41.

Derive the closed loop gain (amplification factor) formula for negative feedback
amplifiers.

JUST INFORMATIVE

The gain of the amplifier, excluding any feedback, is Ao so that, for example, every
1mV applied across the circuit’s input terminals, the amplifier will produce a phase-
reversed signal of Ao x 1mV across the output terminals.
The feedback circuit comprising R1 and R2 will feed back a fraction (β) of output Vout
which = Ao, so that Ao x βmV (Aβ) will be added in anti-phase to the 1mV signal to
produce a reduced input signal of Vc.
The signal source Vin driving the amplifier must therefore deliver not 1mV but
1+AβmV to produce the same amplitude of output. Therefore the overall gain of the
amplifier with negative feedback is reduced and is now called the closed loop gain
(Ac).
Negative Feedback Formula
The voltage gain of any amplifier can be described by the formula:

Because in the closed loop negative feedback amplifier (Fig. 3.1.2):

Vout = Ao
and
Vin = 1+Aoβ
the closed loop gain (Ac) can also be described by the standard NFB formula:

Negative feedback amplifiers are designed so that the open loop gain Ao (without
feedback applied) of the amplifier is much greater than 1, and so the 1 in the formula
becomes insignificant. The closed loop gain (Ac) can therefore be approximated to:
42. What is a Barkhausen criterion?

In electronics, the Barkhausen stability criterion is a mathematical condition to

determine when a linear electronic circuit will oscillate. It is widely used in the design
of electronic oscillators, and also in the design of general negative feedback circuits
such as op amps (operational amplifiers), to prevent them from oscillating.

A criterion used to determine the stability of an oscillator circuit which states that, if
the circuit is seen as a loop consisting of an amplifier with gain A and a linear circuit
whose gain β(j ω) depends on frequency ω, then the loop will oscillate with a perfect
sine wave at some frequency ω0 if at that frequency A β(j ω0) = 1 exactly, that is, if the
magnitude of A β(j ω0) is exactly 1 and its phase is 0° or 360°.

43. Draw circuit schematic of a BJT differential amplifier (long tailed pair).

BJT Differential Amplifier

Look under the hood of most op amps, comparators or audio amplifiers, and you'll
discover this powerful front-end circuit - the differential amplifier. A simple circuit able
to amplify small signals applied between its two inputs, yet reject noise signals
common to both inputs. This circuit has a unique topology: two inputs and two
outputs. Although you can tap the signal from one output only, taking the difference
between both outputs delivers twice the gain! And it improves Common-Mode
Rejection (CMR), an essential function when the common-mode signal is a noise
source or DC bias from a previous stage.

The classic differential pair amplifier is formed from at least two identical transistors,
configured with the emitters for BJT transistors or the sources for FETs connected together. A
long-tailed pair (LTP), or emitter coupled (source coupled) pair, is a pair of transistors where
the shared emitter or source node is supplied from a more or less constant current
source/sink, which could be as simple as a relatively large value resistor connected to the
negative supply, such as Rtail in figure 12.2.1, (or the positive supply for p-type devices) that
develops a large voltage drop relative to the amplitude of the input signal thus the “long tail”.
 Given the more or less constant current supplied to the emitters or sources the summation of
the two collector or drain currents is also more or less constant with signal.

44. In what input voltage range can a BJT differential amplifier be considered linear?

In my opinion, a BJT can be controlled either by voltage or current depending on the

situation. If we want a maximum gain (the case of amplifying stages), we apply a small
(to be a linear device) AC voltage (e.g., ±100 mV) with an additional appropriate DC
biasing voltage (e.g., 0.65 V) directly to the base-emitter junction; then we can
consider the BJT as a voltage-controlled device

45. By what parameters can an operational amplifier be characterized? What are the
ideal and the real value of these parameters?

Commonly published op amp characteristics.

• Power suppliy requirements.

• Open loop voltage gain.
• Large signal voltage gain.
• Gain bandwidth product.
• Input offset current.
• Maximum differential input.
• Input resistance, Temperature coefficient.
• Slew rate, Power bandwidth.

PARAMETERS
 The real values depends of the model, these values are Generic and just a reference. If
Work with Op Amplifiers its better if you take a look of the datasheet or fabric
characteristics.

46. Draw the circuit symbol of an operational amplifier.

47. Draw circuit schematic of an inverting amplifier! Give the equation of voltage gain.
48. Draw circuit schematic of a non-inverting amplifier! Give the equation of voltage
gain.

49. Draw circuit schematic of a voltage follower amplifier! What this circuit is used for?

50. Draw circuit schematic of an inverting amplifier! Give the equation of voltage gain.

EQUAL TO QUESTIONS 47.

51. Can we use an operational amplifier to build a comparator circuit from?

 Yes

52. What is the difference between the comparator with and without hysteresis?

Many comparators have built-in hysteresis. Typical hysteresis value is a few mV. This is
enough to suppress output undesired toggling in most cases but it doesn't impact
significantly the resolution of the comparator. For comparators with built-in
hysteresis, the average lower and upper threshold voltage is computed and referred as
input offset voltage VIO, the VTRIP+ and VTRIP- difference is referred as hysteresis
voltage VHYST

If the device doesn't include built-in hysteresis, or if a large hysteresis is required, a

positive feedback network can be implemented.

53. Draw circuit schematic of an astable multivibrator built around an operational

amplifier. Which components have influence on the frequency?
 The period of the output waveform is determined by the RC time constant of the two timing
components and the feedback ratio established by the R1, R2 voltage divider network which sets
the reference voltage level. If the positive and negative values of the amplifiers saturation voltage
have the same magnitude, then t1 = t2 and the expression to give the period of oscillation
becomes:

Then we can see from the above equation that the frequency of oscillation for an Op-amp
Multivibrator circuit not only depends upon the RC time constant but also upon the feedback
fraction. However, if we used resistor values that gave a feedback fraction of 0.462, (β = 0.462),
then the frequency of oscillation of the circuit would be equal to just 1/2RC as shown because the
linear log term becomes equal to one.

54. Draw the frequency response of an ideal and real Low-Pass filter.
55. Draw the frequency response of an ideal and real High-Pass filter.
56. Draw the frequency response of an ideal and real Band-Pass filter.
57. Draw the frequency response of an ideal and real Band-stop filter.

58. Draw the circuit schematic of a passive first order Low-Pass filter.

59. Draw the circuit schematic of an active first order Low-Pass filter.

60. Draw the circuit schematic of an active second order Low-Pass filter (Shallen-Key).
61. What's the difference between sensor and transducer?

Sensor - As the term suggests, it is a body which reacts to a physical, chemical or

biological condition. It senses. It can be considered as a detector.

Transducer - The conversion of energy from one form to another is known as

Transduction. A transducer serves for this purpose.

Now why there is confusion is that,

A Sensor can sense in any form (usually electronic) i.e due to some mechanical
change, it can react in electrical form. Thus there is a conversion, similar to that of a
transducer.

A classic example would be a thermocouple. Or a pressure sensor which might detect

pressure and convert it into electric current (3-15psi to 4-20ma)

A Transducer is more than a sensor. It consists of a sensor/actuator along with signal

conditioning circuits.

A signal conditioning circuit, by the name is a circuit which conditions the signal so
that it is strong enough for further processing. A system might contain many stages
before the signal finally reaches its destination to derive meaningful information.

62. What is Seebeck-effect?

The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two

dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference
between the two substances.
When heat is applied to one of the two conductors or semiconductors, heated
electrons flow toward the cooler one. If the pair is connected through an electrical
circuit, direct current (DC) flows through that circuit.

63. What is Peltier-effect?

The Peltier effect is a temperature difference created by applying a voltage between

two electrodes connected to a sample of semiconductor material. This phenomenon
can be useful when it is necessary to transfer heat from one medium to another on a
small scale. The Peltier effect is one of three types of thermoelectric effect; the other
two are the Seebeck effect and the Thomson effect.
64. Name three temperature sensors.

The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch,

that basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or
aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different
linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produce a mechanical bending
movement when the strip is subjected to heat.

The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination

of the words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor
which changes its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature
sensor types. Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their
speed of response to changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size.
Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all the temperature
sensors from below -200oC to well over 2000oC.

65. What does negative temperature coefficient mean?

In Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance

or (NTC), that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature,
and of course there are some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that
their resistance value goes UP with an increase in temperature.

It means that the resistivity will decrease (or the conductivity will increase) with an
increase in temperature. This is a common feature of semiconductors, because the
number of charge carriers increases strongly with temperature. In metals, conversely,
the number of charge carriers isn't strongly dependent with temperature. Instead, the
dominating effect is increased carrier scattering with temperature. This results in a
positive temperature coefficient of resistance: increased resistance due to a
temperature increase.

66. What is RTD?

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

 Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance
Temperature Detector or RTD. RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from
high-purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and
whose electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the
thermistor. Also available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices have a thin film of
platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.

67. What does Pt100 indicate?

The more common types of RTD’s are made from platinum and are called Platinum
Resistance Thermometer or PRT‘s with the most commonly available of them all the
Pt100 sensor, which has a standard resistance value of 100Ω at 0oC. The downside is that
Platinum is expensive and one of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.

68. By which method can you measure signal of RTD? IM NOT SURE

1. Signal Conditioning Requirements for RTD and Thermistor Sensors

Thermistor output signals are typically in the millivolt range, which means that you
must pay careful attention to the sources of error that can impact your measurement
accuracy. The primary signal conditioning factors to consider for thermistor
measurements are:
 RTD and thermistor excitation
 Noise considerations
 Connection configuration
RTD and Thermistor Excitation
Because RTDs and thermistors are resistive devices, you must supply them with an
excitation current and then read the voltage across their terminals. If extra heat
cannot be dissipated, I2R heating caused by the excitation current can raise the
temperature of the sensing element above that of the ambient temperature. Self-
heating actually changes the resistance of the RTD or thermistor, causing error in the
measurement. Self-heating effects can be minimized by supplying lower excitation
current.
Noise Considerations
Lowpass filters are commonly used in RTD and thermistor DAQ systems to effectively
eliminate high-frequency noise in RTD and thermistor measurements. For instance,
lowpass filters are useful for removing the 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in
most laboratory and plant settings.
Connection Configuration
The easiest way to connect an RTD or thermistor to a measurement device is with a 2-
wire connection.
 Figure 1. Making a 2-Wire RTD/Thermistor Measurement

With this method, the two wires that provide the RTD or thermistor with its excitation
current are also used to measure the voltage across the sensor. Because of the low
nominal resistance of RTDs, measurement accuracy can be drastically affected by lead
wire resistance. For example, lead wires with a resistance of 1 Ω connected to a 100 Ω
platinum RTD cause a 1 percent measurement error.
A 3-wire or 4-wire connection method can eliminate the effects of lead wire
resistance. The connection places leads on a high-impedance path through the
measurement device, effectively eliminating error caused by lead wire resistance. It is
not necessary to use a 3- or 4-wire connection method for thermistors because they
typically have much higher nominal resistance values than RTDs. A diagram of a 4-wire
connection is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Making a 4-Wire RTD Measurement

69. Name three proximity sensor types.

Inductive Sensors
Detection of metallic objects

Capacitive Sensors
Detection of metallic and non-metallic objects (Liquids, plastics, woods)

Photoelectric Sensors
Use light sensitive elements to detect objects

Magnetic Sensors
Detects the presence of permanent magnets
70. Name two optical proximity sensor types

DISPLACEMENT AND POSITION SENSORS

 ONE OF THE FIRST OPTOELECTRONIC SENSORS TO BE DEVELOPED.

 SIMPLE SENSORS RELY ON THE CHANGE IN RETROREFLECTANCE DUE TO A PROXIMAL
MIRROR SURFACE
 ALSO REFERRED AS LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS

STRAIN SENSORS
 FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS (FBG) TECHNOLOGY
 SENSES AS LITTLE AS 9 MICROSTRAIN
 NRL and UNITED TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH

BIOMEDICAL SENSORS
 SPECTROSCOPIC BIOMEDICAL SENSORS
 CO 2, O 2 and pH CAN BE MEASURED SIMULTANEOUSLY
 FLOW MONITORING BY LASER DOPPLERIMETRY

71. What sensor can be used to measure vibration with?

Measuring Vibration with Accelerometers

Accelerometers are small devices that are installed directly on the surface of (or
within) the vibrating object. They contain a small mass which is suspended by flexible
parts that operate like springs. When the accelerometer is moved, the small mass will
deflect proportionally to the rate of acceleration. A variety of sensing techniques can
be used to measure the amount of deflection of the mass. Because the mass and
spring forces are known, the amount of deflection is readily converted to an
acceleration value. Accelerometers can provide acceleration information in one or
more axes.

Inertial vibration measurements in which the forces acting upon the object are the
critical factor are well served by accelerometers, but accelerometers are sensitive to
frequency. Vibrations at higher frequencies have greater accelerations than those at
lower frequencies. For this reason, accelerometers produce very low signal levels for
low-frequency vibration and can have poor signal to noise ratios. Also, using
integration to derive velocity or double integration to derive displacement values
reduces high-frequency signals.
72. Name the seven SI base units.

73. Give the equation of absolute and relative errors.

74. Draw the block diagram of A/D converter.

75. Draw the amplitude spectrum of a sampled signal. Can you explain the aliasing
effect?
 In signal processing and related disciplines, aliasing is an effect that causes different
signals to become indistinguishable (or aliases of one another) when sampled. It also
refers to the distortion or artifact that results when the signal reconstructed from
samples is different from the original continuous signal.

Aliasing can occur in signals sampled in time, for instance digital audio, and is referred
to as temporal aliasing. Aliasing can also occur in spatially sampled signals, for instance
digital images. Aliasing in spatially sampled signals is called spatial aliasing

76. What is the meaning of Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem? Mmm complicated

maybe the last one its more explicit

In the field of digital signal processing, the sampling theorem is a fundamental bridge
between continuous-time signals (often called "analog signals") and discrete-time
signals (often called "digital signals"). It establishes a sufficient condition between a
signal's bandwidth and the sample rate that permits a discrete sequence of samples to
capture all the information from the continuous-time signal.
The definition of proper sampling is quite simple. Suppose you sample a continuous signal in some
manner. If you can exactly reconstruct the analog signal from the samples, you must have done the
sampling properly. Even if the sampled data appears confusing or incomplete, the key information has
been captured if you can reverse the process.

The sampling theorem clearly states what the sampling rate should be for a
given range of frequencies. In practice, however, the range of frequencies
needed to faithfully record an analog signal is not always known beforehand.
Nevertheless, engineers often can define the frequency range of interest. As a
result, analog filters are sometimes used to remove frequency components
outside the frequency range of interest before the signal is sampled.

77. Draw the circuit schematic of a binary weighted D/A converter.

78. Name three D/A converter.

 Oversampling DACs
 Binary Weighted DAC
 R2R Ladder DAC
 Segmented DAC
 Hybrid DACs

79. Draw the circuit schematic of a counter type A/D converter and explain it's operation
with waveform.

Operation of counter type ADC

The N bit counter generates an n bit digital output which is applied as an input to the
DAC. The analog output corresponding to the digital input from DAC is compared with
the input analog voltage using an opamp comparator. The opamp compares the two
voltages and if the generated DAC voltage is less, it generates a high pulse to the N bit
counter as a clock pulse to increment the counter. The same process will be repeated
until the DAC output equals to the input analog voltage.

If the DAC output voltage is equal to the input analog voltage, then it generates low
clock pulse and it also generates a clear signal to the counter and load signal to the
storage resistor to store the corresponding digital bits. These digital values are closely
matched with the input analog values with small quantization error.

For every sampling interval the DAC output follows a ramp fashion so that it is called
as Digital ramp type ADC. And this ramp looks like stair cases for every sampling time
so that it is also called as staircase approximation type ADC.

Counter Type ADC Wave forms

 Counter Type ADC Wave forms

Conversion time of Counter type ADC

Conversion time of ADC is the time taken by the ADC to convert the input sampled
analog value to digital value. Here the maximum conversion of high input voltage for a
N bit ADC is the clock pulses required to the counter to count its maximum count
value. So

The maximum conversion of Counter type ADC is = (2N-1) T

Where, T is the time period of clock pulse.

If N=2 bit then the Tmax = 3T.

By observing the above conversion time of Counter type ADC it is illustrated that the
sampling period of Counter type ADC should be as shown below.

Ts >= (2N-1) T

80. Draw the circuit schematic of a successive approximation type A/D converter and
explain it's operation with waveform
A successive approximation ADC is a type of analog-to-digital converter that converts a
continuous analog waveform into a discrete digital representation via a binary search
through all possible quantization levels before finally converging upon a digital output
for each conversion.