Chapter 1

Instrument:

Instruments are the devices basically used to measure, record or identify any entity. It
includes devices used in following sectors: electrical or electronic or scientific, medical,
laboratory, vehicle, weather and measurement. Scientific principles are sufficient to make
instruments.

Equipment:

Equipments (also called as Tools) are the devices required to perform and/or expedite a task.
There are various types of tools including cutting tools, moving tools, shaping tools, fastening
tools, guiding & measuring tools. It requires principles of engineering or technology to make
equipment.
 Construction Equipment
The selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the
required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is
therefore important for site managers and construction planners to be familiar with the
characteristics of the major types of equipment most commonly used in construction.

Excavation and Loading

One family of construction machines used for excavation is broadly classified as a crane-
shovel as indicated by the variety of machines in below figure. The crane-shovel consists of
three major components:

 a carrier or mounting which provides mobility and stability for the machine.
 a revolving deck or turntable which contains the power and control units.
 a front end attachment which serves the special functions in an operation.

The type of mounting for all machines in below figure is referred to as crawler mounting,
which is particularly suitable for crawling over relatively rugged surfaces at a job site. Other
types of mounting include truck mounting and wheel mounting which provide greater
mobility between job sites, but require better surfaces for their operation. The revolving deck
includes a cab to house the person operating the mounting and/or the revolving deck. The
types of front end attachments in below figure might include a crane with hook, claim shell,
dragline, backhoe, shovel and pile driver.
 Figure Typical Machines in the Crane-Shovel Family

A tractor consists of a crawler mounting and a non-revolving cab. When an earth moving
blade is attached to the front end of a tractor, the assembly is called a bulldozer. When a
bucket is attached to its front end, the assembly is known as a loader or bucket loader. There
are different types of loaders designed to handle most efficiently materials of different
weights and moisture contents.

Scrapers are multiple-units of tractor-truck and blade-bucket assemblies with various

combinations to facilitate the loading and hauling of earthwork. Major types of scrapers
include single engine two-axle or three axle scrapers, twin-engine all-wheel-drive scrapers,
elevating scrapers, and push-pull scrapers. Each type has different characteristics of rolling
resistance, maneuverability stability, and speed in operation.

Compaction and Grading

The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically. The
basic forces used in compaction are static weight, kneading, impact and vibration. The degree
of compaction that may be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its moisture content,
the thickness of the soil layer for compaction and the method of compaction. Some major
types of compaction equipment are shown in below figure, which includes rollers with
different operating characteristics.

The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired shape and
elevation. Major types of grading equipment include motor graders and grade trimmers. The
former is an all-purpose machine for grading and surface finishing, while the latter is used for
heavy construction because of its higher operating speed.

Figure Some Major Types of Compaction Equipment

Drilling and Blasting

Rock excavation is an audacious task requiring special equipment and methods. The degree
of difficulty depends on physical characteristics of the rock type to be excavated, such as
grain size, planes of weakness, weathering, brittleness and hardness. The task of rock
excavation includes loosening, loading, hauling and compacting. The loosening operation is
specialized for rock excavation and is performed by drilling, blasting or ripping.

Major types of drilling equipment are percussion drills, rotary drills, and rotary-percussion
drills. A percussion drill penetrates and cuts rock by impact while it rotates without cutting on
the upstroke. Common types of percussion drills include a jackhammer which is hand-held
and others which are mounted on a fixed frame or on a wagon or crawl for mobility. A rotary
drill cuts by turning a bit against the rock surface. A rotary-percussion drill combines the two
cutting movements to provide a faster penetration in rock.

Blasting requires the use of explosives, the most common of which is dynamite. Generally,
electric blasting caps are connected in a circuit with insulated wires. Power sources may be
power lines or blasting machines designed for firing electric cap circuits. Also available are
non-electrical blasting systems which combine the precise timing and flexibility of electric
blasting and the safety of non-electrical detonation.

Tractor-mounted rippers are capable of penetrating and prying loose most rock types. The
blade or ripper is connected to an adjustable shank which controls the angle at the tip of the
blade as it is raised or lowered. Automated ripper control may be installed to control ripping
depth and tip angle.

In rock tunnelling, special tunnel machines equipped with multiple cutter heads and capable
of excavating full diameter of the tunnel are now available. Their use has increasingly
replaced the traditional methods of drilling and blasting.

Lifting and Erecting

Derricks are commonly used to lift equipment of materials in industrial or building

construction. A derrick consists of a vertical mast and an inclined boom sprouting from the
foot of the mast. The mast is held in position by guys or stifflegs connected to a base while a
topping lift links the top of the mast and the top of the inclined boom. A hook in the road line
hanging from the top of the inclined boom is used to lift loads. Guy derricks may easily be
moved from one floor to the next in a building under construction while stiffleg derricks may
be mounted on tracks for movement within a work area.

Tower cranes are used to lift loads to great heights and to facilitate the erection of steel
building frames. Horizon boom type tower cranes are most common in high rise building
construction. Inclined boom type tower cranes are also used for erecting steel structures.

Mixing and Paving

Basic types of equipment for paving include machines for dispensing concrete and
bituminous materials for pavement surfaces. Concrete mixers may also be used to mix
portland cement, sand, gravel and water in batches for other types of construction other than
paving.

A truck mixer refers to a concrete mixer mounted on a truck which is capable of transporting
ready mixed concrete from a central batch plant to construction sites. A paving mixer is a
self-propelled concrete mixer equipped with a boom and a bucket to place concrete at any
desired point within a roadway. It can be used as a stationary mixer or used to supply
slipform pavers that are capable of spreading, consolidating and finishing a concrete slab
without the use of forms.

A bituminous distributor is a truck-mounted plant for generating liquid bituminous materials

and applying them to road surfaces through a spray bar connected to the end of the truck.
Bituminous materials include both asphalt and tar which have similar properties except that
tar is not soluble in petroleum products. While asphalt is most frequently used for road
surfacing, tar is used when the pavement is likely to be heavily exposed to petroleum spills.

Construction Tools and Other Equipment

Air compressors and pumps are widely used as the power sources for construction tools and
equipment. Common pneumatic construction tools include drills, hammers, grinders, saws,
wrenches, staple guns, sandblasting guns, and concrete vibrators. Pumps are used to supply
water or to dewater at construction sites and to provide water jets for some types of
construction.
Automation of Equipment

The introduction of new mechanized equipment in construction has had a profound effect on
the cost and productivity of construction as well as the methods used for construction itself.
An exciting example of innovation in this regard is the introduction of computer
microprocessors on tools and equipment. As a result, the performance and activity of
equipment can be continually monitored and adjusted for improvement. In many cases,
automation of at least part of the construction process is possible and desirable. For example,
wrenches that automatically monitor the elongation of bolts and the applied torque can be
programmed to achieve the best bolt tightness. On grading projects, laser controlled scrapers
can produce desired cuts faster and more precisely than wholly manual methods.

Choice of Equipment and Standard Production Rates

Typically, construction equipment is used to perform essentially repetitive operations, and
can be broadly classified according to two basic functions: (1) operators such as cranes,
graders, etc. which stay within the confines of the construction site, and (2) haulers such as
dump trucks, ready mixed concrete truck, etc. which transport materials to and from the site.
In both cases, the cycle of a piece of equipment is a sequence of tasks which is repeated to
produce a unit of output. For example, the sequence of tasks for a crane might be to fit and
install a wall panel (or a package of eight wall panels) on the side of a building; similarly, the
sequence of tasks of a ready mixed concrete truck might be to load, haul and unload two
cubic yards (or one truck load) of fresh concrete.

In order to increase job-site productivity, it is beneficial to select equipment with proper

characteristics and a size most suitable for the work conditions at a construction site. In
excavation for building construction, for examples, factors that could affect the selection of
excavators include:

1. Size of the job: Larger volumes of excavation will require larger excavators, or
smaller excavators in greater number.
2. Activity time constraints: Shortage of time for excavation may force contractors to
increase the size or numbers of equipment for activities related to excavation.
3. Availability of equipment: Productivity of excavation activities will diminish if the
equipment used to perform them is available but not the most adequate.
 4. Cost of transportation of equipment: This cost depends on the size of the job, the
distance of transportation, and the means of transportation.
5. Type of excavation: Principal types of excavation in building projects are cut and/or
fill, excavation massive, and excavation for the elements of foundation. The most
adequate equipment to perform one of these activities is not the most adequate to
perform the others.
6. Soil characteristics: The type and condition of the soil is important when choosing
the most adequate equipment since each piece of equipment has different outputs for
different soils. Moreover, one excavation pit could have different soils at different
stratums.
7. Geometric characteristics of elements to be excavated: Functional characteristics
of different types of equipment makes such considerations necessary.
8. Space constraints: The performance of equipment is influenced by the spatial
limitations for the movement of excavators.
9. Characteristics of haul units: The size of an excavator will depend on the haul units
if there is a constraint on the size and/or number of these units.
10. Location of dumping areas: The distance between the construction site and dumping
areas could be relevant not only for selecting the type and number of haulers, but also
the type of excavators.
11. Weather and temperature: Rain, snow and severe temperature conditions affect the
job-site productivity of labor and equipment.

By comparing various types of machines for excavation, for example, power shovels are
generally found to be the most suitable for excavating from a level surface and for attacking
an existing digging surface or one created by the power shovel; furthermore, they have the
capability of placing the excavated material directly onto the haulers. Another alternative is to
use bulldozers for excavation.

The choice of the type and size of haulers is based on the consideration that the number of
haulers selected must be capable of disposing of the excavated materials expeditiously.
Factors which affect this selection include:

1. Output of excavators: The size and characteristics of the excavators selected will
determine the output volume excavated per day.
 2. Distance to dump site: Sometimes part of the excavated materials may be piled up in
a corner at the job-site for use as backfill.
3. Probable average speed: The average speed of the haulers to and from the dumping
site will determine the cycle time for each hauling trip.
4. Volume of excavated materials: The volume of excavated materials including the
part to be piled up should be hauled away as soon as possible.
5. Spatial and weight constraints: The size and weight of the haulers must be feasible
at the job site and over the route from the construction site to the dumping area.

Sources of Construction Equipment:

Contractors and other users of construction equipment are concerned with a decision as to
whether to purchase or rent equipment. Under certain conditions it is financially
advantageous to purchase, whereas under other conditions it is more economical and
satisfactory to rent it. There are at least three methods under which a contractor may secure
the use of construction equipment:

1. Purchase the equipment.

2. Rent the equipment.

3. Rent the equipment with an option to purchase it at a later date.

The method selected should be the one that will provide the use of the equipment at the
lowest total cost. Each of the three methods has both advantages and disadvantages which
should be considered prior to making a decision. If the cost was the only factor to be
considered, then an analysis of the cost under each method should give the answer. If other
factors should be considered, they should be evaluated and applied to the cost as a basis on
which to reach a decision. The correct decision for one contractor will not necessarily apply
for another contractor.

Advantages of purchasing equipment compared to renting it are:

1. It is more economical if the equipment is used sufficiently.

2. It is more likely to be available for use when needed.

3. Because ownership should assure better maintenance and care, purchased equipment
should be kept in better mechanical condition.

Disadvantages of owning equipment compared to renting it are:

1. It may be more expensive than renting.

2. Purchasing may require a substantial investment of money or credit that may be needed for
other purposes.

3. The ownership of equipment may influence a contractor to continue using obsolete

equipment after superior equipment has been introduced.
4. The ownership of equipment designed primarily for a given type of work, may induce a
contractor to continue doing that type of work, whereas other work requiring different types
of equipment might be available at a higher profit.

FACTORS BEHIND THE SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION

EQUIPMENTS
The selection of the appropriate construction equipment is an important part of job planning.
The contractor has many different options to choose from, which makes the selection even
more complicated. A planner has to choose the alternative that provides the best value from a
cost and schedule perspective.

Selection of equipment for construction projects generally involves two classes of factors or
considerations-hard factors and soft factors. Examples of hard factors include technical
specifications of the equipment, physical dimensions of the site and constructed facility, and
cost calculations. As can be noticed, hard factors are tangible in nature. On the other hand,
soft factors are mostly intangible, qualitative and informal in nature. Some examples of soft
factors are safety considerations, company policies regarding purchase/ rental, market
fluctuations and environmental constraints. The soft factors influence decision-making to a
large extent.

In the following paragraphs, we discuss some of the factors that govern the equipment-
selection decision. It may be difficult to come up with a set of decision variables that are
applicable for the selection of all types of equipments used in construction, and hence, only a
few common decision variables are discussed. The specific decision variables for a particular
class of equipment selection are discussed subsequently.

Economic Considerations
The economic considerations such as owning costs, operating labour costs and operating fuel
costs of equipment are most important in selection of equipment. Besides, the resale value,
the replacement costs of existing equipment, and the salvage value associated with the
equipment are also important. The economics of equipment selection and replacement issues
are dealt with in detail in later parts.

Company-Specific
The selection of equipment by a company may be governed by its policy on 'owning' or
'renting': While emphasis on 'owning' may result in purchase of equipment keeping in mind
the future requirement of projects Œthe emphasis on 'renting' may lead to putting too much
focus on short-term benefits. This may explain the situation of a construction company opting
for two 30 m3/h batching plant owned by the company and currently idle, instead of the
required one 45 m3/h batching plant that it can get on rent. It is clear that the company wants
to deal with the 30 m3/h batching plant keeping future projects in mind, even though going
for the 45 m3/h batching plant option at present may have been economical.
Further, if the company project forecast says that there will be considerable number of
projects involving a particular type of construction equipment, say X, for the next couple of
years, then the decision would be to buy only this type of equipment. Construction Company
specializing in a particular type of construction, such as tunnelling, will have a tendency to
procure only those equipments that are used in tunnel construction. The equipment-selection
decision also depends on the amount of outsourcing the company does to execute its projects.
A company opting to subcontract a majority of their project work will tend to keep low
equipment asset.

Site-Specific
Site conditions-both ground conditions as well as climatic conditions-may affect the
equipment-selection decision. For example, the soil and profile of a site may dictate whether
to go for a crawler-mounted equipment or a wheel-mounted equipment. If there is a power
line at or in the vicinity of site, one may go for a fixed-base kind of equipment rather than a
mobile kind of equipment. Similarly, climatic conditions such as the presence of strong
winds, visibility level and noise level may affect equipment-selection decision. Further, the
access leading to the site may also affect the decision. Heavy traffic congestion near a site
may lead to a decision to produce the concrete at site and, hence, selecting a
concrete batching plant rather than relying on ready. mix concrete. Similarly, if there is only a
narrow road leading to the site, it may have a bear- ing on type of transportation equipment
selected for the site.
Equipment-Specific
Construction equipments conic with high price tags. While it may be tempting to go for the
equipment with low initial price, it is preferable to opt for standard equipments. Such
equipments are manufactured in large numbers by the manufacturers, and their spare parts are
easily available, which would ensure minimum downtime. Besides, they can also fetch good
salvage money at the time of their disposal.

It is a general tendency to go for such equipments that can bring in 'uniformity' in the type of
equipments that are already available with the company. For example, a company would like
to go for a uniform type of engines for different machines such as excavators, dumpers and
tractors.

The size of equipment selected is also an important consideration. Although the unit
production cost may be cheaper for equipments of large size. it is also true that large
equipments require correspondingly larger sizes of matching equipments. Thus, downtime in
one primary unit may lead to downtime in dependent equipments also. Trade-off between
unit production costs versus size must be obtained and as far as possible, equipments of
similar sizes should be selected for the project.

Besides the above factors, the versatility (whether it can perform more than one function) of
equipment, the adaptability for future use, the past experience with the equipment, and the
interaction with other equipments are also to he noted.

Client and Project-Specific

The owner/client in a certain project may have certain preferences that are not in line with the
construction company's preferred policies as far as equipment procurement is concerned. The
schedule, quality and safety requirements demanded of a particular project may in some cases
force the company to yield to the demands of the client.

Manufacturer-Specific
A construction company may prefer to buy equipment from the same manufacturer again and
again, and that too from a specific dealer. This may be to bring in uniformity in the
equipment fleet possessed by the company or because the company is familiar with the
working style of the manufacturer and the dealer. Long association may not only result in
cheaper price, but it also ensures prompt services by the manufacturer with regard to the
company.

Labour Consideration
Shortage of manpower in some situations may lead to a decision in favour of procuring
equipment that is highly automated. Further, the selection of equipment may be governed by
the availability or non-availability of trained manpower. The company may not be inclined to
select some sophisticated equipment if it finds that there is limited availability of manpower
to operate the same.

Analysis of production outputs and costs

Production Function

•The technological physical relationship between inputs and outputs per unit of time is
referred to as production function.
•The relationship between the inputs to the production process and the resulting output is
described by a production function.
•“The production function is the name given to the relationship between rates of input of
productive services and the rate of output of the product. It is the economist’s summary of
technical knowledge.”-Stigler.

Explanation of the meaning of Production Function:

The theory of production begins with some prior knowledge of the technical and/or
engineering information. For instance, if a firm has a given quantity of labour, land and
machinery, the level of production will be determined by the technical and engineering
conditions and cannot be predicted by the economist. The level of production depends on
technical conditions. If there is improvement in the technique of production, increased output
can be obtained even with the same (fixed) quantity of factors. However, at a given point of
time, there is only one maximum level of output that can be obtained with a given
combination of factors of production. This technical law which expresses the relationship
between factor inputs and output is termed as production function.
Fixed Inputs

• A fixed input is defined as one whose quantity cannot be changed instantaneously in

response to changes in market conditions requiring an immediate change in output.

• E.g., Buildings, major capital equipments and managerial personnel.

Variable Inputs

• A variable input is one whose quantity can be changed readily when market condition
suggests that an immediate change in output is beneficial to the producer.

• E.g. raw materials and labour services.

Short Run

• The short run is that period of time in which quantity of one or more inputs remains
fixed irrespective of the volume of output.

• Therefore, if output is to be increased or decreased in the short run, change

exclusively in the quantity of variable inputs is to be made.

Long Run

• Long run refers to that period of time in which all inputs are variable.

• Thus, the producer does not feel constrained in any way while changing the output.

• In the long run it is possible for the producer to make output changes in the most
advantageous way.

Production process or method of production is a combination of factor inputs for producing

one unit of output