Endangered].
landforms, there is a wide diversity of
 There are an estimated 10,000 species
climate and habitat patterns in this
of plants in the Himalayas, of which
region.
one-third are endemic and found
Biodiversity of Indo-Burma Region nowhere else in the world.
 A few threatened endemic bird species
 Much of this region has been such as the Himalayan Quail, Cheer
deteriorating rapidly in the past few pheasant, Western tragopan are found
decades. here, along with some of Asia’s largest
 This region is home to several primate and most endangered birds such as the
species such as monkeys, langurs and Himalayan vulture and White-bellied
gibbons with populations numbering heron.
only in the hundreds.  Mammals like the Golden langur, The
 Many of the species, especially some Himalayan tahr, the pygmy hog, Lang-
freshwater turtle species, are endemic. urs, Asiatic wild dogs, sloth bears,
 Almost 1,300 bird species exist in this Gaurs, Muntjac, Sambar, Snow
region including the threatened white- leopard, Black bear, Blue sheep, Takin,
eared night-heron [Endangered], the the Gangetic dolphin, wild water
grey-crowned crocias [Endangered], buffalo, swamp deer call the Himalayan
and the orange-necked partridge [Near ranged their home.
Threatened].
 It is estimated that there are about Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
13,500 plant species in this hotspot,
with over half of them endemic. Ginger,  Western Ghats, also known as the
for example, is native to this region. "Sahyadri Hills" encompasses the
mountain forests in the southwestern
The Eastern Himalayas parts of India and highlands of
southwestern Sri Lanka.
 The Eastern Himalayas is the region  The entire extent of hotspot was
encompassing Bhutan, northeastern originally about 1,82,500 square kms,
India, and southern, central, and but due to tremendous population
eastern Nepal. pressure, now only 12,445 square Km
 The abrupt rise of the Himalayan or 6.8% is in pristine condition.
Mountains from less than 500 meters  The wide variation of rainfall patterns
to more than 8,000 meters results in a in the Western Ghats, coupled with the
diversity of ecosystems that range from region's complex geography, produces a
alluvial grasslands and subtropical great variety of vegetation types.
broad leaf forests along the foothills to  These include scrub forests in the low-
temperate broad leaf forests in the mid lying rainshadow areas and the plains,
hills, mixed conifer and conifer forests deciduous and tropical rainforests up
to about 1,500 meters, and a unique
mosaic of montane forests and rolling  contain natural phenomena that are
grasslands above 1,500 meters. rare, unique, superlative, or of
 In Sri Lanka diversity includes dry outstanding beauty
evergreen forests to dipterocarpus
dominated rainforests to tropical or
montane cloud forest.
 furnish habitats or rare endangered Page
 The important populations include animals or plants or are sites of
Asian elephant, Niligiri tahr, Indian | 20
exceptional biodiversity”.
tigers, lion tailed macaque [All
 There are ten criteria for cultural
Endangered], Indian Giant squirrel
heritage and natural heritage.
[Least Concern], etc.
 Nominated sites must be of
World Heritage Sites "outstanding universal value" and meet
at least one of the ten criteria. The
 World Heritage Sites means “Sites any criteria are given below.
of various areas or objects inscribed on Criteria
the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization 1. to represent a masterpiece of human
(UNESCO) World Heritage List”. creative genius;
 The sites are designated as having 2. to exhibit an important interchange of
outstanding universal value under the human values, over a span of time or
Convention concerning the Protection within a cultural area of the world;
of the World Cultural and Natural 3. to bear a unique or at least exceptional
Heritage. testimony to a cultural tradition or to a
 This Convention, which was adopted by civilization which is living or which has
the UNESCO in 1972 (and enforced in disappeared;
1975) provides a framework for 4. to be an outstanding example of a type
international cooperation in preserving of building, architectural or
and protecting cultural treasures and technological ensemble or landscape
natural areas throughout the world. which illustrates a significant stage(s)
The first list of World Heritage state in human history;
was published in 1978. 5. to be an outstanding example of a
 The convention defines the kind of sites traditional human settlement, land-
which can be considered for inscription use, or sea-use,;
of the World heritage list (ancient 6. to contain superlative natural
monuments, museums, biodiversity phenomena or areas of exceptional
and geological heritage etc.,), and sets natural beauty and aesthetic
out the duties of the State Parties in importance;
identifying potential sites and their role 7. to be outstanding examples
in protecting them. representing major stages of Earth's
history;
"Natural heritage sites are restricted to 8. to contain the most important and
those natural areas that significant natural habitats for insists
 furnish outstanding examples of the conservation of biological diversity,
Earth's record of life or its geologic including those containing threatened
processes. species of outstanding universal value
from the point of view of science or
 provide excellent examples of ongoing
conservation.
ecological and biological evolutionary
processes.
 The UNESCO funds numerous efforts

to preserve and restore World Heritage
Sites in developing nations.
 It maintains also a List of World
Heritage Sites in developing nations.
 It maintains also a List of World Page
Heritage in danger facing threat of
pollution and other natural hazards. | 21
 Sites subject to unusual levels of
pollution, natural hazards, or other
problems may be placed for restoration.
Such designated sites facilitate
promotion of tourism.
International Year of Biodiversity
 The United Nations declared 2010 to be

the International Year of Biodiversity. It
is a celebration of life on earth and of
the value of biodiversity for our lives.
Slogan
"Biodiversity is variety of life on

earth
Biodiversity is life.
Biodiversity is our life".
Table of Contents Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) ..................................... 12

Asian black bear/ moon bear or white-chested bear (Ursus
International Union for Conservation of Nature .... 3 thibetanus) ............................................................................. 13
‘Vulnerable’ Herbivorous Marine Mammals .... 13
BirdLife International ...................................... 3
Dugong/Sea Cow .................................................................... 13
IUCN Red List or Red Data List or Red Book ........ 3 Page
Vulnerable Reptiles ....................................... 14
2015 IUCN Red List India [As of April 24, 2016] ... 5 |1
Olive ridley sea turtle.............................................................. 14
‘Critically Endangered’ Mammals ..................... 5 ‘Near Threatened’ Mammals ........................... 14
Himalayan Brown/Red Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus) .............5 Marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata) ...................................... 14
Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania) ...................................................5 Blackbuck (Salman Khan) ........................................................ 14
Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis) ....5 Himalayan tahr ....................................................................... 15
Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana) .............................................5 Markhor (Capra falconeri) ...................................................... 15
Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira) ......................6 ‘Critically Endangered’ Birds .......................... 15
Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi) ............6
The Jerdon's Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus) ..................... 15
Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina) ..............................................6
Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti) ....................................... 15
Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) ....................6
White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis) ...................................... 15
Kashmir stag/hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu) ..........................7
Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis) ............................ 16
‘Endangered’ Mammals ................................... 7
Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) ................................ 16
Red Panda .................................................................................7 Pink- headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) .................. 16
Wild ass/ khur (Equus hemionus khur) .....................................7 Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius) .................................... 16
Dhole/ Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild dog (Cuon alpinus) .......8 Spoon Billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) .............. 17
Eld's deer/ thamin or brow-antlered deer (Panolia eldii) .........8 Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) ....................................... 17
Golden langur (Trachypithecus geei) ........................................8 ‘Critically Endangered’ Reptiles ...................... 17
Himalayan / White-bellied Musk Deer ......................................8
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) ................................................... 17
Hispid hare/ Assam rabbit (Caprolagus hispidus) .....................9
Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) ............................. 18
Hog deer ...................................................................................9
Leatherbadc Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) ........................... 18
Lion-tailed macaque/ wanderoo (Macaca silenus) ...................9
Four-toed River Terrapin or River Terrapin (Batagur baska) .. 18
Chita / Tibetian Antelope ..........................................................9
Red-crowned Roofed Turtle or the Bengal Roof Turtle (Batagur
Nilgiri langur/ Nilgiri leaf monkey (Trachypithecus johnii) ........9 kachuga) ................................................................................. 19
Nilgiri tahr ...............................................................................10
‘Near Threatened’ Reptiles ............................. 19
‘Endangered’ Marine Mammals ...................... 10
Sispara day gecko (Cnemaspis sisparensis) ............................. 19
Freshwater / river dolphin ......................................................10
‘Critically Endangered’ Fish ........................... 19
‘Vulnerable’ Mammals ................................... 11
The Pondicherry Shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon) .................. 19
Great Indian one horn Rhinoceros ..........................................11 The Ganges Shark (Glyphis gangeticus) .................................. 20
Gaur/Indian Bison ...................................................................11 Large-tooth Sawfish (Pristis microdon)................................... 20
Four-horned antelope, Chousingha ........................................11 Long-comb Sawfish or Narrow-snout Sawfish (Pristis zijsron) 20
Takin........................................................................................12
‘Endangered’ Fishes....................................... 21
Nilgiri marten ..........................................................................12
Knife-tooth Sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata) ......................... 21
Barasingha or swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii) ..................12
‘Critically Endangered’ Spiders ...................... 21
Oriental small-clawed otter/ Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx
cinerea) ...................................................................................12
Rameshwaram Ornamental or Rameshwaram Parachute Effects ........................................................... 30

Spider (Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica) ...............................21
Some Invasive fauna in India are ................... 30
Gooty Tarantula, Metallic Tarantula or Peacock Tarantula
(Poecilotheria metallica) .........................................................21
Some Invasive Alien Flora Of India ................. 30
‘Critically Endangered’ Corals ........................ 21
Needle Bush ............................................................................ 30
Fire corals (Millepora boschmai) .............................................21
Black Wattle............................................................................ 30
Page
‘Not Evaluated’ Mammals .............................. 22 Goat weed .............................................................................. 30 |2
Himalayan wolf .......................................................................22 Alternanthera paronychioides ................................................ 30
In News ......................................................... 22 Prickly Poppy .......................................................................... 31

Blumea eriantha ..................................................................... 31
Flying squirrel ..........................................................................22
Palmyra, Toddy Palm .............................................................. 31
Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................................23
Calotropis / Madar, Swallo Wort ............................................ 31
Iberian Lynx .............................................................................23
Datura, Mad Plant, Thorn Apple ............................................. 31
Lion .........................................................................................23
Water Hyacinth ....................................................................... 31
Tiger and Bengal Tiger ............................................................23
Impatiens, Balsam .................................................................. 31
Black-Necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) .....................................23
Ipomoea / the pink morning glory .......................................... 31
Indian Vulture Crisis ......................................... 24
Lantana camara / Lantana, Wild Sage .................................... 31
Diclofenac ..................................................... 24 Black Mimosa.......................................................................... 31
Consequences of Depopulation of Vultures .... 24 Touch-Me-Not, Sleeping Grass ............................................... 31

4 '0' clock plant. ...................................................................... 31
Diclofenac Alternative .................................... 25
Parthenium / Congress grass, Parthenium ............................. 32
Conservation Status of India Vultures [As of Prosopis juliflora / Mesquite .................................................. 32
April-2016] .................................................... 25 Townsend grass ...................................................................... 32
Vulture Safety Zones ..................................... 26 Insectivorous Plants .......................................... 32
VSZ's provide ...........................................................................26 Insectivorous plants of India .............................. 32

Zones.......................................................................................27 Drosera and Aldrovanda ................................ 32
What have to be done?...........................................................27
Insect trapping mechanism of Drosera ................................... 32
Vulture Restaurants ...................................... 27
Insect trapping mechanism of Aldrovanda ............................. 33
Bird's Migration ................................................ 27 Pitcher Plants Family: Nepenthaceae .............. 33
Migratory birds of India ................................. 28 Insect trapping mechanism of pitcher plant ........................... 33
Species Extinction ............................................. 28 Utricularia and Pinguicula ............................. 33
Natural extinctions ........................................ 28 Utricularia or Bladderworts .................................................... 33

Pinguicula or Butterwort ........................................................ 33
Artificial Extinction ....................................... 29
Medicinal Properties of Insectivorous Plants ... 33
Man - Animal Conflict ....................................... 29
Conservation Status of Indian Insectivores ..... 33
Causes .....................................................................................29
Threats .................................................................................... 34
Impacts ......................................................... 29
Egg Laying Mammals ........................................ 34
Preventive strategies ...................................... 29
Marsupials ........................................................ 34
Invasive Alien Species ....................................... 29
Invasion and Species Richness? ..................... 30
Steps Taken by the Government for Wildlife 3) It identifies the sites known/referred
Protection ......................................................... 35 to as ‘Important Bird and
Biodiversity Areas’.

given below.
International Union for Page
Conservation of Nature a) 1 only
|3
b) 2 and 3 only
 (IUCN) is an international organization c) 1 and 3 only
(NGO) working in the field of nature d) 1, 2 and 3
conservation and sustainable use of
natural resources. BirdLife International has nothing to do
 It is involved in data gathering and with the concept “biodiversity hotspots”.
analysis, research, field projects, Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
advocacy, lobbying and education.
 The organization is best known for IUCN Red List or Red Data List or
compiling and publishing the IUCN Red Red Book
List, which assesses the conservation
status of species worldwide.  The IUCN Red List of Threatened
 Its headquarters are in Gland, Species, founded in 1964, is the
Switzerland. world's most comprehensive inventory
of the global conservation status of
BirdLife International biological species.
 When discussing the IUCN Red List,
 BirdLife International is the world’s
the official term “threatened” is a
largest nature conservation
grouping of three categories: Critically
Partnership.
Endangered, Endangered, and
 Together they are 120 BirdLife Partners
Vulnerable.
worldwide.
 BirdLife International strives to
conserve birds, their habitats and
global biodiversity, working with people
towards sustainability in the use of
natural resources.
 BirdLife International is the official Red
 The pink pages in this publication
List authority for birds, for the
include the critically endangered
International Union for Conservation of
species. As the status of the species
Nature.
changes, new pages are sent to the
 It identifies the sites known/referred to
subscribers.
as ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity
 Green pages are used for those species
Areas’.
that were formerly endangered, but
With reference to an organization have now recovered to a point where
known as ‘Birdlife International’ which they are no longer threatened.
of the following statements is/are  With passing time, the number of pink
correct? pages continue to increase. There are
pitifully few green pages.
1) It is a Global Partnership of
Conservation Organizations. Species are classified by the IUCN Red
2) The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ List into nine groups
originated from this organization.
 reduction in population (> 90%

over the last 10 years),
 population size (number less
than 50 mature individuals),
 quantitative analysis showing the
probability of extinction in wild in
Page
at least 50% in their 10 years)
and |4
 it is therefore considered to be
facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild.
 Endangered (EN) – High risk of
Picture Credits: http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb- extinction in the wild.
media/60/600x350x132360-004-
49AE31A6.jpg.pagespeed.ic.StSTiRxNJ1.jpg  Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of
endangerment in the wild.
 Extinct (EX) – No known individuals  Near threatened (NT) – Likely to
remaining. become endangered in the near future.
 Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only  Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does
to survive in captivity, or as a not qualify for a more at-risk category.
naturalized population outside its Widespread and abundant taxa are
historic range. included in this category.
 Critically endangered (CR) –  Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data
Extremely high risk of extinction in the to make an assessment of its risk of
wild. extinction.
Criteria  Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been
evaluated against the criteria.

species.
Pic Credits:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Sizes 3) Protected sites for conservation of
_of_Red_List_Categories.png nature & natural resources in
various countries.
The ‘Red Data Books’ published by the
International Union for Conservation of Which of the statement given above is/are
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) correct ?
contain lists of
a) 1 & 3
1) Endemic plant and animal species b) 2 only
present in the biodiversity hotspots. c) 2 & 3
d) 3 only  Is the world's smallest wild pig. This

species constructs a nest throughout
IUCN is an NGO. It publishes Red data the year.
book which contains a list of ‘Threatened  It is one of the most useful indicators of
species’ (vulnerable, endangered and the management status of grassland
critically endangered). habitats. Page
Answer: b) 2 only  The grasslands where the pygmy hog
resides are crucial for the survival of | 5
2015 IUCN Red List India [As of other threatened species such as
April 24, 2016] Indian Rhinoceros, Swamp Deer, Wild
Buffalo, Hispid Hare, Bengal Florican
 India has 988 species on IUCN ‘Red and Swamp Francolin.
List’ as of 2015.  Habitat: Relatively undisturbed, tall
 India has added 15 more species to the 'terai' grasslands.
“Red List” of threatened species [973 in  Distribution: Previously spread across
2014]. India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Now only
 The list contains critically found in Assam (Manas Wildlife
endangered, endangered and Sanctuary and its buffer reserves).
vulnerable species.  Pygmy hog-sucking Louse
(Haematopinus oliveri), a parasite that
‘Critically Endangered’ Mammals feeds only on Pygmy Hogs will also fall
in the same risk category of critically
Himalayan Brown/Red Bear (Ursus endangered as its survival is linked to
arctos isabellinus) that of the host species.
 Threats: The main threats are loss and
degradation of grasslands, dry-season
burning, livestock grazing and
afforestation of grasslands. Hunting is
also a threat.
Andaman White-toothed Shrew

(Crocidura andamanensis)
 Distribution: Nepal, Tibet, north India,

and north Pakistan.
 Threats: loss of suitable habitat and
persecution by humans.
 Distribution: It is endemic to the South
Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania) Andaman Island of India.
 They are usually active by twilight or in
the night.
 Threats: Habitat loss due to selective
logging, natural disasters such as
tsunami and drastic weather change
are thought to contribute to current
population declines.
Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)
Page
 Distribution: Known only from the |6

small Sinhagarh Plateau (about one
km2), near Pune in Maharashtra.  It is a unique (the only one in its genus)
 It is a nocturnal burrowing rodent that flying squirrel that is restricted to a
is found only in India. single valley in the Namdapha N.P. (or)
 Habitat: Tropical and subtropical dry W.L.S. in Arunachal Pradesh.
deciduous forests and tropical scrub.  Habitat: Tropical forest.
 Threats: Major threats are habitat loss,  Habitat/distribution: Found only in
overgrazing of vegetation and Namdapha Tiger Reserve in Arunachal
disturbance from tourism and Pradesh.
recreational activities.  Threats: Hunted for food.
Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
(Cremnomys elvira)
 It is endemic to India and was first

reported from Travancore, Kerala.
 It is a medium sized, nocturnal and  It is nocturnal in nature and found
burrowing rodent endemic to India. exclusively in the Western Ghats.
 Habitat: Tropical dry deciduous shrub  Habitat: Wooded plains and hill slopes
land forest, seen in rocky areas. of evergreen rainforests.
 Habitat/distribution: Known only from  Habitat/distribution: Western Ghats.
Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. Recorded  Threats: Deforestation and commercial
from an elevation of about 600 m above plantations are major threats.
mean sea level. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus
 Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, sumatrensis)
conversion of forests and fuel wood
collection.
Namdapha Flying Squirrel

(Biswamoyopterus biswasi)
Page
|7
 It is the smallest and most endangered

of the five rhinoceros species.  Status: Moved from Vulnerable to
 It is now thought to be regionally Endangered recently.
extinct in India, though it once  Red panda is endemic to the temperate
occurred in the foothills of the forests of the Himalayas.
Himalayas and north-east India.  Habitat: Sikkim and Assam, northern
 The Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Arunachal Pradesh.
sondaicus) is also believed to be extinct  Threats: habitat loss and
in India and only a small number fragmentation, poaching, and
survive in Java and Vietnam. inbreeding depression.
 Threat: Poaching, loss of habitat. Wild ass/ khur (Equus hemionus khur)
Kashmir stag/hangul (Cervus elaphus
hanglu)
 Distribution: Mostly occurs in Rann of

Kutch region.
 Population steadily increasing.
 Today, its last refuge lies in the Indian
Wild Ass Sanctuary, Little Rann of
Kutch.
 It subspecies of Red Deer which is  Threat – Diseases, habitat degradation
native to India. due to salt activities, Invasive species
 Habitat: Dense riverine forests, high Prosopis juliflora shrub, and
valleys, and mountains of the Kashmir encroachment and grazing by the
valley and northern Chamba in Maldhari.
Himachal Pradesh.
 State animal of Jammu and Kashmir. A sandy and saline area is the natural
 Threat: habitat destruction, over- habitat of an Indian animal species. The
grazing by domestic livestock, and animal has no predators in that area
poaching. but its existence is threatened due to
the destruction of its habitat. Which
‘Endangered’ Mammals one of the following could be that
animal?
Red Panda
a) Indian wild buffalo
b) Indian wild ass

c) Indian wild boar
d) Indian Gazelle
Sandy saline area = Kutch region
Indian wild buffalo = Terai region Page

Indian wild boar = can survive in different |8
types of habitat: grasslands,
taiga, tropical rainforests, but they prefer  Distribution: Keibul Lamjao National
life in deciduous forests. Park (KLNP), Manipur.
 Threats: Overgrazing, loss of grassland
Chinkara (Indian gazelle) = Thar desert habitat.
Answer: b) Indian wild ass Golden langur (Trachypithecus geei)
Dhole/ Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild

dog (Cuon alpinus)
 Primate, is an Old World monkey

 Distribution - small region of western
 Distribution: They occur in most of Assam and in the neighboring foothills
India south of the Ganges, particularly of the Black Mountains of Bhutan.
in the Central Indian Highlands and  Threats: Deforestation, human
the Western and Eastern Ghats of the encroachments.
southern states.
 In north-east India, they inhabit Himalayan / White-bellied Musk Deer
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
and West Bengal.
 Threats: Habitat loss, depletion of its
prey base, competition from other
predators, persecution and possibly
diseases from domestic and feral dogs.
Eld's deer/ thamin or brow-antlered

deer (Panolia eldii)
 Habitat: Kashmir, Kumaon and Sikkim.

 Threat: poaching & illegal trade for its
musk. Only males produce the musk.
Hispid hare/ Assam rabbit (Caprolagus  Avoid human presence and they do not
hispidus) live, feed or travel through plantations.
 Habitat: Evergreen forests in the
Western Ghats range.
 Threat: Habitat fragmentation due to
spread of agriculture and tea, coffee, Page
teak and cinchona, construction of
water reservoirs and human | 9
settlements to support such activities.
In which of the following States is lion-

tailed macaque found in its natural
 Habitat: Southern foothills of the habitat?
central Himalayas.
1. Tamil Nadu
 Threats: The habitat of hispid hares is
2. Kerala
highly fragmented due to increasing
3. Karnataka
agriculture, flood control, and human
4. Andhra Pradesh
development.
Hog deer
given below.
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Lion-tailed macaque is found in Western

Ghats. So AP is the odd option.
Chita / Tibetian Antelope

 Habitat: Terai region and grasslands in
northern India.
 Threats: Hunting, habitat loss, habitat
fragmentation, human encroachments.
Lion-tailed macaque/ wanderoo (Macaca

silenus)
 Status – Moved from Vulnerable to

Endangered recently.
 Habitat : Tibet cold desert.
 Threat : The chiru is threatened by
hunting for its fine wool which is used
to make the shahtoosh scarves, meat,
magnificent horns.
Nilgiri langur/ Nilgiri leaf monkey

 Endemic to the Western Ghats. (Trachypithecus johnii)
 Threats: Unintentional killing through

entanglement in fishing gear; habitat
loss and degradation – water
development projects (barrages, high
dams, and embankments), pollution –
industrial waste and pesticides, Page
municipal sewage discharge and noise
from vessel traffic. | 10
 Habitat: Hilly areas of Western Ghats
in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Ganges river dolphin
 Threats: Habitat degradation,
development activities, introduction of  Habitat: Ganges and Brahmaputra
exotic tree species. Rivers and their tributaries in
Bangladesh, India and Nepal.
Nilgiri tahr  The Ganges river dolphin has been
recognized by the government of India
as its National Aquatic Animal.
Indus river dolphin
 Habitat: Indus River in Pakistan and its

Beas and Sutlej tributaries.
Other than poaching, what are the

possible reasons for the decline in the
population of Ganges River Dolphins?
1. Construction of dams and barrages

 The Nilgiri tahr is the largest of the on rivers
three tahr species, inhabit montane 2. Increase in the population of
grasslands of Western Ghats. It is the crocodiles in rivers
state animal of Tamil Nadu. 3. Getting trapped in fishing nets
 Threats: Habitat loss, overgrazing, accidentally
illegal hunting. 4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other
agricultural chemicals in crop-fields
‘Endangered’ Marine Mammals in the vicinity of rivers
Freshwater / river dolphin Select the correct answer using the code
given below.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
‘Susu’ shares its habitat with crocodiles,

freshwater turtles and wetland birds,
many of which are fish eaters and are
 Distribution: India, Bangladesh, Nepal potential competitors with dolphins.
and Pakistan which is split into two http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endan
subspecies, the Ganges river dolphin gered_species/cetaceans/about/river_dolp
and Indus river dolphin. hins/ganges_river_dolphin/
Crocodile species in India  National Parks: Kaziranga National

Park, Pabitora wildlife sanctuary,
 The Mugger (or marsh) crocodile, Manas National Park, Assam.
gharial and the estuarine (coast)  Status in the Wild: Moved from
crocodile. Endangered to Vulnerable.
 Gharials (Critically Endangered) once  Threat – Oriental belief that its horn, Page
thrived in all the major river systems of among other parts, has medicinal
the Indian Subcontinent. Today, they properties, habitat loss, habitat | 11
are extinct in the Indus River, in the fragmentation.
Brahmaputra of Bhutan and
Bangladesh, and in the Irrawaddy Gaur/Indian Bison
River. Their distribution is now limited
to only 2% of their former range.
 The mugger (Vulnerable) crocodile is a
freshwater species found sparsely in
various lakes, rivers and marshes in
the Indian subcontinent.
 Apart from the eastern coast of India,
the saltwater crocodile (Least
concern) is extremely rare on the
Indian subcontinent.
 The gaur (Bos gaurus), also called
 A huge population is present within the Indian bison, is a large bovine native to
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary of South Asia and Southeast Asia.
Odisha and they are known to be
 Gaur are largely confined to evergreen
present in smaller numbers throughout
forests or semi-evergreen and moist
the Indian and Bangladeshi portions of
deciduous forests, but also occur in
the Sunderbans.
deciduous forest areas at the periphery
Which one of the following is the of their range.
national aquatic animal of India?  The domesticated form of the gaur, Bos
frontalis, is called gayal or mithun.
a) Saltwater crocodile  Threats: Habitat loss, habitat
b) Olive ridley turtle fragmentation.
c) Gangetic dolphin
d) Gharial Four-horned antelope, Chousingha
‘Vulnerable’ Mammals
Great Indian one horn Rhinoceros
 The four-horned antelope must drink

water regularly in order to survive.
 Habitat: Found only in the tall  Distribution: Presently it is confined to
grasslands and forests in the foothills the Indian subcontinent. Scattered
of the Himalayas [Terai region]. between the foothills of the Himalayas
in the north to the Deccan Plateau in

the south. Gir National Park has 1000
of these animals.
 Threats: Loss of its natural habitat due
to agricultural expansion. Four-horned
skull and horns have made it a popular Page
target for hunters.
| 12
Takin  Habitat: Isolated localities in northern
and central India, and southwestern
Nepal.
 Threats: Hunting for horns, habitat
fragmentation and habitat loss.
Oriental small-clawed otter/ Asian

small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea)
 Distribution: Mountainous regions in

the Himalayan Mountains and western
China.
 Threats: Largely due to overhunting
and the destruction of their natural
habitat, takin are considered  Semiaquatic mammals which feed on
Endangered in China and Vulnerable fish and shellfish, and also other
per the IUCN. invertebrates, amphibians, birds and
small mammals.
Nilgiri marten  It is a smallest otter species in the
world.
 Habitat: It lives in mangrove swamps
and freshwater wetlands.
 Threat: habitat loss, pollution and
hunting.
Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
 Endemic to the Western Ghats.

Inhabits areas that are far from human
disturbance.
 Threat: habitat loss and fragmentation,
hunting for its fur.
 Only species of marten found in
southern India.
Barasingha or swamp deer (Rucervus

duvaucelii)  Habitat: Himalayan foothills through
mainland Southeast Asia into China.
They occur in northern West Bengal,
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Manatees Species

Tripura.
 Threat: deforestation and poaching.  Dugong belongs to manatees species.
 Habitat: India seas [near shore waters
Asian black bear/ moon bear or white- of Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and
chested bear (Ursus thibetanus) Andaman and Nicobar Islands],
Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, the Page
Amazon Basin, and West Africa | 13
 Threat: Coastal development, red tide,
hunting.
With reference to ‘dugong’, a mammal

found in India, which of the following
statements is/are correct?
1) It is a herbivorous marine animal.

2) It is found along the entire coast of
India
3) It is given legal protection under
 Habitat: Seen across much of the Schedule 1 of the Wildlife
Himalayas, Korea, northeastern China, (Protection) Act, 1972.
the Russian far east and the Honshu
and Shikoku islands of Japan. Select the correct answer using the code
given below.
 Threats: deforestation and active
hunting for its body parts. a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only
‘Vulnerable’ Herbivorous Marine c) 1 and 3
Mammals d) 3 only
 Include dugong and manatees and they Explanation:

inhabit swamps, rivers, estuaries,
marine wetlands, and coastal marine  Dugong is an herbivorous animal. It
waters. eats sea grass and aquatic plants
found in shallow oceans (At depths sea
Dugong/Sea Cow grass and aquatic plants don’t grow
due to absence of sunlight).
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
 Harming endangered (vulnerable,

endangered, critically endangered)
species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act
is prohibited throughout India.
 Hunting species, like those requiring
special protection (Schedule II), big
game (Schedule III), and small game
(Schedule IV), is regulated through
licensing.
 A few species classified as vermin
 Threat: hunting (meat and oil), habitat (Schedule V), may be hunted without
degradation, and fishing-related restrictions.
fatalities.
Answer: c) 1 and 3 Turtle Tortoise

Lives in water Lives on land
Vulnerable Reptiles Come to land to lay Everything happens
eggs on land
Olive ridley sea turtle Good swimmers Bad swimmers
Carnivores (flesh Herbivores (plant Page
eating) eating)
Terrapins are almost a combination of | 14
turtles and tortoises
terrapins are almost a combination of

turtles and tortoises. They live in water,
mostly small dams or ponds, however they
can also live on land
 Also known as the Pacific ridley sea ‘Near Threatened’ Mammals
turtle.
 Distribution: found in warm and Marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata)
tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific
and Indian Oceans.
 Olive ridley turtles are best known for
their behavior of synchronized nesting
in mass numbers
 In the Indian Ocean, the majority of
olive ridleys nest near Gahirmatha in
Odisha. The coast of Odisha in India is
the largest mass nesting site for the
olive ridleys.  Habitat: northern India and Nepal,
 Threats: unsustainable egg collection, through south-eastern Asia to Borneo
slaughtering nesting females on the and Sumatra. In India - Sikkim,
beach, and direct harvesting adults at Darjeeling, moist tropical forest.
sea for commercial sale of both the  Threats: hunting, habitat destruction
meat and hides. for marbled cat and its prey.
 Coastal development, natural disasters,
climate change, and other sources of Blackbuck (Salman Khan)
beach erosion have also been cited as
potential threats to nesting grounds.
What’s the difference between turtles

and tortoises?
 Distribution: In the Indian

subcontinent, the blackbuck can also
be found in deserts (in the
northwestern region), coastal areas,
mountains (in the northern-
northeastern region) Habitat: Grass ‘Critically Endangered’ Birds

land.
 Threat: excessive hunting for meat and The Jerdon's Courser (Rhinoptilus
sporting trophies, as well as habitat bitorquatus)
loss.
Himalayan tahr Page

| 15
 It is a nocturnal bird found only in the

northern part of the state of Andhra
Pradesh in peninsular India [Sri
Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary].
 Habitat: Himalayas.  Habitat: Undisturbed scrub jungle with
 Threats: The major threats in China open areas.
are uncontrolled hunting  Distribution: Jerdon's Courser is
and deforestation. In India, Himalayan endemic to Andhra Pradesh.
tahr is sometimes hunted for meat, and  Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle,
there is apparently significant creation of new pastures, growing of
competition with livestock for summer dry land crops, Illegal trapping of birds,
grazing in some areas. plantations of exotic trees, quarrying
and the construction of the River
Markhor (Capra falconeri) Canals.
Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti)
 The markhor is the national animal of

 Habitat: Dry deciduous forest.
Pakistan.
 Habitat: South Madhya Pradesh, in
 Habitat: Mountains of central Asia. In
north-west Maharashtra and north-
India - some parts of Jammu and
central Maharashtra.
Kashmir .
 Threats: Logging operations, burning
 Status: Moved from endangered to Near
and cutting of trees damage roosting
Threatened in 2015
and nesting trees of the Forest Owlet.
 Threats: Hunting (both for meat and for
its twisted horns), armed conflict and White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis)
habitat loss.
Page
| 16
 Habitat: Tall grass and scrub on steep
hillsides.
 Distribution: Western Himalayas.
 Threats: Indiscriminate hunting during
 Distribution: Extremely rare bird found the colonial period along with habitat
in five or six sites in Assam and modification.
Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites in
Bhutan, and a few in Myanmar. Pink- headed Duck (Rhodonessa
 Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars caryophyllacea)
or inland lakes.
 Threats: Loss and degradation of
lowland forests and wetlands through
direct exploitation and disturbance by
humans.
Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis

bengalensis)
 Males have a deep pink head and neck

from which the bird derives its name.
 Habitat: Overgrown still-water pools,
marshes and swamps in lowland
forests and tall grasslands.
 Distribution: Recorded in India,
Bangladesh and Myanmar. Maximum
 A rare bustard species that is very well records are from north-east India.
known for its mating dance.  Threats: Wetland degradation and loss
 Habitat: Grasslands occasionally of habitat, along with hunting are the
interspersed with scrublands. main causes of its decline.
 Distribution: Native to only 3 countries
Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius)
in the world - Cambodia, India and
Nepal. In India, it occurs in 3 states,
namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh.
 Threats: Ongoing conversion of the
bird's grassland habitat for various
purposes including agriculture is
mainly responsible for its population
decline.
Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa)
Page
| 17
 It is a large, strikingly majestic

migratory bird that breeds and winters
in wetlands.
 It is a winter migrant to India.  They are known to winter at Keoladeo
 Habitat: Fallow fields and scrub desert. National Park, Rajasthan.
 Distribution: central Asia, Asia Minor,  Habitat: Wetland areas.
Russia, Egypt, India, Pakistan. In  Located distribution: Keoladeo National
India, habitat / distribution is Park in Rajasthan.
restricted to the north and north-west  Threats: Pesticide pollution, wetland
of the country. drainage, development of prime habitat
 Threats: Conversion of habitat to arable into agricultural fields, and to some
land, illegal hunting and proximity to extent, hunting.
human settlements.
‘Critically Endangered’ Reptiles
Spoon Billed Sandpiper
(Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
 India is home to some of the last

existing wintering grounds of this
species.
 Habitat: Coastal areas with sparse  It is the most uniquely evolved
vegetation. No breeding records further crocodilian in the world, a specialized,
inland than 7 km from the seashore. river-dwelling, fish-eater.
 Distribution: Has been recorded in  Habitat: Clean rivers with sand banks.
West Bengal, Orissa, Kerala and Tamil  Distribution: Only viable population in
Nadu. the National Chambal Sanctuary,
 Threats: Habitat degradation and land spread across three states of Uttar
reclamation. Human disturbance also Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya
leads to high incidence of nest Pradesh in India.
desertion.  Small non-breeding populations exist
in Son, Gandak, Hoogly and Ghagra
Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) rivers. Now extinct in Myanmar,
Pakistan, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
 Threats: The combined effects of dams,

barrages, artificial embankments,
change in river course, pollution, sand-
mining, riparian agriculture and
ingress of domestic and feral livestock
caused irreversible loss of riverine Page
habitat and consequently of the
gharial. | 18
Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys

imbricata)
 It is the largest of the living sea turtles,
weighing as much as 900 kg.
 Jellyfish is their primary food.
 Habitat: Tropical and subtropical
oceans.
 Distribution: Found in tropical and
temperate waters of the Atlantic,
Pacific, and into Indian Oceans.
 Threats: High sea fishing operations,
harvesting of eggs, destruction of nests
by wild predators and domesticated
 The species is migratory in nature and species such as cats, dogs and pigs.
nesting occurs in about 70 countries Artificial lighting disorients hatchlings
across the world. Maturation is slow and adults and causes them to migrate
and is estimated between 25 — 40 inland rather than towards the sea.
years. Threats to habitat include
construction, mining and plantation of
 Habitat: Nesting occurs on insular,
exotics.
sandy beaches.
 Distribution: In India they are found in Consider the following fauna of India:
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
coast of Tamil Nadu and Orissa. 1. Gharial
 Threats: Turtle shell trade, egg 2. Leatherback turtle
collection, slaughter for meat, oil 3. Swamp deer
pollution and destruction of nesting
Which of the above is/are endangered?
and foraging habitats.
a) 1 and 2 only
Leatherbadc Turtle (Dermochelys
b) 3 only
coriacea)
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
1 and 2 are ‘Critically Endangered’ 3 is

‘Vulnerable’.
Answer: a) 1 and 2 only
Four-toed River Terrapin or River

Terrapin (Batagur baska)
Page
| 19
 Habitat: Freshwater rivers and lakes.

 Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia,
India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
 Threats: Use of flesh for medicinal
purposes, demand for eggs, which are
considered a delicacy
Red-crowned Roofed Turtle or the

Bengal Roof Turtle (Batagur kachuga)
 Habitat: Deep, flowing rivers but with  Distribution: Endemic to Western

terrestrial nest sites. Ghats, and found in Sispara, Nilgiris,
 Distribution: Found in India, Kavalai near Cochin.
Bangladesh and Nepal. In India it  Threats: Habitat conversion and
resides basically in the watershed of modification.
the Ganga.
 Threats: Water development projects,
‘Critically Endangered’ Fish
water pollution, human disturbance The Pondicherry Shark (Carcharhinus
and poaching for the illegal wildlife
hemiodon)
market.
‘Near Threatened’ Reptiles

Sispara day gecko (Cnemaspis
sisparensis)
 Distribution: Indian Ocean - from Gulf  Distribution: Western part of the Indo-
of Oman to Pakistan, India and Sri Pacific (East Africa to New Guinea,
Lanka. Philippines and Vietnam to Australia).
 In scattered localities spanning India to  In India, it is known to enter the
New Guinea. Also been recorded at the Mahanadi river, up to 64 km inland,
mouth of the Hooghly river. and also is very common in the Page
 Threats: Large, expanding, and estuaries of the Ganga and
unregulated commercial fisheries in Brahmaputra. | 20
inshore localities and habitats.  Threats: The principal threat to all
sawfish are fisheries. Their long tooth-
The Ganges Shark (Glyphis gangeticus) studded saw, makes them
extraordinarily vulnerable to
entanglement in any sort of net gear.
 When sawfish are caught in by catch,
they often end up being traded because
of the very high value of their products
(meat is high quality and fins and saws
extremely valuable in international
trade).
 Major habitat changes include
 It occurs in the turbid waters of the construction of dams over rivers,
Ganga river and the Bay of Bengal. siltation, pollution from industries and
 The small eyes suggest that it is mining operations.
adapted to living in turbid water, while
the slender teeth of the species Long-comb Sawfish or Narrow-snout
suggests that it is primarily a fish- Sawfish (Pristis zijsron)
eater.
 Distribution: It occurs in India and
possibly in Pakistan. The Ganga river
system and Hooghly river mouth are its
known habitats.
 Threats: Major fisheries targeting
sharks. Other probable threats include
overfishing, pollution, increasing river  This species was reported as frequently
use and construction of dams and found in shallow water. It inhabits
barrages. A few jaws of the species were muddy bottoms and also enters
found to have been traded in the estuaries.
international market during recent  Distribution: Indo-Pacific region
years, which testifies that the species is including Australia, Cambodia, China,
not extinct. India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
 Threats: This species has been
Large-tooth Sawfish (Pristis microdon) damaged intensively, both as a target
species and as incidental by catch in
commercial, sport or shark-control net
fisheries, as well as for aquarium
display. As a result, it has become
severely depleted in recent decades,
and now appears to have been
extirpated from many parts of its range.
‘Endangered’ Fishes  Distribution: Endemic to India. Spread

along the coastal savannah, tropical
Knife-tooth Sawfish (Anoxypristis lowland rain forests and montane
cuspidata) forests up to an altitude of 2000 m
above mean sea level.
 Threats: Major threats causing the Page
disappearance of this species is habitat
alteration and degradation. | 21
Gooty Tarantula, Metallic Tarantula or

Peacock Tarantula (Poecilotheria
metallica)
 Distribution: Widespread in western
part of the Indo-Pacific region,
including Red Sea.
 Threats: The principal threat to all
sawfish are fisheries. Their long tooth-
studded saw, makes them
extraordinarily vulnerable to
entanglement in any sort of net gear.
 When sawfish are caught in by catch,
they often end up being traded because
of the very high value of their products
(meat is high quality and fins and saws
extremely valuable in international
trade).
 It was first found in Gooty
‘Critically Endangered’ Spiders (Ooty/Udagamandalam).
 Habitat: Wooded mountain area.
Rameshwaram Ornamental or
Rameshwaram Parachute Spider  Distribution: Endemic to South India.
(Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica)  Threats: They are one of the most
expensive spiders in the illegal pet
trade. Large areas where the species
occurs have been deforested, or
subjected to habitat degradation due to
local fuel wood collection, leading to
decline in its population.
‘Critically Endangered’ Corals

Fire corals (Millepora boschmai)
 It was recently described in 2004, and

is only found in India.
 The species is semi-social, which
means they live partly in groups.
 Habitat: Arboreal and tend to live in
hiding.
In News
Flying squirrel
Page
| 22
 Flying squirrels are mammals too, but

they don't really fly.
 They are more closely related to
 They jump from high in a trees glide
jellyfish than corals.
through the air like a kite.
 Distribution: Indonesia, Gulf of
 Flying squirrels are a tribe of 44
Chiriqui, Panama Pacific Province.
species of squirrels.
Possibly extinct from Australia, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Panama,  Their conservation status varies from
Singapore and Thailand. Near Threatened to Endangered.
 Threats: Collected for decoration and  Indian giant flying squirrel is included
jewellery trade. This group is also under ‘Least Concerned’.
sensitive to temperature rise, and is Consider the following:
thought to have completely disappeared
from the majority of marine areas 1) Black-necked crane
possibly because of growing global 2) Cheetah
warming related bleaching effects. 3) Flying squirrel
4) Snow leopard
‘Not Evaluated’ Mammals
Which of the above are naturally found in
Himalayan wolf India ?
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 1, 3 and 4 only
c) 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
 Conservation Status is ‘Not Evaluated’.

Several biologists feel that it needs be
in the ‘Critically Endangered List’.
 Distribution – Trans-Himalayan region
of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir.
 Threats – Climate Change, Prey by
humans to protect their cattle.
 Distribution: west coast of California

and off the Guadalupe islands of
Mexico
 Moved from the "near threatened" to
the "least concern" category in 2015.
Iberian Lynx Page

| 23
 Moved from the "critically endangered"

Black-necked crane is commonly found in to the "endangered" category.
Tibetan and trans-Himalayan region. In  Found in Iberian Peninsula [Western
winters they migrate to less colder regions Europe].
of Indian Himalayas.
Lion
Cheetah is an extinct species. They have
gone extinct during pre-independence era.  Placed in Vulnerable category.
Reason: They were hunted down by  Threats: Trade in bones is the major
various Indian kings and British officers. reason for their dwindling numbers.
Flying Squirrels are found in many Indian Tiger and Bengal Tiger
forests.
 Placed in Endangered category.
Snow leopard is an ‘endangered’ specie  2015: International Union for
found in the Himalayan ranges. Conversation of Nature (IUCN), said
that tiger numbers have grown to
Answer: b) 1, 3 and 4 only 3,890—a marked increase from
estimates in 2010 that put the number
Guadalupe Fur Seal
at “as few as 3,200.”
 The general observation is that the
population of tigers in India has
increased while that of the rest of the
world has decreased.
Black-Necked Crane (Grus nigricollis)
5) Black-necked crane
 Gyps species were the most affected by

diclofenac.
 The population of the White-rumped
vulture (Gyps bengalensis) fell 99.7%
between 1993 and 2002.
 The populations of the Indian vulture Page
(Gyps indicus) and the slender-billed
vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) fell 97.4%. | 24
 The percentages differ slightly because
the white-rumped vulture is more
 Status: Vulnerable. sensitive to diclofenac than the other
 The threat to the future of a vulnerable two species, but all three were in
bird species has halted the Rs. 6,400- danger of extinction.
crore hydro power project in Tawang,  Two other species of Gyps, the
Arunachal Pradesh. Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis)
 The species breeds on the Tibetan and the Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus)
plateau and migrates to Tawang for the were less affected because they come to
winter. India only in winters
 The bird, most commonly found in  They are exclusively mountain-dwelling
China, is legally protected in Bhutan and hence less vulnerable to diclofenac
and India and is considered sacred to contamination.
certain Buddhist traditions.  Vulture populations have continued to
decline in India at a rate of between
Indian Vulture Crisis 20% and 40% each year since 2007.
 India is most favourable region for Consequences of Depopulation of

Vultures: Hindus do not eat cows, Vultures
which they consider sacred, and when
a cow dies, it is left to be fed on by  Vultures previously played an
vultures. India has a high species important role in public sanitation in
diversity and hence vultures get lot of India and their disappearance has
food. resulted in an explosion of rats and
 Nine species of vulture can be found wild dogs and the spread of diseases
living in India. But today, most are in resulting in an estimated costs of up to
danger of extinction due to a veterinary ₹1700 billion (US$25 billion) (as of
drug called diclofenac (vultures do not 2015).
have a particular enzyme to break  The carcasses formerly eaten by
down diclofenac). vultures rot in village fields leading to
contaminated drinking water.
Diclofenac  These newly abundant scavengers are
not as efficient as vultures. A vulture’s
 Diclofenac is a common anti- metabolism is a true “dead-end” for
inflammatory drug administered to pathogens, but dogs and rats become
livestock and is used to treat the carriers of the pathogens.
symptoms of inflammation, fevers
 The mammals also carry diseases from
and/or pain associated with disease or
rotting carcasses such as rabies,
wounds.
anthrax, plague etc. and are indirectly
 Diclofenac leads to renal failure in
responsible for thousands of human
vultures damaging their excretory deaths.
system [direct inhibition of uric acid
secretion in vultures].
Diclofenac Alternative
 The drug was banned for veterinary use
in India in March, 2006; Nepal and
Pakistan followed suit shortly
thereafter. Page
 A replacement drug was quickly
developed and proposed after tests on | 25
vultures in captivity: meloxicam.
 Meloxicam affects cattle the same way
 White-Backed Vulture (Gyps
as diclofenac, but is harmless for
africanus)
vultures.
 Diclofenac for human use was still
being diverted into veterinary uses
through black markets in certain parts
of India.
Conservation Status of India

Vultures [As of April-2016]
Critically Endangered
 Ruppell's Vulture (Gyps rueppellii)
 White-Rumped Vulture (Gyps
bengalensis)
 White-Backed Vulture (Gyps
africanus)
 Ruppell's Vulture (Gyps rueppellii)
 Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus)
 Slender-Billed Vulture (Gyps
tenuirostris)
Endangered
 Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres)
Near Threatened  Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus)

 Himalayan Vulture (Gyps
himalayensis)
Least Concern
 Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus)
Critically Endangered
 White-Rumped Vulture (Gyps

bengalensis)
 Slender-Billed Vulture (Gyps  Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus)

tenuirostris)
Page
| 26
Vulture Safety Zones

 The concept of a VSZ is unique for the
Asian continent but similar VSZ are in
Endangered operation in both Europe and Africa.
 Aim of developing VSZs is to establish
 Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) targeted awareness activities
surrounding 150 km radius of vultures'
colonies so that no diclofenac or the
veterinary toxic drugs are found in
cattle carcasses, the main food of
vultures(to provide safe food).
 The VSZ is spread around in several
hundred kilometers covering the Jim
Corbett in Uttarakhand, Dudhwa and
Kartamiaghat forest reserves in UP
which is adjoining the Indo-Nepal
border. Nepal has already set up VSZ
on the Indian borders.
VSZ's provide
Near Threatened
 A safe source of food that is free of
 Himalayan Vulture (Gyps contamination from veterinary drugs,
himalayensis) poisons and other agricultural
chemicals.
 A place where vultures can feed free
from human disturbances.
 Supplement the ever decreasing food
base for vultures.
 Extra food close to breeding colonies,
this helps to increase their breeding
success by improving the survival
chances of the young vultures.
 Additional food, such as bone
Least Concern fragments, which can be supplied to
breeding birds.
 An economical and practical way of Aim

disposing of old and unproductive
cattle.  Conserve the fast dwindling vulture
 Help to reduce the risk of spreading population.
diseases.  As uncontaminated food shortage is
 A place for scientists to study the one of the reasons for vultures' decline,
biology and ecology of these threatened these scavengers will be fed by serving Page
species. diclofenac free carcasses of cattle | 27
 An opportunity to raise public through restaurants.
awareness on vulture conservation and  VR includes involvement of local
to raise funds. communities in in-situ conservation, is
 An excellent opportunity for eco- having dual benefits to vultures and to
tourists to observe these magnificent our society.
birds.  People inform the forest department in
case of the death of an animal in their
Zones village and the department tests the
dead animal for the presence of
 The zone between Uttarkhand to Nepal, diclofenac.
which spans from Corbett to Katriya  In their absence the department pays
Ghat, a Tarai belt, covering 30,000 monetary benefits to the owner of the
square kilometers will be earmarked as animal and informer, transports it to
Vulture Safe zone. Slender-billed the vulture restaurant.
vulture and white-backed vulture are  Apart from this, whenever a vulture
found in this area, which is marshy nesting is found, conservation
grassland, savannas and forests. measures like providing safe food near
 Similarly, a belt between Dibrugarh in nesting trees, constant protection from
Assam to North Lakhimpur in all sorts of disturbances, etc., are put
Arunachal Pradesh will also be in place without delay.
conserved as a vulture safe zone where
slender-billed and white-backed species Benefits
of vultures are found.
 Conservation of vulture from extinction
 The third zone would be in central
 Community participation in
India, covering Chhatisgarh, where
conservation
white-backed and long-billed vultures
are found.  Economic incentive to local cattle
breeders
What have to be done?  Phasing out the use of diclofenac
 Awareness
 Diclofenac free zones' (DFZ) meant the  Dining spots
complete removal of diclofenac in the  Punjab - Kathlore, Chandola and
identified vulture safe zones i.e. places Chamraur
where vulture colonies have been  Maharastra — Gadchiroli, Thane,
identified. Nagpur, Nashik, Raigad districts
Vulture Restaurants Bird's Migration
 At this restaurant, tables are reserved  Migration refers to the cyclical seasonal
only for the unique and rare vultures movement of birds from one place to
by Maharashtra and Punjab forest other. The distance of migration ranged
departments. from short distance to thousands of
kilometers. But at the end of period,
birds will eventually return to the human interference such as

original place. deforestation.
 Stochastic processes (chance and
Reasons for migration random events) that effect the survival
 To avoid adverse factors (extreme and reproduction of individuals. E.g.
climatic condition) unexpected changes of weather Page
patterns, decreased food supply,
 To manage food shortage
disease, increase of competitors, | 28
 To manage shortage of water
predators or parasites, etc. that may
 To have a better breeding conditions act independently or add to
 Less competition for safe nesting places deterministic effects.
 The impact of these processes will of
Migratory birds of India
course depend on the size and degree
Winter birds Summer birds of genetic diversity and resilience of
Siberian Cranes, Asian Koel, populations.
Greater Flamingo, Black Crowned  Traits that adversely affect or increase
Common Teal, Yellow Night Heron, a species vulnerability to extinction due
Wagtail, White Wagtail, Eurasian Golden to habitat fragmentation have been
Northern Shoveler, Oriole, Comb identified. These are:
Rosy Pelican, Wood Duck, Blue 1. rarity or low abundance
Sandpiper, Spotted Cheeked Bee 2. poor dispersal ability
Sandpiper, Eurasian Eater, Blue 3. ecological specialization
Pigeon, Black Tailed Tailed Bee- 4. unstable populations
Godwit, Spotted Eater, Cuckoos. 5. high trophic status - as animals
Redshank Starling occupying a higher trophic level (i.e.
Bluethroat, Long Billed the position of a species in a food
Pipit. chain) usually have smaller
populations than those at lower
Species Extinction levels (e.g. carnivores are fewer in
number than herbivores)
Extinction is caused through various
6. low adult survival rates
processes:
7. low intrinsic rate population
 Deterministic processes that have a increase
cause and effect. E.g. glaciations, 8. Body size, fecundity, dietary
specialization.
Diseases Causative organism Animal susceptible
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium spp Deer, cat, primates, elephant
Anthrax Bacillus anthraxis Gaur, chetal, wild pig, barking deer
Rabies Rabies virus Tiger, lion, bear, mongoose, squirrel
Foot and mouth FMD virus Gaur, nilgai, chetal, sambar, yak, mithun
disease
Rieder pest Microbilli virus Deer, wild pig, wild buffalo
Trypanosomia Trypanosomia virus Tiger, elephant, sambar, macaque
Taxoplasmosis Taxoplasma gondii Rhesus macaque, civet cat
Natural extinctions  tectonic activity,
 increased volcanic activity,
Have been caused due to several factors:  The late Ordovician global glaciations
(439 Mya).
 continent drifting,
 climate change,
 The late Cretaceous extinction  Abundance and distribution of wild

assumed to be associated with an prey
extra-terrestrial impact.  Increasing wildlife population as a
 Extinction in vascular plants has been result of conservation programmes
more gradual compared with the loss of  Climatic factors
animals. It is believed that extinction  Stochastic events (e.g. fire) Page
among this group was due more to
competitive displacement by more Impacts | 29
advanced plant forms, or due to a
 gradual climate change, than due to  Crop damage
any sudden catastrophic event.  Livestock depredation
 Injuries to people
Artificial Extinction  Loss of human life
 Damage to property
 Even though species extinction is a  Injuries to wildlife
natural process which can happen  Animal deaths
without the intervention of humans,  Destruction of habitat
extinctions caused by humans is now
happening over and above the Preventive strategies
reasonable estimate of natural
extinction rates.  Artificial and natural barriers (physical
 Species are threatened with extinction and biological)
by the intervention of humans due to:  Guarding
 Direct causes - such as hunting,  Alternative high-cost livestock
collection or capture and persecution husbandry practices
 Indirect causes - such as habitat loss,  Relocation: voluntary human
modification and fragmentation and the population resettlement
introduction of invasive species.  Waste management systems that
restrict wildlife access to refuse
Man - Animal Conflict  Mitigative strategies
 Compensation systems
 It refers to the interaction between wild
animals and people and the resultant  Insurance programmes
negative impact on people or their  Incentive programmes
resources, or wild animals or their  Community based natural resource
habitat. management schemes (CBNRMS)
 It occurs when wildlife needs overlap  Regulated harvest
with those of human populations,  Increase alternate crops, preys or water
creating costs to residents and wild points
animals.  Wildlife translocation
 Conservation education for local
Causes populations
 Better sharing of information.
 Human population growth
 Land use transformation Invasive Alien Species
 Species habitat loss, degradation and
fragmentation  Purposely or accidentally, people often
 Increasing livestock populations and bring non-native species into new areas
competitive exclusion of wild herbivores where the species have few or no
 Growing interest in ecotourism and natural predators to keep their
increasing access to nature reserves populations in check.
 Aliens are species that occur outside  A new invasive gall forming insect of
their natural range. Alien species that Eucalyptus in Southern India.
threaten native plants and animals or  Leptocybe invasa - a new insect pest
other aspects of biodiversity are called detected from few pockets of coastal
alien invasive species. They occur in all Tamil Nadu and it has spread to
groups of plants and animals, as peninsular India. Page
competitors, predators, pathogens and  It is a tiny wasp that forms leaf and
parasites, and they have invaded stem galls in Eucalyptus. | 30
almost every type of native ecosystem.  Crazy ant
 Biological invasion by alien species is  Giant African snail
recognized as one of the major threats  Myna
to native species and ecosystems. The  Gold Fish
effects on biodiversity are enormous  Pigeon
and often irreversible.  Donkey
 House Gecko
Invasion and Species Richness?
 Tilapia
 The invasions potentially lead to an
Some Invasive Alien Flora Of
increase in species richness, as
invasive species are added to the India
existing species pool.
Needle Bush
 But it also leads to extinction of native
species, resulting in decrease of species
 Nativity: Trop. South America
richness.
 Distribution in India: Throughout
 The negative interactions are primarily
 A shrub or small tree.
the competition with natives for food
 Remarks: Occasional in thorny scrub
and sustenance, which may not allow
and dry degraded forests and often
coexistence and also by predation.
creates close thickets.
Effects Black Wattle
 Loss of Biodiversity  Nativity: South East Australia
 Decline of Native Species (Endemics).  Distribution in India: Western Ghats
 Habitat Loss  Remarks: Introduced for afforestation
 Introduced pathogens reduce crop and in Western Ghats. Regenerates rapidly
stock yields after fire and forms dense thickets. It is
 Degradation of marine and freshwater distributed in forests and grazing lands
ecosystems in high altitude areas.
 This biological invasion constitutes the
greatest threat to biodiversity, and it Goat weed
has already shad devastating
consequences for the planet and  Nativity: Trop. America
challenges for the conservation  Distribution in India: Throughout
managers.  Remarks: Aggressive colonizer.
 About 235 invasive alien species (both Troublesome weed in gardens,
flora and fauna) are reported in India cultivated fields and forests.
by Global Invasive Alien Species
Alternanthera paronychioides
Database.
Some Invasive fauna in India are  Nativity: Trop. America

 Distribution in India: Throughout
 Remarks: Occasional weed along edges waters. Nuisance for aquatic

of tanks, ditches and in marshy lands. ecosystems.
Prickly Poppy Impatiens, Balsam
 Nativity: Trop. Central & South  Nativity: Trop. America

America  Distribution in India: Throughout Page
 Distribution in India: Throughout  Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. | 31
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common along streams of moist forests
Common winter season weed in and occasionally along railway tracks;
cultivated fields, scrub lands and also runs wild in gardens.
fringes of forests.
Ipomoea / the pink morning glory
Blumea eriantha
 Nativity: Trop. America
 Nativity: Trop. America  Distribution in India: Throughout
 Distribution in India: Throughout  Remarks: Aggressive colonizer.
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of marhsy lands and
Abundant along railway tracks, road along the edges of tanks and ditches.
sides and degraded forest lands.
Lantana camara / Lantana, Wild Sage
Palmyra, Toddy Palm
 Nativity: Trop. America
 Nativity: Trop. Africa  Distribution in India: Throughout
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of forests, plantations,
Cultivated and self-sown, occasionally habitation, waste lands and scrub
found to be gregarious nearby lands.
cultivated fields, scrub lands and waste
lands. Black Mimosa
Calotropis / Madar, Swallo Wort  Nativity: Trop. North America

 Distribution in India: Himalaya,
 Nativity: Trop. Africa Western Ghats
 Distribution in India: Throughout  Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. It
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. invades water courses and seasonally
Common in cultivated fields, scrub flooded wetlands.
lands and waste lands.
Touch-Me-Not, Sleeping Grass
Datura, Mad Plant, Thorn Apple
 Nativity: Brazil
 Nativity: Trop. America  Distribution in India: Throughout
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Common weed of cultivated fields,
Occasional weed on disturbed ground. scrub lands and degraded forests.
Water Hyacinth 4 '0' clock plant.
 Nativity: Trop. America  Nativity: Peru

 Distribution in India: Throughout  Distribution in India: Throughout
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer.  Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. Runs
Abundant in still or slow floating wild in gardens and near habitation.
Parthenium / Congress grass, colours, sweet secretions and other

Parthenium curios to lure their innocent victims.
 Nativity: Trop. North America Why do they hunt despite having

 Distribution in India: Throughout normal roots and photosynthetic
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. leaves?
Page
Common weed of cultivated fields,
 These plants are usually associated
forests, overgrazed pastures, waste | 32
with rain-washed, nutrient-poor soils,
lands and gardens.
or wet and acidic areas that are ill-
Prosopis juliflora / Mesquite drained. Such wetlands are acidic due
to anaerobic conditions, which cause
 Mesquite partial decomposition of organic matter
 Nativity: Mexico releasing acidic compounds into the
 Distribution in India: Throughout surroundings. As a result, most
 Remarks: Aggressive colonizer. microorganisms necessary for complete
Common weed of waste lands, scrub decomposition of organic matter cannot
lands and degraded forests. survive in such poorly oxygenated
conditions.
Townsend grass  Normal plants find it difficult to survive
in such nutrient poor habitats. The
 Nativity: Trop. W. Asia hunter plants are successful in such
 Distribution in India: Throughout places because they supplement their
 Remarks: Very common along streams photosynthetic food production by
and banks of rivers. trapping insects and digesting their
nitrogen rich bodies.
Insectivorous Plants
Insectivorous plants of India
 These plants are specialized in trapping
insects and are popularly known as Insectivorous plants of India belong
insectivorous plants. mainly to three families:
 They are very different from normal
plants in their mode of nutrition. They, 1. Droseraceae (3 species),
however, never prey upon humans or 2. Nepenthaceae (1 species)and
large animals as often depicted in 3. Lentibulariaceae (36 species).
fiction.
Drosera and Aldrovanda
 Insectivorous plants can broadly be
divided into active and passive types  Drosera and Aldrovanda belong to
based on their method of trapping their family Droseraceae.
prey.
 Drosera or Sundew inhabit wet infertile
 The active ones can close their leaf soils or marshy places.
traps the moment insects land on
 Aldrovanda is a free-floating, rootless
them.
aquatic plant, the only species found in
 The passive plants have a 'pitfall' India, occurs in the salt marshes of
mechanism, having some kind of jar or Sunderbans, south of Calcutta. It also
pitcher-like structure into which the grows in fresh water bodies like ponds,
insect slips and falls, to eventually be tanks and lakes.
digested.
 The insectivorous plants often have Insect trapping mechanism of Drosera
several attractions such as brilliant
 The tentacles on the leaves secrete a  Utricularia and Pinguicula belong to

sticky fluid that shines in the sun like family Lentibulariaceae.
dew-drops. Therefore the Drosera are
commonly known as ‘sundews’. Utricularia or Bladderworts
 When an insect lured by these
 The Bladderworts generally inhabit
glistening drops alights on the leaf
freshwater wetlands and waterlogged Page
surface it gets stuck in this fluid and
areas. Some species are associated | 33
are absorbed and digested.
with moist moss covered rock surfaces,
Insect trapping mechanism of and damp soils during rains.
Aldrovanda  Insect trapping: Utricularia in its
bladders mouth, has sensitive bristles
 On the leaf midrib are found some or hairs. When an insect happens to
sensitive trigger hairs. The two halves contact these hairs the door opens,
of the leaf blade of Aldrovanda close carrying the insect into the bladder
along the midrib the moment an insect along with a little current of water. The
comes into contact with the leaf, door is shut when water fills the
trapping the victim inside. bladder, The enzymes produced by the
inner wall of the bladder digest the
Pitcher Plants Family: insect.
Nepenthaceae
Pinguicula or Butterwort
 Pitcher plants belong to family
nepenthaceae. The members of the  It grows in the alpine heights of
family are commonly known as ‘pitcher Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim,
plants’ because their leaves bear jar- along stream-sides in cool boggy
like structures. places.
 Distribution: Confined to the high  Insect trapping mechanism: In
rainfall hills and plateaus of north- Pinguicula, an entire leaf works as
eastern region, at altitudes ranging trap. When an insect lands on the leaf
from 100 —1500 m, particularly in surface, it gets stuck in the sticky
Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of exudate. the leaf margins roll up thus
Meghalaya. trapping the victim.
Insect trapping mechanism of pitcher Medicinal Properties of

plant Insectivorous Plants
 Nepenthes conforms to the pitfall type  Drosera are capable of curdling milk,
of trap. A honey like substance is its bruised leaves are applied on
secreted from glands at the entrance of blisters and used for dyeing silk.
the pitcher. Once the insect enters into  Nepenthes in local medicine to treat
the pitcher, it falls down because of the cholera patients, the liquid inside the
slipperiness. pitcher is useful for urinary troubles, it
 The inner wall, towards its lower half, is also used as eye drops.
bears numerous glands, which secrete  Utricularia is useful against cough, for
a proteolytic enzyme. This enzyme dressing of wounds, as a remedy for
digests the body of the trapped insects urinary disease.
and nutrients are absorbed.
Conservation Status of Indian
Utricularia and Pinguicula Insectivores
 In India, species like Drosera peltata,  In the platypus, the female retires to a
Aldrovanda vesiculosa and Nepenthes burrow in the bank of a river or pond.
khasiana have been included in the The burrow is lined with dry vegetation,
Red Data Book as endangered plants. and there the eggs are laid.
 The male platypus has venom strong
Threats enough to can kill a small dog, or cause Page
excruciating pain among humans.
 Gardening trading for medicinal | 34
properties is one of the main causes for
their decline.
 Habitat destruction is also rampant,
the wetlands harboring such plants
being the main casualties during the
expansion of urban and rural
habitation.
 Pollution caused by effluents
containing detergents, fertilizers,
pesticides, sewage etc. into the
wetlands is yet another major cause for
their decline (Since insectivorous
plants do not tolerate high nutrient
levels).
 Moreover, polluted water bodies are
dominated by prolific water weeds
which cause elimination of the delicate
insectivorous plants.
Egg Laying Mammals

Marsupials
 The unique feature of monotremes, a
 Marsupials are the group of mammals
sub division of mammal, is that
commonly thought of as pouched
monotremes lay eggs rather than giving
mammals (like the wallaby and
birth to their young.
kangaroo).
 There are only five living Monotreme/
 Marsupial mammals have placenta but
egg laying Mammals species: they are -
it is very short-lived and does not make
the duck-billed platypus and four
as much of a contribution to fetal
species of spiny anteaters (also known
nourishment.
as echidna). All of them are found only
 They give birth very early and the
in Australia and New Guinea.
young animal, essentially a helpless
 Echidnas are also known as spiny ant
embryo, climbs from the mother's birth
eaters.
canal to the nipples.
 Habitat: Australia and New Guinea.
 There it grabs on with its mouth and
 In echidnas, the egg is carried in a
continues to develop, often for weeks or
pouch on the female's belly until the
months depending on the species.
young hatches, at which point the
 They do not have long gestation times
barely-developed young must find a
like placental mammals. The short
mammary gland and latch onto it for
gestation time is due to having a yolk-
nourishment.
type placenta in the mother marsupial.
 Platypus is a semi-aquatic mammal.
 Extinct - Marsupial - quagga, the
 Habitat: endemic to eastern Australia,
marsupial wolf .
including Tasmania.
 Placental mammals all bear live young,  National ban was imposed on tiger
which are nourished before birth in the hunting in 1970 and Wildlife Protection
mother's uterus through a specialised Act became effective in 1972.
embryonic organ attached to the uterus  Innumerable numbers of National
wall, the placenta. Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Parks etc.
 Placental mammals nourish the have been established by the Page
developing embryo using the mother's government.
blood supply, allowing longer gestation  In 1992, Central Zoo Authority (CZA) | 35
times. was initiated for the supervision of the
management of zoological parks in the
List of Marsupials country.
 Phalangers  In 1996, the Wildlife Advisory
 Kola Committee and Wildlife Institute were
established for seeking advice on
 Kangaroo
different features of Wildlife
 Wallaby
conservation and matters related to it.
 Wombats
 India is part of five main International
 Dasyure Conventions which are associated to
 Opossum wildlife conservation. They are
 Tasmanian devils (i) Convention on International
 Mursupial Mole (4 foot) Trade in Endangered Species
 Bandi coot (CITES),
 Tasmanian Wolf /Tiger (ii) Coalition Against Wildlife
Trafficking (CAWT), (
(iii) International Whaling
Commission (IWC),
(iv) United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural
Organization – World Heritage
Committee (UNESCO – WHC) and
(v) Convention on Migratory Species
(CHS).
Which one of the following groups of

animals belongs to the category of
endangered species?

Steps Taken by the Government b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull
for Wildlife Protection and Great Indian Bustard
c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus
 All the states, excluding Jammu and Monkey and Saras (Crane)
Kashmir (it has its own Act), adopted d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull,
Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972 which Hanuman Langur and Cheetal
prohibits any type of trade for
endangered and rare species. As of 2016, the status of many of these
 The Central Government provides every animals has changed. Outdated question.
type of financial assistance to the State
Governments for the conservation and
protection of the endangered species.
Major Global Environmental Issues ........ 1 Clean coal technology ............................. 6
Climate Change ...................................... 1 Carbon capture and storage ................... 6
Greenhouse Effect .................................. 1 Major Global Environmental

Issues Page
Global Warming And Greenhouse Effect
Due to Greenhouse Gases ...................... 2  Increased human activity, | 1
urbanization, industrialization have led
Greenhouse Gases.................................. 2 to rapid deterioration of the
environment. This has severely affected
Global Warming – Impacts ...................... 4 the life supporting system.
The important global environmental  acid rain
issues are:  oil spills
 dumping of hazardous wastes
 biodiversity loss
 Climate change due to greenhouse
 desertification effect and global warming
 depletion of ozone layer
Climate Change  A greenhouse is a structure with walls
and roof made chiefly of transparent
 Climate is the long-term average of a material, such as glass, in which plants
region's weather events. The Earth's requiring regulated climatic conditions
climate is not static. Over the billions of are grown.
years of earth's existence, it has  In a greenhouse, the incident solar
changed many times in response to radiation (the visible and adjacent
natural causes like sun spot, ice age portions of the infrared and ultraviolet
glaciations, etc. ranges of the spectrum) passes through
 “Climate change” means a change of the glass roof and walls and is
climate which is attributed directly or absorbed by the floor, earth, and
indirectly to human activity that alters contents, which become warmer and
the composition of the global re-emit the energy as longer-
atmosphere and which is in addition to wavelength infrared radiation (heat
natural climate variability observed radiation).
over comparable time periods (100  Glass and other materials used for
years). greenhouse walls do not transmit
 Climate change is usually measured in infrared radiation, so the infrared
major shifts in temperature, rainfall, cannot escape via radiative transfer.
snow, and wind patterns lasting  As the structure is not open to the
decades or more. atmosphere, heat also cannot escape
 Humans are creating climate change by via convection, so the temperature
burning large amounts of fossil fuels inside the greenhouse rises. This is
(coal, oil, natural gas), deforestation known as the ‘greenhouse effect’.
(when forests are cut down or burned,
they can no longer store carbon, and Importance of Natural Greenhouse
the carbon is released to the Effect
atmosphere).
 The green-house effect is a natural
Greenhouse Effect phenomenon and has been occurring
for millions of years on the earth.
 Life on the earth has been possible while Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a
because of this natural greenhouse greenhouse gas]
effect which is due to water vapour
and small particles of water present in  As this phenomenon of increase in
the atmosphere. temperature is observed in green
 Together, these produce more than 95 houses, in the botanical gardens these
percent of total greenhouse warming. gases are known as greenhouse gases Page
 Average global temperatures is and the heating effect is known as | 2
maintained at about 15°C due to greenhouse effect.
natural greenhouse effect.  If greenhouse gases are not checked, by
 Without this phenomenon, average the turn of the century the temperature
global temperatures might have been may rise by 5°C.
around –17°C and at such low  Scientists believe that this rise in
temperature life would not be able to temperature will lead to deleterious
exist. changes in the environment and
resulting in odd climatic changes (e.g.
Global Warming And Greenhouse El Nino effect), thus leading to
Effect Due to Greenhouse Gases increased melting of polar ice caps as
well as of other places like the
 Atmospheric gases like carbondioxide, Himalayan snow caps.
methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), water  Over many years, this will result in a
vapour, and chlorofluorocarbons are rise in sea level that can submerge
capable of trapping the out-going many coastal areas and lead to loss of
infrared radiation from the earth’s coastal areas and ecosystems like
surface. Thus, the temperature of the swamps and marshes (most important
global atmosphere is increased. ecosystems from the point of ecological
services), etc.
[Oxides of Nitrogen with general formula
NOx – NO, NO2 – Nitrogen oxide, Nitrogen Greenhouse Gases
dioxide etc. are global cooling gasses
Gas Sources and Causes
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigeration, solvents, insulation foams, aero propellants, industrial and
(CFCs) commercial uses
Methane (CH4) Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites, burning of
fossil fuel, wood, landfills, wetlands, fertilizer factories.
Nitrogen oxides (N20) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop residue.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Iron ore smelting, burning of fossil fuels, burning e-waste.
Carbon dioxide opaque to the outgoing terrestrial
radiation.
 Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a  It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation
very important gas as it is transparent and reflects back some part of it
to the incoming solar radiation but towards the earth’s surface. It is largely
responsible for the greenhouse effect.
 Its concentration is greater close to the
earth’s surface as it is denser than air.
Ozone
 Ozone is another important greenhouse
gas. But it is in very small proportions
at the surface.
 Most of it is confined to the  Carbon monoxide is a short-lived

stratosphere where it absorbs the greenhouse gas (it is less denser than
harmful UV radiation. air).
 At ground level, pollutants like NO2  It has an indirect radiative forcing
react with volatile organic compounds effect by elevating concentrations of
in the presence of sunlight to produce methane and tropospheric ozone
Page
ozone (tropospheric ozone). through chemical reactions with other
atmospheric constituents (e.g., the | 3
Water vapour hydroxyl radical, OH.) that would
otherwise destroy them.
 Water vapour is also a variable gas in  Through natural processes in the
the atmosphere, which decreases with atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to
altitude. Water vapour also decreases carbon dioxide.
from the equator towards the poles.
 In the warm and wet tropics, it may Fluorinated gases
account for four per cent of the air by
volume, while in the dry and cold areas Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
of desert and polar regions, it may be
less than one per cent of the air.  CFCs were phased out via the Montreal
Protocol due to their part in ozone
 One unique feature about this
depletion.
greenhouse gas is that it absorbs both
incoming (a part of incoming) and  This anthropogenic compound is also a
outgoing solar radiation. greenhouse gas, with a much higher
potential to enhance the greenhouse
Methane effect than CO2.
Hydrofluorocarbons
 Methane is the most important
greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide.  Hydrofluorocarbons are used as
 It is produced from decomposition of refrigerants, aerosol propellants,
animal wastes and biological matter. solvents, and fire retardants.
 The emission of this gas can be  These chemicals were developed as a
restricted by using animal wastes and replacement for chlorofluorocarbons
biological matter to produce gobar gas (CFCs).
(methane).  Unfortunately, HFCs are potent
greenhouse gases with long
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) atmospheric lifetimes.
 NOx and N2O are Different. N2O or Perfluorocarbons
Nitrous Oxide is a greenhouse gas.
 NOx [NO and NO2 (nitric oxide or  Perfluorocarbons are compounds
nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide)] produced as a by-product in aluminum
emissions cause global cooling production and the manufacturing of
through the formation of (OH) radicals semiconductors.
that destroy methane molecules,  Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long
countering the effect of greenhouse atmospheric lifetimes and high global
gases. warming potential.
Carbon Monoxide Sulfur hexafluoride
 Sulfur hexafluoride is also a

greenhouse gas.
 Sulfur hexafluoride is used in temperature of the atmosphere,

magnesium processing and because it absorbs
semiconductor manufacturing, as well
as a tracer gas for leak detection. a) the water vapour of the air and
 Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical retains its heat.
transmission equipment, including b) the ultraviolet part of the solar
radiation. Page
circuit breakers.
c) all the solar radiations. |4
Black Carbon or Soot d) the infrared part of the solar radiation
 Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or

Answer: d) the infrared part of the solar
aerosol, (though not a gas) contributes
radiation (outgoing radiation).
to warming of the atmosphere. Black
carbon, commonly known as soot Among GHGs, only water vapor has the
 Soot is a form of particulate air ability to absorb both incoming (UV) and
pollutant, produced from incomplete outgoing (infrared) radiation.
combustion.
 Black carbon warms the Earth by Global Warming Potential (GWP) &
absorbing heat in the atmosphere and Lifetime of Green House Gases
by reducing albedo, (the ability to
reflect sunlight) when deposited on Gas GWP (100- Lifetime
snow and ice. year) (years)
 BC is the strongest absorber of Carbon di oxide 1 50-200
sunlight and heats the air directly. Methane 21 12
 In addition, it darkens snow packs and Nitrous oxide 310 120
glaciers through deposition and leads Hydrofluorocarbons 140 - 1-270
to melting of ice and snow. (HFCs) 11,700
 Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and Perfluorocarbons 6,500- 800-
monsoon rainfall. (PFCs) 9,200 50,000
 Black carbon stays in the atmosphere Sulfur hexafluoride 23,900 3,200
for only several days to weeks. Thus (SF6)
the effects of BC on the atmospheric Global Warming – Impacts
warming and glacier retreat disappear
within months of reducing emissions. Melting of the ice caps
Brown Carbon  Melting of the ice caps and glaciers will
 Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and lead to rise in sea level. Thermal
unidentified component of organic expansion also contributes to sea level
aerosol. rise.
 Biomass burning (possibly domestic  Fertile agricultural lands on the coast
wood burning) is shown to be a major will be submerged and saline water
source of brown carbon intrusions will degrade the neighboring
 "Brown carbon" is generally referred for land. Ground water in such regions will
greenhouse gases and "black carbon" become useless.
for particles resulting from impure  Populous cities lying on the coasts will
combustion, such as soot and dust. be submerged under the sea.
 The Himalayan glaciers are a source of
The increasing amount of carbon fresh water for perennial rivers, in
dioxide in the air is slowly raising the particular the Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra river systems.
 There is evidence that some Himalayan thus increasing rates diseases like
glaciers have retreated significantly cholera, diarrhoea etc..
since the 19th century.
 Flooding in Himalayas and Ganga Biodiversity Loss
plains in wet season and drought in
 Loss of Plankton due to warming of
dry season will severely affect the
seas will adversely affects marine food Page
country.
chain. |5
 As a result of thawing of snow, the
 Bleaching of Coral Reefs [Rain forests
amount of arable land in high-latitude
of the ocean] will cause great loss of
region is likely to increase by reduction
marine biodiversity.
of the amount of frozen lands.
 Rising temperature would increase
 At the same time arable land along the
fertilizer requirement for the same
coast lines are bound to be reduced as
production targets and result in higher
a result of rising sea level and saline
GHG emissions, ammonia volatilization
water inundations.
and cost of crop production.
Extreme Climatic Events  Rising temperatures will further affect
the physical, chemical and biological
 Increased likelihood of extreme events properties of fresh water lakes and
such as heat wave, flooding, rivers, with adverse impacts on many
hurricanes, etc. will offset all the individual fresh water species.
economic advancements made.
 Changes in rainfall patterns (E.g. No Food Security
Chennai floods) will severely impact
 Climate Change affects crops by
agriculture.
impacting irrigation, insolation as well
Environmental Degradation as the prevalence of pests.
 Increased frequencies of droughts,
 Reduced hydroelectric power floods, storms and cyclones are likely
generation due to abnormal behavior of to increase agricultural production
glaciers will further increase variability.
dependence on fossil fuels.  Moderate warming (increase of 1 to 3°C
 Widespread vanishing of animal in mean temperature) is expected to
populations due to habitat loss will add benefit crop yields in temperate
more species to the ‘threatened’ and regions, while in lower latitudes the
‘extinct’ list. crops will take a hit. However, the
natural calamities due to global
Rising Health Related Issues warming can offset the benefits in
temperature regions.
 Spread of diseases (like malaria, etc.) in  In coastal areas, sea level rise will
tropics will put more pressure on the exacerbate water resource constraints
health care sector. due to increased salinization of
 It is anticipated that there will be an groundwater supplies.
increase in the number of deaths due
to greater frequency and severity of Deterioration of Carbon sinks
heat waves and other extreme weather
events.  High latitude forests store more carbon
 Lack of freshwater during droughts and than tropical rainforests.
contamination of freshwater supplies  One third of the world's soil-bound
during floods compromise hygiene, carbon is in taiga and tundra areas.
 When the permafrost melts due to then capturing them on collection

global warming, it releases carbon in plates.
the form of carbon dioxide and  Gasification avoids burning coal
methane (Both are GHGs). altogether. With gasification, steam and
 In the 1970s the tundra was a carbon hot pressurized air or oxygen combine
sink, but today, it is a carbon source, with coal in a reaction that forces Page
thanks to global warming. [global carbon molecules apart. The
warming leads to more global warming] resulting syngas, a mixture of carbon | 6
monoxide and hydrogen, is then
Some methods to reduce CO2 in cleaned and burned in a gas turbine to
atmosphere make electricity.
 Wet scrubbers, or flue
Clean coal technology gas desulfurization systems, remove
sulfur dioxide, a major cause of acid
Current Scenario
rain, by spraying flue gas with
 Half of the world’s electricity is limestone and water.
generated by burning coal.  Low-NOx (nitrogen oxide) burners
 Coal will remain a dominant energy reduce the creation of nitrogen oxides,
source for years to come. a cause of ground-level ozone, by
 Since CO2 contributes to global restricting oxygen and manipulating
warming, reducing its release into the the combustion process.
atmosphere has become a major India’s coal
international concern.
 CO2 and CO (carbon monoxide) are the  Coal mined in India is a poor quality
major greenhouse gas which coal with less carbon, high ash (hard to
are released during burning of coal. dispose) and high moisture content
 Along with the above gases, nitrogen (more gases; less fuel efficiency) [India’s
oxides (destroys ozone) and sulphur coal is not Carboniferous Coal].
oxides (acid rains) are also released.  To improve efficiency and
reduce adverse effects, India should do
Clean coal technology away with its present sub-critical coal
 Clean coal technology seeks to reduce power plants and build more super-
harsh environmental effects by using critical and ultra-super-critical ones
multiple technologies to clean coal and (15-20% increase in efficiency).
contain its emissions.  Should employ clean coal technology.
 Some clean coal technologies purify the
Carbon capture and storage
coal before it burns.
 One type of coal preparation, coal  Carbon capture and storage catches
washing, removes unwanted minerals and sequesters (hide) carbon dioxide
by mixing crushed coal with a liquid (CO2) from stationary sources like
and allowing the impurities to separate power plants.
and settle.
 Capture: Flue-gas separation removes
 Other systems control the coal burn to CO2 and condenses it into a
minimize emissions of sulfur dioxide, concentrated CO2 stream.
nitrogen oxides and particulates.
 After capture, secure containers
 Electrostatic precipitators remove sequester the collected CO2 to prevent
particulates that aggravate asthma and or stall its reentry into the atmosphere.
cause respiratory ailments by charging
 The two storage options are geologic
particles with an electrical field and
and oceanic (must hide the CO2 until
peak emissions subside hundreds of Carbon Sink vs Carbon Source

years from now).
 Geologic storage involves injecting CO2  A carbon sink is anything that absorbs
into the earth. more carbon that it releases, whilst a
 Depleted oil or gas fields and deep carbon source is anything that releases
saline aquifers safely store CO2 while more carbon than is absorb.
Page
coal seams absorb it.  Forests, soils, oceans and the
 Ocean storage, a technology still in its atmosphere all store carbon and this | 7
early stages, involves injecting liquid carbon moves between them in a
CO2 into waters 500 to 3,000 meters continuous cycle.
deep, where it dissolves under  This constant movement of carbon
pressure. However, this method would means that forests act as sources or
slightly decrease pH and potentially sinks at different times.
harm marine habitats.
Carbon sequestration
Carbon Sink
 Carbon sequestration is the process of
 A carbon sink is a natural or artificial capture and long-term storage of
reservoir that accumulates and stores atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
some carbon-containing chemical  It has been proposed as a way to slow
compound for an indefinite period. the atmospheric and marine
 The process by which carbon sinks accumulation of greenhouse gases
remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the  Carbon dioxide is naturally captured
atmosphere is known as carbon from the atmosphere through
sequestration. biological, chemical, or physical
processes.
Forests as carbon Sinks
 Forests are carbon stores, and they are 2) Widespread coral mortality will
carbon dioxide sinks when they are occur.
increasing in density or area. 3) All the global wetlands will
 In Canada's boreal forests as much as permanently disappear.
80% of the total carbon is stored in the 4) Cultivation of cereals will not be
soils as dead organic matter. possible anywhere in the world.
Page
 Tropical forests absorb about 18% of all
Select the correct answer using the code | 8
carbon dioxide added by fossil fuels.
given below.
 In the context of climate change, the
most important carbon stores are fossil a) 1 only
fuel deposits as they have the unique b) 1 and 2 only
benefit of being buried deep inside the c) 2, 3 and 4 only
earth, naturally separated from the d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
carbon cycling in the atmosphere.
 This separation ends when humans Explanation:
burn coal, oil and natural gas, turning
Taiga and temperate forests act as an
fossil carbon stores into atmospheric
important carbon sink. Global warming by
carbon.
3°C will turn these forests into carbon
 This release of carbon from fossil fuel
source.
has caused greenhouse gas (GHG)
concentrations in the atmosphere to Corals are very sensitive to temperature
soar to levels more than 30 per cent changes. 3°C rise in global temperature
higher than at the beginning of the will lead to widespread coral mortality.
industrial revolution.
 Because of this increase in atmospheric 3°C rise in global temperature will lead to
carbon, a lot of emphasis and hope has submergence of many low lying coastal
been put into the ability of trees, other wetlands (not all) due to rise in sea levels.
plants and the soil to temporarily sink Inland wetlands like Keoladeo Ghana
the carbon that fossil fuel burning National Park will not be effected (it is
releases into the atmosphere. 100s of kilometers away from coast).
 Indeed, the Kyoto Protocol, the
Because of the slow inertia, long response
international communities’ main
time for parts of the climate system, it has
instrument for halting global warming
been estimated that we are already
suggests that the absorption of carbon
committed to a sea-level rise of
dioxide by trees and the soil is just as
approximately 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) for each
valid a means to achieve emission
degree Celsius of temperature rise within
reduction commitments as cutting
the next 2,000 years.
carbon dioxide emissions from fossil
fuels. http://www.pnas.org/content/110/34/13
745.abstract?sid=26fd1d37-7276-46e2-
The scientific view is that the increase
9192-0931e6ebf6ab
in global temperature should not
exceed 2 °C above pre-industrial level. Cultivation of cereals in tropics will take a
If the global temperature increases hit. But in temperate regions their
beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial production increases in the short run.
level, what can be its possible
impact/impacts on the world?
1) Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a

net carbon source
Page
|9
Major International Conventions to Protect  United Nations Conference On

Environment And Development
Environment .......................................... 1
(UNCED)
Earth Summit 1992, Rio De janeiro Brazil  Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD)
.............................................................. 1  Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Page
[Explained in “Wetland Ecosystem”]
Convention on Biological Diversity .......... 2
 Convention on International Trade in | 1
CITES..................................................... 3 Endangered Species of Fauna and
Flora (CITES)
TRAFFIC ................................................ 4  The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network
(TRAFFIC)
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework  Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species (CMS)
Convention on Climate Change ............... 4
 Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
Kyoto Protocol ........................................ 6
Hazardous material [explained in “Solid
Flexible Market Mechanisms – Kyoto Waste”]
Protocol .................................................. 8  Stockholm Convention

 Basel Convention
Important Summits Post Kyoto ..............12  Rotterdam Convention
Lima Summit, 2014 ...............................13 Land
Paris summit, 2015 ...............................15  United Nations Convention to Combat

Desertification (UNCCD)
United Nations Convention to Combat
Marine environment
Desertification .......................................18
 International Whaling Commission
REDD & REDD+ ....................................19 (IWC)
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Atmosphere

Change..................................................20  Vienna convention and Montreal
Protocol [Explained in “Ozone
Transition to green economy ..................21 Depletion”]
Global Environment Facility ..................21  United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Arctic Council........................................22  Kyoto Protocol
India's National Action Plan On Climate Earth Summit 1992, Rio De

janeiro Brazil
Change..................................................23
 Earth Summit 1992 is also known as
Major International Conventions The United Nations Conference on
to Protect Environment Environment and Development
(UNCED).
Nature conservation  As a follow-up, the World Summit on
Sustainable Development (Rio+10)
was held in 2002 in Johannesburg,  It was an outcome of the United

South Africa. Nations Conference on Environment
 190 countries pledged their and Development (UNCED) held in Rio
commitment to achieve by 2010, a de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
significant reduction in the current rate  The number 21 refers to an agenda for
of biodiversity loss at global, regional the 21st century. Page
and local levels.
 In 2012, the United Nations Landmark Agreements |2
Conference on Sustainable
Development was also held in Rio, and  An important achievement of the
is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio summit was an agreement on the
Earth Summit 2012. Climate Change Convention which in
turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the
What is Rio+20 Conference, often Paris Agreement.
mentioned in the news?  Important legally binding agreements
(Rio Convention) were opened for
a) It is the United nations Conference
signature:
on Sustainable Development
1. Convention on Biological
b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the
Diversity
World Trade Organization
2. Framework Convention on
c) It is a Conference of the Inter-
Climate Change (UNFCCC)
governmental Panel on Climate
3. United Nations Convention to
Change
Combat Desertification
d) It is a Conference of the Member
Countries of the Convention on Biodiversity Related
Biological Diversity
Convention on Biological
Answer: a) United nations Conference on
Diversity
Sustainable Development
The issues touched included  Biodiversity knows no political

boundaries and its conservation is
 checking production of toxic therefore a collective responsibility of
components, such as lead in gasoline, all nations.
or poisonous waste including  Convention on Biological Diversity
radioactive chemicals, (CBD) is a step towards conserving
 alternative sources of energy to replace biological diversity or biodiversity with
the use of fossil fuels, the involvement of the entire world.
 new reliance on public transportation  The historic Convention on Biological
systems in order to reduce vehicle Diversity (Biodiversity Convention - a
emissions, congestion in cities, multilateral treaty) was opened for
 the health problems caused by polluted signature at the Earth Summit in Rio
air and smoke, and de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into in
 the growing usage and limited supply 1993.
of water.  The convention called upon all nations
to take appropriate measures for
Agenda 21 conservation of biodiversity and
sustainable utilisation of its benefits.
 Agenda 21 is an action plan of the
 The Convention has three main goals:
United Nations (UN) related to
1. conservation of biological
sustainable development
diversity (or biodiversity);
2. sustainable use of its International Treaty on Plant

components; and Genetic Resources for Food and
3. fair and equitable sharing of
Agriculture
benefits arising from genetic
resources.
 Popularly known as the International
 It is often seen as the key document Seed Treaty. Page
regarding sustainable development.
 International agreement in harmony
 The Convention is legally binding; |3
with the Convention on Biological
countries that join it ('Parties') are Diversity.
obliged to implement its provisions.
 Aims at guaranteeing food security
 195 UN states and the European Union through the conservation, exchange
are parties to the convention. and sustainable use of the world's
 All UN member states—with the plant genetic resources for food and
exception of the United States—have agriculture (PGRFA), as well as the fair
ratified the treaty. and equitable benefit sharing arising
 At the 2010 10th Conference of Parties from its use.
(COP) to the Convention on Biological
Diversity in October in Nagoya, Japan, Consider the following international
the Nagoya Protocol was adopted. agreements:
Cartagena Protocol 1) The International Treaty on Plant

Genetic Resources for Food and
 CBD covers the rapidly expanding field Agriculture
of biotechnology through its 2) The United Nations Convention to
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Combat Desertification
 It addresses technology development 3) The World Heritage Convention
and transfer, benefit-sharing and
Which of the above has/have a bearing on
biosafety issues.
the biodiversity?
 The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect
biological diversity from the potential a) 1 and 2 only
risks posed by living modified b) 3 only,
organisms resulting from modern c) 1 and 3 only
biotechnology. d) 1, 2. and 3
Nagoya Protocol World Heritage Convention explained in
“Biodiversity”, Rest two in this section.
 The Nagoya Protocol is a 2010
supplementary agreement to the 1992 CITES
Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).  CITES (the Convention on International
 The Nagoya Protocol is about “Access Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
to Genetic Resources and the Fair Fauna and Flora) is also known as the
and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Washington Convention)
Arising from their Utilization”, one of  It is a multilateral treaty drafted as a
the three objectives of the CBD. result of a resolution adopted in 1963
 It is the second Protocol to the CBD; at a meeting of members of the
the first is the 2000 Cartagena Protocol International Union for Conservation of
on Biosafety. Nature (IUCN).
 CITES entered into force in 1975.
 Its aim is to ensure that international Answer: b) 2 and 3 only

trade in specimens of wild animals and
plants does not threaten the survival of TRAFFIC
the species in the wild, and it accords
varying degrees of protection to more  The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network
than 35,000 species of animals and (TRAFFIC)
Page
plants.  TRAFFIC is a non-governmental
 Although CITES is legally binding on organization working globally on trade | 4
the Parties – in other words they have in wild animals and plants in the
to implement the Convention – it does context of both biodiversity
not take the place of national laws. conservation and sustainable
 Rather it provides a framework to be development.
respected by each Party, which has to  TRAFFIC is a joint programme of World
adopt its own domestic legislation to Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and
ensure that CITES is implemented at IUCN.
the national level.  Traffic is complimentary to Convention
 Parties  181 on International Trade in Endangered
 Similar treaty: Monitoring the Illegal Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Killing of Elephants – MIKE (CITES).
 The programme was founded in 1976,
With reference to the International with headquarters now located in
Union for Conservation of Nature and Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Natural Resources (IUCN) and the  TRAFFIC’s mission is to ensure that
Convention on International Trade in trade in wild plants and animals is not
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and a threat to the conservation of nature.
Flora (CITES), which of the following  It investigates and analyses wildlife
statements is/are correct? trade trends, patterns, impacts and
drivers to provide the leading
1) IUCN is an organ of the United
knowledge base on trade in wild
animals and plants.
governments Climate Change Related
2) IUCN runs thousands of field
projects around the world to better UNFCCC: United Nations
manage natural environments. Framework Convention on
3) CITES is legally binding on the Climate Change
States that have joined it, but this
Convention does not take the place  International environmental treaty that
of national laws. came into existence under the aegis of
Select the correct using the code given UN.
below.  Signed ==> May 1992.
 Location ==> New York City, USA.
a) 1 only  As of March 2014, UNFCCC has 196
b) 2 and 3 only parties (almost all countries).
c) 1 and 3 only  UNFCCC is negotiated at the United
d) 1, 2 and 3 Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED).
IUCN is an NGO. CITES is an
 UNCED is informally known as
the Earth Summit 1992, held in Rio
governments (multilateral treaty).
de Janeiro, Brazil.
 Role: UNFCCC provides a framework atmosphere at a level that would

for negotiating specific international prevent dangerous consequences.
treaties (called "protocols") that aim to  Legal Effect: Treaty is
set binding limits on greenhouse considered legally non-binding: The
gases. treaty itself set no binding limits on
 Objective of UNFCCC: Stabilize greenhouse gas emissions for Page
greenhouse gas concentrations in the individual countries.
|5
limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative

to the pre-industrial level.
Conferences of the Parties (COP) –
UNFCCC
 The COP is the supreme decision-
making body of UNFCCC.
 All States that are Parties to the
Convention are represented at the COP.
 They review the implementation of any
legal instruments that the COP adopts.
 They promote the effective
implementation of the Convention.
 The first COP meeting was held in
Berlin, Germany in March, 1995.
 The parties to the convention have met
annually since 1995.
 In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol (3rd
COP) was concluded and established
legally binding obligations for
developed countries to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions.
 The 2010 Cancun agreements stated
that future global warming should be
 The 21st COP (2015) was held in Paris  Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions
in 2015. of greenhouse gases across the
 The 22nd COP (2016) will be held at developed world by about 5 per cent by
Marrakesh, Morocco. 2012 compared with 1990 levels.
 The Protocol is based on the principle
Criticisms of the UNFCCC of common but differentiated Page
responsibilities.
 Nothing except Kyoto Protocol made  Kyoto Protocol is the only global | 6
any binding limits on GHG emissions. treaty with binding limits on GHG
 Never achieved its stated goals of emissions.
reducing the emission of carbon
dioxide. What is Common But
 Negotiations are governed by Differentiated Responsibilities –
consensus and small group of Kyoto Protocol?
countries often block the negotiations.
 It is easy for the developed countries to  It puts the obligation to reduce current
escape from their responsibility: United emissions on developed countries on
States, one of the biggest polluters the basis that they are historically
never ratified Kyoto Protocol. Canada responsible for the current levels of
pulled out of Kyoto Protocol citing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
wealth transfers out the country due to  CBDR divides countries into two
binding limits. categories.
 Treaty doesn’t cover developing 1) Historically biggest polluting
countries who now include the largest developed countries like US, UK,
CO2 emitters (India and China). France, Japan, Russia etc. (they are
 Japan, Russia etc. didn’t sign second polluting the earth since Industrial
Kyoto term because it would impose Revolution).
restrictions on it not faced by its main 2) Recently polluting developing
economic competitors, China, India countries like China, India, Brazil,
and Indonesia. etc. (polluting since 1950s).
 “Common” = Every country (both
Important UNFCCC (COP) Summits are
developing and developed) must take
discussed below.
part in the fight against climate
Kyoto Protocol change.
 “But differentiated responsibilities” =
 The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Historically biggest polluters should do
Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. more compared to the recent polluters
 India ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2002. = Responsibilities proportional to
 The Kyoto Protocol came into force in pollution caused.
February 2005.  So under CBDR, developed countries
 There are currently 192 Parties. like US, UK, Russia etc. must
contribute more to reduce GHGs
 USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol.
(greenhouse gases).
 Canada withdrew in 2012.
 They must accept to certain binding
 Goal: Fight global warming by reducing
limits on GHG emissions.
greenhouse gas concentrations in the
 They must contribute funds towards
atmosphere to “a level that would
reducing GHG emissions in developing
prevent dangerous anthropogenic
and least developed countries.
interference with the climate system.”
 On the other hand, developing and
least developed countries should do
everything possible to cut down their Classification of Parties and their

GHG emissions. But nothing is commitments – Kyoto Protocol
binding and every initiative is
voluntary.
Annex I  Developed countries [US, UK, Russia etc.] + Economies in transition (EIT)
[Ukraine, Turkey, some eastern European countries etc.] Page
Annex II  Developed countries. |7
 Annex II is a subset of Annex I.
 Required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and
developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas
emissions.
Annex B  Annex I Parties with first or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas
emissions targets.
 The first-round targets apply over the years 2008–2012 and the second-
round Kyoto targets, which apply from 2013–2020.
 Compulsory binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
Non-Annex I  Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostly
low-income developing countries.
 No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
LDCs  Least-developed countries
 No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
 Developing countries may volunteer to
become Annex I countries when they
are sufficiently developed.
 The second commitment period was

agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha
What is commitment period – Amendment to the protocol.
Kyoto Protocol?  Each commitment period has its own
binding targets set for developed
 Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two countries to reduce their GHG
commitment periods: emissions.
1) 2008 – 2012 and  Nations that miss their Kyoto target in
2) 2013 – 2020. 2012 will incur a penalty of an
additional third added to whatever cut
they agree under a new treaty in (three big villains) have all signaled that
Copenhagen. they will not ratify any treaty that will
 During first commitment period (2008- commit them legally to reduce CO2
12), more than 35 countries had emissions.
binding targets.
 Canada withdrew in 2012 after the The Kyoto Protocol emission
Page
first commitment period. target gases include
 Japan, New Zealand and Russia have |8
participated in Kyoto's first-round but  Carbon dioxide (CO2),
have not taken on new targets in the  Methane (CH4),
second commitment period.  Nitrous oxide (N2O),
 As of November 2015, 55 states have  Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
accepted the Doha Amendment, while  groups of hydro fluorocarbons (HCFs)
entry into force requires the and
acceptances of 144 states.  groups of Per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
 So second commitment period is an
epic failure. Flexible Market Mechanisms –
 Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 Kyoto Protocol
to agree on a post-Kyoto legal
framework that would obligate all  Countries bound to Kyoto targets have
major polluters to pay for CO2 to meet them largely through domestic
emissions. action— that is, to reduce their
 China, India, and the United States emissions onshore.
 But they can meet part of their targets is working towards meeting its Kyoto
through three “market-based targets.]
mechanisms”.
 Such projects can earn saleable
The Kyoto Flexible Market Protocol certified emission reduction (CER)
mechanisms: credits, each equivalent to one tonne of
CO2, which can be counted towards Page
1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) meeting Kyoto targets. |9
2. Emission Trading  In simple terms: Developed countries
3. Joint Implementation (JI) emit more and lose carbon credits.
They provide financial assistance to
Clean Development Mechanism
developing and least developed
(CDM) – Kyoto Protocol countries to create clean energy (solar,
wind energy etc.) and gain some carbon
 The Clean Development Mechanism credits = meet their Kyoto Quota (Kyoto
(CDM), defined in the Kyoto Protocol, units) of emissions without violations.
allows a country with an emission-  Suppose a developed country has a
reduction or emission-limitation Kyoto Quota of 100 Carbon Credits ==>
commitment under the Kyoto Protocol It can emit 100 tonnes of CO2.
(Annex B Party) to implement an
 Due to negligence it emits 110 tonnes
emission-reduction project in
of CO2 = 10 carbon credits lost = Kyoto
developing countries.
Quota violation.
[Hypothetical E.g. of CDM: Australia takes  Now the country has to make up for its
up or finances some environment lost carbon credits to avoid penalty.
benefitting project in India (solar power  So it invests some money (equal to 10
projects, wind power projects, carbon credits) in developing and LDCs
afforestation etc.) and earns some carbon to build clean energy infrastructure like
credits (certified emission reduction solar plants, wind farms etc. and will
credits). Now it shows these earned carbon make up for its 10 lost carbon credits
credits to the world and tells them how it and avoid penalty.
Pic Credits:
http://newsroom.unfccc.int/media/211890/infographic-
achievements-of-the-clean-development-mechanism.png
Carbon Credits Trading [Carbon 1. Emission trading and

Trading] – Kyoto Protocol 2. Offset trading.
Emission trading/'cap-and-trade'
Carbon credit – Kyoto Protocol
 A carbon credit (often called a carbon  Emissions trading allows countries that
offset) is a tradable certificate or have emission units to spare - Page
permit. emissions permitted them but not | 10
 One carbon credit is equal to one “used” - to sell this excess capacity to
tonne of carbon dioxide. countries that are over their targets.
 Carbon credits are a part of attempts to  Carbon is now tracked and traded like
mitigate the growth in concentrations any other commodity. This is known as
of GHGs. the "carbon market."
 Carbon credits or carbon offsets can be
acquired through afforestation, Other trading units in the carbon
renewable energy, CO2 sequestration, market
methane capture, buying from an
1. A removal unit (RMU) by reforestation.
exchange (carbon credits trading) etc..
2. An emission reduction unit (ERU)
 Carbon trading is the name given to the generated by a joint implementation
exchange of emission permits. project (explained below).
 This exchange may take place within 3. A certified emission reduction (CER)
the economy or may take the form of generated from a clean development
international transaction. mechanism project activity.
 Under Carbon Credits Trading
mechanism countries that emit more Offset Trading/Carbon
carbon than the quota allotted to them Project/'baseline-and credit' trading
buy carbon credits from those that emit
less.  Another variant of carbon credit is to
 In Carbon trading, one credit gives the be earned by a country by investing
country or a company right to emit some amount of money in such
one tonne of CO2. projects, known as carbon projects,
 A country having more emissions of which will emit lesser amount of
carbon (less carbon credits) is able to greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
purchase the right to emit more from a  For example, suppose a thermal plant
country having less emissions (more of 800 megawatt capacity emit 400
carbon credits). carbon-equivalent in the atmosphere.
 More carbon emitting countries, by this Now a country builds up a 800
way try to keep the limit of carbon megawatt wind energy plant which
emission specified to them. does not generate any amount of
 A developing nation such as India, emission as an alternative of the
turns out to be a seller of such credits, thermal plant. Then by investing in this
which eventually provides them with project the country will earn 400
monetary gains. carbon-equivalent.
 Carbon credits are traded at various Offset Trading is a variant of Emission
exchanges across the world. Trading or Carbon Trading.
 Multi-Commodity Exchange of India
(MCX) launched futures trading in Carbon tax (related concept but not
carbon credits in 2009. related to Kyoto Protocol)
Types of Carbon trading  It is a tax on all fossil fuels in
proportion to carbon dioxide emissions.
 Proposed in may developed and fulfilling a part of their Kyoto

developing countries. commitments, while the host Party
 The proposal faced political resistance benefits from foreign investment and
(politician – corporate nexus, people technology transfer.
feared more burden).
Regarding "carbon credits", which one
 India has a carbon tax of sorts. Budget Page
of the following statements is not
of 2010-11 introduced a cess of Rs. 50
correct? | 11
per tonne of both domestically
produced and imported coal. Later it a) The carbon credit system was ratified
was increased to Rs. 100. in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol
 This cess is used to raise revenues for b) Carbon credits are awarded to
the National Clean Energy Fund. countries or groups that have reduced
greenhouse gases below their
Non-Compliance of Kyoto And emission quota
Penalties c) The goal of the carbon credit system
is to limit the increase of carbon
 Like most things in life, failure to emission quota
comply with the Protocol carries d) Carbon credits are traded at a price
penalties. fixed from time to time by the United
 If a country does not meet the Nations Environment Programme.
requirements for measurements and
reporting said country loses the Answer: c) The goal of the carbon credit
privilege of gaining credit through joint system is to limit the increase of
implementation projects. carbon emission quota
 If a country goes above its emissions
cap, and does not try to make up the Benefits of Flexible Market
difference through any of the Mechanisms
mechanisms available, then said
country must make up the difference  Stimulating green investment in
plus an additional thirty percent during developing countries.
the next period.  Including the private sector in this
 The country could also be banned from endeavor to cut and hold steady GHG
participating in the 'cap and trade' emissions at a safe level.
program.  It also makes "leap-frogging" ––
possibility to skip older, dirtier
Joint Implementation (JI) – Kyoto technology for newer, cleaner
Protocol infrastructure and systems, with
obvious longer-term benefits.
 The mechanism known as “joint  Strengthen the Protocol's
implementation,” allows a country with environmental integrity, support the
an emission reduction commitment carbon market's credibility and ensures
under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B transparency of accounting by Parties.
Party) to earn emission reduction units
(ERUs) from an emission-reduction Criticism of Kyoto Protocol
project in another Annex B Party, each
equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which  Under Kyoto Protocol, Annex 1
can be counted towards meeting its countries can meet their targets by
Kyoto target. cutting emissions or buying unused
 Joint implementation offers Parties a allowances (carbon credits, carbon
flexible and cost-efficient means of trading) from other countries.
 This kind of approach ignores long also undertake some kind of emission
term social and economic costs. It is cuts.
like committing only half of what one
needs to commit. CMP: Conference of the Parties serving
 Kyoto Protocol is based on the as the meeting of the Parties to the
“common but differentiated Kyoto Protocol.
Page
responsibility” approach to global COP11 / CMP 1 was held in Montreal,
warming. Under CBDR, many countries | 12
Canada in 2005 (Kyoto Protocol was
were allowed to increase pollution. ratified in 2005)
 It excluded most polluting countries
like China and India, which have since Copenhagen Summit, 2009
become the world's largest and fourth
largest polluters.  COP 15, CMP 5.
 UNFCCC meet in Copenhagen, capital
Important Summits Post Kyoto city of Denmark.
 Produced the Copenhagen Accord.
After the Kyoto Protocol, parties to the  This accord is an agreement between
Convention have agreed to further developing nations block called BASIC
commitments. These include the Bali (Brazil, South Africa, India and China).
Action Plan (2007), the Copenhagen
 According to this accord, all countries
Accord (2009), the Cancún agreements
should pledge voluntary limits (no
(2010), and the Durban Platform for
binding obligations) to reduce GHG
Enhanced Action (2011) etc.
emissions.
Bali Summit, 2007  Binding obligations could not be
reached due to discord between
 COP 13, CMP 3. developed and developing countries.
 Adopted Bali Road Map that included  Copenhagen Accord also laid the
1. The Bali Action Plan (BAP) [BAP: groundwork for financial commitments
launch a comprehensive process to from developed countries to developing
enable the implementation of the countries.
Convention through long-term  Agrees a "goal" for the world to raise
cooperative action up to and beyond $100 billion per year by 2020. New
2012.] multilateral funding for adaptation will
2. Launch of the Adaptation Fund, be delivered, with a governance
3. Decisions on technology transfer structure.
and  The Accord states that global warming
4. On reducing emissions from should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6
deforestation. °F) to the pre-industrial level.
 All developed country Parties have
agreed to “quantified emission Cancún Summit, 2010
limitation taking into account
differences in their national  COP 16, CMP 6.
circumstances.”  An agreement adopted by the COP
 So they will fix emission limits called for a large “Green Climate
Fund”, and an “Adaptation
according to their convenience and try
to achieve them. Committee” at global level to support
developing countries in mitigation of
 Developed countries stressed
GHGs.
developing countries like India and
China, which are increasing their
emissions as they grow economically,
 It looked forward to a second  It is intended to be the centerpiece of

commitment period for the Kyoto efforts to raise Climate Finance of $100
Protocol. billion by 2020.
 As per the Cancun Agreements, all
Parties to the Convention (including the Which of the following statements
developed and developing countries) regarding ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are
correct? Page
have agreed to report their voluntary
mitigation goals for implementation. | 13
1) It is intended to assist the
developing countries in adaptation
Durban Summit, 2011
and mitigation practices to counter
climate change.
 COP 17, CPM 7.
2) It is founded under the aegis of
 In 2011, parties adopted the “Durban
UNEP, OECD, Asian Development
Platform for Enhanced Action”.
Bank and World Bank
 Parties have agreed to “develop a
protocol, another legal instrument or Select the correct answer using the code
an agreed outcome with legal force”. given below.
This new treaty is due to be adopted at
the 21st COP, and implemented in a) 1 only
2020. b) 2 only
 Second phase of Kyoto Protocol was c) Both 1 and 2
secured. d) Neither 1 nor 2
 India’s insisted Common but
Answer: a) 1 only
differentiated responsibility retained.
Warsaw Summit, 2013
Doha Summit, 2012
 COP19, CMP9.
 COP 18, CPM 8
 2013 United Nations Climate Change
 Kyoto Extended: It established a
Conference.
second commitment period (2013 –
 The G77 and China bloc led 132 poor
2020) of the Kyoto Protocol.
countries in a walk out during talks
 Japan, Russia and Canada refused to
about “loss and damage” compensation
join the second commitment period
for the consequences of global
under the Kyoto Protocol.
warming.
 It finalized Green Climate Fund.
 Poor countries have demanded that the
Green Climate Fund developed world give them $100 billion
annually by 2020.
 The Fund will start operating from
Recent Summits
2013.
 The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a Lima Summit, 2014
fund within the framework of
the UNFCCC.  COP20 or CMP10 or Lima Summit was
 The GCF is based in Incheon, South held in Lima, Peru, in December 2014.
Korea.  2014 United Nations Climate Change
 It is a mechanism to redistribute Conference.
money from the developed to the  It is the
developing world. 1) 20th yearly session of the
 GCF will help developing countries Conference of the Parties (COP 20)
financially in adapting mitigation to the 1992 United Nations
practices to counter climate change.
Framework Convention on Climate responsible for the problem in the first

Change (UNFCCC) and place.
2) the 10th session of the Meeting of  India confirmed that poverty alleviation
the Parties (CMP 10) to the 1997 would continue to be its primary
Kyoto Protocol. concern and hence it will not
 The overarching goal of the conference compromise with its share of carbon Page
is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions credits.
(GHGs) to limit the global temperature | 14
increase by 2030 to 2 degrees Celsius India’s position
above 1850 baseline or Pre Industrial
era.  China agreed a deal in 2014 under
 No agreement was reached due to lack which its emissions would peak by
of consensus between developed and 2030 (after 2030, it will start reducing
developing countries. its carbon footprint).
 There was no clarity on the burden that  India, the world's third largest carbon
each country has to bear and the emitter, is under pressure since then to
summit ended in mere symbolism. make commitments like China did.
 India says carbon emissions will grow
Last-minute deal to end the as it drives to beat poverty.
impasse at Lima Summit  India's emissions are around 1.9
tonnes per person — less than China,
 The last minute deal urged developed which emits around 7.2 tonnes per
countries to provide financial support person and the 5 tonnes world average.
to developing countries to meet their  So India wants to use its carbon credits
“ambitious mitigation” goals (Slightly in to alleviate poverty and is not ready to
favor of Common But Differentiated accept anything other than ‘common
Responsibility). but differentiated responsibilities’.
 The agreement urges parties to take  India has long defended the principle of
national pledges by finalizing “common but differentiated
their Intended Nationally Determined responsibility” (Common but
Contributions (INDC) by November differentiated responsibility =
2015 (Before Paris Summit). Contribution proportional to pollution:
 The agreement was severely criticized USA, China, Japan and Major
for being too shallow in its European powers are polluting since
commitments. many years and hence they should
contribute more. India and other
Developed vs. Developing developing nations along with African
nations have stated polluting the
 Wealthy nations like the U.S, EU environment very recently and hence
argued that emissions from developing they will contribute less).
countries are consistently rising and
they need to commit to more serious What India must do other than
emission cuts. blaming developed nations
 But India accused them of watering
down the CDR principle envisaged in  India must demonstrate concerns
earlier agreements (Kyoto Protocol). about climate change issues (2015
 India stuck to its conventional position Chennai floods, 2013 Uttarakhand
that the developed countries should floods are all the effects of climate
shoulder a bigger burden as they are change).
 Emissions in India are rising China-U.S. deal on emission cuts

dangerously and the environmental
costs will offset all its economic  Prior to the summit, China and the
progress. United States have agreed on a
 Instead of always passing the burden timetable to limit emission of GHGs.
onto others, it has to take  It will impose fresh pressure on India to Page
responsibility. make a voluntary commitment.
 India had to make a pragmatically  U.S. agreed to reduce by 2025 its | 15
determined national pledge before Paris emission of greenhouse gases by 26 per
Summit [India announced its INDC in cent to 28 per cent below its 2005 level.
October 2015].  China stated its intent to peak
emissions of carbon dioxide in 2030, if
Paris summit, 2015 not earlier (from 2030 it will start
reducing its emissions). It also agreed
 2015 United Nations Climate Change to raise the share of non-fossil fuels to
Conference. 20 per cent in the next 16 years.
 COP 21 or CMP 11.  India’s per capita emissions are
 November 30 to December 11, 2015. estimated at one-tenth of the United
 Location ==> Paris. States and one-fourth of China.
 Previous summit was Held in 2014 in  China – US deal imposed a fresh
Lima, Peru. pressure on India to make a voluntary
 No agreement was reached in Lima. commitment.
 All agreements and decisions were  India announced its INDCs in the end
reserved for Paris Summit 2015. of 2015.
 Paris Summit is one of the most
important environmental conference
because of the INDC commitments
made by major polluters.
 The conference objective is to achieve a
legally binding and universal
agreement on climate to be signed in
2015, and implemented by 2020.
 Prior to the conference, 146 national
climate panels publicly presented draft
national climate contributions (so-
called Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions, INDCs).
Page
| 16
or transferring technology to poorer

nations to be included in INDCs.
What is an INDC?  This will help in holding the rich
countries (biggest culprits that
 During previous climate negotiations, contributed to the increase of GHG
countries agreed to publicly outline emissions since Industrial Revolution)
what actions they intend to take under accountable to their promises on
a global agreement well before the Paris ensuring financial and technology
Summit 2015. flows.
 These country commitments are known
as Intended Nationally Determined Commitment Period
Contributions (INDCs).
 India, European Union, China etc. are
The main points of contention on in favor of a 10-year commitment
INDCs period.
 The United States, however,
Inclusion of Adaptation, finance and wants five-year commitment period so
transfer of technology that countries can make quicker
reviews.
 Developed countries are of the view
that only actions that help in reducing Ex-post Review
greenhouse gas emissions should be
counted as ‘contributions’ in INDCs.  Since the INDCs are ‘nationally-
 Almost every developing country, determined’ and voluntary, the level of
including India, however, wants ambition in making ‘contributions’ is
adaptation measures also to be likely to be low.
counted.  Some countries want an assessment of
 Developing countries also want efforts each country’s INDC to see whether
by developed ones on providing money these are in line with the global 2
degree target.
 India and the United Create additional carbon sink of 2.5 to

States strongly resent any such 3 billion tonnes
provision, saying such an exercise will
negate the ‘nationally-determined’  Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5
nature of the ‘contributions’. to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide
equivalent by 2030 through additional
forest and tree cover. Page
India’s INDC objectives
| 17
 Announced in October, 2015 (Lima How?
summit urged every country to  Full implementation of Green India
announce its INDCs by Nov, 2015) Mission and other programmes of
Reduce emission intensity by 33 to afforestation
35%  Develop 140,000 km long tree line on
both sides of national highways
 Reduce emission intensity by 33 to 35
per cent by 2030 compared to 2005 Sustainable development
levels.  Develop robust adaptation strategies
How? for agriculture, water and health
sectors.
 Introduce new, more efficient and
cleaner technologies in thermal power How?
generation.  Redesign National Water Mission and
 Reducing emissions from National Mission on Sustainable
transportation sector. Agriculture.
 Promote energy efficiency, mainly in  Active implementation of ongoing
industry, transportation, buildings and programmes like National Initiative on
appliances Climate Resilient Agriculture, setting
 Develop climate resilient infrastructure. up of 100 mobile soil-testing
 Pursue Zero Effect, Zero Defect policy laboratories, distribution of soil health
under Make in India programme. cards to farmers.
Produce 40% non-fossil fuel based  Additional impetus on watershed
energy development through Neeranchal
scheme.
 Produce 40 per cent of electricity from  Effective implementation of National
non-fossil fuel based energy resources Mission on Clean Ganga.
by 2030, if international community  Early formulation and implementation
helps with technology transfer and low of National Health Mission.
cost finance.  Complete Integrated Coastal Zone
Management plan. Mapping and
How? demarcation of coastal hazard lines.
 Install 175 GW of solar, wind and Money required to meet India’s INDC
biomass electricity by 2022, and scale
up further in following years.  At least USD 2.5 trillion (at current
 Aggressively pursue development of prices) required between now and 2030
hydropower. to implement all planned actions.
 Achieve the target of 63 GW of installed  A total of INR 170.84 billion collected
nuclear power capacity by 2032. through cess on coal production. Being
used for funding clean energy projects.
 National Adaptation Fund has been  Example: An authority or company

created with initial allocation of Rs wants to raise Rs 5 crore from tax-free
3500 million. bonds. The price of each bond is Rs.
 Tax free infrastructure bonds of INR 1000. It will issue 50000 units of
50 billion being introduced for funding bonds. The maturity period is ten
renewable energy projects. years. The minimum investment is 5 Page
bonds which is equal to Rs. 5000. You
National Adaptation Fund on Climate want to invest Rs 10000. If the interest | 18
Change (NAFCC) rate which is known as the coupon rate
is 10 %, your return per annum is Rs.
 Budget 2015 introduced “National 1000. So after 10 years, you get a total
Adaptation Fund” for climate change. of Rs. 20000.
 As an initial sum, an amount of Rs 100
crore will be transferred to the Fund. What are the tax benefits?
 Budget provision for the year 2015-16
and 2016-17 is Rs.350 crores.  Investments up to Rs. 20000 are
 Money obtained from coal cess goes eligible for income tax deduction under
into NAF. Section 80 CCF of the Income Tax Act.
 Objective: Assist States and Union Source: https://www.kotaksecurities.com/ksweb/Our-
Offerings/Value-Added-Features/tax-saving-infrastructure-
Territories that are particularly bonds
vulnerable to the adverse effects of
climate change in meeting the cost of United Nations Convention to
adaptation. Combat Desertification
 The National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD) has been  UNCCD is a Convention to combat
appointed as National Implementing desertification and mitigate the effects
Entity (NIE) responsible for of drought through national action
implementation of adaptation projects programs (NAP).
under the (NAFCC).  NAP incorporate long-term strategies
Tax free infrastructure bonds supported by international cooperation
and partnership arrangements.
 A bond is an instrument to borrow  The Convention stemmed from a direct
money. recommendation of the Rio
 Infrastructure bonds are borrowings to Conference's Agenda 21, was adopted
be invested in government funded in Paris, France in 1994 and entered
infrastructure projects within a into force in 1996.
country.  It is the only internationally legally
 They are issued by governments or binding framework set up to address
government authorized Infrastructure the problem of desertification.
companies or Non-Banking Financial  The Convention is based on the
Companies. principles of participation, partnership
 Infrastructure bonds are good for and decentralization—the backbone of
people who need a fixed income. They Good Governance and Sustainable
offer a decent rate of interest and tax Development.
benefits.  It has 196 parties, making it truly
 The maturity of these bonds is often global in reach.
between 10 to 15 years with an option  To help publicize the Convention, 2006
to buy-back after a lock-in of 5 years was declared "International Year of
(one can sell their bonds only after 5 Deserts and Desertification".
years).
 The UN Convention to Combat and responsible for providing REDD+

Desertification has established a readiness support services to distinct
Committee on Science and Technology countries.
(CST).
 CST is composed of government Objectives
representatives competent in the fields  To assist countries in their REDD+ Page
of expertise relevant to combating efforts by providing them with financial
desertification and mitigating the | 19
and technical assistance.
effects of drought.  To pilot a performance-based payment
 UNCCD collaborates closely with system for REDD+ activities.
Convention on Biological Diversity  Within the approach to REDD+, to test
(CBD). ways to sustain or enhance livelihoods
Other International Mechanisms To of local communities and to conserve
Fight Climate Change biodiversity.
 To disseminate broadly the knowledge
REDD & REDD+ gained in Emission Reductions
Programs (ERPs).
 REDD (Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation) With reference to ‘Forest Carbon
is the global endeavor to create an Partnership Facility’, which of the
incentive for developing countries to following statements is/are correct?
protect, better manage and save their 1) it is global partnership of
forest resources, thus contributing to governments, businesses, civil
the global fight against climate change. society and indigenous peoples
 REDD+ goes beyond merely checking 2) it provides financial aid to
deforestation and forest degradation, universities, individual scientists
and includes incentives for positive and institutions involved in
elements of conservation, sustainable scientific forestry research to
management of forests and develop eco-friendly and climate
enhancement of forest carbon stocks. adaptation technologies for
sustainable forest management
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility
3) It assists the countries in their
 It is a global partnership of ‘REDD+ (Reducing Emission from
governments, businesses, civil society, Deforestation and Forest
and Indigenous Peoples focused on Degradation+)’ efforts by providing
reducing emissions from them with financial and technical
deforestation and forest degradation, assistance.
forest carbon stock conservation, the Select the correct answer using the code
sustainable management of forests, given below
and the enhancement of forest carbon
stocks in developing countries a) 1 only
(activities commonly referred to as b) 2 and 3 only
REDD+). c) 1 and 3 only
 The World Bank assumes the d) 1, 2 and 3
functions of trustee and secretariat.
 The World Bank, the Inter-American It provide financial incentives to countries
Development Bank and United Nations in their REDD+ efforts. There is no
Development Programme are Delivery mention of assistance to universities,
Partners under the Readiness Fund scientists…
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only potential impacts and options for

adaptation and mitigation.
BioCarbon Fund Initiative  The IPCC does not carry out its own
original research.
 The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for
 Thousands of scientists and other
Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL)
experts contribute on a voluntary Page
is a multilateral fund, supported by
basis.
donor governments and managed by
 The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was | 20
the World Bank.
shared, in two equal parts, between the
 It seeks to promote reduced
IPCC and an American
greenhouse gas emissions from the
Environmentalist.
land sector, from deforestation and
forest degradation in developing The aims of the IPCC are to assess
countries (REDD+), and from scientific information relevant to:
sustainable agriculture, as well as
smarter land-use planning, policies 1. Human-induced climate change,
and practices. 2. The impacts of human-induced
climate change,
‘BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustain- 3. Options for adaptation and
able Forest Landscapes’ is managed by mitigation.
the
IPCC Assessment Reports (AR)
a) Asian Development Bank
b) International Monetary Fund  In accordance with its mandate, the
c) United Nations Environment IPCC prepares at regular intervals
Programme comprehensive Assessment Reports of
d) World Bank scientific, technical and socio-economic
Answer: d) World Bank information relevant for the
understanding of human induced
Intergovernmental Panel on climate change, potential impacts of
Climate Change climate change and options for
mitigation and adaptation.
 Scientific intergovernmental body Key AR5 cross-cutting themes
under the auspices of the United
Nations.  Water and the Earth System: Changes,
 Set up at the request of member Impacts and Responses;
governments.  Carbon Cycle including Ocean
 It was first established in 1988 by two Acidification;
United Nations organizations, the  Ice Sheets and Sea-Level Rise;
World Meteorological Organization  Mitigation, Adaptation and Sustainable
(WMO) and the United Nations Development; and
Environment Programme (UNEP).  Article 2 of the UNFCCC (see UNFCCC
 Membership of the IPCC is open to all for definition).
members of the WMO and UNEP.
 The IPCC produces reports that Special Reports
support the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change  Special Reports have been prepared on
(UNFCCC). topics such as aviation, regional
 IPCC reports cover all relevant impacts of climate change, technology
information to understand the risk of transfer, emissions scenarios, land use,
human-induced climate change, its land use change and forestry, carbon
dioxide capture and storage and on the Economy and water is one of our most
relationship between safeguarding the important resources.
ozone layer and the global climate  The development of clean, renewable
system. energy by using solar, wind, tidal,etc
will contribute to green economy.
Transition to green economy  Recycling appropriate materials and Page
 Three priorities in transition of composting food waste reduces the
economy to green economy are demand on our natural resources. | 21
1. decarbonizes the economy;  Moving towards a green economy has
2. commit the environmental the potential to achieve sustainable
community to justice and equity; development and eradicate poverty on
and an unprecedented scale, with speed
3. conserve the biosphere. and effectiveness.
 A key step forward consists in changing Global Environment Facility
our conception of growth and
prosperity — achieving more with less  The Global Environment Facility (GEF)
and creating real wealth and quality of unites 183 countries in partnership
life. with international institutions, civil
Measures to adapt green economy society organizations (CSOs), and the
 Energy audit can reduce your private sector to address global
building's climate footprint and lead to environmental issues while supporting
significant savings in energy costs. national sustainable development
 Overfishing in many parts of the world initiatives.
threatens to deplete future fish stocks.  Today the GEF is the largest public
We can avoid this by working to funder of projects to improve the
promote sustainable fishing practices. global environment.
 Deforestation accounts for close to 20%  An independently operating financial
of the world's greenhouse gas organization, the GEF provides grants
emissions. for projects related to biodiversity,
 Sustainably managed forests can climate change, international waters,
continue to support communities and land degradation, the ozone layer, and
ecosystems without damaging persistent organic pollutants.
environment and climate.  The GEF also serves as financial
 Use electronic files to reduce your mechanism for the following
demand for paper products. conventions:
 When you support certified sustainable  Convention on Biological
forest products, you support a healthy Diversity (CBD)
environment and sustainable  United Nations Framework
livelihoods. Convention on Climate Change
 Car-pooling or taking public transport (UNFCCC)
reduces environmental impacts and  UN Convention to Combat
economic costs while strengthening Desertification (UNCCD)
community.  Stockholm Convention on
 Walking or riding a bike for short trips Persistent Organic Pollutants
is good for your health - and the (POPs)
environment.  Minamata Convention on
 Taking small steps towards wise water Mercury
use can help conserve this precious  The GEF, although not linked
resource formally to the Montreal Protocol
 Resource efficiency is key to a Green on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (MP), supports underdeveloped countries with specific

implementation of the Protocol in aim to protect their environment.
countries with economies in d) Both (a) and (b)
transition.
Explanation:
The list below describes 10 GEF agencies
that currently operating related to GEF is an independent financial Page
adaptation to climate change: organization.
| 22
 United Nations Development It may fund scientific research but it is not
Programme directly involved in scientific research.
 United Nations Environment IPCC takes care of the most of the
Programme research work.
 World Bank Food and Agriculture
 Organization Inter-American Answer: a)
Development Bank
 United Nations Industrial Arctic Council
Development Organization
 Asian Development Bank  Intergovernmental forum promoting
 African Development Bank cooperation, coordination and
 European Bank for Reconstruction interaction among the Arctic states,
and Development Arctic Indigenous communities and
 International Fund for Agricultural other Arctic inhabitants on common
Development Arctic issues, in particular on issues of
 World Wildlife Fund sustainable development and
 United Nations Industrial environmental protection in the Arctic.
Development Organization  The Arctic Council consists of the eight
 Conservation International Arctic States: Canada, the Kingdom of
Denmark (including Greenland and
Areas of work the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland,
 Biodiversity Norway, Russia, Sweden and the
 Climate change United States.
 International waters  Six international organizations
 Land degradation representing Arctic Indigenous Peoples
 Sustainable forest management / have permanent participant status.
REDD+: Consider the following countries:
 Ozone depletion
1. Denmark
With reference to ‘Global Environment 2. Japan
Facility’, which of the following 3. Russian Federation
statements is/are correct? 4. United Kingdom
a) It serves as financial mechanism for 5. United States of America
‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and Which of the above are the members of the
‘United Nations Framework Convention ‘Arctic Council’?
on Climate Change’.
b) It undertakes scientific research on a) 1, 2 and 3
environmental issues at global level b) 2, 3 and 4
c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate c) 1, 4 and 5
the transfer of technology and funds to d) 1, 3 and 5
India’s Initiatives to Fight Climate indigenous production and market

Change leadership.
India's National Action Plan On The National Mission For

Climate Change Enhanced Energy Efficiency
(NMEEE) Page
 The National Action Plan hinges on the
development and use of new  NMEEE seeks to strengthen the market | 23
technologies. for energy efficiency by creating
 The implementation of the Plan include conducive regulatory and policy regime.
public private partnerships and civil  NMEEE has been envisaged to foster
society action. innovative and sustainable business
 The focus will be on promoting models to the energy efficiency sector.
understanding of climate change,  The NMEEE seeks to create and
adaptation and mitigation, energy sustain markets for energy efficiency in
efficiency and natural resource the entire country which will benefit
conservation. the country and the consumers".
 There are Eight National Missions
which form the core of the National National Mission On Sustainable
Action Plan. Habitat
National Solar Mission  "National Mission on Sustainable
Habitat" seeks to promote
 The National Solar Mission is a major sustainability of habitats through
initiative to promote ecologically improvements in energy efficiency in
sustainable growth while addressing buildings, urban planning, improved
India's energy security challenge. management of solid and liquid waste,
 The Mission will adopt a 3-phase modal shift towards public transport
approach: and conservation through appropriate
1. spanning the remaining period of changes in legal and regulatory
the 11th Plan and first year of the framework.
12th Plan (up to 2012-13) as Phase  It also seeks to improve ability of
1, habitats to adapt to climate change by
2. the remaining 4 years of the 12th improving resilience of infrastructure,
Plan (2013-17) as Phase 2 and community based disaster
3. the 13th Plan (2017-22) as Phase 3. management and measures for
 At the end of each plan there will be an improving advance warning systems for
evaluation of progress. extreme weather events.
Objectives National Water Mission (NWM)
 To establish India as a global leader in Mission
solar energy, by creating the policy
 Ensuring integrated water resource
conditions for its diffusion across the
management for conservation of water,
country as quickly as possible.
minimization of wastage and equitable
 To create an enabling policy framework
distribution both across and within
for the deployment of 100,000 MW of
states.
solar power by 2022.
 Developing a framework for optimum
 To create favourable conditions for
water use through increase in water
solar manufacturing capability,
use efficiency by 20% through
particularly solar thermal for
regulatory mechanisms with differential  Increased forest-based livelihood

entitlements and pricing, taking the income of about 3 million households,
National Water Policy (NWP) into living in and around the forests
consideration.  Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration
 Ensuring that a considerable share of by 50 to 60 million tons in the year
water needs of urban areas is met 2020. Page
through recycling of waste water.
 Meeting water requirements of coastal National Mission on Seabuckthorn | 24
cities through the adoption of new and
appropriate technologies such as low-  Seabuckthorn plant is popularly known
temperature desalination technologies as Leh berries.
allowing use of ocean water.  The MoEF and DRDO have launched a
 Revisiting NWP to ensure basin-level major national initiative for
management strategies to deal with seabuckthorn cultivation in the high-
variability in rainfall and river flows altitude, cold desert ecosystems.
due to climate change.  The initiative is one of many
 Developing new regulatory structures conservation measures for fragile high-
to optimize efficiency of existing altitude ecosystems.
irrigation systems.  Seabuckthorn, also called the “Wonder
plant” and “Ladakh gold”.
National Mission For Sustaining
Uses
The Himalayan Ecosystem
(NMSHE)  It has multi-purpose medicinal and
nutritional properties, and also helps
Primary objectives in soil conservation and nitrogen
fixation.
 Develop a sustainable National capacity  Hardy, drought-resistant and tolerant
to continuously assess the health to extreme temperatures from – 43º C
status of the Himalayan Ecosystem to + 40º C, the plant has an extensive
 Assist States in the Indian Himalayan root system which can fix atmospheric
Region with their implementation of nitrogen, making it ideal for controlling
actions selected for sustainable soil erosion and preventing
development. desertification.
 The initiative is a part of Sub-Mission
National Mission For A Green on Cold Desert Ecosystems under the
India Green India Mission — which is a part
of the National Action Plan on Climate
Mission Objectives Change.
 Increased forest/tree cover on 5 million Government of India encourages the
hectares (ha) of forest/non-forest lands cultivation of 'sea buckthorn'. What is
and improved quality of forest cover on the importance of this plant?
another 5 million ha of non-
forest/forest lands (a total of 10 million 1. It helps in controlling soil erosion
ha) and in preventing desertification.
 Improved ecosystem services including 2. It is a rich source of biodiesel.
biodiversity, hydrological services, and 3. It has nutritional value and is well-
carbon sequestration from the 10 adapted to live in cold areas of
million ha of forest/ non-forest lands high altitudes.
mentioned above 4. Its timber is of great commercial
value.
Which of the statements given above is climate change impacts on important

/are correct ? socio-economic sectors like agriculture,
health, natural ecosystems,
a) 2, 3 and 4 only biodiversity, coastal zones, etc.
b) 1 and 3 only
c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 National Bio-Energy Mission
d) 1 only Page
 The government is preparing a national | 25
National Mission For Sustainable bio-energy mission to boost power
Agriculture (NMSA) generation from biomass, a renewable
energy source abundantly available in
The NMSA has identified 10 key India.
dimensions for  The national mission will aim at
improving energy efficiency in
 adaptation and mitigation:
traditional biomass consuming
 Improved Crop Seeds, Livestock and industries, seek to develop a bio-energy
Fish city project and provide logistics
 Culture support to biomass processing units.
 Water Efficiency  It will also propose a GIS-based
 Pest Management National Biomass Resource Atlas to
 Improved Farm Practices map potential biomass regions in the
 Nutrient Management country.
 Agricultural Insurance  According to estimates, biomass from
 Credit Support agro and agro-industrial residue can
 Markets potentially generate 25,000 MW of
 Access to Information power in India.
 Livelihood Diversification
Indian Network On Climate
The National Mission on Strategic Change Assessment
Knowledge for Climate Change
(NMSKCC)  Launched by MoEF in an effort to
promote domestic research on climate
Mission Objectives change.
 Reports prepared by the LNCCA will
 Formation of knowledge networks form a part of India's National
among the existing knowledge Communication (Nat Com) to the
institutions engaged in research and United Nations Framework Convention
development relating to climate on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
science.
 Establishment of global technology National Communication (NATCOM)
watch groups with institutional
capacities to carry out research on risk  In pursuance of the implementation of
minimized technology selection for the provisions of UNFCCC, India's
developmental choices Initial National Communication
 Development of national capacity for (NATCOM) has been initiated in 2002
modeling the regional impact of climate funded by the Global Environment
change on different ecological zones Facility.
within the country for different seasons
and living standards
 Establishing research networks and
encouraging research in the areas of
National Environmental Legislation ..................... 1 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) ....................... 21
Pollution Related Acts ......................................... 2 Wetlands (Conservation And Management) Rules

2010 ............................................................. 21
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988 .................. 2 Prominent NGOs Working Towards the Cause of
Environmental .................................................. 22 Page
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Cess Act of 1977 ............................................. 2 Bombay Natural History Society .................... 22 |1
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act National Environmental

of 1981 and amendment, 1987 ........................ 2 Legislation
Environment Related Acts ................................... 3
 Our constitution, originally, did not
The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 ........ 3 contain any direct provision regarding
the protection of natural environment.
National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) 5
 However, after the United Nations
Biodiversity and Wildlife Conservation Related Acts Conference on Human Environment,
.......................................................................... 5
held in Stockholm in 1972, Indian
constitution was amended to include
The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 and protection of the environment as a
Amendment, 1982 ........................................... 5 constitutional mandate.
 Environment related legislation came
The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 .............. 6 very late in 1972 with Wild Life
Biodiversity Act 2000 ...................................... 6
Protection Act 1971.
 The forty second amendment Clause
The Scheduled Tribes And Other Traditional (g) to Article 51A of the Indian
Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of Forest Rights) constitution made it a fundamental
duty to protect and improve the
Act, 2006 ........................................................ 8
natural environment.
Animal Welfare Board of India ......................... 8
Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian
The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 ............ 9 constitution states “It shall be the duty of
every citizen of India to protect and improve
The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules .......... 10
the natural environment including forests,
Project Tiger – Tiger Conservation .................. 10 lakes, rivers and wild life and have
compassion for living creatures.”
Wiki List of Tiger Reserves in India ................ 13
 There is a directive, given to the State
Project Elephant ............................................ 16
as one of the Directive Principles of
Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision 2020 ............ 18 State Policy regarding the protection
and improvement of the environment.
Project Snow Leopard .................................... 19
Article 48A states “The State shall
Sea Turtle Project .......................................... 19 endeavor to protect and improve the
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project ............ 20 environment and to safeguard the forests
and wildlife of the country”.
Project Hangul .............................................. 20
 The Department of Environment was
Ganges Dolphin............................................. 20 established in India in 1980 to ensure
Acts for Protecting Coastal Environment and
a healthy environment for the country.
This later became the Ministry of
Wetlands .......................................................... 21
Environment and Forests (MoEF) in  The 1988 amendment act empowered

1985. SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting
 The Environment Protection Act of industrial plant.
1986 (EPA) came into force soon after
the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is The Water (Prevention and
considered umbrella legislation as it Control of Pollution) Cess Act of Page
fills many lacunae in the existing 1977
legislations. |2
 The Water Cess Act was passed to
Pollution Related Acts generate financial resources to meet
expenses of the Central and State
 Among all the components of the Pollution Boards.
environment air and water are  The Act creates economic incentives
necessary to fulfill the basic survival for pollution control and requires local
needs of all organisms. So, to protect authorities and certain designated
them from degradation the following industries to pay a cess (tax) for water
acts have been passed. effluent discharge.
1. Water Acts  The Central Government, after
2. Air Acts deducting the expenses of collection,
3. Environment Act pays the central board and the states
 A few important legislations of each such sums, as it seems necessary.
category with brief description are  To encourage capital investment in
given below: pollution control, the Act gives a
polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable
The Water (Prevention and
cess upon installing effluent treatment
Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 equipment.
and Amendment, 1988
The Air (Prevention and Control
 The main objective of this act is to of Pollution) Act of 1981 and
provide prevention and control of water amendment, 1987
pollution.
Some important provisions of this Act are  To implement the decisions taken at
given below: the United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment held at
 The Act vests regulatory authority in Stockholm in June 1972, Parliament
State Pollution Control Boards to enacted the nationwide Air Act.
establish and enforce effluent  The main objectives of this Act are to
standards for factories. improve the quality of air and to
 A Central Pollution Control Board prevent, control and abate air pollution
performs the same functions for Union in the country.
Territories and formulate policies and
coordinates activities of different State Important provisions of this Act are given
Boards. below:
 The Act grants power to SPCB and  The Air Act’s framework is similar to
CPCB to test equipment and to take the that of the Water Act of 1974.
sample for the purpose of analysis.  The Air Act expanded the authority of
 Prior to its amendment in 1988, the central and state boards
enforcement under the Act was established under the Water Act, to
achieved through criminal prosecutions include air pollution control.
initiated by the Boards.
 States not having water pollution improvement of the human

boards were required to set up air environment and the prevention of
pollution boards. hazards to human beings, other living
 Under the Air Act, all industries creatures, plants and property.
operating within designated air  The Act is an “umbrella” for legislations
pollution control areas must obtain a designed to provide a framework for Page
“consent” (permit) from the State Central Government, coordination of
Boards. the activities of various central and | 3
 The states are required to prescribe state authorities established under
emission standards for industry and previous Acts, such as the Water Act
automobiles after consulting the and the Air Act.
central board and noting its ambient  In this Act, main emphasis is given to
air quality standards. “Environment”, defined to include
 The Act grants power to SPCB and to water, air and land and the inter-
test equipment and to take the sample relationships which exist among water,
for the purpose of analysis from any air and land and human beings and
chimney, fly ash or dust or any other. other living creatures, plants, micro-
 Prior to its amendment in 1988, organisms and property.
enforcement under the Act was  “Environmental pollution” is the
achieved through criminal prosecutions presence of pollutant, defined as any
initiated by the Boards. solid, liquid or gaseous substance
 The 1988 amendment act empowered present in such a concentration as may
SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting be or may tend to be injurious to the
industrial plant. environment.
 Notably, the 1987 amendment  “Hazardous substances” include any
introduced a citizen’s suit provision substance or preparation, which may
into the Air Act and extended the Act to cause harm to human beings, other
include noise pollution. living creatures, plants,
microorganisms, property or the
Environment Related Acts environment.
 The most important legislation in this The main provisions of this Act are
category is The Environment given below
(Protection) Act of 1986.
 The Act empowers the center to “take
 Through this Act Central Government all such measures as it deems
gets full power for the purpose of necessary”.
protecting and improving the quality of
 By virtue of this Act, Central
the environment.
Government has armed itself with
The Environment (Protection) Act considerable powers which include,
1. coordination of action by state,
of 1986 2. planning and execution of
nationwide programmes,
 In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the
3. laying down environmental
government of India enacted the
quality standards, especially
Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
those governing emission or
 The purpose of the Act is to implement discharge of environmental
the decisions of the United Nations pollutants,
Conference on the Human 4. placing restriction on the location
Environment of 1972, in so far as they of industries and so on.
relate to the protection and
5. authority to issue direct orders, Coordination Committee (SBCC) and

included orders to close, prohibit District Level Committee (DLC) for
or regulate any industry. handling of various aspects of the rules
6. power of entry for examination,
testing of equipment and other Genetic Engineering Approval
purposes and power to analyze Committee (GEAC)
Page
the sample of air, water, soil or
1. Biosafety concerns have led to the | 4
any other substance from any
development of regulatory regime in
place.
India.
 The Act explicitly prohibits discharges
2. The MoEFCC has notified the Rules for
of environmental pollutants in excess of
Manufacture, Use/Import/ Export &
prescribed regulatory standards.
Storage Of Hazardous Micro
 There is also a specific prohibition
Organisms/Genetically Engineered
against handling hazardous substances
Organisms or Cells, 1989 [‘Rules 1989’]
except those in compliance with
3. Aim of ‘Rules 1989’ is to protect
regulatory procedures and standards.
environment, nature and health in
 The Act provides provision for connection with application of gene
penalties. For each failure or technology and micro-organisms.
contravention the punishment included 4. These rules cover areas of research as
a prison term up to five years or fine up well as large scale applications of
to Rs. 1 lakh, or both. GMOs and their products including
 The Act imposed an additional fine of experimental field trials and seed
up to Rs. 5,000 for every day of production.
continuing violation. 5. The Rules 1989 also define the
 If a failure or contravention occurs for competent authorities and composition
more than one year, offender may be of such authorities for handling of
punished with imprisonment which various aspects of the Rules.
may be extended to seven years.
 Section 19 provides that any person, in Presently there are six committees
addition to authorized government
officials, may file a complaint with a 1. Recombinant DNA Advisory
court alleging an offence under the Act. Committee (RDAC): The functions are
 This “Citizens’ Suit” provision requires of an advisory nature. It recommends
that the person has to give notice of not safety regulations for India in
less than 60 days of the alleged offence recombinant research, use and
of pollution to the Central Government. applications.
2. Review Committee on Genetic
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Manipulation (RCGM) established
Committee (GEAC) is the apex body under the Department of
constituted in the Ministry of Environment Biotechnology, ministry of Science
and Forests under 'Rules for Manufacture, and technology is to monitor the safety
Use, Import, Export and Storage of related aspects in respect of on-going
Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically research projects.
Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989', 3. Genetic Engineering Appraisal
under the Environment Protection Act, Committee (GEAC)
1986. The Rules of 1989 also define five 4. State Biotechnology Coordination
competent authorities i.e. the Institutional Committee (SBCC’s) have a major role
Biosafety Committees (IBSC), Review in monitoring. It also has powers to
Committee of Genetic Manipulation inspect, investigate and take punitive
(RCGM), Genetic Engineering Approval action in case or violations of statutory
Committee (GEAC), State Biotechnology provisions.
5. District Level Committees (DLCs) feeds water into the Ganges by

have a major role in monitoring the protecting it from pollution or overuse.
safety regulations in installations  In 2014, the NGRBA has been
engaged in the use of genetically transferred from the Ministry of
modified organisms/hazardous Environment and Forests to the
microorganisms and its applications in Ministry of Water Resources, River Page
the environment. Development & Ganga Rejuvenation.
6. Institutional Biosafety Committee  It was established by the Central | 5
(IBSC) is established under the Government of India, in 2009 under
institution engaged in GMO research to Section 3(3) of the Environment
oversee such research and to interface Protection Act, 1986, which also
with the RCGM in regulating it. declared Ganges as the ‘National
River’ of India.
Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee (GEAC) Composition of NGRBA
 The Genetic Engineering Appraisal  The Prime Minister the chair of the
Committee (GEAC) is the apex body Authority.
constituted in the Ministry of
Environment and Forests under Members belonging to the government
'Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, sector are as follows:
Export and Storage of Hazardous
Microorganisms/Genetically  Prime Minister of India
Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989',  Minister of Environment and Forests
under the Environment Protection (Union Minister)
Act, 1986.  Minister of Finance
 Minister of Urban Development
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal  Minister of Water Resources
Committee is constituted under the  Minister of Power
a) Food Safety and Standards Act,  Minister of Sciences and Technology
2006  Chief Ministers of Uttarakhand,
b) Geographical Indications of Goods Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand
(Registration and Protection) Act, and West Bengal
1999  Ministry Of Environment and
c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 Forests (state minister)
d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972  Ministry Of Environment and
Forests, secretary
Answer: c)
Biodiversity and Wildlife
National Ganga River Basin Conservation Related Acts
Authority (NGRBA)
 India is one of the few countries, which
 National Ganga River Basin Authority had a forest policy since 1984.
(NGRBA) is a financing, planning,  To protect forest and wild life following
implementing, monitoring and legislations have been enacted.
coordinating authority for the Ganges
River, functioning under the Ministry The Wild Life (Protection) Act of
of Water Resources. 1972 and Amendment, 1982
 The mission of the organization is to
safeguard the drainage basin which  In 1972, Parliament enacted the Wild
Life Act (Protection) Act.
 The Wild Life Act provides for  An Advisory Committee constituted

1. state wildlife advisory boards, under the Act advises the Centre on
2. regulations for hunting wild these approvals.
animals and birds,  The Act deals with the four categories
3. establishment of sanctuaries and of the forests, namely reserved forests,
national parks, village forests, protected forests and Page
4. regulations for trade in wild private forests.
animals, animal products and |6
trophies, and Reserved forest
5. judicially imposed penalties for
 A state may declare forestlands or
violating the Act.
waste lands as reserved forest and may
 Harming endangered species listed in
sell the produce from these forests.
Schedule 1 of the Act is prohibited
 Any unauthorized felling of trees
throughout India.
quarrying, grazing and hunting in
 Hunting species, like those requiring
reserved forests is punishable with a
special protection (Schedule II), big
fine or imprisonment, or both
game (Schedule III), and small game
(Schedule IV), is regulated through Village forests
licensing.
 A few species classified as vermin  Reserved forests assigned to a village
(Schedule V), may be hunted without community are called village forests.
restrictions.
Protected forests
 Wildlife wardens and their staff
administer the act.  The state governments are empowered
 An amendment to the Act in 1982, to designate protected forests and may
introduced a provision permitting the prohibit the felling of trees, quarrying
capture and transportation of wild and the removal of forest produce from
animals for the scientific management these forests.
of animal population.  The preservation of protected forests is
enforces through rules, licenses and
The Forest (Conservation) Act of criminal prosecutions.
1980
Biodiversity Act 2000
 First Forest Act was enacted in 1927.
 Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation  India’s richness in biological resources
and resulting environmental and indigenous knowledge relating to
degradation, Centre Government them is well recognized.
enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act  The legislation aims at regulating
in1980. access to biological resources so as to
 It was enacted to consolidate the law ensure equitable sharing of benefits
related to forest, the transit of forest arising from their use.
produce and the duty livable on timber  The Biological Diversity Bill was
and other forest produce. introduced in the Parliament in 2000
 Forest officers and their staff and was passed in 2002.
administer the Forest Act.
 Under the provisions of this Act, prior Salient features of the biodiversity
approval of the Central Government is legislation
required for diversion of forestlands for
 The main intent of this legislation is to
non-forest purposes.
protect India’s rich biodiversity and
associated knowledge against their use
by foreign individuals and organizations  The monetary benefits, fees, royalties

without sharing the benefits arising out as a result of approvals by NBA will be
of such use, and to check biopiracy. deposited in National Biodiversity
 This bill seeks to check biopiracy, Fund.
protect biological diversity and local  NBF will be used for conservation and
growers through a three-tier structure development of areas from where Page
of central and state boards and local resource has been accessed, in
committees. consultation with the local self- | 7
 The Act provides for setting up of a government concerned.
National Biodiversity Authority  There is provision for notifying
(NBA), State Biodiversity Boards National Heritage Sites important
(SBBs) and Biodiversity Management from standpoint of biodiversity by State
Committees (BMCs) in local bodies. Governments in consultation with local
The NBA will enjoy the power of a civil self-government.
court.  There also exists provision for notifying
 BMCs promote conservation, items, and areas for exemption
sustainable use and documentation of provided such exclusion does not
biodiversity. violate other provisions. This is to
 NBA and SBB are required to consult exempt normally traded commodities
BMCs in decisions relating to use of so as not to adversely affect trade.
biological resources.
 All foreign nationals or organizations How does National Biodiversity
require prior approval of NBA for Authority (NBA) help in protecting the
obtaining biological resources and Indian agriculture?
associated knowledge for any use. 1) NBA checks the biopiracy and
 Indian individuals/entities require protects the indigenous and
approval of NBA for transferring results traditional genetic resources.
of research with respect to any 2) NBA directly monitors and supervises
biological resources to foreign the scientific research on genetic
nationals/organizations. modification of crop plants.
 Collaborative research projects and 3) Application for intellectual Property
exchange of knowledge and resources Rights related to genetic / biological
are exempted provided they are drawn resources cannot be made without
as per the policy guidelines of the the approval of NBA.
Central Government.
 However, Indian citizens/entities/local Which of the statements given above
people including vaids and hakims is/are correct?
have free access to use biological
resources within the country for their a) 1 only
own use, medicinal purposes and b) 2 and 3 only
research purposes. c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
 While granting approvals, NBA will
impose terms and conditions to secure The top biotech regulator in India for
equitable sharing of benefits. Genetically Modified Organisms is Genetic
 Before applying for any form of IPRs Engineering Appraisal Committee
(Intellectual Property Rights) in or (GEAC).
outside India for an invention based on
research on a biological resource Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
obtained from India, prior approval of
NBA will be required.
The Scheduled Tribes And Other on the forests for bonafide livelihood
Traditional Forest Dwellers needs.
(Recognition Of Forest Rights)  The maximum limit of the recognizing
rights on forest land is 4 ha.
Act, 2006  National Parks and Sanctuaries have
been included along with Reserve Page
 Forest Rights Act, 2006 provides for the
Forest, Protected Forests for the
restitution of deprived forest rights |8
recognition of Rights.
across India.
 The Act recognizes the right of
 The Act is provides scope of integrating
ownership access to collect, use, and
conservation and livelihood rights of
dispose of minor forest produce by
the people.
tribals.
FRA is tool  Minor forest produce includes all non-
timber forest produce of plant origin,
 To empower and strengthen the local including bamboo, brush wood,
self-governance stumps, cane, tussar, cocoons, honey,
 To address the livelihood security of the wax, lac, leaves, medicinal plants and
people herbs, roots, tubers and the like.
 To address the issues of Conservation  The rights conferred under the Act
and management of the Natural shall be heritable but not alienable or
Resources and conservation transferable.
governance of India.  As per the Act, the Gram Sabha has
been designated as the competent
For the first time Forest Rights Act authority for initiating the process of
recognizes and secures determining the nature and extent of
 Community Rights in addition to their individual or community forest rights.
individual rights
Animal Welfare Board of India
 Right to protect, regenerate or conserve
or manage any community forest  Statutory advisory body advising the
resource which the communities have Government of India on animal welfare
been traditionally protecting and laws, and promotes animal welfare in
conserving for sustainable use. the country of India.
 Right to intellectual property and  It works to ensure that animal welfare
traditional knowledge related to laws in the country are followed;
biodiversity and cultural diversity provides grants to Animal Welfare
 Rights of displaced communities & Organizations; and considers itself "the
Rights over developmental activities face of the animal welfare movement in
Salient Features the country."
 It was established in 1960 under
 Nodal Agency for the implementation is Section 4 of The Prevention of
Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA). Cruelty to Animals Act,1960.
 This Act is applicable for Tribal and  Well-known humanitarian Smt.
Other Traditional Forest Dwelling Rukmini Devi Arundale was
Communities. instrumental in setting up the board.
 The Act provides for recognition of  The subject of Prevention of Cruelty to
forest rights of other traditional forest Animals is under MoEF.
dwellers provided they have for at least
three generations prior to 13.12.2005 Functions
primarily resided in and have depended
 The board is highly concerned about which assures the citizens of India the
“abuse of animals in research” and right to a healthy environment.
“cruelty involved when animals were  The specialized architecture of the NGT
used in entertainment”. will facilitate fast track resolution of
 The Board oversees Animal Welfare environmental cases and provide a
Organizations (AWOs) by granting boost to the implementation of many Page
recognition to them if they meet its sustainable development measures.
guidelines.  NGT is mandated to dispose the cases | 9
 The Board provides financial assistance within six months of their respective
to recognized Animal Welfare appeals.
Organizations (AWOs)
 The Board suggests changes to laws Origin
and rules about animal welfare issues.  During the Rio de Janeiro summit of
 The Board issues publications to raise United Nations Conference on
awareness of various animal welfare Environment and Development in June
issues. 1992, India vowed the participating
Consider the following statements: states to provide judicial and
administrative remedies for the
1) Animal Welfare Board of India is victims of the pollutants and other
established under the Environment environmental damage.
(Protection) Act, 1986.
2) National Tiger Conservation Members
Authority is a statutory body.  The sanctioned strength of the tribunal
3) National Ganga River Basin is currently 10 expert members and 10
Authority is chaired by the Prime judicial members although the act
Minister. allows for up to 20 of each.
Which of the statements given above is/  The Chairman of the tribunal who is
are correct? the administrative head of the tribunal
also serves as a judicial member.
a) 1 only  Every bench of tribunal must consist of
b) 2 and 3 only at least one expert member and one
c) 2 only judicial member.
d) 1, 2 and 3  The Chairman of the tribunal is
required to be a serving or retired
Animal Welfare Board of India is Chief Justice of a High Court or a
established under Prevention of Cruelty to judge of the Supreme Court of India.
Animals Act.
Jurisdiction
Answer: b) 2 and 3 only
 The Tribunal has Original Jurisdiction
The National Green Tribunal Act, on matters of “substantial question
2010 relating to environment” (i.e. a
community at large is affected, damage
 Act of the Parliament of India which to public health at broader level) &
enables creation of NGT to handle the “damage to environment due to specific
expeditious disposal of the cases activity” (such as pollution).
pertaining to environmental issues.  The term “substantial” is not clearly
 It was enacted under India's defined in the act.
constitutional provision of Article 21,
Notable orders
 Ban on decade old Diesel vehicles at and CFC for metered dose inhalers can
Delhi NCR be used upto 1st January 2010.
 NGT cleared three-day World Culture  Further, the use of methyl bromide
Festival (Art of Living) on the has been allowed upto 1st January
floodplains of the Yamuna in March 2015.
but imposed a fine of Rs 5 crore as an  Since HCFCs are used as interim Page
interim compensation. substitute to replace CFC, these are
allowed up to 1st January 2040. | 10
The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
was enacted in consonance with which Others
of the following provisions of the
Constitution of India?  India is a signatory to the Convention
of International Trade in Endangered
1) Right to healthy environment, Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES,
construed as a part of part of Right to 1976).
life under Article 21.  Indian government has also started
2) Provision of grants for raising the some conservation projects for
level of administration in the individual endangered species like
Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Hungal (1970), Lion (1972), Tiger
Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1) (1973), Crocodiles (1974), Brown-
antlered Deer (1981) and Elephant
Which of the statements given above (1991-92).
is/are correct ?
a) 1 only
Project Tiger – Tiger Conservation
b) 2 only
 Indian tiger population at the end of
c) Both 1 and 2
the 20th century was estimated at
d) Neither 1 nor 2
20,000 to 40,000 individuals.
Answer: a)  The first country-wide tiger census
conducted in 1972 estimated the
The Ozone Depleting Substances population to comprise a little more
Rules than 1,800 individuals, an alarming
reduction in tiger population.
 The rules are framed under the  In 1973, Project Tiger was launched in
jurisdiction of Environment the Palamau Tiger Reserve, and
(Protection) Act. various tiger reserves were created in
 These Rules set the deadlines for the country based on a ‘core-buffer’
phasing out of various ODSs, besides strategy.
regulating production, trade import  India has more than 80 national parks
and export of ODSs and the product and 441 Sanctuaries of which some
containing ODS. have been declared as Tiger reserves.
 These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in  Tiger reserves are governed by the
manufacturing various products Project Tiger (1973).
beyond 1st January 2003 except in  It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of
metered dose inhaler and for other the Ministry of Environment and
medical purposes. Forests.
 Similarly, use of halons is prohibited  It is administered by the National
after 1st January 2001 except for Tiger Conservation Authority.
essential use.  Aim: Protect tigers from extinction by
 Other ODSs such as carbon ensuring a viable population in their
tetrachloride and methylchoroform natural habitats.
 Government has set up a Tiger  The recommendations of the Task

Protection Force under PT to combat Force include strengthening of Project
poachers. Tiger by giving it statutory and
 PT funds relocation of villagers to administrative powers.
minimize human-tiger conflicts.
National Board for Wild Life ==> Tiger
Core and Buffer zones Task Force ==> National Tiger Page
Conservation Authority | 11
The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a
‘core-buffer strategy’. National Tiger Conservation Authority
(NTCA)
Core Zone
 The National Tiger Conservation
 The core area is kept free of biotic Authority was established in December
disturbances and forestry operations, 2005 following a recommendations of
where collection of minor forest the Tiger Task Force.
produce, grazing, human disturbances  National Tiger Conservation Authority
are not allowed within. administers Project Tiger.
 These areas are required to be kept for  Administration of the tiger reserves will
the purposes of tiger conservation, be in accordance with guidelines of
without affecting the rights of the NTCA.
Scheduled Tribes or such other forest  Tiger reserves in India are administered
dwellers. by field directors as mandated by
 These areas are notified by the State NTCA.
Government in consultation with an  No alteration in the boundaries of a
Expert Committee (constituted for that tiger reserve shall be made except on a
purpose). recommendation of the NTCA and the
Buffer Zone approval of the National Board for Wild
Life.
 The Act defines buffer zone as the area  No State Government shall de-notify a
peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or tiger reserve, except in public interest
core area providing supplementary with the approval of the NTCA and the
habitat for dispersing tigers, besides approval of the National Board for Wild
offering scope for co-existence of Life.
human activity (tribals).
 The limits of such areas are determined The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment
with the concerned Gram Sabha and Act, 2006
an Expert Committee constituted for  The Act provides for creating
the purpose. 1. National Tiger Conservation
Tiger Task Force Authority and
2. Tiger and Other Endangered
 The implementation of Project Tiger Species Crime Control Bureau
over the years has highlighted the need (Wildlife Crime Control Bureau).
for a statutory authority with legal
NTCA members
backing to ensure tiger conservation.
 On the basis of the recommendations  The Wildlife Protection Amendment Act,
of National Board for Wild Life, a 2006 provides for the constitution of
Task Force was set up to look into the the National Tiger Conservation
problems of tiger conservation in the Authority.
country.
 NTCA was set up under the  Amendment of the Wild Life (Protection)
Chairmanship of the Minister for Act, 1972 to Wild Life (Protection) Act,
Environment and Forests. 2006 for providing enabling provisions
 The Authority will have towards constituting the National Tiger
a) eight experts having qualifications Conservation Authority and the Tiger
in wildlife conservation and welfare and Other Endangered Species Crime Page
tribals, Control Bureau.
b) 3 MPs,  Enhancement of punishment in cases | 12
c) The Inspector General of Forests, in of offence relating to a tiger reserve or
charge of project Tiger, will be ex- its core area.
officio Member Secretary
d) Others Administrative Steps
Functions of NTCA  Strengthening of ant poaching

activities, including special strategy for
 The Authority lays down standards, monsoon patrolling.
guidelines for tiger conservation in the  State level Steering Committees under
Tiger Reserves, National Parks and the Chairmanship of Chief Ministers
Sanctuaries. and establishment of Tiger
 It would provide information on Conservation Foundation.
protection measures including future  Creation of Special Tiger Protection
plan for conservation. Force (STPF) [Budget 2008]
 The Authority would facilitate and
Financial Steps
support tiger reserve management in
the States through eco-development  Financial and technical help is
and people's participation. provided to the States under various
 The Tiger Conservation Authority would Centrally Sponsored Schemes, viz.
be required to prepare an Annual Project Tiger and Integrated
Report, which would be laid in the Development of Wildlife Habitats.
Parliament along with the Audit Report.
 State level Steering Committees will be International Cooperation
set up in the Tiger States under the
Chairmanship of respective Chief  India has a bilateral understanding
Ministers. This has been done with a with Nepal on controlling trans-
view for ensuring coordination, boundary illegal trade in wildlife
monitoring and protection of tigers in  India has signed a protocol on tiger
the States. conservation with China.
 A provision has been made for the  India has signed a with Bangladesh for
State Governments to prepare a Tiger conservation of the Royal Bengal Tiger.
Conservation Plan.  A sub-group on tiger/leopard
 Provision will be made for the States to conservation has been constituted for
establish a Tiger Conservation cooperation with the Russian
Foundation, based on the good Federation.
practices emanating from some tiger  A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range
reserves. Countries has been created for
addressing international issues related
Steps Taken by the Government to tiger conservation.
 India is a party to CITES. CITES’s
Legal Steps landmark decision states that ‘tigers
should not be bred for trade in their
parts and derivatives’.
Wiki List of Tiger Reserves in India

State Tiger Reserve Est. No. of Total Area
Tigers (km2)
1 Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve 29 3568
2 Arunachal Namdapha Tiger Reserve 37 1985
3 Pradesh Pakhui Tiger Reserve 36 862 Page
4 Assam Manas Tiger Reserve 35 2840 | 13
5 Nameri Tiger Reserve 37 344
6 Kaziranga Tiger Reserve 42 859
7 Bihar Valmiki Tiger Reserve 42 840
8 Chhattisgarh Udanti and Sitanadi Tiger Reserve 54 1580
9 Achanakmar Tiger Reserve 42 963
10 Indravati Tiger Reserve 39 2799
11 Jharkhand Palamau Tiger Reserve 19 1026
12 Karnataka Bandipur Tiger Reserve 89 866
13 Karnataka Bhadra Tiger Reserve 36 492
14 Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve 41 875
15 Nagarhole Tiger Reserve 47 643
16 Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger 40 540
Reserve
17 Kerala Periyar Tiger Reserve 77 925
18 Parambikulam Tiger Reserve 58 391
19 Madhya Pradesh Kanha Tiger Reserve 87 1945
20 Pench Tiger Reserve 64 758
21 Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve 79 1162
22 Panna Tiger Reserve 18 542
23 Bori-Satpura Tiger Reserve 44 1486
24 Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve 56 831
25 Maharashtra Melghat Tiger Reserve 45 1677
26 Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve 100 620
27 Bor Tiger Reserve 7-8 138
28 Pench Tiger Reserve 35 257
29 Sahyadri Tiger Reserve 46 569
30 Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve 653
31 Mizoram Dampa Tiger Reserve 48 500
32 Odisha Simlipal Tiger Reserve 64 2750
33 Satkosia Tiger Reserve[15] 31 523
34 Rajasthan Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve 68 1334
35 Sariska Tiger Reserve 5 866
36 Mukundara Hills Tiger Reserve 417
37 Tamil Nadu Kalakad-Mundathurai Tiger Reserve 93 800
38 Mudumalai Tiger Reserve 64 321
39 Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve 47 524
40 Anamalai Tiger Reserve 49 1019
41 Telangana Kawal Tiger Reserve 42 893
42 Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa Tiger Reserve 141 811
43 Amangarh Tiger Reserve 80
44 Pilibhit Tiger Reserve 30 1074
45 Uttarakhand Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve 160 80

46 West Bengal Buxa Tiger Reserve 29 759
47 Sunderbans Tiger Reserve 89 2585
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| 14
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| 15
Titbit: There are eight subspecies of tiger:  Livestock grazing has been controlled
among the eight, at present five to a great extent in the tiger reserves.
subspecies are present in the wild. They  Various compensatory developmental
are: Bengal, South China, Indochinese, works have improved the water regime
Sumatran, and Siberian. Three subspecies and the ground and field level
of tiger—Caspian, Bali, and Javan—are vegetation. Page
extinct.  Stringent punishments for violators.
 GIS based digitized database | 16
Reasons for falling number of tigers
development to evaluate tiger
 Pressure on habitat, Habitat population.
fragmentation and Habitat Estimation of Tiger Populations
destruction: Caused due to large-scale
development projects such as dams,  The process of estimating the number
industry, mines, railway lines etc. of tigers in a given area is called ‘Tiger
 Incessant poaching: Tigers are killed census’.
so their body parts can be used for  It is conducted at regular intervals to
Traditional Chinese Medicine. know the current tiger populations and
 Invasive species: Destroy the local population trends.
producers. This has a cascading effect  Besides estimating the number of tigers
on the food chain. Tigers are the worst the method also helps to gather
hit as they are at the end of the food information on the density of the tiger
chain. [Tigers represent an “Umbrella populations and associated prey.
Species” that indicate the health of the  The most commonly used technique in
ecosystem.] the past was ‘Pugmark Census
Technique’.
Problems involved with Project Tiger
 In this method the imprints of the
 The Forest Rights Act passed by the pugmark of the tiger were recorded and
Indian government in 2006 recognizes used as a basis for identification of
the rights of some forest dwelling individuals.
communities in forest areas. This has  Now it is largely used as one of the
led to controversy over implications of indices of tiger occurrence and relative
such recognition for tiger conservation abundance.
 The project overlooks the role of abuse  Recent methods used to estimate the
of power by authorities in the tiger numbers of tigers are camera trapping
crisis. and DNA fingerprinting.
 In camera trapping, the photograph of
Reasons for slightly increased tiger the tiger is taken and individuals are
population recently differentiated on the basis of the stripes
on the body.
 Wireless communication systems and  In the latest technique of DNA
outstation patrol camps have been fingerprinting, tigers can be identified
developed within the tiger reserves, due from their scats.
to which poaching has declined
considerably. Project Elephant
 Fire protection is effectively done by
suitable preventive and control Tiger, faces threat of extinction, whereas
measures. the elephant faces threat of attrition. The
 Voluntary Village relocation has been elephant numbers have not increased or
done in many reserves. decreased drastically but there is an
increasing pressure on the elephant
habitats and it is a serious concern which Threats to Elephant Corridors

has to be addressed by involving people in
elephant conservation and welfare.  Habitat loss leading to fragmentation
and destruction caused by
 Project Elephant was launched in developmental activities like
1992. construction of buildings, roads,
 It is a centrally sponsored scheme. Page
railways, holiday resorts and the fixing
solar energized electric fencing, etc. | 17
Objectives:
 Coal mining and iron ore mining is the
a) to assist states having populations of two "single biggest threats" to elephant
wild elephants and to ensure long term corridors in central India.
survival of identified viable populations  Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh,
of elephants in their natural habitats are mineral-rich states, but also have
b) addressing man-animal conflict. the highest number of elephant
c) Developing scientific and planned corridors in the country, which makes
management measures for them known for elephant-man
conservation of elephants. conflicts.
d) Protecting the elephants from  There is also a serious poaching
poachers, preventing illegal ivory trade problem, as elephant ivory from the
and other unnatural causes of death tusks is extremely valuable.
 The Project is being mainly  Elephants need extensive grazing
implemented in 13 States/UTs, viz. grounds and most reserves cannot
Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, accommodate them. If protected areas
Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, are not large enough, elephants may
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil search for food elsewhere. This often
Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and results in conflicts with humans, due
West Bengal. Small support is also to elephants raiding or destroying
being given to Maharashtra and crops.
Chhattisgarh.
Mitigation
 States are being given financial as well
as technical assistance in achieving the  Fusion of the corridors with nearby
objectives of the Project protected areas wherever feasible; in
Elephant Corridor other cases, declaration as Ecologically
Sensitive Areas or conservation
 An elephant corridor is defined as a reserves to grant protection.
stretch/narrow strips of forested (or  During the process of securing a
otherwise) land that connects larger corridor, monitoring for animal
habitats with elephant populations and movement have to be carried out;
forms a conduit for animal movement depending on the need, habitat
between the habitats. This movement restoration work shall also be done.
helps enhance species survival and  Securing the corridors involves
birth rate. sensitizing local communities to the
 There are 88 identified elephant option of voluntarily relocation outside
corridors in India. the conflict zones to safer areas.
 Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in  Preventing further fragmentation of the
south India, 12 in north-western India, continuous forest habitat by
20 in central India, 14 in northern encroachment from urban areas.
West Bengal and 22 in north-eastern
Monitoring of Illegal Killing of
India.
Elephants (MIKE) Programme
 Mandated by COP resolution of CITES,  Discussions covered a wide range of

MIKE program started in South Asia in issues categorised under three basic
the year 2003 with following purpose: themes.
 To provide information needed for a) Science and conservation
elephant range States to make b) Management and conservation
appropriate management and c) Cultural and Ethical perspectives of Page
enforcement decisions, and to build conservation
institutional capacity within the range | 18
States for the long-term management of Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision
their elephant populations 2020
Haathi Mere Saathi  One horned rhinos are poached for
their horns.
 Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign
 Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented
launched by the Ministry of
by the department of environment and
environment and forest (MoEF) in
forests, Assam.
partnership with the wildlife trust of
 The programme will be supported by
India (WTI).
WWF — India, the international rhino
 The campaign was launched at the
foundation (IRF), and a number of local
"Elephant- 8" Ministerial meeting held
NGOs.
in Delhi in 2011.
 Translocations are the backbone of
 The E-8 countries comprise of India,
the IRV 2020 program.
Botswana, the Republic of Congo,
 The goal set was to populate the
Indonesia, Kenya, Srilanka, Tanzania,
potential rhino habitat areas identified
and Thailand.
viz. Manas NP, Dibru Saikhowa WLS,
 This public initiative was aimed at
Laokhowa - Bura Chapori WLS with a
increasing awareness among people
viable population of rhino through
and developing friendship,
translocations from Kaziranga NP and
companionship between people and
Pobitora WLS.
elephants.
 Manas National Park was selected as
The campaign mascot 'Gaju' the first site for translocation of rhinos.
 Ten rhinos have been released into
 The campaign focuses on various target Manas since 2008. Ten more rhinos
audience groups including locals near will be moved from Kaziranga National
elephant habitats, youth, policy Park before the end of the year.
makers, among others.  Translocating rhinos will help to create
 It envisions setting up of Gajah (the a viable population of this threatened
elephant) centers in elephant species.
landscapes across the country to  The vision of this program is to
spread awareness on their plight and increase the total rhino foundation in
invoke people's participation in Assam from about 2000 to 3000 by the
addressing the threats to them. year 2020 and to ensure that these
rhinos are distributed over at least 7
Elephant - 8 Ministerial Meeting
protected areas (PA) to provide long
 The E-8 ministerial meeting term viability of the one-horned rhino
represented regions with all 3 species population.
of elephants, viz.,
Why?
a) Asian elephant
b) African Bush Elephant  Concentrating so many rhinos in a
c) African Forest Elephant single protected area like Kaziranga
exposes the species to risks of  India has ratified international

calamities (epidemics, floods, massive agreements promoting the conservation
poaching attempts). of high altitude wildlife species such as
 Further, rhinos in Pabitora have the snow leopard.
exceeded carrying capacity and  In 2003, the Convention on Migratory
numbers must be reduced to protect Species included the snow leopard as a Page
the habitat and to mitigate the Concerted Action Species under its
increasing rhino-human conflicts. Appendix I. | 19
 Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on
Project Snow Leopard International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) expanded the scope of
 The snow leopard is a globally the CITES Tiger Enforcement Task
endangered species. Force to include all Asian big cat
 Merely 7,500 are estimated to be species including the snow leopard.
surviving over two million square
kilometers in the Himalaya and Central Sea Turtle Project
Asian mountains.
 Most snow leopard occur in China,  A significant proportion of world's Olive
followed by Mongolia and India. Ridley Turtle population migrates every
winter to Indian coastal waters for
Threats posed due to nesting mainly at eastern coast.
 With the objective of conservation of
 Human interference,
olive ridley turtles and other
 competition with livestock – people kill
endangered marine turtles, MoEF
them to save their livestock,
initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation
 retreating deeper into mountains due
Project in collaboration of UNDP in
to global warming, and
1999 with Wildlife Institute of India,
 poaching. Dehradun as the Implementing Agency.
Why to conserve the high altitude  The project is being implemented in 10
ecosystem? coastal States of the country with
special emphasis in State of Orissa.
 The high altitudes of India (> 3000 m)  The project has helped in preparation
(including the Himalaya and Trans- of inventory map of breeding sites of
Himalaya biogeographic zones) support Sea Turtles, identification of nesting
a unique wildlife assemblage of global and breeding habitats along the shore
conservation importance. line, and migratory routes taken by Sea
 This includes highly endangered Turtles, development of guidelines to
populations of species such as the safeguard and minimize turtle
snow leopard, two species of bears, mortality.
wolf, red panda, mountain ungulates  One of the important achievements
such as the wild yak, chiru, Tibetan have been demonstration of use of
gazelle, Tibetan argali, Ladakh urial, Satellite Telemetry to locate the
two species of musk deer, the hangul, migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles
three species of goral, serow, and takin, in the sea and sensitizing the
etc. High altitude lakes and bogs fishermen and State Government for
provide breeding grounds for a variety the use of Turtle Exclusion Device
of avifauna including the black-necked (TED) in fishing trawlers to check turtle
crane, barheaded Geese, brahminy mortality in fishing net.
ducks, and brown-headed gulls, etc.
Indian Crocodile Conservation  These deer once numbered from about

Project 5,000 animals in the beginning of the
20th century.
 The Indian Crocodile Conservation  Unfortunately, they were threatened,
Project has pulled back the once due to habitat destruction, over-grazing
threatened crocodilians from the brink by domestic livestock and poaching. Page
of extinction and place them on a good  This dwindled to as low as 150 animals
path of recovery. by 1970. However, the state of Jammu | 20
& Kashmir, along with the IUCN and
Objectives the WWF prepared a project for the
protection of these animals.
 To protect the remaining population of  It became known as Project Hangul.
crocodilians in their natural habitat by This brought great results and the
creating sanctuaries. population increased to over 340 by
 To rebuild natural population quickly 1980.
through 'grow and release' or 'rear and
release' technique. Ganges Dolphin
 To promote captive breeding,
 The Ministry of Environment and
Captive breeding means that members of a Forests notified the Ganges River
wild species are captured, then bred and Dolphin as the National Aquatic
raised in a special facility under the care of Animal.
wildlife biologists and other expert.  The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-
Bringing an animal into captivity may Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-
represent the last chance to preserve a Sangu river systems of Nepal, India,
species in the wild. and Bangladesh.
 It is estimated that their total
 To take-up research to improve population is around 2,000 and they
management. are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife
 To build up a level of trained personnel Protection Act (1972).
for better continuity of the project  The Ganges Dolphin is among the four
through training imparted at project- "obligate" freshwater dolphins found in
sites and through the (erstwhile) the world — the other three are the
Central Crocodile Breeding and 'baiji found in the Yangtze River
Management Training Institute, (China), the 'bhulan' of the Indus
Hyderabad. (Pakistan) and the 'boto' of the Amazon
 To involve the local people in the River (Latin America).
project intimately  Although there are several species of
marine dolphins whose ranges include
Project Hangul some freshwater habitats, these four
species live only in rivers and lakes.
 The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is  The Chinese River Dolphin was
a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer declared functionally extinct by a team
native to northern India. of international scientists in 2006.
 It is the state animal of Jammu &  In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is
Kashmir threatened by river water pollution
 In Kashmir, it's found in Dachigam and siltation, accidental entanglement
National Park at elevations of 3,035 in fishing nets and poaching for their
meters. oil.
 In addition, alterations to the rivers in CRZ-II:

the form of barrages and dams are
separating populations.  The area that have been developed up
to or close to the shore line which
Acts for Protecting Coastal includes the designated urban areas
Environment and Wetlands that are substantially built up.
 Buildings permitted only on the Page
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) landward side of the existing | 21
authorized structures as defined in the
 The coastal stretches of seas, bays, notification.
estuaries, creeks, rivers and back CRZ-III:
waters which are influenced by tidal
action are declared "Coastal Regulation  The areas that are relatively
Zone" (CRZ) in 1991. undisturbed and those which do not
 India has created institutional belong to either CRZ-I or CRZ-II which
mechanisms such as National Coastal includes mainly the rural area and
Zone Management Authority those not substantially built up within
(NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone designated urban areas.
Management Authority (SCZMA) for  The area up to 200 meters from HTL is
enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ earmarked as "No Development Zone".
Notification.  No construction is permitted within
 These authorities have been delegated this zone except for repairs to the
powers under Section 5 of the existing authorized structures.
Environmental (Protection) Act,  Development of vacant plots between
1986 to take various measures for 200 and 500 meters of HTL is
protecting and improving the quality of permitted in CRZ III for the purpose of
the coastal environment and construction of dwelling units and
preventing, abating and controlling hotels/beach resorts subject to
environmental pollution in coastal certain conditions.
areas.
CRZ-IV
Classification Criteria and Regulatory
Norms  The activities impugning on the sea
and tidal influenced water bodies will
 The coastal regulation zone has been be regulated except for traditional
classified for the purpose of regulation fishing and related activities
of the permitted activities. undertaken by local communities.
 No untreated sewage, effluents,
CRZ-I: pollution from oil drilling shall be let off
 Ecological sensitive area and the area or dumped.
between High Tide Line (HTL) and Low
Wetlands (Conservation And
Tide Line (LTL).
 No new construction is permitted Management) Rules 2010
except for a few specified most
 MoEF has notified the rules in order to
essential activities like support
ensure that there is no further
activities for Atomic Energy Plants and
degradation of wetlands.
Defense requirements, facilities
required for disposal of treated  The rules specify activities which are
effluents and other port related water harmful to wetlands such as
front activities. industrialization, construction,
dumping of untreated waste and
reclamation and prohibit these a) 1 and 3 only

activities in the wetlands. b) 2 only
 Other activities such as harvesting and c) 2 and 3 only
dredging may be carried out in the d) 1, 2 and 3
wetlands but only with prior
permission from the concerned Page
authorities.
 Under the Rules, wetlands have been | 22
classified for better management and
easier identification.
 Central Wetland Regulatory
Authority has been set up to ensure
proper implementation of the Rules.
Prominent NGOs Working Towards

the Cause of Environmental
Bombay Natural History Society

 The Bombay Natural History Society,
founded in 1883, is one of the largest
non-governmental organizations in
India engaged in conservation and
biodiversity research.
 It supports many research efforts
through grants and publishes the
Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society.
 It organizes and conducts nature trails
and camps for the general public.
 Many prominent naturalists, including
the ornithologists Sálim Ali and S.
Dillon Ripley, have been associated
with it.
With reference to Bombay Natural

History Society (BNHS), consider the
following statements:
1. It is an autonomous organization
under the Ministry of Environment
and Forests.
2. It strives to conserve nature through
action-based research, education
3. It organizes and conducts nature
trails and camps for the general
public.

is/are correct?
Green Revolution – Modern Agriculture ............... 1 The factors which have helped to bring
about the green revolution are
Second Green Revolution For Sustainable
Livelihood ........................................................... 3  Introduction of high yielding varieties of
crops.
Concept Of Sustainable Agriculture ..................... 4
 Multiple cropping, better irrigation and
sufficient supply of fertilizers. Page
Methods Of Sustainable Agriculture .................... 5
 Use of crop protection measures | 1
Biotechnology – Genetically Modified (GM) ......... 13 against disease and pest.
Newer Agricultural Practices.............................. 14  Transfer of the technology of scientific
farming from research farms to village
Crop Classifications .......................................... 17 farmers.
Misc ................................................................. 19
 Better arrangements for transporting
farm produce from fields to the market.
Green Revolution – Modern
Green Revolution involves
Agriculture
Introduction of High Yielding Varieties
 Modern agriculture has made (HYV)
impressive contribution in increasing
food grain production in the country.  In 1960s, the average national yield of
 The country could achieve self- wheat was very low as compared to the
sufficiency in food grain production by wheat yields of agriculturally advanced
using better quality of seed, proper countries.
irrigation and adequate supply of plant  MS Swaminathan, former Director
nutrients by using chemical fertilizers General of ICAR (Indian Council of
and control of pests and diseases in Agricultural Research) stressed the
crop plants by using pesticides. need for reorientation of the entire
 It has also involved modern cultivation breeding programme of tall varieties.
practices using tractors, combine  On the request of Indian breeders Prof.
harvesters and tube wells for irrigation. Norman E. Borlaug was invited from
 Rapid growth in food grain production Mexico in 1963 by the Government of
from using seeds of high yielding India to assess the possibilities of using
variety is termed as Green Revolution. dwarf varieties in India.
 Borlaug recommended the feasibility of
What is Green Revolution? using semi dwarf wheat of Mexican
origin as the agro-climatic condition
 The term “Green revolution” refers to prevailing in India are similar to
substantial increase in grain yield Mexico.
obtained by plant breeders by
 On his recommendation two semi dwarf
developing new crop varieties.
varieties namely Lerma Rajo and
 The high yielding varieties (HYVs) of Sonora-64 were chosen and were
wheat and rice have been the key released for cultivation in irrigated
elements in green revolution. fields.
 Specifically the term “green revolution”  These varieties gave very high yield and
refers to wheat and rice but some brought in revolution in wheat
agricultural scientists even include production.
maize, soyabean and sugarcane
 In 1970, Prof. Norman E. Borlaug was
where spectacular gains in yield have
awarded Nobel prize for “Green
occurred.
Revolution” which also helped India.
 Through extensive wheat breeding  To cope up with the shortage of

programmes carried out during 1970- agricultural labour, farm
80, new amber seeded, high yielding mechanization was the obvious choice
dwarf wheat varieties were developed. for completing agricultural operations.
 The important high yielding varieties  The machines which perform various
include ‘Kalyan Sona’, ‘Sharbati, jobs at the farm are water pump, Page
Sonara’, ‘Sonalika’ were released. These ploughs, combine harvesters, land
varieties responded favorably to levelers, cultivators, power operated | 2
fertilizer and irrigation. tractor sprays, reapers, threshers,
trolleys and mechanical pickers etc.
Use of Chemical Fertilizers and
Pesticides Irrigation
 Chemical fertilizers are generally of the  High yielding varieties usually require a
following types: lot of water and hence irrigational
1. Nitrogenous fertilizers: Nitrogen facilities were a prerequisite for green
containing fertilizers e.g. ammonium revolution.
sulphate, ammonium nitrate and  India has a wide variety of water
urea. resources and a highly varied climate.
2. Phosphate fertilizers: Phosphate Under such conditions, several
containing fertilizers e.g. ammonium different kinds of irrigation systems are
phosphate, calcium dihydrogen adopted to supply water to agricultural
phosphate (superphosphate) lands. These include wells, canals,
3. Potassium fertilizers: Potassium rivers and tanks.
containing fertilizers e.g. potassium  Wells: There are two types of wells,
sulphate and potassium nitrate. namely dug wells and tube wells. This
 Nitrogenous fertilizers promote plant kind of irrigation is widely practiced in
growth and are essential for food plain regions of India. Overexploitation
production. But they should be used of wells is well observed in Punjab-
judiciously. Inefficient absorption by Haryana region.
crops and wasteful application of  Canals: This is usually an elaborate
fertilizers are the main causes of and extensive irrigation system. In this
environment pollution. system canals receive water from one
 The unused fertilizers then enter or more reservoirs or from rivers. Canal
surface water (rivers, lakes, ponds) and irrigation is well suited for regions with
ground water. clayey soil as clayey soil prevents water
 Fertilizers cause environmental percolation. Mostly practiced in south
pollution when used indiscriminately India and Ganga-Yamuna region.
and cost us dearly.  River Lift Systems: In areas where
 Pesticides are chemicals which have canal flow is insufficient or irregular
been developed to kill or control due to inadequate reservoir release, the
organisms called pests which are lift system is more rational. Water is
unwanted in agriculture. They are directly drawn from the rivers for
source of environmental pollution. supplementing irrigation in areas close
to rivers. Mostly practiced in South
Mechanization Of Agriculture India.
 Tanks: These are small storage
 Increase in productivity on large areas
reservoirs, which intercept and store
of land brought the idea of farm
the run-off of smaller catchment areas.
mechanization.
Second Green Revolution For It is necessary to develop a suitable

Sustainable Livelihood strategy to improve agricultural
development in India.
 The first Green Revolution was to
ensure food security as there was
What we want from Second Green
severe scarcity of food in the country. Revolution Page
 The second Green Revolution aims at
creating sustainable agriculture by  Improving agricultural production | 3
leveraging advancements in while generating gainful self-
technology. employment for the small farmers and
weaker sections of the society.
Why we need Second Green  Scaling up food production without
Revolution disturbing the ecological balance.
 Boosting agricultural development,
 With the growing population and over- women empowerment and
exploitation of land resources, the environmental protection. [Women are
pressure on food security will continue the major power in agriculture as about
and rise. 65-70% of the labour in crop
 65% of the population is still living in production is contributed by women].
the villages and over 70% of the rural  Reclaiming degraded and low fertile
people are dependent on agriculture for lands and lands deprived of irrigation.
their livelihood.
 Green Revolution, launched in mid-
Bringing Green Revolution in
1960s, were mainly confined to certain Eastern India (BGREI)
areas. He said it was not successful in
rain-fed areas, which contribute about  Green Revolution that turned India
60% of the country's total food-grain from 'begging bowl' to leading producer
production. of food-grains.
 The Green Revolution has made us  BGREI is about binging similar benefits
self-sufficient in food grains but the to eastern India that largely remained
environmental consequences and untouched of the wonder that
ecological costs are offsetting the converted the north-west into a ‘grain
progress made. bowl’.
 The ground water is depleted and  BGREI is flagship programme under
polluted. The lakes and ponds are Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
becoming life less due to eutrophication (RKVY).
– a direct consequence of Green  It is intended to address the
Revolution. constraints limiting the productivity of
 Growth in the agricultural sector has “rice based cropping systems”.
been almost stagnant.  The BGREI program was announced in
 GM Crops are marred in various the Union Budget, 2010-11.
controversies related to intellectual  BGREI focuses on bringing the second
property, ecological consequences, Green Revolution in eastern region,
health consequences etc. which has rich water resources.
 Global warming is said to engulf  Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
productive coastal lands due to rise in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal and
sea levels. This creates an urgent need eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal)
to raise agricultural productivity. are the seven states.
Objectives of BGREI
 Harness the water potential for surface by using a laser-guided

enhancing agriculture production in scraper.
Eastern India which was hitherto  Laser levelling has been shown to
underutilized. improve crop yields, reduce labour time
 Yield maximization of rice and wheat spent weeding, and, in particular,
per unit area by improving agronomy, reduce water use for irrigation by up to Page
Water harvesting and conservation; 20-25 per cent.
and Water utilization (recycling of  Developing additional water sources | 4
conserved water – surface water as well through tube wells, dug wells and farm
as groundwater). ponds.
 Promotion of recommended agriculture  Promotion of Flood, Drought, and
technologies and package of practices Salinity tolerant rice varieties.
by addressing the underlying  Use of Drum seeders for timely planting
constraints. of direct seeded rice.
Government Initiatives To Strengthen Sustainable Agricultural Practices
BGREI
 Cultivation practices to increase
 The ICAR has established IARI, biological and economic stability.
Hazaribagh in Jharkhand and Indian  Selection of improved varieties to suit
Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, the need.
Ranchi.  Soil management by proper method of
 It has also established National tillage.
Research Centre for Integrated Farming  Organic farming.
at Motihari in Bihar to further
strengthen the agricultural research for Concept Of Sustainable
the eastern region. Agriculture
 Central Agricultural University (CAU)
has been sanctioned six new Colleges  Agriculture is a broad term
for the North- Eastern States. encompassing all aspects of crop
production (food and fibre), livestock
How to Make Second Green Revolution farming, fisheries, forestry etc.
a Success  Food and fibre productivity has
increased by using new technologies,
Precision Agriculture
mechanization, increased use of
 The wealth of data if harnessed fertilizers and pesticides and expansion
appropriately, can help farmers make of irrigation facilities.
the most efficient use of vital inputs  These changes reduced the labour
such as water and fertilizer by applying demand to produce the majority of the
them in precise amounts. food and fibre.
 Testing of samples of soil from  Although these changes have had the
agricultural fields is vital for achieving positive effect, they also caused some
nutrient stewardship serious environmental and social
 Mobile-based applications for farmers problems such as erosion of top soil,
will form an important part of the data- depletion and pollution of groundwater
driven precision agriculture approach. and other water resources,
unemployment of farm laborers due to
Efficient Use of Water their replacement by farm machinery.
 In view of the growing negative
 Laser levelling is a technology that can consequences of modern agriculture
grade an agricultural field to a flat
there is growing demand to promote 2. selection of improved varieties to

“sustainable agriculture”. suit the need.
 Sustainable agriculture is the 3. soil management by proper
production of food, fiber, plant or method of tillage.
animal products
using farming techniques that protect Mixed cropping or diverse
Page
the environment, public health, human cropping
and animal welfare. |5
 Sustainable agriculture incorporates  In mixed cropping or diverse cropping
many environmentally safe agricultural two or more crops are grown all at the
practices and offers innovative and same time in a field.
economically viable opportunities for  If by chance one crop fails, the others
farmers, laborers, consumers, crops cover the risk of total crop
policymakers and many others in the failure.
entire food system.  Usually a long duration crop is grown
 Sustainable farming systems are those with a short duration one so that both
that are least toxic and least energy get sufficient nutrition at the time of
intensive and yet maintain productivity maturity.
and profitability. E.g. Organic farming.  Generally a leguminous crop is grown
 Thus, sustainable agriculture is one along with the main crop.
that,  Legumes helps to increase soil fertility
1. supports profitable production; by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. This
2. protects environmental quality; saves the cost of chemical fertilizers.
3. uses natural resources  The various plans followed in diverse or
efficiently; mixed cropping practices are:
4. provides consumers with 1. polyvarietal cultivation where
affordable, high-quality several genetic varieties of the same
products; crop are planted.
5. decreases dependency on non- 2. intercropping where two or more
renewable resources; different crops are grown at the
6. enhances the quality of life for same time on a plot like
farmers and rural communities; carbohydrate rich cereal that uses
and soil nitrogen and nitrogen fixing
7. will last for generations to come. legume that puts back the nitrogen
in the soil.
Methods Of Sustainable 3. polyculture, in which different
Agriculture plants maturing at various times are
planted together.
 At the planning level one must take
into account the local geography Advantages of Mixed cropping
(topography), soil condition and nature,
local climate, pests, local inputs and  This practice has many advantages
the farmer’s goals. because fertilizer and water
requirement of plants are different so
 The grower (farmer) must then select
there is less need of these inputs.
appropriate practices.
 Pests are controlled naturally because
 Several methods adopted in
their natural predators find multiple
sustainable agriculture are:
habitats to survive.
1. cultivation practices to increase
biological and economic stability.  It has been found that this practice
produces much higher yield per hectare
compared to monoculture.
Monoculture 3. Crops requiring less manure

 Large scale mechanization lead to the should be sown after one that
spread of monoculture i.e. only one requires more manure.
crop variety is sown in the entire area  Important crop patterns of crop
when only one cultivator is planted in a rotation
large area. 1. Green gram - Wheat – Moong Page
 This system (monoculture) uses lot of 2. Ground nut – Wheat – Moong
fertilizer, pesticide, water. This practice 3. Arhar – Sugarcane – Wheat – Moong | 6
may be productive for some time but 4. Paddy – Wheat – Moong
causes environmental and economic
problems. E.g. Paddy and wheat Mixed Farming
cultivation.
 Optimum diversity may be obtained by
Crop rotation
integrating both crops and livestock
 It is practice of growing different crops in the same farming operation.
in regular succession in the same field. Mixed crop along with livestock operations
 This practice controls insects and have several advantages.
diseases, increases soil fertility and
decreases soil erosion. 1. Growing crops only on more level land
 Generally soil cannot sustain and pastures or forages on steeper
continuous cropping with high yielding slopes will reduce soil erosion.
single crop because certain nutrients 2. Pasture and leguminous forage crops in
required by the crop get exhausted rotation enhance soil quality and
totally while others remain unutilized reduce erosion; livestock manure, in
leading to serious nutrients imbalance turn, contributes to soil fertility.
in soil and encouraging certain 3. Livestock can buffer the negative
diseases and pests. impacts of low rainfall periods by
 Sowing a leguminous crops (e.g. green consuming crop residue which in
gram) as a rotational crop is very useful “plant only” systems would have been
because legumes enhance nitrogen considered crop failure.
level in the soil, reduces the need for 4. Feeding and marketing are flexible in
chemical nitrogen fertilizer thereby animal production systems. This can
saving the soil from the harmful effects help cushion farmers against price
of using high yielding varieties along fluctuations and, make more efficient
with the application of large amount of use of farm labour.
fertilizer, pesticides and water.
Strip Farming: This method is another
 It is possible to grow two or sometimes
method of soil erosion. This involves
three different crops in succession on
planting the main crops in widely spaced
the same land within a year is known
rows and filling in the spaces with another
as multiple cropping. This practice
crop to ensure complete ground cover. The
can go on for some time but the land
ground is completely covered so it retards
cannot maintain high yield in the long
water flow which thus soaks down into the
run.
soil, consequently reducing erosion
 Crop rotation takes into amount the
problems.
following factors:
1. Leguminous crop should be Soil Management
grown after non-leguminous crop.
2. Crops require less water  A healthy soil is a key component of
(irrigation) should be grown after sustainable agriculture. That is healthy
one – that requires more water. soil along with water and nutrients
produces healthy crops that are less  N is an essential constituent of proteins

susceptible to pests and diseases. and is present in many other
 Accordingly, soil must be protected and compounds of great physiological
nurtured to ensure long term importance in plant metabolism
productivity and stability.  N is an integral part of chlorophyll,
 Methods of protection include using which is primary observer of light Page
cover crops, compost, reducing tillage, energy needed for photosynthesis.
conserving soil moisture by dead  N also imparts vigorous vegetative | 7
mulches, this increases water hold growth and dark green colour to plants.
capacity of the soil.
Phosphorus (P)
Nutrient Management
 Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of
 There are sixteen nutrients which are the enzymes which help the crop to fix
essential for plants. light energy.
 Air supplies carbon and oxygen,  It
hydrogen comes from water, and soil
supplies the other thirteen nutrients to
plants.
 Amongst these thirteen nutrients, six
are required in large quantities and are
therefore called macronutrients.
 The other seven nutrients are used by
plants in small quantities and are
therefore called micronutrients
 Deficiency of these nutrients affects
physiological processes in plants
including reproduction, growth and
forms an integral part of nucleic acids,
susceptibility to diseases.
the carriers of genetic information, and
Macronutrients is important in stimulating root growth
 Based on the relative abundance in Potassium (K)

plants, viz., Nitrogen (N); Phosphorous  Potassium (K) is involved in processes
(P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Calcium which ensure carbon assimilation and
(Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) the transportation throughout the
Micronutrients plant for growth and the storage of
sugars and proteins.
 Their concentration is very small. They  The potassium ion is also important for
are also referred to as minor elements. water regulation and uptake.
 Iron (Fe); Zinc (Zn); Manganese (Mg),  Furthermore, the presence of
Copper (Cu), Boron (B), Chlorine (Cl) potassium in sufficient amounts
and Molybdenum (Mo). ensures resistance to frost, drought
 In some plants, other than the above, and certain diseases
Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co), Vanadium
Others
(Va), Nickel (Ni) and Silicon (Si) are
considered as essential micronutrients  Magnesium occurs in chlorophyll and
is also an activator of enzymes,
Nitrogen (N)
 Sulphur forms part of two essential
amino acids which are among the
many building blocks of protein. It is  The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen
also found in vitamin B1 and in several (N2) than needed by legume plant and
important enzymes. the bacteria. The surplus fixed nitrogen
 Calcium is required for plant growth, is then secreted and fertilizes the soil.
cell division and enlargement. The  Rhizobium is more efficient than-free
growth of root and shoot tips and living nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Page
storage organs is also affected by
calcium as it is a component of cell Azotobacter biofertiliser |8
membranes. Calcium is also vital for
pollen growth and to prevent leaf fall.  Azotobacter are aerobic free living
nitrogen fixers.
Bio-Fertilizers And Their Use In  They grow in the rhizosphere (around
Agriculture the roots) and fix atmospheric nitrogen
nonsymbiotically and make it available
 For a sustainable agriculture system, it to the particular cereals.
is essential to use renewable inputs  These bacteria produce growth
(fertilizer, pesticides, water etc.) which promoting hormones which helps in
can benefit the plant and cause no or enhancing growth and yield of the
minimal damage to the environment. plant.
 One of the energy efficient and
Azospirillium biofertiliser
pollution free method is to exploit the
ability of certain microorganisms like  These are aerobic free living nitrogen
bacteria, algae and fungi to fix fixers which live in associative
atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize symbiosis.
phosphorus, decompose organic  In this type of association bacteria live
material or oxidize sulphur in the on the root surface of the host plant
soil. and do not form any nodule with roots
 When they are applied in the soil, they of grasses.
enhance growth and yield of crops,  It increases crop yield and its
improve soil fertility and reduce inoculation benefits crop. They also
pollution. They are known as “bio benefit the host plants by supplying
fertilizers”. growth hormones and vitamins.
 Thus bio-fertilizers are living or  These bacteria are commonly used for
biologically active products or microbial the preparation of commercial
inoculants of bacteria, algae and fungi inoculants (vaccines, culture medium).
(separately or in combination) which
are able to enrich the soil with Blue green algae
nitrogen, phosphorus, organic matter
etc.  Blue green algae (BGA or
 Following are some of the important cyanobacteria) like Nostoc and
types of bio fertilizers which can be Anabaena are free living photosynthetic
considered for agro based industries. organisms also capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen.
Rhizobium biofertiliser  In the flooded rice fields blue green
algae serves as a nitrogen biofertiliser.
 Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacteria
forming root nodules in legume plants. Consider the following organisms
These nodules act as miniature
nitrogen production factories in the 1. Agaricus
fields. 2. Nostoc
3. Spirogyra
Which of the above is/are used as tolerate adverse soil, pH, high
biofertilizer/biofertilizers temperature and heavy metal toxicity.
 In soils low in available nutrients there
a) 1 and 2 is an increased absorption of nutrients
b) 2 only by plants infected with Mycorrhiza.
c) 2 and 3  The fungus has the ability to dissolve Page
d) 3 only and absorb phosphorus that plant
roots cannot readily absorb. |9
Answer: b) 2 only [Not sure]
 A wise way will be to develop an
Azolla biofertilisers integrated nutrient supply system
involving the combination of chemical
 Azolla is a water fern inside which fertilizers and biofertilisers.
grows the nitrogen fixing blue green
algae Anabaena. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been
 It contains 2-3% nitrogen when wet used in rehabilitating degraded sites
and also produces organic matter in because mycorrhiza enables the plants
the soil. to
 The Azolla-Anabaena combination type
1. resist drought and increase
biofertiliser is used all over the world.
absorptive area
This can be grown in cooler regions.
2. tolerate extremes of pH
 But there is a need to develop a strain 3. Resist disease infestation
that can tolerant to high temperature,
salinity and resistant to pests and Select the correct answer using the codes
diseases. given below:
 Production technology is very easy and
can be adopted by rice farmers. a) 1 only
 The only constraint in Azolla is that it b) 2 and 3 only
is an aquatic plant and water becomes c) 1 and 3 only
limiting factor in growing it d) 1, 2 and 3
particularly in summer. Answer: d) all
Phosphorus solubilizing biofertiliser Compost Tea
 Phosphorus is an important element  Compost Tea is a Liquid fertilizer for
required for plant growth. This element flowers, vegetables and houseplants.
is also needed for nodulation by
 Compost tea is an aerobic (in the
rhizobium.
presence of oxygen) water solution that
 Some microorganisms are capable of has extracted the microbe population
solubilizing immobilized phosphorus from compost (dead and decaying
making it available to plants for matter) along with the nutrients.
absorption.
 In simple terms, it is a concentrated
Mycorrhizal fungi biofertiliser liquid created by a process to increase
the numbers of beneficial organisms as
 Mycorrhizal fungi acts as biofertiliser an organic approach to plant/soil care.
and are known to occur naturally on  Air is sent through the water to keep
roots of forest trees and crop plants. the water oxygenated, as this favors the
 Mycorrhizal fungi resist disease in beneficial bacteria and fungi over the
plants. The plants also show drought pathogens.
and salinity resistance. Plants can  At the end of the brewing cycle, what
you have is a concentrated liquid full of
billions of microorganisms (bacteria,  Most importantly, it replenishes

fungi, protozoa, nematodes) that can exhausted or marginal soils with
then be sprayed directly onto the leaf organic carbon
surface.  It fosters the growth of soil microbes
 The liquid fertilizer occupies the essential for nutrient absorption,
infection sites on the leaf surface and is particularly mycorrhizal fungi. Page
held there by simple sugars that the  Bio char can increase soil fertility of
plant puts out that work as a glue to acidic soils (low pH soils)[pH < 7 = | 10
keep the beneficial microorganisms Acidic Soils; pH > 7 = Basic Soils] [The
thriving and protecting the plant. most fertile soils are slightly acidic (pH
just below 7)]
Bio char
 Bio-char reduces the acidity of the soil,
protects the plants from diseases,
 Bio char is found in soils around the
promotes growth of friendly
world as a result of vegetation fires and
microorganisms, and reduces the loss
historic soil management practices.
of micro nutrients apart from
 Intensive study of bio char-rich dark
increasing water retain-ability.
earths in the Amazon (terra preta), has
led to a wider appreciation of bio char’s Kollam, Kerala, is famous for fishing and
unique properties as a soil enhancer. fishery-related activities; as an
 Bio char is charcoal that is as soil agricultural sector, it does not evoke any
amendment (minor improvement). enthusiasm. Why?
 It created using a pyrolysis process
(decomposition brought about by high  With the prevailing soil and climatic
temperatures), heating biomass in a conditions which
low oxygen environment. favors leaching and draining of soil
 Once the pyrolysis reaction has begun, nutrients into the Arabian sea and
it is self-sustaining, requiring no Ashtamudi Lake, the soil has high
outside energy input. acidity making it unfit for cultivation of
 Byproducts of the process any kind (Why? Because friendly
include syngas (H2 + CO), minor microorganisms don’t like acidic
quantities of methane (CH4) medium. They like slightly alkaline or
(greenhouse gas), organic acids and basic medium [having a pH greater
excess heat. than 7]).
 Once it is produced, bio char is spread  Bio char can make a difference to the
on agricultural fields and incorporated agriculture of the region.
into the top layer of soil.
Other Environmental Benefits
 The syngas and excess heat can be
used directly or employed to produce a  Most carbon in the soil is lost as
variety of biofuels. greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide, CO2)
into the atmosphere if natural
Agricultural Benefits of Bio char
ecosystems are converted to
 It increases crop yields, sometimes agricultural land.
substantially if the soil is in poor  Soils contain 3.3 times more carbon
condition. than the atmosphere.
 It helps to prevent fertilizer runoff and  This makes soils an important source
leeching, allowing the use of less of greenhouse gases but also a
fertilizers. potential sink if right management is
 It retains moisture, helping plants applied.
through periods of drought more easily.
 The use of crop residues for bio-energy  Organic farmers’ primary strategy in
production reduces the carbon stocks controlling pests and diseases is
in cropland. prevention through good plant
 Further the dedication of cropland to nutrition and management.
bio-fuel production increases the area  Organic farmers use cover crops and
of cultivated land and thus carbon loss sophisticated crop rotations to change Page
from soils and vegetation. the field ecology, effectively disrupting
 Bio char remains stable for millennia, habitat for weeds, insects, and disease | 11
providing a simple means to sequester organisms.
carbon emissions.  Weeds are controlled through crop
 If bio char is returned to agricultural rotation, mechanical tillage, and hand-
land it can increase the soil’s carbon weeding, as well as through cover
content permanently and would crops, mulches, flame weeding, and
establish a carbon sink for atmospheric other management methods.
CO2.  Organic farmers rely on a diverse
population of soil organisms, beneficial
Organic Farming insects, and birds to keep pests in
check.
 Organic farming is a type of agriculture  When pest populations get out of
or farming which avoids the use of balance, growers implement a variety of
synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth strategies such as the use of insect
regulators, and livestock feed additives. predators, mating disruption, traps and
 Organic farming systems rely on crop barriers.
rotation, crop residues, animal
manures, legumes, green manure, Some important benefits of organic
off-farm organic wastes and farming and organic foods
biofertilisers, mechanical cultivation,
mineral bearing rocks to maintain soil  Organic farming can be learnt easily by
productivity to supply plant nutrients any conventional farmer.
and biological pest control, controlling  Switching to organic farming,
weeds, insects and other pests. conventional farmer can actually
 All kinds of agricultural products can reduce its production cost by over 25%
be produced organically, including as.
grains, meat, dairy, eggs, fibres such as  Eliminates the use of expensive
cotton, jute, flowers etc. Thus organic synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
farming creates a sustainable lifestyle minimizing soil degradation.
for generations to come.  Organic farms can support
 Organic farmers build healthy soils by substantially higher levels of wildlife
nourishing the microbial inhabitants especially in low lands and where
that release, transform, and transfer animals can roam in pastures or graze
nutrients. on grassland.
 Soil organic matter contributes to good  Entire ecosystems and ground water
soil structure and water-holding are improved by simply following
capacity. organic farming methods.
 Organic farmers feed soil biota and  When dairies feed their cows organic
build soil organic matter with cover feed and graze them on organic fields,
crops, compost, and biologically based the cows experience better health, less
soil amendments. These produce sickness, diseases and ultimately
healthy plants that are better able to produce better tasting milk for
resist disease and insect predation. consumers.
 Organic farming promotes healthy soils enough, they first use biological
rich in micro nutrients and which can methods and cultivation practices to
be used for decades to grow crops control and then use small amounts of
without getting exhausted. insecticides mostly insecticides derived
 Consumers purchasing organically from plants as a last resort.
grown foods are tastier. Page
Biological control includes
 Organically grown products are free
from harmful chemicals, artificial | 12
 Natural predators, parasites and
flavors and preservatives that pathogens of the pests are used.
ultimately cost consumers more money
than non-organically grown products. Examples are:
Vermicomposting  Pest on cucumber plant called red

spider mite is controlled by using a
 Vermicomposting is an appropriate predatory mite that feed on red spider
technique for efficient recycling of mite.
animal wastes, crop residues and agro-  Citrus fruits in California heavily
industrial wastes. damaged by scale insects which were
 The process of conversion of organic controlled by Australian ladybird which
materials into manure is chiefly ate away the insects.
microbiological.
 Earthworms are important for Cultivation practices
producing vermicompost from organic  A variety of cultivation practices like
wastes. crop rotation, polyculture and inter
 Vermicompost can be prepared from all cropping etc. can be used to get rid of
sorts of organic residues – animal the pests.
waste, sericulture residues, dairy and  Some amounts of insecticides, mostly
poultry residues, bagasse from of plant origin (e.g. Pyrethrum and
sugarcane factories, sorghum straw, Rotenone neem product) are applied as
rice straw after feeding cattle, dry a last resort.
leaves, groundnut husk and wheat
 Pest and disease resistant crop plants
husk, waste vegetables, weeds
can be produced by genetic
(particularly Parthenium hysterophorus
engineering. Example is Bt cotton,
or Congress weed before flowering) etc..
insecticidal for bacterial gene (Bacilus
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) thuringinesis) introduced into cotton
plant making cotton plant resistant to
 In this approach, each crop and its pest.
pests are evaluated as parts of an Disadvantages of Integrated Pest
ecological system. Management (IPM)
 Then farmers develop a control
programme that includes cultivation,  Farmer should have an expert
biological and chemical methods knowledge about each pest.
applied in proper sequence and with  It acts more slowly than conventional
the proper timing. pesticides.
 The aim of IPM is not to eradicate the  Methods developed for a crop in one
pest population completely but to keep area might not apply to areas with even
the crop damage to economically slightest different growing conditions.
tolerable level.  Initial cost may be higher but in the
 Farmers monitor the field and when long-term cost become very low.
they find the pest level to be high
Biotechnology – Genetically gene has been incorporated in corn,

Modified (GM) potato, tomato, tobacco etc. making
them insect resistant (bio pesticides).
 With conventional breeding practices  “Golden Rice” a transgenic with
reached their saturation point, the enhanced vitamin A content producing
“gene revolution” seems to hold lot of nutritionally rich rice to save many Page
potential. lives.
 Agricultural biotechnology or gene  Salt and flood tolerance genes have | 13
technology or genetic engineering may been incorporated in rice so that Bt rice
act as the second “green revolution” in China shows higher yield and a huge
that can be used to create high yielding reduction in pesticide use. Such rice
crop varieties that are: can be grown on saline soil.
1. herbicide tolerant,  By slowing down and controlling
2. insect resistant, ripening in tomato by introducing a
3. resistant to pathogens like bacterial gene that prevents ethylene
virus, bacteria and fungi formation thus delaying ripening.
4. have better nutritional value Such tomatoes are easy to handle
and other commercial during transportation and remains on
properties. the shelf for a long time.
 The crop plants produced by these  Cold damage to crop plants can be
techniques are called “transgenic” or minimized by introducing genes for
genetically modified (GM) plants or antifreeze proteins (AFPs) found in
genetically modified organisms (GMOs). the blood of artic fishes.
 By using the technique of genetic  Frost resistant tomatoes have been
engineering it has been possible to produced by introducing gene for
genetically transform large number of antifreeze proteins from polar fish living
agricultural and ornamental crops. in ice water.
 Plant biotechnology can help to make
Transgenics have been produced with intensive agriculture less damaging to
the following aims: the environment as well as help the
country to spend less money on
 Crop resistance to herbicides. fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides etc.
 Crop resistance to insects and
diseases. Benefits of GM Crops
 Atmospheric nitrogen fixation by cereal
crops. Crops
 Tolerance to high salt soils and to
flooding in crops.  Enhanced taste and quality.
 Drought resistance in crops.  Reduced maturation time.
 Improving nutritional quality of crops.  Increased nutrients, yields, and stress
 Prolonging shelf life of fruits and tolerance.
vegetables.  Improved resistance to disease, pests,
and herbicides.
Some important examples of  New products and growing techniques.
transgenics or GMOs are:
Animals
 Bt cotton produced by incorporating
Bt gene which encodes for BT toxin  Increased resistance, productivity,
(insecticidal protein in Bacillus hardness, and feed efficiency.
thuringiensis) in the cotton plant. The  Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk.
plant becomes insect resistant and this
 Improved animal health and diagnostic Labeling

methods.
 Not mandatory in some countries (e.g.
Environment United States).
 Mixing GM crops with non-GM
 “Friendly” bioherbicides and confounds labeling attempts.
bioinsecticides. Page
 Conservation of soil, water and energy. Society
| 14
 Bioprocessing for forestry products.
 Better natural waste management.  New advances may be skewed to
interests of rich countries.
 More efficient processing.
Society Genetically Modified Organism

(GMO)
 Increased food security for growing
populations.  The ineffectiveness of genetically
modified (GM) cotton against the recent
Controversies Surrounding GM whitefly attack in Punjab and Haryana.
crops  The whitefly attack in Punjab damaged
over 75 per cent crop across the cotton
Safety belt.
 This has raised concern among
 Potential human health impact:
agricultural experts and farmers over
allergens, transfer of antibiotic
the growing dependency on Bt cotton.
resistance markers, unknown effects.
 Potential environmental impact: Bt cotton
unintended transfer of transgenes
through crosspollination, unknown  Strains of the bacterium Bacillus
effects on other organisms (e.g., soil thuringiensis produce over 200
microbes) and loss of flora and fauna different Bt toxins, each harmful to
biodiversity different insects.
 Most notably, Bt toxins are insecticidal
Access and intellectual property to the larvae of moths and butterflies,
 Domination of world food production by beetles, cotton bollworms but are
a few companies. harmless to other forms of life. (this is
why Bt cotton failed against whitefly).
 Increasing dependence on
industrialized nations by developing Newer Agricultural Practices
countries.
 Biopiracy—foreign exploitation of  Modern agriculture includes animal
natural resources. husbandry, poultry farming,
Ethics apiculture, fisheries and mushroom
culture etc. to provide additional food
 Violation of natural organisms’ intrinsic supplements like milk, meat, fish, egg,
values. mushroom etc.
 Tampering with nature by mixing genes  In addition to provide nutritional food
among species. for the masses, they also reduce load
 Objections to transferring animal genes on the consumption of cereals and
in plants and vice versa. pulses.
 Stress for animal.
Revolutions in Agriculture
Revolution Related with Green Food grain Production
Golden Fruit Production Round Potato Production

Grey Fertilizer Production Red Meat/Tomato Production
Blue Fish Production Silver Egg/Poultry Production
Black Petroleum Production White Milk Production
Pink Prawn Production Yellow Oil seeds Production
Various Agricultural Activities Page
Name Agricultural Activity | 15
SilviCulture art of cultivating forest trees
Sericulture rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk
Apiculture maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by
humans
Olericulture science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody
(herbaceous) plants for food
Viticulture science, production and study of grapes
Floriculture discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of
flowering and ornamental plants for gardens
Arboriculture cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs,
vines, and other perennial woody plants
Pomology branch of horticulture which focuses on the cultivation,
production, harvest, and storage of fruit, etc.
Aeroponics process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without
the use of soil or an aggregate medium
Hydroponics method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in
water, without soil.
Geoponic farming practice, refers to growing plants in normal soil
Poultry farming a short stem and a cap which opens
like an umbrella later.
 Poultry farming is a term used for  They lack chlorophyll and grow on
rearing and keeping of birds such as organic matter or waste materials from
fowl, duck and hen for egg and meat. farms or factories, useless by-products
 Poultry farming has become popular can be recycled as medium to grow
because this is comparatively easy to mushrooms for human consumption.
start and maintain.  Out of the large number of mushroom
 It gives quick return within one to six species only some are edible.
month of investments, is easily  Mushrooms are good source of high
manageable and required less space quality proteins and are rich in
and labour. Poultry birds and their vitamins and minerals.
eggs are rich source of nutrients.  Like fruits and vegetables mushrooms
 Indian poultry birds provide good are perishables and require a great deal
quality meat but produces small sized of attention during storage, marketing
eggs. They have natural immunity and processing.
against common diseases as compared
to exotic varieties bred abroad. Apiculture
Mushroom culture  Apiculture is also known as bee-

keeping.
 Mushrooms are kind of fungus which  Apiculture or bee-keeping is the art of
appear as white tiny balls consisting of controlling colonies of honey bee in
large quantity for commercial  Depending on the nature of water in

production of honey. which fish is reared fisheries can be:
 There are three major advantages of 1. Marine fisheries: fishing operations
bee-keeping: (i) provides honey- a along the coastline, e.g. Mackerels,
valuable food (ii) provides bee wax- Sardines, Catfish.
which has many uses in industry (iii) 2. Fresh water or inland fisheries: fish Page
honey bees are excellent pollinating found in rivers, irrigation canals,
agents which increase agricultural reservoirs, lakes, tanks, ponds etc. | 16
yields. e.g. Rohu, Catla, Mystus.
3. Estuarine or brackish water
Fish culture and aquaculture fisheries: estuaries are where river
water and sea water get mixed like
Consequences Of Over fishing in seas backwaters, lagoons, coastal lakes,
delta channels. They are more
 Over fishing take place to such an
common in Bengal and Kerala. E.g.
extent that very little breeding stock
Mullet, Milkfish, Pearlspot.
(fish population) is left to maintain the
4. There are several other aquatic
special number.
resources such as molluscs (oyster,
 Prolonged over fishing leads to mussels, squids, octopus, cuttlefish
commercial extinction when the etc.) and seaweeds which have been
population of the species becomes so exploited for aquaculture.
low that it is no longer profitable to
 Sea weeds are used for human
hunt them.
consumption, as cattle and poultry
 Fishing methods such as trawling and feed, as manure and for industrial
drift nets capture everything in their purpose as a source of agar-agar and
way indiscriminately. Sometimes 70% algin.
of the catch is thrown away.
 Commercial fish catching disturbs non- Animal Husbandry
target marine animals. Dredges and
trawls also adversely affect the marine  The branch of agriculture that deals
habitats. with breeding, feeding and care of
domestic animals is called animal
Aquaculture offers a potential solution
husbandry.
 Aquaculture offers a potential solution  Animal husbandry is an integral part of
to the depleted ocean fisheries as well modern agriculture as animal sources
as meeting the demand for sea food. provide us important food materials
 The current “blue revolution” of like milk, egg, meat etc.
aquaculture has taken up the shape of  Cows and buffaloes are our chief
an industry with intensive use of sources of milk. Milk producing
resources and has adverse animals are called milch animals.
environmental impacts.  Hens are egg laying animals. Fishes,
 Ecological aquaculture (Eco- pigs, hens and goats are our major
aquaculture) need to be promoted with sources of meat.
a focus on developing aquatic farming  Animal husbandry plays a prominent
system that preserve the. role in the rural economy in
 Areas where fish are reared supplementing the income of rural
commercially are known as artificial households.
fisheries. The fishes are bred, reared
and later harvested.
Diseases in Domesticated Animals
Disease Pathogen Animal affected Symptoms

Foot and Virus Cattle Blisters on the mouth and foot, excessive
mouth disease production of saliva, loss of appetite, high body
temperature, shivering.
Pox Cow, buffalo, sheep, goat Appearance of small nodules and fever.
Dermatitis Goat and sheep Irritation, blisters and eruptions on the skin.
Tuberculosis Bacteria Cattle Infection of udders, lungs, intestine and other Page
parts, swelling of lungs and fever.
Rinderpest Cattle Discharge from eyes, nostrils, loss of appetite, | 17
constipation followed by severe diarrhoea.
Anthrax Cattle, sheep, goat, pigs Swelling of body, fever, reduction in milk
secretion.
Salmonellosis Cattle Diarrhoea with blood clots and fever
Mastitis Cattle Swallow udders, fever, milk becomes watery .
 The foot and mouth disease of cattle is  Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The
very common, dangerous and crops grown in monsoon months from
contagious disease. The affected June to Oct-Nov, require warm, wet
animals are slaughtered and the dead weather at major period of crop growth,
ones are buried deep or burned so as to also required short day length for
stop the disease from spreading. flowering. E.g. Cotton, Rice, Jowar,
 Another dreaded disease is anthrax bajara.
which spreads easily. Such animals  Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: The
after death must be burnt and disposed crops grown in winter season from Oct
of completely. to March month. Crops grow well in
cold and dry weather. Require longer
Problems of Indian Agriculture day length for flowering. E.g. Wheat,
gram, sunflower etc.
 Fragmentation of land holding.  Summer/Zaid crops: crops grown in
 Existence of small and marginal summer month from March to June.
farmers. Require warm dry weather for major
 Regional variation. growth period and longer day length for
 Dependence of seasonal rainfall. flowering. E.g. Groundnuts,
 Low productivity of land. Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.
 Increasing of disguised unemployment.
 Disorder in marketing of Agricultural Agronomic Classification of Crops
products.
Cereals
 Weak land reformation.
 Environmental concerns due to green  Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for
revolution. their edible starchy grains. Larger
grains used as staple food are cereals.
Crop Classifications Rice, wheat, maize, barley, rye and
oats.
Classification based on climate
Millets
 Tropical: Crops grow well in warm &
hot climate. E.g. Rice, sugarcane,  These are staple food of poor people.
Jowar etc
Major millets
 Temperate: Crops grow well in cool
climate. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram,  Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra
Potato etc. and Finger millet or ragi
Classification Based on growing season Minor millets
 Fox tail millet, Little millet, Common c) 1 and 3 only

millet, Barnyard millet and Kodomillet. d) 1, 2 and 3
Pulses or Grain Legumes Ethanol is alcohol.
 Pulses are major source of protein in Answer: c) 1 and 3 only

Indian vegetarian diet. Page
Starch Crops or Tuber Crops
 Red gram, Black gram, Green gram, | 18
Cowpea, Bengalgram, Horsegram,  Potato, cassava, sweet potato etc.
Dewgram, Soyabean, Peas or
gardenpea, Garden bean etc. Stem Fibres
Oil Seed Crops  Jute, mesta (pulicha keerai), sun
hemp, sisal hemp
Groundnut or peanut, sesamum,
sunflower, castor, linseed or flax, Narcotics - Stimulates Nervous System
rapeseed & mustard.
 Tobacco, betelvine and arecanut.
Sugar Crops
Plantation Crops
 Sugarcane and sugar beet.
 Tea – leaf, Coffee – seed, rubber, cocoa
Byproducts of Sugar Industry – seed, palm – oil, sugarcane – sugar
etc.
 Molasses, bagasse, pressmud
 Molasses used for alcohol and yeast Spices and Condiments
formation.
 Bagasse for paper making and fuel.  Products of crop plants are used to
 Pressmud used for soil amendment flavor taste and sometime color the
 Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) — the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger, garlic,
waste is used for cattle feed chili, cumin onion, coriander,
cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
 Sugar beet — Tuber for extraction of
sugar Medicinal & aromatic crops
 Tubers and tops are used as a fodder
for cattle feed  Medicinal plants includes cinchona,
isabgoli, opium poppy, senna,
With reference to the usefulness of the belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice and
by-products of sugar industry, which of aromatic plants such as lemon grass,
the following statements is/are citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese
correct? mint, peppermint, rose, jasmine, henna
etc.
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass
fuel for the generation of energy. Classification based on life of
2. Molasses can be used as one of the crops/duration of crops
feedstocks for the production of
synthetic chemical fertilizers.  Seasonal crops: A crop completes its
3. Molasses can be used for the life cycle in one season. E.g. rice,
production of ethanol. Jowar, wheat etc.
 Two seasonal crops: crops complete its
Select the correct answer using the codes life cycle in two seasons. E.g. Cotton,
given below. turmeric, ginger.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
 Annual crops: Crops require one full  Most plants are influenced by relative
year to complete its life cycle. E.g. length of the day & night, especially for
sugarcane. floral initiation, the effect on plant is
 Biennial crops: Crops requires two year known as photoperiodism.
to complete its life cycle E.g. Banana,  Short-day plants: Flower initiation
Papaya. takes place when days are short less Page
 Perennial crops: crops live for several then ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, green
years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava gram, black gram etc. | 19
etc.  Long day's plants: require long days are
more than ten hours for floral
Classification based on cultural initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc.
method/water  Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does
not have much influence for phase
 Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly
change for these plants. E.g. Cotton,
based on the availability of rain water.
sunflower, etc.
E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
 Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with Misc
the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili,
sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc. Tillage - Advantages
Classification based on root system  greater volume of soil may be obtained
for cultivation of crops,
 Tap root system: The main root goes
 excess water may percolate downward
deep into the soil. E.g. Tur, Grape,
to recharge the permanent water table,
Cotton etc.
 reduce runoff and soil erosion,
 Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are
fibrous shallow & spreading into the  roots of crop plants can penetrate
soil. E.g. Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc. deeper to extract moisture from the
water table
Classification based on economic  Clean tillage: It refers to working of the
importance soil of the entire field in such a way no
living plant is left undisturbed. It is
 Cash crop: Grown for earning money. practiced to control weeds, soil borne
E.g. Sugarcane, cotton. pathogen and pests.
 Food crops: Grown for raising food  Blind tillage: It refers to tillage done
grain for the population and & fodder after seeding or planting the crop (in a
for cattle. E.g. Jowar, wheat, rice etc. sterile soil) either at the pre -
emergence stage of the crop plants or
Classification based on No. of while they are in the early stages of
cotyledons growth so that crop plants (cereals,
tuber crops etc.) do not get damaged,
 Monocots or monocotyledons: Having but extra plants and broad leaved
one cotyledon in the seed. E.g. all weeds are uprooted.
cereals & Millets.
 Zero tillage (No tillage): In this, new
 Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having crop is planted in the residues of the
two cotyledons in the seed. E.g. all previous crop without any prior soil
legumes & pulses and almost all the tillage or seed bed preparation and it is
trees. possible when all the weeds are
Classification based on length of controlled by the use of herbicides.
photoperiod required for floral Advantages of Zero tillage
initiation
 Zero tilled soils are homogenous in Intercropping

structure with more number of
earthworms  Growing two or more crops
 Organic matter content increases due simultaneously with distinct row
to less mineralization arrangement on the same field at the
 Surface runoff is reduced due to same time.
Page
presence of mulch  Base crop: primary crop which is
planted/ sown at its optimum sole crop | 20
Disadvantages of Zero tillage population in an intercropping
situation.
 Higher amount of nitrogen has to be  Intercrop : This is a second crop
applied for mineralization of organic planted in between rows of base crop
matter in zero tillage with a view to obtain extra yields with
 Perennial weeds may be a problem intercrop without compromise in the
 High number of volunteer plants and main crop yields
buildup of pests
Disadvantages
Cropping pattern
 Higher amount of nitrogen has to be
 The yearly sequence and spatial applied for mineralization of organic
arrangement of crops and fallow on a matter in zero tillage
given area is called cropping pattern  Perennial weeds may be a problem
 High number of volunteer plants and
Cropping system
buildup of pests
 Multiple cropping: Growing more than Advantages
two crops in a piece of land in a year in
orderly succession. It is also called as  Better use of growth resources
intensive cropping. It is used to including light, nutrients and water
intensify the production. It is possible  Suppression of weeds
only when assured resources are  Yield & stability - even if one crop fails
available (land, labour, capital and due to unforeseen situations, another
water) crop will yield and provides some
 Double cropping: Growing two crops a secured income
year in sequence. Example: Rice - Pulse  Successful intercropping gives higher
 Triple cropping: Growing three crops a equivalent yields (yield of base crop +
year in sequence. Example: Rice - Rice yield of intercrop), higher cropping
- Pulse intensity
 Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the  Reduced pest and disease incidences
same sole crop in the same land.  Improvement of soil health and agro-
 Mono cropping: Continuous production eco system Examples of Inter cropping
of one and the same crop year after 1. Maize + Cowpea
year or season after season is called 2. Sorghum + Redgram
mono cropping. 3. Groundnut + Redgram
 Sole cropping: One crop variety grown 4. Potato + Mustard
alone in a pure stand at normal 5. Wheat + Mustard
density.
6.
Inter cropping Mixed cropping

The main objective of inter cropping is to The main objective of mixed cropping is
utilise the space between rows of main crop insurance against crop failure.
and to produce more grain per unit area
There is no competition between main and There is competition between component
inter crop (subsidiary crop) crops. Here all crops are given equal
importance and care. Hence, there is no
difference between component crops Page
In inter cropping, the main crop may be a Crops may or may not be of same duration
long duration one and the inter crop may be | 21
a short duration/early maturing one
Main and inter crops are sown in definite row There is no specific row arrangement.
arrangement Generally crop seeds are mixed and
broadcasted
The sowing time of both the crops may or The sowing time of component crops is
may not be the same. Sometimes the main same.
crops is sown earlier than the inter crop
Permaculture Sprinkler Irrigation
 It is a contraction of "permanent  In the sprinkler method of irrigation,

agriculture" or "permanent culture." water is sprayed into the air and
 It is defined as a design system for allowed to fall on the ground surface
creating sustainable human somewhat resembling rainfall. The
environments. spray is developed by the flow of water
 It uses ecology as the basis for under pressure through small orifices
designing integrated systems of food or nozzles.
production, housing, appropriate
technology, and community Drip irrigation
development.
 Drip irrigation is also called trickle
 Permaculture is built upon an ethic of
irrigation and involves dripping water
caring for the earth and interacting
onto the soil at very low rates from a
with the environment in mutually
system of small diameter plastic pipes
beneficial ways.
fitted with outlets called emitters.
 A central theme in Permaculture is the
 Water is applied close to plants so that
design of ecological landscapes that
only part of the soil in which the roots
produce food.
grow is wetted, unlike surface and
 Emphasis is placed on multi-use sprinkler irrigation, which involves
plants, cultural practices such as sheet wetting the whole soil profile.
mulching and trellising, and the
integration of animals to recycle Terracing
nutrients and graze weeds.
 "A terrace is an embankment or ridge of
Micro Irrigation earth constructed across a slope to
control runoff and minimize soil
 Micro irrigation is defined as the erosion".
methods in which low volume of water
 It reduces the length of the hill side
is applied at low pressure & high
slope, thereby reducing sheet and rill
frequency. The system has extensive
erosion and prevents formation of
network of pipes at operated at low
gullies.
pressure. At pre-determined spacing
outlets are provided for emission water System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
generally known as
 SRI is a combination of several

practices those include changes in
nursery management, time of
transplanting, water and weed
management.
 It emphasizes altering of certain Page
agronomic practices of the conventional
way of rice cultivation. | 22
 All these new practices are together
known as System of Rice Intensification
(SRI).
Principle - 'More with Less'
 SRI is not a fixed package of technical

specifications, but a system of
production with four main components,
viz., soil fertility management, planting
method, weed control and water
(irrigation) management.
 Rice yield increased with less water and
with reduction in chemical inputs.
Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI)
 Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI)

is an innovative set of agronomic
practices that involves using less seeds,
raising seeds in a nursery, and
following new planting methods, with
wiser seed spacing, and better water
and nutrient management to increase
the cane yield significantly.
 SSI methods can increase sugarcane
yields b at least 20% with 30% less
water and a 25% reduction in chemical
inputs.
 The SSI method of sugarcane
cultivation was evolved from the
principles of 'More with Less followed in
SRI (System of Rice Intensification) and
introduced in India in 2009.
Renewable Or Non-Conventional Sources Of of propane and butane only that can

Energy ................................................................ 1 be extracted from fine-grained
sedimentary rocks.
Non-Renewable Sources Of Energy ...................... 7 2. In India abundant coal bed methane
Energy conservation .......................................... 11 sources exist, but so far no shale
gas sources have been found.
Page
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) . 11
Which of the statements given above | 1
Renewable Or Non-Conventional is/are correct?
Sources Of Energy a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
CBM = Methane
Shale gas = Lot of Methane + Little
Ethane, Propane, & Butane + very little
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and
hydrogen sulfide.
With reference to two non-conventional
energy sources called ‘coal bed Abundant shale reserves occur in India
methane’ and ‘shale gas’, consider the [Explained in “Economic Geography Notes”
following ‘statements: http://imojo.in/7rxa1g]
1. Coal bed methane is the pure
methane gas extracted from coal
seams, while shale gas is a mixture
Fuel Production Advantages Limitations
Nuclear Nuclear fission  No air pollution  High cost of construction of nuclear plant.
energy (splitting of atom)  Fuel efficient  Fear of security and nuclear accidents.
and Nuclear fusion  Problem of safe disposal of nuclear waste.
Hydropower Dams built on river  World's  Ecosystems behind dams disturbed.
for electricity hydroelectricity  Human settlements up rooted.
generation capacity high  Habitat loss and biodiversity loss.
 Developmental cost high.
 Fertile farmland lost
 Amount of nutrient rich silt on down river
agricultural fields reduced.
Solar energy From natural  Environment  Limited capacity for storage of sunlight.
sunlight friendly  Cloud cover.
 Ample or unlimited  Collecting equipment expensive.
availability.
Wind energy Fans for directing  No pollution  Not available everywhere or intermittently
winds in use from  Available for free available.
long for irrigation  Fans of wind mills visual hazards for flying
crops birds and aeroplanes (visual pollution).
Tidal energy Harnessing tidal  Free and clean  Structures (plant) used for harnessing
power by suitable energy expensive.
structures  Plant disrupts natural flow of estuary and
concentrate pollutants in the area.
Geothermal Wells drilled to trap  Environment  Steam contains Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
energy steam which friendly having odour of rotten eggs.
powers electrical  Minerals in the steam corrosive to pipe
generators. Steam lines and equipment causing maintenance
naturally produced problems.

from underground  Minerals in the water toxic to fish.
water which gets
heated due to very
high temperature
that region.
Biomass Cutting trees for  Cheap so popular  Comparatively low level of energy.
fuel wood and in  Bulky so difficult to transport.
Page
burning them under developed  Burning wood causes air pollution. |2
straight away and  Destruction of forests to obtain fuel wood
developing countries and so desertification.
 Release lot of fly ash.
Biomass Obtaining energy  Renew able energy  May lead to food shortage because
conversion from chemical nutrients not returned to soil from
energy. Stored in biomass.
biomass (or live  Growing maize for ethanol requires more
material). Burned energy expenditure than the amount of
directly for cooking energy in the form of alcohol retrieved.
or to produce  Land for growing food used for growing
electricity biomass for conversion into fuel.
converted to
ethanol or methane
(biogas)
Solid waste Waste sorted and  Decreases cost of  Causes air pollution for burning releases
burnable material fresh disposal CO2 and other gases.
separated  Reduces need for  Waste such as bleached paper and
land fill sites plastics have chlorine containing
compounds which form. dioxins which are
highly toxic and suspected to be
carcinogenic.
Biomass (kelp and water hyacinths) urban waste
(paper, cardboard and other
 Biomass is a renewable energy combustible materials).
resource derived from plant and animal
waste. Conversion to gaseous and liquid
biofuels
 The energy from biomass (biomass
conversion) is released on burning or  Biomass can be converted into alcohol
breaking the chemical bonds of organic (liquid biofuels) by distillation.
molecules formed during  Liquid Biofuels: Ethanol, Methanol,
photosynthesis. Gasoho, Biodiesel
 Biomass fuels can be used directly or  Gaseous Biofuels: Synthetic natural
they can be transformed into more gas (biogas), Wood gas: Methane – 70%
convenient form and then used. and CO2 – 30%.
Sources of biomass  Instead of burning loose biomass
directly, it is more practical to
 By-products from the timber industry, compress it into briquettes
agricultural crops and their (compressing them into blocks of a
byproducts, raw material from the chosen shape) improve its utility and
forest, major parts of household waste convenience of use.
and wood.  Such biomass in the biomass
 Solid Biomass fuels: Wood logs and briquettes can be used as fuel in place
wood pellets, charcoal, agricultural of coal in traditional furnaces or in a
waste (stalks and other plant debris), gasifier.
animal waste (dung), aquatic plants
 A gasifier converts solid fuels into a  The gas holder cuts off air to the
more convenient-to-use gaseous fuel digester (anaerobiosis) and collects the
called producer gas. gas generated.
 Any biodegradable (that which can be
Uses of biomass decomposed by bacteria) substance can
 In the developed world biomass is be fermented anaerobically (in absence Page
becoming important for applications of oxygen) by methane-producing
(methanogenic) bacteria. |3
such as combined heat and power
generation.  Cowdung or faeces are collected and
 Biomass energy is gaining significance put in a biogas digester or fermenter (a
as a source of clean heat for domestic large vessel in which fermentation can
heating and community heating take place).
applications.  A series of chemical reactions occur in
the presence of methanogenic bacteria
Advantages of biomass energy (CH4 generating bacteria) leading to the
production of CH4 and CO2.
 Burning of biomass does not increase
atmospheric carbon dioxide because to Petro crops (Plants)
begin with biomass was formed by
atmospheric carbon dioxide and the  Recent researches suggest that
same amount of carbon dioxide is hydrocarbon producing plants can
released on burning. become alternative energy sources,
 Biomass is an important source of which can be inexhaustible and ideal
energy and the most important fuel for liquid fuel.
worldwide after coal, oil and natural  These plants called
gas. petroplants/petrocrops can be grown
 Biomass is renewable and is on land which are unfit for agriculture
abundantly available on the earth in and not covered with forests. Jatropa
the form of firewood, agricultural curcas is an important petro plant.
residues, cattle dung, city garbage etc.  Biocrude can be obtained by tapping
 Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which the latex of Jatropa curcas.
is derived from biomass, is expected to  Biocrude is a complex mixture of
become one of the key energy resources liquids, terpenoids, triglycerides,
for global sustainable development. phytosterols waxes, and other modified
isoprenoid compounds.
Bagasse as biofuel  Hydro cracking of biocrude can convert
it into several useful products like
 Indian sugar mills are rapidly turning
gasoline (automobile fuel), gas oil and
to bagasse, the leftover of cane after it
kerosene.
is crushed and its juice extracted, to
generate electricity.  Some potential Petro-crop species
belong to family Asclepiadaceae and
 This is mainly being done to clean up
Euphorbiaceae.
the environment, cut down power costs
and earn additional revenue. Geothermal Energy
Biogas plant
 Geothermal energy is natural heat from
 The biogas plant consists of two the interior of the earth that can be
components: a digester (or used to generate electricity as well as to
fermentation tank) and a gas holder. heat up buildings.
 The core of the earth is very hot and it  When hydrogen gas burns in the air or
is possible to make use of this in fuel cells, it combines with oxygen
geothermal energy. gas to produce non-polluting water
 These are areas where there are vapour and fuel cells directly convert
volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers, hydrogen into electricity.
and methane under the water in the  Widespread use of hydrogen as fuel Page
oceans and seas. would greatly reduce the problem of air
 In some countries, such as in the USA pollution and danger of global warming | 4
water is pumped from underground hot because there will not be any CO2
water deposits and used for heating of emission.
houses.  Hydrogen may be a clean source of
 Geothermal resource falls into three energy but getting large amount of pure
major categories: i) Geopressurized hydrogen for commercial purposes is a
zones, ii) hot-rock zones and iii) problem because hydrogen is present
Hydrothermal convection zones. Of in combination with other elements
these three only the first is currently such as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen
being exploited on a commercial basis. thus hydrogen has to be produced from
either water or organic compounds like
Geothermal energy in India methane etc. requiring large amounts
of energy. This is a very costly
 In India, Northwestern Himalayas and
proposition.
the western coast are considered
 Producing hydrogen from algae in large
geothermal areas.
scale cultures is possible. It may be
 The Geological Survey of India has
possible to control photosynthesis so
already identified more than 350 hot
that green algae are able to produce
spring sites, which can be explored as
hydrogen through the process of
areas to tap geothermal energy
photosynthesis.
 The Puga valley in the Ladakh region
 Hydrogen is a pollution free, cost
has the most promising geothermal
effective manner and if technologies
field.
such as fuel cells can be made cost
Environmental impact of geothermal effective, then hydrogen has the
energy potential to provide clean, alternative
energy for diverse uses, including
 Geothermal energy can pose several lighting, power, heating, cooling,
environmental problems which transportation and many more.
includes on-site noise, emissions of gas
and disturbance at drilling sites. Fuel Cell Technology
 The steam contains hydrogen sulphide
gas, which has the odour of rotten  Fuel cells are highly efficient power-
eggs, and cause air pollution. generating systems that produce
 The minerals in the steam are also electricity by combining fuel (hydrogen)
toxic to fish and they are corrosive to and oxygen in an electrochemical
pipes, and equipment, requiring reaction.
constant maintenance.  Fuel cells are electrochemical devices
that convert the chemical energy of a
Hydrogen Energy fuel directly and very efficiently into
electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing
 Many scientists believe that the fuel for away with combustion.
the future is hydrogen gas.  Hydrogen and phosphoric acid are
the most common type of fuel cells,
although fuel cells that run on Passive solar energy

methanol, ethanol, and natural gas
are also available.  As you know some of the earliest uses
 The most suitable fuel for such cells is of solar energy were passive in nature
hydrogen or a mixture of compounds such as to evaporate sea water for
containing hydrogen. producing salt and to dry food and
clothes. Page
 A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte
sandwiched between two electrodes.  In fact solar energy is still being used | 5
Oxygen passes over one electrode and for these purposes. The more recent
hydrogen over the other, and they react passive uses of solar energy is for
electrochemically to generate cooking, heating, cooling and for the
electricity, water, and heat. day lighting of homes and buildings.
 Though rapid progress has been made; Active use of solar energy
high initial cost is still the biggest
hurdle in the widespread  Active solar heating and cooling
commercialization of fuel cells. systems rely on solar collectors which
 The rapidly depleting fossil fuel sources are usually mounted on roofs.
of energy and escalating demand of  Such systems also requires pumps and
energy have made it necessary to look motors to move the fluids or blow air by
for alternative sources of energy that fan in order to deliver the captured
are known as renewable or heat.
inexhaustible. We can define  A number of different active solar
inexhaustible energy resources as heating systems are available. The
‘those resources which can be main application of these systems is to
harnessed without depletion’. Most of provide hot water, primarily for
these resources are free from pollution domestic use.
and some of them can be used at all
places. These renewable energy Solar cells or photovoltaic technology
resources are also known as non-
conventional or inexhaustible or  Solar energy can be converted directly
alternate energy sources. These energy into electrical energy (direct current,
sources are solar, flowing water, wind, DC) by photovoltaic (PV) cells
hydrogen and geothermal. We get commonly called solar cells.
renewable solar energy directly from  Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon
the sun and indirectly from moving and other materials. When sunlight
water, wind and biomass. Like fossil strikes the silicon atoms it causes
fuels and nuclear power, each of these electrons to eject. This principle is
alternatives renewable sources of called as ‘photoelectric effect’.
energy has their own advantages and  A typical solar cell is a transparent
disadvantages. We are going to discuss wafer that contains a very thin
some of them in detail. semiconductor.
 Sunlight energizes and causes
Solar Energy electrons in the semiconductor to flow,
creating an electrical current.
 Direct solar energy can be used as
heat, light, and electricity through the With reference to technologies for solar
use of solar cells. power production, consider the
 Direct use of solar energy can be used following statements:
through various devices broadly 1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that
directed into three types of systems a) generates electricity by direct
passive, b) active c) photovoltaic.
conversion of light into electricity, Tidal energy

while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology
that utilizes the Sun’s rays to  Tidal power projects attempt to harness
generate heat which is further used the energy of tides as they flow in and
in electricity generation process. out.
2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating  The main criteria for a tidal power Page
Current (AC), while Solar Thermal generation site are that the mean tidal
generates Direct Current (DC). range must be greater than 5 metres. |6
3. India has manufacturing base for  The tidal power is harnessed by
Solar Thermal technology, but not building a dam across the entrance to a
for Photovoltaics. bay or estuary creating a reservoir.
 As the tide rises, water is initially
Which of the statements given above is /
prevented from entering the bay. Then
are correct?
when tides are high and water is
a) 1 only sufficient to run the turbines, the dam
b) 2 and 3 only is opened and water flows through it
c) 1, 2 and 3 into the reservoir (the bay), turning the
d) None blades of turbines and generating
electricity.
Explanation:  Again when the reservoir (the bay) is
filled, the dam is closed, stopping the
Photoelectric effect = When light strikes on
flow and holding the water in reservoir
a material, electrons are dislodged
when the tide falls (ebb tide), the water
[photons dislodge electrons].
level in the reservoir is higher than that
Photovoltaic = The dislodged electrons if in the ocean.
channeled through a conductor will create  The dam is then opened to run the
electric current (voltage Or potential turbines (which are reversible),
difference) = Solar Panels. [Electric electricity is produced as the water is
current is nothing but movement of let out of the reservoir.
electrons from high potential to low  The dams built to harness the tidal
potential area (more electrons to less power adversely affect the vegetation
electrons region)] and wildlife.
Solar thermal = converting light into heat Hydropower Energy

= solar cooker, solar water heater.
 Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic
Photovoltaics generate direct current (DC). energy of moving water to make
[Rotating = AC, Stationary = DC. Electric electricity.
generator, wind turbine generate AC while  Generation of electricity by using the
solar panels generate DC] force of falling water is called
Solar thermal is mostly used for water hydroelectricity or hydel power. It is
heating purposes. Electricity can be cheaper than thermal or nuclear power.
generated by using hot water steam to  Dams are built to store water at a
rotate turbine = AC current. higher level; which is made to fall to
rotate turbines that generate electricity.
In India both solar panels and solar  One of the greatest advantages of
cookers are manufactured. [Remember hydropower is that once the dam is
Indian – USA WTO ‘domestic content’ built and turbines become operative, it
dispute?] is relatively cheap and clean source of
energy.
Answer: a) 1 only
 Hydropower also has some composition of the peat bog and coal
disadvantages, building of dam was formed.
seriously disturbs and damages the  Today peat also is used as source of
natural habitats and some of them are fuel in some parts of the world though
lost forever. its high water content makes it a low-
grade fuel. Page
Non-Renewable Sources Of Energy  Peat is changed into coal after many
centuries of being compressed by the | 7
 Fossil fuels represent stored solar weight of sediments. It first changes
energy captured by plants in the past into a low-grade coal known as lignite
geological times. (brown coal).
 Coal, petroleum and natural gas are  The percentage of carbon in the lignite
called fossil fuels, as they are the is higher than in peat. Continued
remains of prehistoric plants, animals pressure and heat from the earth
and microscopic organisms that lived changes lignite into bituminous soft
millions of year ago. coal.
 During the Carboniferous period 275-  If the heat and pressure were great
350 million years ago, conditions in enough then anthracite coal (hard
the world were suitable for formation of coal) would be formed which has the
large deposits of fossil fuels. highest heat and carbon content.
 Accordingly energy content is greatest
Coal in anthracite coal and lowest in lignite.
 The sulphur content of coal is
 Coal is formed from plants and
important because on burning low
vegetation buried, ‘in situ’ or drifted in
sulphur coal emits less sulphur dioxide
from outside to a place, which got
(SO2) so more desirable as a fuel for
covered by deposits of sediments.
power plants.
 Coal is a solid fossil fuel and a
sedimentary rock composed primarily Problems with Coal Mining
of carbon. There are three basic grades
of coal: i) lignite (brown coal), ii)  Coal is most abundant fossil fuel on
bituminous (soft coal) and iii) earth, but there are problems
anthracite (hard coal). associated with its mining,
transportation and use.
Formation of coal  Coal is mined from both (i) surface
mines, and (ii) underground mines.
 Coal is the result of plant material that
grew in fresh water swamps Surface mining
approximately three hundred million
years ago.  Surface mining disrupts and drastically
 As this plant material died and changes the natural landscape and
accumulated, peat also called peat bog destroys the natural vegetation and the
was formed. habitat of many species, some of which
 Since the plant material accumulated may already be endangered.
under water, in the swamps decay was  Mining operations, involving digging,
inhibited due to lack of oxygen. blasting, removal of rocks and soil lying
 Oceans inundated many of the areas of over the coal seam, cause serious
peat and sediments from the sea were problems of air and noise pollution.
deposited, over the peat.  Surface mining may also cause soil
 The weight of these sediments and the erosion and silt loading (the discharge
heat of the earth gradually changed the of silts into streams) and canals that
disrupt and pollute the aquatic  After it is extracted, crude oil is

ecosystems as well as ground water in transported to a refinery by pipelines,
places where aquifers are located near trucks or ships (oil tanker).
or associated with coal seams.  In refineries oil is heated and distilled
to separate it into components with
Underground mining different boiling points. The Page
 Underground mining may cause important components are gases,
collapse or land subsidence in the gasoline, aviation fuel, kerosene, diesel | 8
mining areas during or after mining oil, naphtha, grease and wax and
operations are over. asphalt.
 In case of some mines acid mine  Some of the products of oil distillation
drainage from the mine waste pollutes are called petro-chemicals which are
long stretches of streams. used as raw material for the
 Coal bed methane in underground manufacture of pesticides, plastics,
mines causes fires. synthetic fibers, paints and medicines
etc.
Apart from these problems, burning of
coal in thermal power plants for Natural Gas
generation of electricity and in industry is
the prime source of air pollution.  Natural gas, primarily consist of
methane, is often found above
Petroleum Or Mineral Oil reservoirs of crude oil.
 The natural gas is a mixture of 50 to
 Oil and gas were formed from the 90% by volume of methane (CH4), the
remains of plants and animals that simplest hydrocarbon.
once lived in the sea.  It also contains small amounts of
 For over millions of years these heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as
remains remained buried under mud ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and
and rock under great pressure and at butane (C4H10) and also small
high temperatures. amounts of highly toxic hydrogen
 Under these conditions marine biomass sulphide (H2S).
gradually changed into oil and gas.  Natural gas is formed through
 Oil and gas are primarily found along geological processes similar to the
geologically young tectonic belt at processes of crude oil formation
plate boundaries, where large described earlier except the organic
depositional basins are more likely to material gets changed to more volatile
occur. hydrocarbons than those found in oil.
 Petroleum or crude oil (oil as it comes  Almost every oil well produces liquid
out of the ground), is a thick dark petroleum along varying amounts of
liquid consisting of a mixture hundreds natural gas. However, there are large
of combustible hydrocarbons along gas deposits without any liquid
with small amounts of sulphur, petroleum being associated with them.
oxygen and nitrogen impurities. It is
also known as conventional oil or light Conventional natural gas
oil.  It lies above most reservoirs of crude
 Deposits of crude oil and natural gas oil. These deposits can be tapped/used
are usually trapped together under the only through pipeline.
sea floor or earth’s crust on land.  But the natural gas that comes out
along with oil is often looked as
unwanted by product and is burned  About half of the oil that contaminates
off. the ocean comes from natural seepage
from offshore deposits.
Unconventional natural gas  20% of the oil contaminating the ocean
 It is found by itself in other comes from oil well, blowouts, pipeline
underground reservoirs. So far it is breaks and tankers. Page
very expensive to get natural gas from
Nuclear Energy Sources |9
such unconventional sources but
technology is being developed to extract
 Radioactive minerals are used to
the gases economically.
generate nuclear energy through high
 When a natural gas field is tapped, technological methods.
propane and butane gases, present in
 There are two methods which can be
natural gas are liquefied and removed
used to release energy from radioactive
as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
minerals:
 LPG is stored in pressurized tanks or 1. Nuclear fission – In this process, the
cylinders for use as cooking gas. At a nucleus of heavy atom namely of
very low temperature natural gas can uranium (U 235) or plutonium (P239)
be converted to liquefied natural gas breaks apart into smaller fragments,
(LNG). releasing an enormous amount of
 Natural gas is used as a source of energy.
carbon used in tyre industry. When 2. Nuclear fusion – In this process, small
natural gas is strongly heated, then nucleus like those of isotopes of
methane gets in it decomposed to form hydrogen, namely deuterium and
carbon and hydrogen. tritium etc. fuse or join together to
 The carbon thus formed is called form heavier nuclei, releasing vast
carbon black and used as filler in the amounts of energy.
manufacture of tyres.
Nuclear fission
Problems associated with oil and gas
 Radioactive mineral, which generates
 Methane being major component of
nuclear energy through fission, may be
natural gas, happens to be a considered a non-renewable alternative
greenhouse gas and its leakage
source of energy as it is an ore and is
contributes to global warming.
found in limited quantities.
 Extraction of oil and gas may cause
 Nuclear fission occurs because the
sinking of land or subsidence.
atom of radioactive minerals contains
 Another major problem in the past with nuclei that are unstable and break or
onshore oil wells has been brine (salt split apart releasing energy.
water). Typically, for every barrel of oil  Whenever a neutron strikes a nucleus
production ten barrels of brine are also
of U-235, energy is released, krypton
extracted.
and barium are produced, and several
 In early days the brine was simply neutrons are released.
discarded into nearby streams or on  These new neutrons may strike other
the soil. Today most brine is reinjected
atoms of U-235 to produce a chain
into the well. However, brine can
reaction.
contaminate fresh water aquifers if the
 When this nuclear disintegration takes
casing lining the well is missing or
place particles from the nucleus
corroded.
including neutrons fly out.
 The neutron may cause other atomic the release of an enormous amount of
nuclei to split releasing more neutrons energy.
and more energy.  The energy produced by stars and the
 Once begun this chain reaction sun is the result of nuclear fusion.
continuous to release energy until the  Generation of energy by this method so
fuel is spent or the neutrons are far, however, has not been possible Page
prevented from striking other nuclei. though lot of research has focused on
 In the reactor of a nuclear power plant, the fusion reaction of deuterium (D) | 10
the rate of nuclear chain reaction is and tritium (T) (two isotopes of
controlled and the heat generated is hydrogen) which fuse at about 100
used to produce high pressure steam, million degrees.
which spins turbine that generate
electricity. Problems related to nuclear energy
 Heat produced here is carried away by generation
water coolant and transferred by way of
The major problems associated with the
heat exchanger to the water in a steam-
generation of nuclear power are
generating unit.
 The steam produced powers a turbine  disposal of nuclear waste,
that produces electricity. Cooling water  contamination of environment with
is used to condense the steam after it long lasting radioactive materials
has gone through the turbine (radioactive pollution),
 Two other nuclear technologies for  thermal pollution,
generating electricity from nuclear fuel  health effects from exposure to low
in a safe and economic way have also levels of radiation,
been proposed, but so far they have not  limited supplies of uranium ore,
proved operationally successful. These  high construction and maintenance
are: (i) nuclear breeder reactor, (ii) costs,
fusion reactor.  questionable reactor safety,
Nuclear breeder reactor  human or technical error that could
result in a major accidents and
 The nuclear reactors operating today vulnerability to sabotage,
use uranium very inefficiently. About  developing nuclear weapons by
1% uranium is actually used to processing reactor waste.
produce steam for generating  Problems of dismantling of a nuclear
electricity. plant’s, after their useful life of 30-40
 A nuclear reactor that can utilize years is over.
between 40% and 70% of its nuclear
fuel is called a breeder reactor. Location of radioactive mineral ore in
 Breeder reactors convert more India
abundant uranium -238 or thorium -
 In India, monazite that is the main
232 fissionable isotopes, Plutonium-
source of thorium, is found in
239 or Uranium -233 respectively, that
commercial quantities on the
can sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
Travancore coast between Kanya
Nuclear fusion reactor Kumari and Quilon, while uranite or
pitchblende mineral of uranium is
 The principle for nuclear fusion found in Gaya (Bihar), Ajmer
involves, as you are aware, uniting two (Rajasthan) and Nellore (Andhra
small atoms to form a large atom with Pradesh).
Energy conservation  Locally manufactured, improved cook

stoves should be introduced to reduce
 CFL (compact fluorescent lamps) charcoal/fuel consumption.
should be replaced by LEDs as they are  Auditing Regular monitoring and audit
much more efficient. of energy consumption in industries
 Replaceing aging old appliances with results in energy conservation. Page
energy efficient models.  Process modification: replacement of
 Alternative resources i.e. renewable old and more energy consuming | 11
energy sources should be used in place processes by the new energy efficient
of nonrenewable energy sources e.g. processes. Old factories should now
solar energy, biogas, wind energy etc. employ process modification.
 Energy audits of homes, buildings,  Use public transportation as much as
hotels and factories should be done at possible instead of using own vehicles.
regular interval.  Avoid free frequent starts and stops of
 Demonstration of projects involving the vehicles to reduce fuel consumption.
introduction of appropriate, renewable  Appliances and office equipments
solar, wind and biogas energy should be replaced with energy star
technologies at the community level. rated units.
 Collaborative community/academic  Building designs and construction
research and development in order to practices should promote energy
produce lowcost, sustainable energy conservation.
options should be given priority.
 Environment friendly public transport Impact of energy use on the
system should be promoted to reduce environment
the use of individual motorized  Depletion of energy resources.
transport.  Pollution of environment from emission
 Installation of photoelectric controls or of green house gases.
timers should be used to make sure
that outdoor lighting is sufficient Energy And Economic Development
during the day.
 Elevators/lifts should be used for going  Energy development is an integral part
up beyond three floors and for coming of economic development.
down the usage of lifts may be reduced.  Cheap, efficient and environment
 Whenever two elevators/lifts are friendly enegy resources and
provided in a building only single technologies are must to stay globally
should be operated during “non-peak” competitive.
hours.
 Conservation and sustainable use of Ministry of New and Renewable
water bodies, including watersheds, Energy (MNRE)
rivers barriers and coastal zones will be
helpful in the energy conservation at  The ministry was established as the
community level. Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
 Training programme about energy Sources in 1992. It adopted its current
efficient repairs should be organized to name in October 2006.
conserve energy at community level.  The Ministry is mainly responsible for
 Advocacy to remove subsidies to 1. research and development,
inefficient and polluting sources of 2. intellectual property protection,
energy should become essential. and
3. international cooperation,
promotion, and coordination in
renewable energy sources such conditions for its diffusion across the
as wind power, small hydro, country as quickly as possible.
biogas, and solar power. 2. To promote ecologically sustainable
growth while addressing India’s energy
Aim security challenges.
 To develop and deploy new and  Major contribution by India to the Page
renewable energy for supplementing global effort to meet the challenges of
climate change. | 12
the energy requirements of India.
 One of the several initiatives that are
Mission part of National Action Plan on
Climate Change.
 Bring in Energy Security;  The program was inaugurated in 2010.
 Increase the share of clean power;  Initial target was 20GW by 2022 and it
 Increase Energy Availability and was increased to 100 GW in 2015
Access; Union budget.
 Improve Energy Affordability; and  Long term goal: Global leader in solar
 Maximise Energy Equity. energy; maximum in energy
production.
Initiatives  Immediate goal: Setting up an enabling
environment for solar technology
 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar penetration in the country.
Mission (JNNSM)
 Remote Village Lighting Programme Targets are set for three phases
 National Biogas and Manure
Management Programme (NBMMP) 1. First phase 2010-13
 Solar Lantern Programme LALA 2. Second phase 2013–17
3. Third Phase 2017–22
 Solar thermal energy Demonstration
Programme  At each stage progress will be reviewed
and roadmap for future targets will be
 National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative
adopted.
(NBCI)[8]
 Total target of 100,000 MW by 2022.
 National Offshore Wind Energy
Authority  MNRE has proposed to achieve it
through 40,000 MW through Rooftop
Key functional area Solar Projects and 60,000 MW through
Large and Medium Scale solar projects.
 Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA) Domestic content controversy
 Integrated Rural Energy Programme
(IREP);  Guidelines for the solar mission
 Commission for Additional Sources of mandated cells and modules for solar
Energy (CASE); PV projects based on crystalline silicon
to be manufactured in India.
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar  This accounts to over 60% of total
Mission (JNNSM) system costs.
 For solar thermal, guidelines mandated
 Also known as the National Solar 30% project to have domestic content.
Mission  A vigorous controversy emerged
 Objective between power project developers and
1. To establish India as a global leader in solar PV equipment manufacturers.
solar energy, by creating the policy  The former camp prefers to source
modules by accessing highly
competitive global market to attain (IREDA), which of the following

flexible pricing, better quality, statements is/are correct?
predictable delivery and use of latest
technologies. 1) It is a Public Limited Government
 The latter camp prefers a Company.
controlled/planned environment to 2) It is a Non – Banking Financial
Company. Page
force developers to purchase modules
from a small, albeit growing, group of | 13
module manufacturers in India. given below.
 Manufacturers want to avoid
competition with global players and are a) 1 only
lobbying the government to incentivize b) 2 only
growth of local industry. c) Both 1 and 2
 US Trade Representative has filed a d) Neither 1 or 2
complaint at World Trade Organization
challenging India’s domestic content Answer: c) Both 1 and 2
requirements citing discrimination
against US exports.
 WTO ruled in favor of USA.
Indian Renewable Energy

Development Agency (IREDA)
 IREDA is a Mini Ratna (Category – I)
Government of India Enterprise.
 It is under the administrative control of
MNRE.
 IREDA is Public Limited Government
Company established as a Non-
Banking Financial Institution in
1987 engaged in promoting, developing
and extending financial assistance for
setting up projects relating to new and
renewable sources of energy and energy
efficiency/conservation with the motto:
“Energy For Ever”.
Objectives
 To give financial support to specific

projects and schemes for generating
electricity and / or energy through new
and renewable sources and conserving
energy through energy efficiency.
 To increase IREDA's share in the
renewable energy sector by way of
innovative financing.
With reference to the Indian Renewable

Energy Development Agency Limited
Soil Conservation strips may be allowed to lie fallow while

in others different crops may be sown.
 Soil conservation is the prevention of  Various crops are harvested at different
soil from erosion or reduced fertility intervals. This ensures that at no time
caused by overuse, acidification, of the year the entire area is left bare or
salinization or other chemical soil exposed.
contamination.  The tall growing crops act as wind
 Soil erosion is the greatest single evil to breaks and the strips which are often
Indian agriculture and animal parallel to the contours help in
husbandry. increasing water absorption by the soil
 Notable Quotable from Kullar’s Indian by slowing down run off.
Geography: “With soil conservation
people rise and with its destruction Use of Early Maturing Varieties
they fall. Neglect of soil is like killing
the hen that lays the golden egg.”  Early maturing varieties of crops take
less time to mature and thus put lesser
Crop Rotation pressure on the soil. In this way it can
help in reducing the soil erosion.
 Adopting sustainable agricultural
practices is the most important Contour Ploughing
measure to conserve soil.
 In many parts of India, a particular  If ploughing is done at right angles to
crop is sown in the same field year after the hill slope, the ridges and furrows
year. This practice leads to exhaustion break the flow of water down the hill.
of certain nutrients in the soil making  This prevents excessive soil loss as
it infertile. gullies are less likely to develop and
 Crop rotation is a practice in which a also reduce run-off so that plants
different crop is cultivated on a piece of receive more water.
land each year.
Checking Shifting Cultivation
 This helps to conserve soil fertility as
different crops require different  Checking and reducing shifting
nutrients from the soil. Crop rotation cultivation by persuading the tribal
will provide enough time to restore lost people to switch over to settled
nutrients. agriculture is a very effective method of
 For example, potatoes require much soil conservation.
potash but wheat requires nitrate.  This can be done by making
Thus it is best to alternate crops in the arrangements for their resettlement
field. which involves the provision of
 Legumes such as peas, beans, and residential accommodation,
many other plants, add nitrates to the agricultural implements, seeds,
soil by converting free nitrogen in the manures, cattle and reclaimed land.
air into nitrogenous nodules on their
roots. Thus if they are included in the Ploughing the Land in Right
crop rotation nitrogenous fertilizers can Direction
be dispensed with.
 Ploughing the land in a direction
Strip Cropping perpendicular to wind direction also
reduces wind velocity and protects the
 Crops may be cultivated in alternate
top soil from erosion.
strips, parallel to one another. Some
Mulching  In terracing, a number of terraces are

cut along the hill slope.
 The bare ground (top soil) between  These are made on the steep slopes so
plants is covered with a protective layer that flat surfaces are available to grow
of organic matter like grass clippings, crops. They can reduce surface run-off
straw, etc. and soil erosion.
Benefits
 Protects the soil from erosion.

 It helps to retain soil moisture.
 Reduces compaction from the impact of
heavy rains.
 Conserves moisture, reducing the need
for frequent watering.
 Maintains a more even soil
Contour Bunding
temperature.
 Contour bunding involves the
 Prevents weed growth. construction of banks along the
 Organic mulches also improve the contours.
condition of the soil. As these mulches  Terracing and contour bunding which
slowly decompose, they provide organic divide the hill slope into numerous
matter which helps keep the soil loose. small slopes, check the flow of water,
promote absorption of water by soil and
Contour barriers
save soil from erosion.
 Stones, grass, soil are used to build  Retaining walls of terraces control the
barriers along contours. Trenches are flow of water and help in reducing soil
made in front of the barriers to collect erosion.
water. Contour bunding is a method of soil
 They intercept downslope flowing water conservation used in
and soil particles. These barriers slow
down the water movement and reduce a) desert margins, liable to strong wind
its erosive force. They also filter out action
and trap many of the suspended soil b) low flat plains, close to stream
particles, keeping them from being courses, liable to flooding
washed out of the field. c) scrublands, liable to spread of weed
 A long term advantage of barriers is growth
that soil tends to build up behind d) None of the above
them, creating a terrace effect. Barriers
can be classified as live (strips of living Intercropping
plants), dead (rocks, crop residues), or
mixed (a combination of the previous  Different crops are grown in alternate
two). rows and are sown at different times to
protect the soil from rain wash.
Rock dam
Contour ploughing
 Rocks are piled up across a channel to
slow down the flow of water. This  Ploughing parallel to the contours of a
prevents gullies and further soil loss. hill slope to form a natural barrier for
water to flow down the slope
Terrace farming
Shelter belts or Windbreaks the plains and 60 per cent for hilly and
mountainous regions.
 In the coastal and dry regions, rows of
trees are planted to check the wind Checking Overgrazing
movement to protect soil cover.
 Overgrazing accentuates erosion.
During the dry period, there is shortage
of fodder and the grass is grazed to the
ground and torn out to the roots by
animals. Soil is pulverized (reduce to fine
particles) by the hoofs of animals. All this
leads to weak top layer.
 So overgrazing needs to be checked to
prevent soil erosion.
 This can be done by creating separate
grazing grounds and producing larger
quantities of fodder.
Sand fences Dams
 Sand fences are barriers made of small,  Much of the soil erosion by river floods
evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric. can be avoided by constructing dams
They are erected to reduce wind across the rivers in proper places. This
velocity and to trap blowing sand. Sand checks the speed of water and saves
fences can be used as perimeter soil from erosion.
controls around open construction  But indiscriminate dam construction
sites to keep sediments from being can worsen the condition by creating
blown offsite by the wind. floods and landslides like it happens in
the Himalayan region.
Afforestation
 It includes the prevention of forest
destruction along with growing new
forests or increase area under forests.
 A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent of
forest land was considered healthy for
soil and water conservation for the
whole country.
 It was raised to 33 per cent in the
second five year plan – 20 per cent for
Land Degradation
Degraded land is classified on the basis of
productive capacity of the land.
1. Slight degradation refers to the

condition where crop yield potential is
reduced by 10%.
2. Moderate degradation refers to 10-50%
reduction in yield potential and
3. Severe degradation means that the
land has lost more than 50% of its yield
potential yield.
Soil Degradation
 Soil degradation is the decline in soil

quality caused by its improper use,
usually for agricultural, pastoral,
industrial or urban purposes.
 Soil degradation is a serious global
environmental problem and may be
exacerbated by climate change. It
encompasses physical (soil erosion),
Pic Credits:
chemical (salinity and alkalinity,
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/in
pollution) and biological deterioration
dianews/article-2660560/Desertification-
(pollution and deterioration of vegetal
land-degradation-affects-quarter-Indias-
cover).
land.html
We will see pollution and soil degradation
white studying environment. Soil Erosion
For now we will study about the rest.  Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by
agents like wind and water.
 Top soil has most of the nutrients
necessary for a plant’s growth. With
depth, the fertility of the soil decreases.
Thus, erosion results in reduction of
fertility of the soil by washing away the
fertile top layer.
 Erosion by wind and water is much
quicker than the soil formation
process. So once fertile soil layer is lost,
it requires a lot of time and resources
to restore it.
 Prevention is a more practical measure.
It is less time and resource consuming.
 In India’s case, the problem of soil
erosion is particularly severe due to
over dependence on agriculture and
improper land management.
 Notable Quotable: “Soil erosion is  Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is

essentially a problem created by man quite significant in arid and semi-arid
and also faced by man himself.” regions.
 Winds usually blow at high speeds in
Water Erosion deserts due to absence of trees
(physical obstruction).
 Water erosion leads to rilling, gullying,  These winds remove the fertile, arable,
sheet-wash and rain peeling. loose soils leaving behind a depression
 If erosion continues unchecked for a devoid of top soil (the depression
long time, numerous finger-shaped formation in deserts is the first step in
grooves may develop in the silt laden Oasis formation. Oasis forms in
soils. The whole pattern resembles the depressions when there is underground
shape of a tree. This is called rill water that gets accumulated above
erosion. rocks).
 With further erosion of the soil, the rills  Desertification around desert regions is
deepen and become enlarged and are due to wind erosion.
turned into gullies. Gullies formed over  Wind erosion is accentuated when the
a large area gives rise to badland soil is dry, soils are subjected to
topography (Chambal Ravines). overgrazing and devoid of vegetation
 When a gully bed is eroded further, the cover.
bed gradually deepens and flattens out  Very fine and medium sands are moved
and a ravine is formed. The depth of a by wind in a succession of bounds and
ravine may extend to 30 metres or leaps, known as saltation.
more.  Coarse sand is not usually airborne but
 Further erosion of ravine beds gives rather is rolled along the soil surface.
rise to canyons. Canyons are few This type of erosion is called surface
hundred meters deep and wide. (Grand creep.
Canyon on Colorado River).  Very coarse sand and gravels are too
 When the entire top sheet of soil is large to be rolled by wind, so wind-
washed away by water or by wind, eroded soils have surfaces covered with
leaving behind barren rock, it is called coarse fragments larger than 1.00 mm
sheet erosion. Sheet erosion attacks a in diameter. This kind of arid soil
large area of top soil and renders the surface is known as desert pavement.
land almost unfit for cultivation.
 In the coastal areas, waves dash along Extent Of Soil Erosion In India
the coast and cause heavy damage to
soil. During the landfall of cyclones,  80 million hectares or about one-fourth
storm surges destroy beaches and of our total area is exposed to wind and
wash away the top layer. In estuaries, water erosion.
tidal bores cause extensive damage to  One-eighth of land has undergone
the surrounding banks. This is called serious erosion.
sea erosion.  Wind erosion is a serious problem in
 In the higher reaches of the Himalayan arid and semi-arid parts of north west
region, soil erosion is caused by sowing India.
moving glaciers. This is called glacial  About one-ninth of land is subject to
erosion. severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and
adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana,
Wind Erosion Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
 It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes of  Frequency and intensity of floods and

fertile soils is removed by wind every drought increases.
year.  Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and
 The loss due to water erosion is 53.34 their water holding capacity decreases.
million hectares annually.  The incidence and damaging power of
landslides increases.
Factors affecting Soil Erosion
Deforestation
 Intensity and duration of rainfall,
 Wind speed,  Population explosion has created
 Nature of soil and the physiography, pressure on forest land and resources
 Strong winds in dry areas, and this causes deforestation.
 Human density, Deforestation accentuates soil erosion
 Deforestation, (soil degradation).
 Overgrazing,  Roots of trees and plants bind the soil
 Faulty methods of agriculture, particles and regulate the flow of water,
 Diversion of natural drainage courses, thus saving soil from erosion.
 Wrong orientation of roads and Deforestation make soil vulnerable to
railways, embankments and bridges. wind and water erosion.
 The large scale damage to soil in
In India, the problem of soil erosion Shiwalik range, the Chos of Punjab,
is associated with which of the the ravines of Chambal valley are due
following? to deforestation.
1. Terrace cultivation Major Causes of Deforestation

2. Deforestation
3. Tropical climate  Indiscriminate felling of trees as a
result of agricultural operations,
Select the correct answer using the code urbanization, industrialization,
given below. infrastructure development, mining
operations, and use of wood for
a) 1 and 2 only
domestic and other purposes, have
b) 2 only
resulted in depletion of forests.
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 Shifting cultivation
Terrace cultivation is a method to prevent  In this practice a patch of land is
soil erosion. cleared, vegetation is burned and the
ash is mixed with the soil thus adding
Soil erosion occurs in all climates.
nutrients to the soil.
Answer: b) 2 only  This patch of land is used for raising
crops for two to three years, and the
Effects of Soil Erosion yield is modest.
 Then this area is abandoned and is left
 Fertile top soil is eroded. to recover its fertility, and the same
 Flooding and leaching result in loss of practice is repeated elsewhere on a
mineral nutrients. fresh piece of land.
 Ground water level is lowered.  This agricultural practice has become
 There is decrease in soil moisture. totally unsustainable due to raid
 Desertification. increase in population pressure in the
forested areas.
Development project and Mining  Deforestation also results from

overgrazing, agriculture, mining,
 Population pressure and development urbanization, flood, fire, pest, diseases,
agenda have resulted in indiscriminate defense and communication activities.
development of infrastructure, water
reservoirs and dams, hydro power Effects of Deforestation
projects, roads and railways etc. This
led to greater deforestation.  Closed forests (based on canopy level)
 Open cast mining has resulted in have being diminished due to
deforestation all over the world. deforestation leading to increase in
degraded forests.
Plantation Boom  Forests recycle moisture (natural
 Increase in demand for cocoa, coffee, motors) from soil into their immediate
tea, sugar, palm oil, rubber etc. have atmosphere by transpiration where it
resulted in deforestation in the tropical again precipitates as rain.
rainforests.  Deforestation results in an immediate
lowering of ground water level (low
Fuel Requirements percolation due to quick surface runoff
on barren lands) and in long-term
 The increasing demand for firewood reduction of precipitation.
with ever. growing population increases  Due to deforestation, this natural reuse
greater pressure on the forests, which cycle is broken and water is lost
results in increased intensity of through rapid run off.
deforestation.  Much of the mining activity in India is
Demand for Forest Resources being carried out in forest regions. The
obvious result is deforestation and soil
 Population pressure coupled with erosion.
changes in standard of living have  Underground mining also significantly
increased the demand for forest denudes forests because timber is used
resources. for supporting the roofs of mine
galleries.
Raw Materials  A large number of abandoned mines
are lying in bad shape and are under
 Wood is used as a raw material by
extensive gully erosion leading to
various industries for making paper,
degradation of the habitat.
plywood, furniture, match sticks,
 Deforestation affects the biota and
boxes, crates, packing cases, etc.
neighboring ecosystems, soil erosion,
 Industries also obtain their raw
land degradation, alteration of ground
materials from plants such as drugs,
water channels, pollution and scarce.
scents and perfumes, resin, gums,
waxes, turpentine, latex and rubber, Overgrazing
tannis, alkaloids, bees wax.
 This exerted tremendous pressure on  During the rainy season, there is plenty
forest ecosystem and their unrestricted of vegetation and animals get enough
exploitation for various other raw fodder.
materials is the main cause of  But during the dry period, there is
degradation of the forest ecosystem. shortage of fodder and the grass is
Other Causes grazed to the ground and torn out by
the roots by animals.
 This leads to loose structure of the soil  Some of the salts are transported in
and the soil is easily washed away by solution by the rivers.
rains.  In regions with low water table (due to
 Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce to fine over irrigation in canal irrigated areas),
particles) by the hoofs of animals, and the salts percolate into sub soil and in
thus proves detrimental to top soil regions with good drainage, the salts
when heavy showers fall on it. are wasted away by flowing water.
 Soil erosion due to overgrazing is a  But in places where the drainage
common site in the hilly areas. system is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and
Faulty Methods of Agriculture deposits all the salts in the top soil
once the water evaporates.
 Much of the soil erosion in India is  In regions with high sub-soil water
caused by faulty methods of table, injurious salts are transferred
agriculture. from below by the capillary action as a
 Wrong ploughing, lack of crop rotation result of evaporation in dry season.
and practice of shifting cultivation are  In canal irrigated areas plenty of the
the most adversely affecting methods of water is available and the farmers
agriculture. indulge in over irrigation of their fields.
 If the fields are ploughed along the  Under such conditions, the ground
slope, there is no obstruction to the water level rises and saline and
flow of water and the water washes alkaline efflorescences consisting of
away the top soil easily. salts of sodium, calcium and
 In some parts of the country, the same magnesium appear on the surface as a
crop is grown year after year which layer of white salt through capillary
spoils the chemical balance of the soil. action.
This soil is exhausted and is easily  Alkalinity implies the dominance of
eroded by wind or water. sodium salts, specially sodium
 Shifting cultivation practiced in some carbonate.
areas in the north-eastern states. In  Although salts of alkali are somewhat
this method, a piece of forest land is different in their chemical properties
cleared by felling and burning of trees from the salts of saline soils both soils
and crops are grown. The removal of occur in the same areas.
the forest cover leads to the exposure of  Sandy soils are more prone to alkalinity
the soil to rains and sun which results and the loamy soils to salinity-
in heavy loss of top soil, especially on alkalinity.
the hill slopes.  It is estimated that about 80 lakh
hectares of land (2.43% of the country's
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity total area) is affected by the problem of
salinity and alkalinity.
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top
 Vast tracts of canal irrigated areas in
soil is impregnated (soak or saturate with a
Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana;
substance) with saline and alkaline
arid regions of Rajasthan, semi-arid
efflorescences (become covered with salt
areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
particles).
Pradesh, Telangana and Karnataka etc.
 Undecomposed rock fragments, on are facing this problem.
weathering, give rise to sodium,
 Although Indira Gandhi canal in
magnesium and calcium salts and
Rajasthan has turned the sandy desert
sulphurous acid.
into a granary, it has given birth to
serious problems of salinity and  Desertification is the spread of desert

alkalinity. like conditions in arid or semi-arid
areas due to man's influence or
Effects of salinity and alkalinity climatic change.
 A large part of the arid and semi-arid
 Salinity and alkalinity have adverse region lying between the Indus and the
effect on soil and reduce soil fertility. Aravali range is affected by spreading
 Cultivation is not possible on saline desert conditions.
soils unless they are flushed out with  Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by
large quantities of irrigation water to wind. The sand carried by wind is
leach out the salts. deposited on the adjoining fertile lands
 Choice of crops is limited to salinity whose fertility dwindles and slowly the
tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc.. fertile land start merging with the
 Quality of fodder and food produced in advancing desert.
poor in quality.  It has been estimated that the Thar
 Salinity and alkalinity create Desert is advancing at an alarming rate
difficulties in building and road of about 0.5 km per year.
construction.  The process of desertification is
 These cause floods due to reduced attributed to uncontrolled grazing,
percolation of water. reckless felling of trees and growing
population. Climate change have also
Steps to treat salinity and contributed to the spread of deserts.
alkalinity
Ecological implications of
 Providing outlets for lands to drain out desertification
excess water and lower water table.
 Seal leakages from canals, tanks and  Drifting of sand and its accumulation
other water bodies by lining them. on fertile agricultural land.
 Making judicious use of irrigation  Excessive soil erosion by wind and to
facilities. some extent by water.
 Improve vegetal cover to avoid further  Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and
degradation by planting salt tolerant other water bodies thereby decreasing
vegetation. their water containing capacity.
 Crop rotation..  Lowering of water table leading to acute
 Liberal application of gypsum to water shortage.
convert the alkalies into soluble  Increase in area under wastelands.
compounds.  Decrease in agricultural production.
 Alkali can be removed by adding  Increase in frequency and intensity of
sulphuric acid or acid forming droughts.
substances like sulphur and pyrite.
 Organic residues such as rice husks Measures of Controlling
and rice straw can be added to promote Desertification
formation of mild acid as a result of
their decomposition.  Intensive tree plantation in the
 Flushing the salt by flooding the fields transition zones.
with excess water. However, this  Mulching shifting sand dunes in
practice can lead to accumulation of deserts with different plant species.
saline water in the downstream area. Mulches serve as an effective physical
barrier to the moving sand.
Desertification
 Grazing should be controlled and new

pastures should be developed.
 Indiscriminate felling of trees should be
banned.
 Alternative sources of fuel can reduce
the demand for fuelwood.
 Sandy and wastelands should be put to
proper use by judicious planning.
Waterlogging
 The flat surfaces and depressions

results in waterlogging.
 Waterlogged soils are soaked with
water accumulated during rainy season
or due to leakage from various water
sources.
 Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12
million hectares in India – half of which
lies along the coast and the other half
in the inland area.
 Waterlogging is believed to be one of
the chief causes of salinity.
 Proper layout of drainage schemes is
the only way to overcome the menace of
waterlogging.
 The basic methods of removing excess
water from waterlogged soils are (a)
surface drainage and (b) vertical
drainage.
(a) Surface Drainage. Surface drainage
involves the disposal of excess water
over ground surface through an open
drainage system with an adequate
outlet.
(b) Vertical Drainage. Any bore or well
from which the underlying water is
extracted is defined as vertical
drainage. It works well in Indo-
Gangetic plain where the pumped
water is used for irrigating the
neighboring regions.

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Environemnt Notes By www.pmfias.com--.

Geography Notes for General Studies UPSC CSE

Biology Notes for Prelims UPSC CSE

I advise you to first go through the full a) 1, 2 and 3 only

Q2. What is the difference between the

a) Oryx is adapted to live in hot and

1) Endemic plant and animal species

Q8. Which one of the following groups

a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer,

a) 1 and 2 only Q10. If a tropical rain forest is

c) the rain forest species are slow- 1) Carbon dioxide

a) the water vapour of the air and

a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1) The growth and survival of calcareous

Q18. Regarding "carbon credits", which a) 1 only

d) It is the latest technology to control 2013

1. Presence of tall, closely set trees c) 2 and 3 only

Q5. Consider the following fauna of a) 1 only

Which of the above is/are endangered? 1. Agaricus

Q6. Consider the following a) 1 and 2

a) 1 only a) desert margins, liable to strong wind

b) low flat plains, close to stream 2) Sorbitol

a) 1 only Q16. Acid rain is caused by the

3. A food chain illustrates the numbers a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands,

1. Virus 1. Volcanic action

c) 1 and 3 only a) 1 only

Q5. Conserving Biodiversity 2. Keoladeo Ghana National Park

a) The oil extracted from seeds is used a) 1 and 2 only

a) 1, 2 and 3 countries which are signatories to

b) 1 and 2 only one hour on a certain day every

a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 only

a) It is the United nations Conference a) Food Safety and Standards Act,

Q17. With reference to ‘Forest Carbon a) Tropical moist deciduous forest

1) It is a Global Partnership of a) 1 only

c) Both 1 and 2  Phase IV of tiger monitoring

government. Discuss the environmental  Discuss the method of conserving

Solved Environment Prelims Ex situ conservation = conserving the

I advise you to first go through the full

In situ conservation = on the site

They are both antelopes. Black-necked crane is commonly found in

Orchids are decorative flowering plants. Answer: b) 1, 3 and 4 only

Q6. Consider the following kinds of

Which of the above is/are pollinating

b) 2 only c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus

as compared to a tropical deciduous spore [Asexual Reproduction in plants].

a) Presence of prominent tropospheric

Q17. The acidification of oceans is b) Carbon credits are awarded to

a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1) Import and Export (Control) Act,

a) The carbon credit system was ratified

 Tobacco Board Act, 1975 hazardous microorganisms/ genetically

a) 1 only The top biotech regulator in India for

Answer: a) Answer: c) 1 and 3 only

c) It is a genetically engineered high b) Chandipur-on-sea

Which of the statements given above is

1. Corbett National Park: Ganga Equatorial Vegetation

a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1. Gharial

1. Presence of tall, closely set trees Q6. Consider the following

Which of the above is/are

Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Explanation:

Q13. Due to improper/indiscriminate Easiest option is 3) Fluoride. So, (b) can be

1. Beryllium Nest easiest option is Uranium. Many

Answer: b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only a) Engineering

Select the correct answer using the codes

 When pollutants such as nitrogen

Q16. Acid rain is caused by the