A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G.

CHUNNETT 525

Rock-strength and physical properties of

Norites of the Merensky and Bastard Units,
western Bushveld Complex
A.H. Wilson, C.A. Jermy and M. Ridgeway
School of Geological Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, 4041
e-mail: wilsona@ukzn.ac.za; jermy@ukzn.ac.za; ridgeway@ukzn.ac.za;

G. Chunnett
School of Geological Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, 4041
Present address: Anglo American Platinum Corporation P.O. Box 62179,
Johannesburg, South Africa
e-mail: gchunnett@angloplat.com
© 2005 December Geological Society of South Africa

ABSTRACT
Platinum mining in the Bushveld Complex has expanded greatly over the last decade with many operations planned for, or already
at depths greater than 1000 m. Mine infrastructures, rock fragmentation properties, rock failures and safety issues are important
aspects of deeper mining operations and require an understanding of controls and properties which influence rock strength. This
study, which includes rock classification of both fresh and altered material, chemical compositions, fabrics and structure, was carried
out to investigate mainly the noritic rocks in the vicinity of the Merensky reef in the western Bushveld Complex.
Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and tensile strength (TS) are shown to be broadly dependent on rock type, and strongly
dependent on the degree of structural alteration as reflected by the Rock Quality Designation (RQD). In addition, there is an
unexpectedly strong correlation between UCS values and both normative quartz and Zr contents of the whole rock. Both of these
compositional parameters relate to the entrapment of a late-stage liquid which when solidified acted as cement and influenced the
propagation of fractures under conditions of failure. Micrographic observations indicate that interstitial quartz, even in relatively
small amounts, is effective in arresting fracture propagation. Relatively small variations in the quartz content could therefore
significantly affect the rock strength of the norites. Other possible controls on rock strength include the relative development of
foliation fabric, the distribution of crystal sizes, and the way that the rocks have annealed at high temperature.

Introduction measurements with quantification of textures and

The Bushveld Complex is the world’s largest layered
intrusion and has been mined for nearly 100 years for a
wide variety of metal commodities. It is the single largest
resource and producer of platinum and chromium.
While most of the mineable resources for the past
50 years have been close to the surface, the scale of
mining operations in the early part of the 21st Century
has necessitated consideration of developing mines to
depths of greater than 1000 m below surface.
The development of mine infrastructures, efficiency of
rock breaking, rock failures and safety aspects are
important considerations in these deeper mines. The full
assessment of these parameters requires an under-
standing of rock-strength and rock integrity of the
stratigraphic sequences which enclose the ore zones.
This study relates to that part of the stratigraphy
overlying the Merensky reef, and in particular to the
norites which comprise the hanging-wall to the reef.
While these rock types generally fall into the category of
‘strong rock’, strength ranges and physical attributes
which impact on geotechnical properties have not
previously been documented.
The aim of the study is to investigate the systematic
variation of rock strengths of fresh norites immediately
above the Merensky reef and to integrate these
chemical compositions of the same samples.
The Bushveld Complex
The Bushveld Complex is the largest mafic-ultramafic
layered intrusion on Earth covering an area of
approximately 67 000 km2 and has a broadly oval shape
extending some 375 km in an east-west direction and
300 km in a north-south direction. The intrusion
comprises four lobes which dip inward towards each
other forming an elongated deep basin structure
reflecting its emplacement into the Transvaal
Supergroup sedimentary basin at 2058.9 ± 0.8 Ma (Buick
et al, 2001). The mafic and ultramafic rocks of the
Bushveld Complex (Rustenburg Layered Suite) form a
succession more than 10 000 m thick (Eales and
Cawthorn, 1996) which is made up of four major
stratigraphic components, these being from the base
upwards: the Lower Zone, Critical Zone, Main Zone and
Upper Zone. The Critical Zone is economically the most
important and also represents the transition from
ultramafic rocks (harzburgites and pyroxenites) to mafic
rocks (norites and gabbronorites).
The Merensky reef, one of several major economic
horizons in the Bushveld Complex mined for the
platinum group elements (PGE) and base metals, is part

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY, 2005, VOLUME 108 PAGE 525-540

526 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS

Figure 1. Geological map of the western Bushveld Complex indicating the area in which this study was carried out and the major
stratigraphic zones in relation to the Merensky and Bastard Units. The heavy dashed line is the outcrop of the Merensky reef. Detailed
stratigraphy for core GC2 is shown together with the legend. Abbreviation: MP - Merensky pyroxenite; BP - Bastard pyroxenite. Other drill
holes used in this study are GC7 and GC8.

of a series of cyclic units located close to the Critical
Zone – Main Zone boundary. The geographic location of
the study area and stratigraphy are shown in Figure 1.
Mining operations on the Merensky reef have expanded
greatly since 1994 with seven new mines and projects
being brought into, or approaching, production. At the
same time, existing mines have developed operations to
greater depths. Extensive mining of the Merensky reef,
as well as development in the hanging-wall, requires
understanding of the controls of rock strength of the
norites which overlie the reef. Many parameters
influence rock strength and the manner in which rocks
fail. This paper reports on an investigation into the
influences of rock composition, textures (including
mineral orientation and crystal size), on the geotechnical
properties of rocks in the vicinity of the Merensky reef
and in particular, the hanging-wall norites where
extensive mining development takes place.
Mechanisms of Failure and Fracture in Brittle Rocks
Cracks in strong rocks, which as a category include the
Bushveld norites, can be defined as planes of weakness
within confined regions of the rock. These are normally
of a shear type and can be either continuous or
discontinuous under differing stress conditions. Crack
propagation by failure caused by stress concentrations at
the ends of minute cracks (Griffith, 1921) has long been
recognized as important in rock failure and in fluid
induced stress. In most igneous rocks, stresses are
induced primarily as a result of internal strain during
cooling. Failure in rocks is considered to take place
initially along crystal boundaries (Brace, 1961; Hoek,
1965) but crack propogation will penetrate crystals at the
point of failure. In the context of rock strength, most
igneous rocks are regarded as being relatively isotropic
(in contrast to sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
which are usually anisotropic) and any deviation from
that ideal situation will have an important influence on
rock strength. In the simplest case of planar anisotropy,
the rock will have a set of parallel planes of weakness,
the strengths of which are related to the coefficient of
internal friction, which can be expressed quantitatively

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT 527

Figure 2. 60 mm diameter core which has undergone UCS testing. Core samples ideally fail along a plane of less than 45o to the vertical
axis of compression. Failure types observed in the tests are: (a) Failure along a single plane; (b) failure along a single plane together with
high angle longitudinal fractures; (c) failure along two fractures symmetrically inclined to the longitudinal axis.

(Jaeger and Cooke, 1977). Planes of failure may also
intersect the principal planes of weakness, a situation
which can readily be expressed from the Mohr circle
diagram. Crack propagation during failure of anisotropic
rocks may take place in both the principal plane of
weakness and also in other sets which may be randomly
orientated.
The basic assumption of the initial stages of rock
failure is that the condition is attained in which the
maximum tensile strength around the most critical crack
reaches some critical value. It is likely that this situation
arises by the interaction of several small cracks in the
form of an array. The crack propagates further with an
increase in the applied stress while at the same time
failures start from other micro-cracks which were not
initially in critical orientations. In general, major fractures
will be parallel to the axis of the intermediate principal
stress but this need not be the case for other minor
cracks. Therefore an array of micro-cracks can develop
in a number of orientations which collectively lead to
rock weakness in several planes and directions. There is
currently little information as to how the microfracture
set is controlled by mineralogy and texture and it is the
aim of this study to investigate controls on rock failure
related to texture and composition.
An important controlling factor on the physical and
mechanical behaviour of igneous rocks is the manner in
which crystals interlock. Fracture is considered more
likely to take place along crystal boundaries resulting in
intergranular fracture rather than within crystals resulting
in transgranular fracture (Bell, 2000). Therefore irregular
and strongly interlocking or sutured crystal boundaries
make fracture more difficult. It has been shown for
granite that there is a linear dependence between
Young’s modulus and the average crystal surface area
per unit volume (Onodera and Kumara, 1980). However,
as pointed out by Bell (2000), defects superimposed on
the coherent internal structure of a rock also have a
strong effect on its ultimate strength, and the strength of
some crystalline rocks is inversely proportional to the
frequency of defects (Willard and McWilliams, 1969).
Furthermore, many rocks have a primary fabric (as
opposed to defect planes), which in layered mafic
igneous rocks can be of several types. Materials such as
sandstones, slates and marbles have compressive
strengths which are highly directional (Donath, 1961;
Griggs, 1951). The strength of rock is also dependent on
temperature and pressure which influences the
transition from brittle to ductile deformation.
Pore fluids have a major influence on compressive
strength of both weathered rock (Turk and Dearman,
1986) and fresh rock (Broch, 1979) as a result of
lowering of the molecular cohesive strength, as
expressed by the general equation (Turk and Dearman,
1986):
 =  - 
Where  = effective rock strength
 = total rock strength
 = pore water pressure
Wetting may also cause replacement of strong
oxygen-silicon bonds by weaker hydrogen bonds and if
this takes place at the apex of a microfracture it will
lower the strength required for failure at that point
resulting in rapid crack propagation (Atkinson, 1984).
Most of the Bushveld Complex rocks contain small but
significant amounts of hydrous minerals which may

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528 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS
release water under certain conditions of local heating,
stress or during unloading.
Rock Strength of Crystalline Igneous Rocks
This study is mainly concerned with norites in the
western Bushveld Complex, specifically in the sequence
overlying the Merensky reef, a situation in common with
many other layered intrusions which host major
platinum group element (PGE) deposits (e.g. MSZ of the
Great Dyke and the J-M Reef of the Stillwater Complex).
In general, rocks of this type can be described as
granular, of relatively homogeneous composition and
massive, of low deformability and of generally high
strength (Anon, 1977; Bell, 2000). The rock strength
properties are also strongly dependent on weathering
(usually relating to near surface exposure or proximity
to faults and shear zones), as a result of the increased
clay content and porosity. Furthermore, joints and
fractures (often in multiple sets) relating to regional
stresses and unloading of the igneous body due to
exhumation, also create planes of weakness and can
facilitate passage of fluids with concomitant alteration.
In contrast to igneous rocks, laminated sedimentary
rocks, usually have a preferred mineral orientation and
are markedly anisotropic regarding unconfined
compressive strength in relation to the orientation of the
sample ( Donath, 1961; Attewell and Sandford, 1974).
This weakness is also apparent when loading is at high
angles to the foliation plane (Brown et al., 1977). For
brittle foliated rocks the maximum failure strengths
occur where the foliation is perpendicular to the axis of
loading and is at a minimum where the angle is 30o
(Ramamurthy et al., 1993). The maximum uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) and tensile strengths (TS)
values for mica phyllites are in the order of 80 and 20
MPa respectively, and that for quartz schists and
phyllites 190 and 100 MPa, respectively. Massive igneous
rocks (granites and basalts) exhibit UCS strengths
of 150 to 300 MPa and are described in the category of
being ‘very strong to extremely strong’ (Bell, 2000).
Many medium to coarse-grained igneous rocks, such as
the norites and pyroxenites of the Bushveld Complex,
possess variable degrees of mineral alignments, both
linear and foliated, but the influence of mineral fabrics
has not previously been investigated in these rock types.
Testing of Strength and Failure in Brittle Rocks
Brittle failure, as defined by Bell (2000), occurs as a
result of a sudden loss of cohesion in a plane that is not
preceded by appreciable permanent deformation, and
can take place on a variety of scales. While theory
predicts that the relationship between principal stresses
at rupture is linear, in actual practice these are non-linear
due to the area of grains in frictional contact as the
pressure increases. This concept was taken into account
in the Grifftith’s theory of crack propagation (Griffith’s
Cracks), and further expanded by Brace (1964) who
showed that fracture in hard rock is initiated at grain
boundaries. However, rock strength and the
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
development of fractures is likely to be dependent
on many inter-related factors such as grain size,
grain shape, crystal packing, mutual degree of grain
interlockment, degree of annealing as a result of cooling
from high temperature, and the nature and type of the
cementing medium. These factors apply to igneous
rocks as well as sedimentary rocks. The complete
quantification of the influence of all such parameters is
currently not possible and empirical formulation allows
preliminary evaluation of rock strengths in design (Hoek
and Brown, 1997). Sample size is also a consideration
during testing of rock strengths as Hoek and Brown
(1997) noted that testing under laboratory conditions
tended to overestimate strength values. This phenomena
was explained as a result of damage due to micro
cracking developing at critical intensities at lower stress
levels in the field compared to laboratory conditions
where smaller samples were tested at high loading rates
(Martin and Chandler, 1994).
The Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) test carried
out in this study used equipment and procedures as
recommended by the Commission on Testing Methods,
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)
(Brown, 1981). The diameter of the core used is 60 mm
(TNW core) and conformed with standard procedure
using length:diameter ratio of 2:1. The UCS of a rock is
calculated by dividing the load at which failure occurs
by the cross sectional area of the sample. The rate of
loading of the sample has to be consistent and to
comply with the standard rate of loading as set by the
ISRM (Bieniawski and Hawkes, 1978). The samples used
in the geotechnical tests are representative of the intact
strength of the rock (Hoek and Brown, 1997), as this
form of testing does not take the presence of
discontinuities into account. However, the geotechnical
test results should reflect the inherent mineralogy and
any physical or chemical alteration of those minerals
within the samples.
UCS testing, in which cylinders of rock are
compressed parallel to the long axis (Figure 2), is one of
the most useful methods of determining rock-strength
properties. The response to the test is strongly
dependent on the contact of the platens between the
rock surfaces which are subject to the compression.
The surfaces need to be flat and at right angles to the
long axis of the specimen. The strength of the sample
decreases with increasing length in relation to diameter.
Failure starts where the rock is in contact with the
platens at a strength level somewhat lower than that of
the maximum uniaxial strength of the sample (Jaeger
and Cooke, 1977). Failure under uniaxial compression is
usually violent as a result of the rapid release of energy
which may also induce secondary fractures at the point
of breaking. Errors in the test can arise from stresses
set up by the frictional effects of the platen contact
which may allow lateral expansion. In the ideal
case a frictionless surface should exist between the
rock and the platen. In this study, samples which
underwent solely longitudinal splitting as a result of end-
 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT
effects (and therefore not adequately representing the
inherent rock properties) were excluded from the
overall assessment. In very strong materials (as in the
present case) both longitudinal splitting and shear
fractures are common (Fairhurst and Cooke, 1966)
(Figure 2).
UCS values are calculated from the equation:
UCS (MPa) = load at failure (kN)/1000
cross-sectional area of sample (m2 )
The direct testing of the tensile strength (TS) of a
rock is complex and time-consuming and therefore it is
common practice to employ the indirect Brazilian Disc
test. For this test, a constant rate of loading is required
(as recommended by the ISRM) (Bieniawski and
Hawkes, 1978). The diameter to length ratio of the
samples is 0.5:1. The sample is loaded diametrically
until failure occurs under tension. The tensile strength
is calculated by means of the following equation,
where P is the compression load at failure, d is the
disc diameter and t is the length or thickness of the disc
sample.
TS (MPa) = 0.636 P (kN) / 1000 (as applied to 60 mm diameter core)
2 A further difficulty in the practical implementation of
d t (m )
These indirect measurements of tensile strength
suffer from the limitation that the tests involve
inhomogeneous stresses and are therefore not a true
measure of the tensile strength. The tensile strength of
rock is more variable than UCS and is strongly
influenced by specimen size (Jaeger and Cooke, 1977).
It is therefore necessary to make a number of repeated
measurements of the same material.
The affect of fluid pressure in the pores of the
specimen have a great influence on rock strength. Small
amounts of fluid on grain boundaries can result in
viscous flow of material and therefore significantly affect
the measured rock strength. While the rocks in the study
may be characterized as massive with very low porosity
levels (Brace, 1965), early entrapment of fluids giving
rise to small amounts of hydrous minerals, as well as
secondary alteration resulting in the formation of
hydrous minerals can influence the measurements.
Unlike soils, in which pore spaces may be
interconnected, it may be assumed in massive unaltered
igneous rocks that there is minimal interconnectivity and
therefore fluids in non-porous igneous rocks will only
affect short range propagation of fractures.
Classification of rock-types in the Merensky Unit
Rock names and normative compositions
Visual inspection allows a qualitative assessment of rock
types, cumulus status of minerals, and texture (including
crystal size), essential for rock recognition and
description in the field and in mining applications.
Identification of rock types is usually on the basis of
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
529
mineral proportions and applying standard criteria for
rock naming as recommended by the International
Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission (IUGS) on
the Systematics of Igneous Rocks (Le Maitre, 1989).
The IUGS system defines anorthosites as mafic rocks
with greater than or equal to 90% plagioclase, and
pyroxenites as having less than 10% plagioclase. In the
lower part of the Main Zone in question there are few,
if any, true anorthosites which are compositionally
homogeneous, although small-scale components of
these rocks may be true anorthosites. The only persistent
layer of anorthosite (between a few mm and 60 cm,
depending in reef width) is at the base of the Merensky
reef (and even then, the equivalent layer is not always
present in all areas of the Bushveld Complex). In most
other cases, plagioclase is concentrated in irregular
zones on a scale of 3 to 10 cm but these zones are not
persistent layers and therefore only give an impression
of being anorthosites, particularly when viewed in drill
core.
Therefore, the rigid application of the IUGS system
based on modal mineralogy would classify most rocks of
the Merensky Unit (including much of the Merensky
pyroxenite and Bastard pyroxenite) as norites or
gabbronorites (to include mela- or leuco- varieties as
indicating more mafic and felsic varieties respectively).
estimating accurate modal compositions is the generally
heterogeneous nature of these rocks where the scale of
variation is commonly in the order of 1 to 5 cm, or
greater, particularly for the pegmatoidal rocks in the
Merensky reef. Compositions of these rocks may,
however, be reliably determined by converting whole
rock major element compositions to volume percentage
normative minerals (here using the CIPW norm) because
of the relatively simple mineralogical assemblage.
In applying such a normative classification, a small
correction needs to be applied for the most mafic rocks
so that about 1.5% Al2O3 contained in orthopyroxene
is not converted into plagioclase. Approximately
2.5% Al2O3 is contained in clinopyroxene but for the
western Bushveld Complex this mineral constitutes less
than 7% (by volume) and the correction is minor.
The correction is dependent on the amount of
normative pyroxene and for 95% normative pyroxene
the correction is a subtraction of 6% plagioclase from the
norm and an addition of 4% pyroxene followed by
recalculation of the total norm back to 100%.
The correction is applied on a sliding scale and becomes
minimal for normative pyroxene contents less than 25%.
For rocks in the Merensky reef environment, sulphide
and chromite should be included in the norm
calculation.
There is currently little agreement on the
formalization of rock names relating to the Merensky
Unit. The commonly identified ‘pyroxenites’ or
‘feldspathic pyroxenites’ are widely recognized mainly
on the basis of their being more mafic than the
underlying and overlying norites, and on textural form,
530 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS
Figure 3. Normative mineral compositions for 167 samples from
the Merensky and Bastard Units in relation to fields of classification
and density. (a) Compositional limits on the basis of normative
pyroxene content (volume. %) with limits conforming to the modal
fields as defined by Le Maitre (1989). (b) Proposed compositional
fields as being more appropriate for the Merensky and Bastard
Units. (c) Relation of density and normative plagioclase content
(volume %) together with the compositional limits shown in (b).
even though, as pointed out above some of these rocks
classify as varieties of melanorite on modal mineralogy
alone. Therefore, it is important that such a distinction is
retained in any revised classification scheme. The IUGS
system has the term ‘plagioclase-bearing pyroxenite’, but
this is not clearly defined other than that plagioclase
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
may not exceed 10%, and is therefore inappropriate for
some of these rocks in this sequence. While the term
‘pyroxenite’ is retained for rocks with greater than
90% pyroxene, a further category of ‘feldspathic
pyroxenite’, or more correctly ‘plagioclase pyroxenite’
(Gillespie and Styles, 1999; Brown, 2004), is applied
here where the pyroxene content is less than 90%, but
where plagioclase is interstitial. Further distinctions are
required in the plagioclase-rich cumulates. The term
‘anorthosite’ is retained for all rocks with plagioclase
greater than or equal to 90% by volume, and ‘pyroxene
anorthosite’ for rocks with plagioclase less than 90% and
greater than 80% by volume, with the remainder being
pyroxenes. The suggested scheme for the Merensky Unit
based on normative mineral constituents (illustrated in
Figure 3 and in Table 1), formalizes fields of pyroxenite,
plagioclase pyroxenite, norite/gabbronorite, pyroxene
anorthosite and anorthosite on a quantitative basis.
A comparison is made with the IUGS fields (Figure 3a)
with those proposed here (Figure 3b), on which are
superimposed compositions of the rocks analysed in this
study. The data set is derived from 167 analyses from
four different borehole sections in the same area of the
western Bushveld Complex. This classification also
identifies clearly defined compositional groupings
pertaining to the nomenclature.
Minor mineral components which are not
represented but are important in the genesis of these
rocks include sulphide, chromite, amphibole,
phlogopite, quartz, olivine, apatite and zircon.
Textural types
Textures also play an important role in the classification
and recognition of distinct rock-types in the Merensky
and Bastard Units. The variable textural forms of both
pyroxene and plagioclase are well known and described
from many zones of the Bushveld Complex. The so-
called ‘poikilitic anorthosites’ are characterized by large
pyroxene crystals enclosing smaller crystals of
plagioclase. A further term in common usage is
‘oikocryst’ which is defined as ‘matrix or host crystals
through which smaller crystals of other minerals are
scattered as poikilitic inclusions’ (Rice, 1963). More
recently this term has been used synonymously with the
term ‘heteradcumulate’ (Wager and Brown, 1968) which
has mechanistic implications for both the enclosed and
the enclosing crystals (e.g. Wilson, 1992). This term
implies nucleation and growth of the various phases at
an early stage of the crystallization history and the
difference in textures probably arises from physical and
kinetic controls rather than by the phase controlled
sequence of crystallization. In many cases the term
‘oikocryst’ cannot be applied to the pyroxenes in this
region of the Bushveld Complex because they are
commonly an agglomeration of smaller discrete crystals
and the term refers strictly to single crystallographically
continuous mineral crystals which enclose crystals
of a different mineral. Other descriptive textural terms
in common use include ‘mottled anorthosite’, ‘spotted
 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT 531

Table 1. Limits of normative mineral compositions in defining rock types of the Merensky and Bastard Units in the western Bushveld
Complex.

IUGS classification Normative-based classification used here

Vol. % Vol. % Vol. % Vol. % Vol. % Vol. %
Plagioclase Orthopyroxene Clinopyroxene Plagioclase Total Pyroxene Clinopyroxene
Anorthosite >90 <10 >90 <10
Pyroxene anorthosite Term not used 80-90 10-20
Norite <90 >10 <5 40-80 20-60 <5
Gabbronorite <90 >10 >5 40-80 20-60 >5
Clinopyroxene Norite <90 >10 >5 40-80 20-60 >5
Opx > Cpx Opx > Cpx
Plagioclase pyroxenite <10 >90 <5 10-40 60-90 <10
For plagioclase
orthopyroxenite
Pyroxenite <10 >90 <5 <10 >90 <10
For plagioclase
orthopyroxenite
Prefixes mela- and leuco- can be applied respectively for more mafic and felsic varieties of norite and gabbronorite, the limits of which are
defined in Figure 3b. For the suite of rocks used in this study normative clinopyroxene is less than 10% and therefore the term gabbronorite
has been included in the table.

Figure 4. Distribution of mafic minerals and plagioclase for four typical sections of drill core GC2 determined by high contrast image
analysis of polished core. (a) Norite at 61.66 m; (b) Leuconorite at 14.16 m; (c) Anorthosite at 48.62 m; (d) Anorthosite at 51.49 m.
The textural types do not reflect the mineralogical composition but there is close agreement between the normative plagioclase content
(volume %) and the plagioclase content determined from image analysis. The narrow dashed lines are the average foliation direction as
determined from best-fit ellipses of plagioclase crystals and the heavy dashed line represents high angle dislocations considered to have
originated as a result of loading and compaction shearing (also see Figure 5).

anorthosite’, ‘granular norite’ etc. none of which
have been rigorously defined or characterized and for
which there exist no firm criteria for their use (Brown,
2004).
It is commonly accepted that in the ‘pyroxenite’
components of the Merensky and Bastard Units, the
orthopyroxene is cumulus and plagioclase interstitial,
and while this is broadly correct, there exist zones in the
Merensky reef where the plagioclase occurs as discrete
unzoned single oikocryts becoming highly zoned at the
crystal margins. In the felsic rocks the orthopyroxene
ranges from individual granular crystals to large poikilitic
crystals, or agglomerations of smaller crystals which are
interstitial to the plagioclase.

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532 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS

Image Analysis Textural forms studied by the image analysis

Image analysis (Figure 4) provides a rapid and effective
method for classifying both the textures and
compositions of rocks of this type (dominated by
plagioclase and orthopyroxene) using high contrast
grey-scale scans of polished core followed by image
processing to create a black-white pixel map.
The method requires that only dark and light minerals
(in this case mainly pyroxene and plagioclase) in the
plane of the polished surface be counted and that muted
tones from angular intersections at edge contacts of
pyroxene and plagioclase be eliminated by correct
selection of grey-scale levels. As many of these rocks are
texturally inhomogeneous on scales of 1 to 10 cm, and
even on larger scales in some cases, this method has
proved to be superior and more consistent compared
with the conventional method of grid point counting,
which is also very time consuming. Major textural types
can therefore be readily identified as well as obtaining
an estimate of the mineral proportions. There is good
correspondence between normative plagioclase content
and the volume of plagioclase estimated from the image
analysis, and the observed deviation of 1 to 3% is well
within the accuracy required for general classification
purposes. The poikilitic nature of the pyroxene is also
clearly evident, except for GC2 263 in which the
pyroxene is largely cumulate with filamental
overgrowths formed by late-stage growth providing a
cement to the plagioclase crystals in close proximity.
A limitation of this method is the inability to distinguish
between ortho- and clinopyroxene and, while less of a
problem for the norites in the western Bushveld
Complex, this becomes more important on the east side
where clinopyroxene is in some rocks a major mineral
constituent.
technique indicate that widely differing textures have
very similar mineralogical compositions. This is
particularly evident in the granular textured norite
(GC2 263) and the poikilitic norite (GC2 56). The degree
to which pyroxene is dispersed between cumulus
plagioclase is also highly variable even for samples of
similar composition, as indicated for samples GC2 226
and GC2 214. Samples were orientated such that the dip
direction of the layering was at a maximum and were cut
perpendicular to the layering plane. Many samples
analyzed indicate a major and minor structural grain at
higher angles to the vertical than the plane of layering,
which may have developed as a result of compaction
shearing. High angle dislocations (Figure 5) developed
during late-stages of crystallization in a semi-rigid mass
of crystals and liquid by loading and shearing.
One of the objectives of the current study is to
ascertain the extent that rock types, based on mineral
proportions, and textures influence the geotechnical
properties.
Rock Types and Density Relations
The densities of unaltered mafic and ultramafic rocks in
this part of the Bushveld Complex are largely dependent
on the proportions of the dominant minerals present
rather than on variances of the mineral compositions,
which have relatively narrow ranges. For rocks in the
compositional range from pyroxenite to anorthosite
(and excluding chromitite and those highly enriched in
sulphide), the whole-rock density is strongly dependent
on proportions of plagioclase and pyroxene. For the
section studied, a high degree of correlation between
normative plagioclase with density (measured by the
water immersion method using core samples weighing

Figure 5. Thin section of leuconorite showing high angle dislocations in relation to the average foliation in the plane of the layering.
The dislocations probably originated as a result of loading and compaction shearing in the semi-rigid mass of crystals at high temperature.
The shearing caused fracturing of relatively few crystals with only a few showing healed fractures but also caused reduction in crystal size
close to the shear plane. This indicates that crystals continued to grow in the shear regime. Continued stress in the completely solid regime
is reflected by bent and deformed crystals. These planes of weakness can influence the manner in which the rocks break.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT 533

Figure 6. Frequency distribution diagrams for the results of the UCS (uniaxial compressive strength), TS (tensile strength) and RQD (rock
quality designation) tests for three drill cores (GC2, GC7 and GC8). GC2 shows the most consistent distribution for UCS but also has the
lowest median value for TS. GC2 has the most consistently high value for RQD. Cores GC7 and GC8 have a wide range of values including
very low values.

200 to 400 gm) is observed (correlation coefficient
r2=0.995). Therefore density determined rapidly and
easily by the immersion method provides a potentially
accurate method of determining rock compositions.
At this stage it is not known to what extent this
relationship varies in different areas of the Merensky
Unit.
Comparison of UCS and TS Test Results
Samples from three borehole cores were used in the
study which showed measurable variation in a number
of primary and secondary physical properties such as,
rock-types based on mineral proportions, textural types,
mineral fabrics, fracture density and degree of
weathering. A total of 182 samples were used for UCS
testing and 174 for TS tests (Figure 6). While the three
cores were located in the same general area of the
western Bushveld Complex, separated by less than
1 km, and represent the same stratigraphic interval
(Figure 1), some consistent variations in primary textures
were noted.
The RQD value (Rock Quality Designation) is a
semi-quantitative assessment of the incidences of
discontinuities within given intervals in the core and
provides a measure of rock mass. Core GC2 was visually
noted as being more coherent and less jointed than GC7
and GC8. Core GC7 had some degree of fracturing (with
one zone of extensive fracturing) while GC8 was more
extensively fractured, and in some zones very heavily
fractured. The frequency of RQD values is recorded for
specific intervals in each core judged to be of a
consistent nature as reflecting the measured intensity of
discontinuities and fractures. On this basis core GC2 is
coherent and competent with an RQD of about 90,
whereas for the other two cores which have similar
ranges, the distribution of data is generally to much
lower values. The high frequency peak for all three
cores is 80-100% (Figure 6), indicating that the cores
have both fractured and unfractured zones.
UCS measurements for the three cores are consistent
with the differences in RQD. GC2 has a symmetrical
distribution of rock strengths ranging from 80 to

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

534 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS

Figure 7. Variation of UCS and TS values through the zone of Merensky and Bastard Units in relation to normative plagioclase contents
for drill core GC2. (a) Variation of normative plagioclase composition highlighting the cyclic characteristics of the section. There is little
variation in plagioclase content above the 40 m mark. (b) Values of UCS vary in a systematic manner indicating primary controls relating
to rock properties. (c) Variation of TS which has some correlation to peak positions for UCS. The TS value immediately above the Merensky
pyroxenite is the lowest measured value for the entire sequence. (d) Correlation of UCS and TS measurements as relating to identified cyclic
variation observed in (b). The units A, B and C from the top of the section lie on a different trend to the rest of the data. This is likely to
represent an inherent property of the rock sequence, but may also be the result of near-surface alteration.

220 MPa with a relatively narrow standard deviation.
In contrast GC7 and GC8 have lower values and a wider
distribution, with GC8 being significantly degraded.
This is in contrast with the TS properties which show
the inverse trend with GC2 having overall lower values.
Core GC7, and even more so for GC8, have a
distribution of lower values which is consistent with the
lower RQD rating of the cores. However, the lower
standard deviation for GC2 is indicative of other controls
on tensile strength.
Stratigraphic Controls on UCS and TS
The high RQD ratings for core GC2 indicate that the rock
is fresh and unaltered and suitable for investigations on
stratigraphic controls on rock strength properties.
Variations in bulk compositions (Figure 7a) are reflected
by the normative plagioclase content with a gradual
increase in the plagioclase content from the top of the
Merensky pyroxenite to immediately below the Bastard
pyroxenite. This pattern is repeated above the Bastard
pyroxenite but the composition remains remarkably
constant higher in the norites. Consistent with the
compositional changes, however, distinct textural
changes are observed giving a range of rock types which
include granular norite and poikilitic leuconorite.
Upward in the Merensky Unit there is an overall increase
in UCS values (Figure 7b) indicating that rock strength is
dependent on the gradual change of rock-type from
plagioclase pyroxenite to leuconorite. However, on
approaching the base of the Bastard pyroxenite the TS
(Figure 7c) and UCS decrease dramatically indicating
controls other than rock type. Above the Bastard
pyroxenite there is a marked and consistent increase in
plagioclase content which corresponds to a slight
increase in both TS and UCS. Above the 40 m mark the
amount of plagioclase is relatively constant, slightly
decreasing upwards in the sequence, while at the same
time there are major changes of both TS and UCS over

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT 535

Figure 8. Variation of: (a) UCS values and (b) Zr content, with stratigraphic height in core GC2; (c) UCS with Zr content; (d) UCS with
percentage of normative quartz. A strong dependence for peak values is observed between UCS and Zr content and with normative quartz
through the section and on the basis of the variation plots. Different parts of the section suggest slightly different controls as indicated by
the symbols.

narrow vertical intervals indicating controls other than
bulk rock composition. This change indicates that the
poikilitic leuconorites are considerably weaker than
the granular leuconorites. A broad linear dependence is
observed between TS and UCS for the lower part of the
section (rock packages E to J in Figure 7d). Above 20 m
(rock packages A to C in Figure 7d) there is a shift to
lower TS values giving a slightly different array on this
diagram which is not reflected in the bulk composition
or rock type.
Relative rock strengths vary from 10 to 60% for TS
and between 40 to 100% for UCS over intervals of about
5 m. The smooth variation of values within these
intervals is also indicative of primary controls on
rock strength properties which systematically vary through
the sequence. Therefore, although controls relating to
rock type and plagioclase content are observed, the
variation is complex and cannot simply be explained by
variations in bulk rock composition or textural form.
Trace Element and Minor Mineral Controls on Rock
Strength Properties
An unexpected result is the correlation of rock strength
(and in particular UCS) on minor mineral component
and trace element composition of the whole rocks as
expressed by the Zr content in the whole rock and
normative quartz (volume %). Normative quartz in these
rocks indicates an excess of silica which cannot be
accommodated by the major silicate mineral assemblage.
While precise correlation does not occur for the entire
section investigated, over certain intervals there is a
high degree of correlation, and the overall sense of
variation for Zr content and UCS is remarkably similar
(Figures 8a; b). The Zr content is not a function of the
general mineralogical composition because completely
contrasting patterns are observed for the variation of
normative plagioclase and Zr content (compare
Figures 7a; 8b). Both Zr and normative quartz content
reflect a particular stage in the early crystallization of

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536 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS
Figure 9. Photomicrographs of core samples that have undergone
UCS testing. Fractures resulting from the tests are highlighted by
the white lines. Solid white areas are interstitial quartz. (a)
Fractures penetrate several feldspar crystals and follow crystal
boundaries but terminate along annealed zones of finer-grained
crystals which also contain small amounts of cementing quartz.
Note the deformed twin lamellae in the centre lower edge of the
image. (b) Fracture penetration of crystals which terminate against
an interstitial quartz crystal. (c) High fracture penetration of
plagioclase crystal terminating against a crystal of well-developed
interstitial quartz.
these rocks in which trapped silicate liquid was
solidifying to form a matrix to the cumulate phases
(Wilson, 1992).
The explanation of the relationship between rock
strength and composition is postulated to lie with the
role of the trapped liquid in the initial formation of the
rock. Late-stage liquid crystallizes small amounts of
new mineral phases which act as a cement to the
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
cumulus minerals (Campbell, 1987) and are commonly
reflected by interstitial or poikilitic textures. These late-
forming minerals may be more evolved feldspars,
quartz, amphiboles and quartz-feldspar micrographic
intergrowths. In many cases these cementing phases are
in small amounts occurring as thin films rimming the
cumulus minerals. The distribution of these minerals is
also strongly influenced by surface energy and ‘wetting’
effects (Hunter, 1996). Normative quartz reflects excess
silica in the whole rock and arises as a result of
fractionation taking place on a small-scale with local
migration of evolved interstitial liquid. Larger amounts of
trapped liquid, which may also have migrated over
limited distances, gave rise to more abundant quartz
forming in the interstices between the cumulus crystals
eventually acting as cement to those crystals. Zr is an
element which is largely incompatible with cumulus
minerals (plagioclase and pyroxene) and tends to
remain in the late-stage liquid as solidification proceeds,
eventually crystallizing as small crystals of zircon
together with other trace minerals such as apatite, rutile
and monazite. This element is also commonly used as a
measure of the amount of trapped liquid initially
contained in a cumulate rock (Cawthorn, 1996; Wilson,
2001). Therefore, both Zr and normative quartz reflect
the development of small amounts of late-stage minerals
(or the cementing phases) in cumulates.
A cementing medium, or even small amounts of
minerals which are concentrated at the margins
of cumulate crystals are likely to affect the way the rock
fractures under stress because of its influence on grain-
boundary fracture propagation. Fracture is thought to
develop initially along grain boundaries before the stress
migrates into the interior of the crystals and therefore
even small amounts of competent minerals located at
crystal boundaries could influence rock strength. While
these relationships are a strong indication of the controls
on the strength properties of these rocks, the fact that
the patterns for UCS and Zr (and normative quartz) are
different, while the sense of variation is similar, again
indicates that the cementing medium is only one
contributing factor.
To investigate likely controls in the fracture
propagation, samples which had previously undergone
UCS testing were studied texturally in thin section to
monitor fracture patterns. Fractures were observed to be
controlled by a number of mineralogical and textural
forms summarized as follows: 1) Cementing quartz
crystals clearly had a tendency to act as non-penetrative
barriers to fractures by which several fractures would be
seen to terminate at quartz-plagioclase boundaries.
Some of these fractures had penetrated several feldspar
crystals (Figures 9a to c). 2) Fracture transmission is
preferentially developed along cleavages in feldspar,
rather than along crystal boundaries as proposed by Bell
(2000). 3) Agglomerations of finer grained feldspar
crystals are associated with interstitial quartz and did not
readily transmit fractures through those zones (Figure
9a). 4). Fractures tended to be deflected around quartz
 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT 537

Figure 10. Crystal size and crystal orientation analysis for samples 15 (at 15 m) and 52.73 (52.73 m) from GC2 core. The left series of panes
shows the results of image analysis (outlines are plagioclase and black areas are pyroxene) and crystal size distributions on the same scale.
Sections shown are perpendicular to the layering plane. Both samples have a normal distribution of crystal sizes but sample GC2-15 is
overall coarser grained. Orientation ellipses show the distribution of alignments of long crystal axes for the entire population and for
selected coarser-grained distributions to represent the larger crystal population. In the finer-grained sample GC-2 52.73 the larger crystals
have a better foliation because of the higher shape anisotropy (a/b=1.52) in contrast with the coarser sample GC-2 15 in which the larger
crystals are essentially equidimensional (a/b=1.17). The right series of panes are histograms of long axis alignments for each of the size

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

538 ROCK-STRENGTH AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NORITES OF THE MERENSKY
AND BASTARD UNITS
Figure 11. Variation of UCS values for core GC2 in relation to
volume. % normative plagioclase contents for samples with higher
degrees of alignments (called GC2 52.73 type) and for samples
with lower degrees of crystal alignments (called GC2 15 type).
The more feldspathic samples have overall greater degrees of
crystal alignments and in both populations there is a general
tendency for UCS values to increase with the amount of
plagioclase. The outlined fields emphasize the general trends.
crystals bounded by feldspar rather than along the
boundaries of the crystals (Figure 9c).
Fabric and Crystal Size Analysis
Crystal orientation and mineral fabrics could potentially
also influence the physical properties of these rocks and
the way they resist stress. Alignment of tabular crystals
in a horizontal or layering plane would have the
same affect as platy minerals in metamorphic rocks
(as previously described). It is common for cumulus
minerals in mafic rocks to adopt a preferred orientation
or even several orientations for the same mineral type
but such orientations are seldom perfect. Preferred
orientation of crystals can arise from early-stage settling
and flowage in the magma regime, by compaction and
rotation during the mid-stages of solidification and from
stress in the semi-brittle stage (Benn and Allard, 1989;
Nicolas, 1992). The greater the shape anisotropy of the
minerals, the more likely it is that a primary orientation
fabric will be established (Wilson, 1982; Wilson, 1992).
A tabular shaped crystal type may give rise to a
lamination fabric whereas an elongate crystal type could
result in a lineation-type fabric. The type of fabric also
depends on the degree of packing and interaction of the
crystals and mass flowage of a mush, the latter
commonly resulting in soft-sediment type deformation,
equivalent to slumping. It is also likely that magma flow
patterns will change during the solidification of the
chamber in response to convection systems, influx of
new magma and the breakdown of double diffusive
convection cells (Campbell, 1996). Usually, but not
always, the preferred orientation is in the plane of the
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
lithologic layering but crystal imbrication can result from
banking-up of crystals during flow.
Fabric styles and degree of development of crystal
orientations can therefore potentially exert an influence
on rock strength. A strong lamination fabric, particularly
where this is related to small-scale lithologic layers,
could provide planes of weakness leading to reduction
of rock strength, particularly TS. This would be further
accentuated if the mineral type had a cleavage or
parting parallel to the direction of strain propagation.
A combination of poorly developed fabric interlaced
with a matrix of fine interlocking crystals could result in
a very strong structure. The strongest rocks would be
expected to be those that have a completely interlocking
network of randomly orientated prismatic crystals.
The mafic rocks of the Merensky Unit have a wide
variety of fabric types. Sections were cut at right angles
and parallel to the core axis and orientated in relation to
the layering plane which is observable by fine-scale
modal layering in the core. Norites which have granular
textured pyroxene crystals were analyzed using polished
sections of core by image analysis techniques. Outlines
of cumulus pyroxene and plagioclase were converted
into best fit ellipses. Strong overall alignments lie
between 70 to 90o corresponding to the dip of the
layering, and a further weaker fabric developed at a
higher angle over a spread of about 30o. Two samples,
which on a visual basis represent contrasting fabric
types, were studied in detail using image analysis
techniques (Figure 10). Grain-boundary recognition
software was utilized in orientated thin sections and
analyzed by fitting ellipses to the defined crystal forms.
This enabled a size-analysis of the crystals to be carried
out as well as an analysis of the orientation of the
ellipses.
Sample GC2 52.73 is finer grained than sample
GC2 15 and possesses a well-developed lamination
fabric (Figure 10). Fabric analysis of the two samples
showed that GC2 52.73 has a well-developed lamination
fabric restricted to the larger crystals and therefore by
removing the smaller crystals from the analysis this
fabric was even more strongly developed. Sample GC2
15 possesses a weaker fabric which is even less
developed when the finer-grained crystals were
removed.The crystal size distribution shows that the
coarser grained rock (GC2 15) has a fine-grained
component and a wider relative crystal size distribution
which is asymmetric. In spite of these significant
differences in distribution, the average crystal size of
both samples is very similar. Sample GC2 52.73, has a
significantly higher UCS value relative to GC2 15 (186
and 144 MPa respectively) and a lower TS (8.8
compared with 9.2 MPa). As a general rule, UCS values
are approximately eight times the TS values indicating
that tensile strength has been significantly reduced by an
inherent physical property of the rocks. This is likely to
be caused by the relatively well-developed lamination
fabric in both these samples. The lower UCS value of
sample GC2 15 is attributed to the greater propagation
 A.H. WILSON, C.A. JERMY, M. RIDGEWAY AND G. CHUNNETT
of critical fractures along cleavages in the larger crystals,
and the lamination fabric may have compromised the TS
in GC2 52,73.
The effects of normative plagioclase content, crystal
size and fabric type are examined in relation to rock
strength. In the plot of normative plagioclase versus UCS
two groups are identified relating to textural type.
The group containing plagioclase crystals which are
finer-grained and show a normal size distribution
(similar to that of GC2 52.73) are shown to have overall
higher UCS values (Figure 11), whereas types similar to
GC2 15 generally have lower UCS values and show less
dependence on the plagioclase content.
Discussion
The determination of rock strength is important in
mining operations because it influences mine planning
and development, methods used in rock and ore
extraction, and safety issues. Information on rock
strength is also important in the design of processing
and crushing plants. The matter of rock strength has, up
to this stage, not been a major limiting factor in the
mining of Merensky reef, but as mining operations
extend to considerably greater depths, more detailed
knowledge of rock properties and their controlling
factors is becoming increasingly important. In this study,
three borehole cores of variable degrees of preservation
were investigated from the aspects of rock-strength
properties by measuring UCS and TS under laboratory
conditions. Rock- strength properties of unaltered core
were then related to fundamental petrological properties
such as textures (including crystal size and fabric),
mineralogical and chemical compositions.
UCS values for the norites in the stratigraphic
environment of the Merensky reef range from <100 to
>200 MPa with freshest rock having a mean value about
150 MPa. The range for TS is from <5 to 15 MPa with a
mean of 11 MPa. These values confirm that most of the
norites rocks fall into the category of ‘strong’ to ‘very
strong’. However, the distribution extends to relatively
low values for some samples of fresh rock (80 MPa for
UCS and 5 MPa for TS) which if related to specific rock
types or rock properties in particular stratigraphic
horizons, may need to be considered in mining
operations. Where the RQD (Rock Quality Designation)
is low, reflecting observable alteration and shearing,
both the UCS and TS values are skewed to significantly
lower values. Bimodal distributions in rock strengths are
predictably observed where cores have zones of both
fresh and altered rock. In some such cases the rock
would be categorized as of ‘moderate’ or even ‘weak’
strength.
Even in unaltered core there are zones where UCS
and TS are relatively low and systematic variations are
observed for both test results over specific vertical
intervals indicating changes in controls relating to
fundamental rock properties. The norites of the
Merensky and Bastard Units are complexly layered both
compositionally and mineralogically. While there is
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
539
some broad correspondence in trends for UCS and TS
over specific vertical intervals, in detail each of these
tests has different variations through the sequence
indicating different controls.
UCS values are lower in poikilitic leuconorites
compared with the more granular varieties. There is also
strong correspondence between UCS values in relation
to both normative quartz contents of the norites and the
Zr contents. Both of these compositional parameters
relate to entrapment of evolved liquid in the later stages
of crystallization giving rise to small amounts of
important late-stage minerals. Such late-stage crystallized
material acted as cement and therefore influences the
rock strength. Detailed evaluation of core which failed
under laboratory tests showed that fractures which arose
as a result of the imposed strength tests were
propagated through crystals, as well as along crystal
boundaries, but commonly terminated against interstitial
quartz crystals. These observations therefore explain the
control of the cementing medium on rock strength.
Within the controls of the cementing medium there are
also other influences which give rise to displaced trends
in the geochemical relationships which also cannot be
explained by bulk rock compositions. Within these
variations it is shown that mineral fabric analyses have
an influence on rock strength. Rocks with well
developed foliation fabrics (typically the poikilitic
leuconorites) tend to be weaker than those with a
random fabric. However, crystal size also affects rock
strength and may counteract the influence of fabric.
High-angle shear zones which formed initially at high
temperature and then annealed during the cooling
process may also affect rock strength although the direct
influence of this structure on rock strength has yet to be
investigated.
In conclusion, rock strengths of the norites in the
environment of the Merensky reef exhibit considerable
variation which is dependent on a number of controls.
These include bulk rock composition, textural relations
and mineral associations, the nature and amount of
cementing medium, fabric and the stress history of the
rock from early stage compaction to late-stage cooling.
The relative roles of these controls are a fertile area for
applied research and should be investigated further.
Acknowledgements
Anglo Platinum is thanked for providing the drill core
used for this study and for permission to publish this
paper. The National Research Foundation (NRF) of
South Africa and THRIP (Technology and Human
Resources Industry Programme) are acknowledged for
financial support. Dr. Chris Ware is acknowledged
for providing helpful comments. Helpful comments
were received from reviewers Dr. A. Bye, Dr. J.L. van
Rooy and Ray Brown.
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Editorial handling: J. M. Barton