Janelle B.

Milana June 22,

2010
BSN – 4A
BIO 4
CELLS – THE LIVING UNITS

CELLS - are the structural units of all living things, from one-celled “generalists” like
amoebas to complex multicellular organisms such as humans, dogs, and trees. The
human body has 50 to 100 trillion of these tiny building blocks. Cells are composed
chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of several other
elements.
• Robert Hooke – an English scientist who first observed plant cells with a crude
microscope in the late 1600s.
• Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann – two German scientists (1830s) who
insisted that all living things are composed of cells.
• Rudolf Virchow – extended the idea of the German scientists by contending that
cells arise only from other cells. Virchow’s proclamation was revolutionary because
it openly challenged the widely accepted theory of spontaneous generation, which
held that organisms arise spontaneously from garbage or other nonliving matter.
Since the late 1800s, cell research has been exceptionally fruitful and provided us
with four concepts collectively known as the cell theory:
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. So when
you define cell properties you are in fact defining the properties of life.
2. The activity of an organism depends on both the individual and the
collective activities of its cells.
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the biochemical activities of
cells are dictated by therelative number of their specific subcellular structures.
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis.

PARTS OF CELLS
Human cells have three main parts: the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the
nucleus. The plasma membrane, a fragile barrier, is the outer boundary of the cell.
Internal to this membrane is the cytoplasm, the intracellular fluid that is packed with
organelles, small structures that perform specific cell functions. The nucleus controls
cellular activities and lies near the cell’s center.

A. The Plasma Membrane: Structure

The flexible plasma membrane defines the extent of a cell, thereby separating two of
the body’s major fluid compartments—the intracellular fluid within cells and the
extracellular fluid outside cells.

Specializations of the Plasma Membrane

a. Microvilli are extensions of the plasma membrane that increase its surface area for
absorption.
b. Membrane junctions join cells together and may aid or inhibit movement of
molecules between or past cells. Tight junctions - are impermeable junctions;
desmosomes - mechanically couple cells into a functional community; gap junctions
– allow joined cells to communicate.
Membrane Transport
1. Diffusion - is the movement of molecules (driven by kinetic energy) down a
concentration gradient. Fat-soluble solutes can diffuse directly through the membrane by
dissolving in the lipid.
2. Facilitated diffusion - is the passive movement of certain solutes across the
membrane either by their binding with a membrane carrier protein or by their moving
through a membrane channel. As with other diffusion processes, it is driven by kinetic
energy, but the carriers and channels are selective.
3. Osmosis - is the diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively
permeable membrane. Water diffuses through membrane pores (aquaporins) or directly
through the lipid portion of the membrane from a solution of lesser osmolarity to a
solution of greater osmolarity.
4. Active transport (solute pumping) - depends on a carrier protein and ATP.
Substances transported move against concentration or electrical gradients.

B. The Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm (“cell-forming material”) is the cellular material between the plasma

membrane and the nucleus. It is the site where most cellular activities are accomplished.
It consists of three major elements: the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions.

a. Cytosol - is the viscous, semitransparent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic

elements are suspended. It is a complex mixture with properties of both a colloid and a
true solution.
b. Cytoplasmic organelles - are the metabolic machinery of the cell. Each type of
organelle is “engineered” to carry out a specific function for the cell—some synthesize
proteins, others package those proteins, and so on.
c. Inclusions - are chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on
cell type.

Cytoplasmic Organelles

1. Mitochondria - are threadlike (mitos = thread) or sausage-shaped membranous

organelles. They are the power plants of a cell, providing most of its ATP supply.
Mitochondria are complex organelles: They contain their own DNA and RNA and are able
to reproduce themselves.
2. Ribosomes - are small, dark-staining granules composed of proteins and a variety of
RNA called ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum - is an extensive system of interconnected tubes and
parallel membranes enclosing fluid-filled cavities, or cisternae, that coils and twists
through the cytosol. The ER is continuous with the nuclear membrane and accounts for
about half of the cell’s membranes. There are two distinct varieties of ER: rough ER and
smooth ER.
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - is studded with ribosomes
b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum The smooth ER is in communication with
the rough ER and consists of tubules arranged in a looping network. Its enzymes (all
integral proteins forming part of its membranes) play no role in protein synthesis.
4. Golgi Apparatus - consists of stacked and flattened membranous sacs, shaped like
hollow dinner plates, associated with swarms of tiny membranous vesicles. The Golgi
apparatus is the principal “traffic director” for cellular proteins. Its major function is to
modify, concentrate, and package the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER.
5.Lysosomes - (“disintegrator bodies”) are spherical membranous organelles containing
digestive enzymes . Lysosomes are large and abundant in phagocytes, the cells that
dispose of invading bacteria and cell debris. Lysosomal enzymes can digest almost all
kinds of biological molecules. They work best in acidic conditions and thus are called acid
hydrolases.

Cellular Extensions: Cilia and Flagella

1. Cilia (“eyelashes”) are whiplike, motile cellular extensionshat occur, typically in large
numbers, on the exposed surfaces of certain cells. Ciliary action moves substances in
one direction across cell surfaces. For example, ciliated cells that line the respiratory
tract propel mucus laden with dust particles and bacteria upward away from the lungs.

2. Flagella - When the projections formed by centrioles are substantially longer, they
are called flagella. The single example of a flagellated cell in the human body is a sperm,
which has one propulsive flagellum, commonly called a tail.

C. The Nucleus

The nucleus is the gene-containing control center of the cells. The nucleus, averaging 5
µm in diameter, is larger than any of the cytoplasmic organelles. Although most often
spherical or oval, its shape usually conforms to the shape of the cell. The nucleus has
three recognizable regions or structures: the nuclear envelope (membrane),
nucleoli, and chromatin.

1. The Nuclear Envelope- a double membrane barrier separated by a fluid-filled space

(similar to the mitochondrial membrane). The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with
the rough ER of the cytoplasm and is studded with ribosomes on its external face.
2. Nucleoli - are the dark-staining spherical bodies found within the nucleus. They are
not membrane bounded. Typically, there are one or two nucleoli per nucleus, but there
may be more. Because they are sites where ribosome subunits are assembled, nucleoli
are usually large in growing cells that are making large amounts of tissue proteins.
3. Chromatin - is a complex network of slender threads containing histone proteins and
DNA. The chromatin units are called nucleosomes. When a cell begins to divide, the
chromatin coils and condenses, forming chromosomes.

The Cell Life Cycle

The cell life cycle- is the series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is
formed until it reproduces, encompasses two major periods: interphase, in which the
cell grows and carries on its usual activities, and cell division, or the mitotic phase,
during which it divides into two cells.

1. Interphase - is the period from cell formation to cell division. It is the nondividing
phase of the cell life cycle. Interphase consists of G1, S, and G2 subphases. During G1, the
cell grows and centriole replication begins; during the S phase, DNA replicates; and
during G2, the final preparations for division are made. Many checkpoints occur during
interphase at which the cell gets the go-ahead signal to go through mitosis or is
prevented from continuing to mitosis.
2. Cell division - is essential for body growth and tissue repair. Cell divisionoccurs
during the M phase. Cell division is stimulated by certain chemicals (including growth
factors and some hormones) and increasing cell size. Lack of space and inhibitory
chemicals deter cell division.

Mitosis - consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, results in

the parceling out of the replicated chromosomes to two daughter nuclei, each
genetically identical to the mother nucleus. Cytokinesis, which begins late in
mitosis, divides the cytoplasmic mass into two parts.
Jennifer B. Milana June 21,
2010
BSN- 4A

Cells are the basic unit of living thing. The smallest independently functioning unit
in the structure of an organism, usually consisting of one or more nuclei surrounded by
cytoplasm and enclosed by a membrane.
Cells also contain organelles such as mitochondria, lysosomes, and ribosomes.
Cells vary considerably in size. The smallest cell, a type of bacterium known as a
mycoplasma, measures 0.0001 mm (0.000004 in) in diameter; 10,000 mycoplasmas in a
row are only as wide as the diameter of a human hair. Among the largest cells are the
nerve cells that run down a giraffe’s neck; these cells can exceed 3 m (9.7 ft) in length.
Human cells also display a variety of sizes, from small red blood cells that measure
0.00076 mm (0.00003 in) to liver cells that may be ten times larger. About 10,000
average-sized human cells can fit on the head of a pin.
Origin of the first cell
There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that could lead to life in an
early Earth. One is that they came from meteorites. Another is that they were created
at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a reducing
atmosphere); although it is not clear if Earth had such an atmosphere. There are
essentially no experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms
were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is
capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions). But some
other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA,
like clayor peptide nucleic acid.
Cells emerged at least 4.0–4.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells
were heterotrophs. An important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed
of a bilayer of lipids. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and
permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are
known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA.
But the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even
have required structural proteins before they could form.
Origin of eukaryotic cells
The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic
cells. DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are almost
certainly what remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-
breathing proteobacteria andcyanobacteria, respectively, where the rest of the cell
seems to be derived from an ancestral archaean prokaryote cell – a theory termed
the endosymbiotic theory.
There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like
the hydrogenosomepredated the origin of mitochondria, or viceversa: see the hydrogen
hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.
Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all
extant eukaryotes, may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to
eukaryotes. An 'origin of sex as vaccination' theory suggests that the eukaryote genome
accreted from prokaryan parasite genomes in numerous rounds of lateral gene transfer.
Sex-as-syngamy (fusion sex) arose when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized
genomes containing co-evolved, vertically transmitted symbionts that conveyed
protection against horizontal infection by more virulent symbionts.
Anatomy of cells
There are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are
usually independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms.
Prokaryotic cells
Theprokaryotecell is simpler, and therefore smaller, than a eukaryote cell, lacking
a nucleusand most of the otherorganelles of eukaryotes. There are two kinds of
prokaryotes:bacteria andarchaea; these share a similar structure.
A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:
 On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are
structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement
and communication between cells;
 Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a cell wall covering
aplasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called
acapsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell
from its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a
cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria)
and Thermoplasma(archaea). The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and
acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from
expanding and finally bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure against
a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryote cells (plant cells and fungi cells) also have
a cell wall;
 Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and
ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a
circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which
causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in
anucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids,
which are usually circular. Plasmids enable additional functions, such as antibiotic
resistance.
Eukaryotic cells
Cells that are about 15 times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as
1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific
metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, a
membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. This nucleus
gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus." Other differences include:
 The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor
differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules,
calledchromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal
DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.
Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
 Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important
roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be
"viewed as sensory cellular antennae that coordinate a large number of cellular
signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or
alternatively to cell division and differentiation."[7]
 Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex
than those of prokaryotes.
Cell membrane: A cell's defining boundary
 Cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The
plasma membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This
membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is
made mostly from a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules)
andhydrophilic phosphorus molecules

Cytoskeleton: A cell's scaffold

The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors
organelles in place; helps duringendocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell,
and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells aftercell division; and moves parts of
the cell in processes of growth and mobility.

Genetic material
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
andribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information
storage, but some viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The
biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence.
Organelles
The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney,
with each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs,"
called organelles, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital
functions.

Cell nucleus – a cell's information center

The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in aeukaryotic cell. It
houses the cell'schromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication
and RNAsynthesis (transcription) occur.

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts – the power generators

Mitochondria generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation,
using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining
to glucose) to generateATP. Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two. Respiration occurs
in the cell mitochondria.

Endoplasmic reticulum – eukaryotes only

The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface and
secretes proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER, which lacks them. Smooth ER
plays a role in calcium sequestration and release.

Golgi apparatus – eukaryotes only

The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package
the macromolecules such as proteinsand lipids that are synthesized by the cell.

Ribosomes
The ribosome is a large complex ofRNA and protein molecules. They each consist
of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to
synthesise proteins from amino acids.

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes – eukaryotes only

 Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or
worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.

Centrosome – the cytoskeleton organiser

The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of
thecytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus.
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell divisionand help
in the formation of the mitotic spindle.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often
described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane