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SolarEnerryR&Din the European
SeriesE:
from Biomass
Energy
Volume 7
SolarEnergyR&D
in the European
Community
SeriesE Volume7
Energyfrom Biomass
Handbookof
CharcoalMaking
TheTraditional
and Industrial
Methods
by
WALTEREMRICH
D. ReidelPublishingCompany
h.M
A M EMB ER
oFTHEKL U WE R A C A DPEUMIC
B LIS HCERRoU
S P
WW
Dordrecht/ Boston/ Lancaster
Emrich. Walter.
Handbookof charcoalmaking.
Publicationarrangementsby
Commissionof the EuropeanCommunities
Directorate4eneralInformation Market and Innovation,Luxembourg
EUR9590
o 1985 ECSC,EEC,EAEC,Brussels
and Luxembourg
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commissionof the EuropeanCommunitiesnor any personacting on behalf of the
Commissionis responsiblefor the usewhich might be madeof the following information.
pyrolysis in general.
I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Walter Emrich for having accepted
1"1r.L. Crossby and Mr. J.F. llolle for reviewing the manuscriPt.
Dr. I,ü.'Palz
PREFACE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI
FOREWORD
Chapter l
H I S T O R YA N D F U N D A M E N T A O
LSF T H E C H A R C O APLR O C E S S
1.1 Charcoal-Making from the Beginning until 11
the Present Day 11
I.2 Theory of the Carbonization process 55
I.3 Heating Systems for Charcoal plants BB
1.4 Properties of Carbonization products 11
1.4.1 Charcoal- I2
I.4.2 Pyrolysis 0i1 16
I.4.7 Process Gas 17
References 1B
Chapter 2
T R A D I T I O N A LM E T H O D O
S F T H E S M A L L H O L D ECRH A R C O A L -
MAKER 19
2.I Charcoal Pits a n d E a r t h m o u n dK i l n s 2020
2.1.1 The Charcoal Pit 2424
2.r.2 T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i t n 27
2.I.3 T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n with Chimney 33
2.r.4 T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i I n w i t h T a r R e c o v e r y 35
2.2 Charcoal-Making with portabl_e and
Movable KiIns 3B3B
The Tongan 0i1 Drum KiIn 39
2.2.L
The Phil-ippines Kiln 42
2.2 .2
The Btack Rock Forest Kiln 45
2.2.t
Sectional Metal Kilns 48
2.2.4
2.2.5 The Carborion Kiln 54
Chapter l
FO
C O N C E P TASN D T E C H N O L O G Y RTHE INDUSTRIAL
C H A R CAOL - M A K E R t07
3.L.2.I T h e W a g o nR e t o r t I17
Chapter 5
R A l t 'M
l A T E R I A L SS U P P L Y 762
5.1 Supply from Fuelwood Plantations 165
5.2 Agricul-turaI Resources 166
5.3 Transport and Preparation of RawMaterials 168
5.3.I K e y F a c t o r s i n W o o dS u p p l y 169
R ef e r e n c e s 176
Chapter 6
E N D . U S EM A R K E T S
F O R C H A R C O AALN D C H A R C O ABLY - P R O D U C T S
17B
6.1 Charcoal as Household Fuel 17B
6.1.1 LumpCharcoal T7B
6.I.2 Charcoal Eriquettes 179
6.2 Charcoal as Fuel for Industry 180
6.3 Charcoal in Metal Extraction IBz
6.4 Activated Charcoal 183
5.4.I Synopsis of Industrial Active Carbon Markets 185
5.5 Speciality Markets for Charcoal I87
6.6 Charcoal for Producer Gas I87
6.7 By-Product Utilization 189
6.8 Synopsis of Major Uses of Charcoal and
By-Products 193
6.9 C h a r c o a L C o s t s a n d F u e . LP r i c e s 195
6. I0 Packing and Shipment for Export/tlarket
Stra tegy ?00
6. lt World Production 203
R ef e r e n c e s 207
Chapter 7
O F E Q U I P M E N2T0 8
A N DS E L E C T I O N
P L A N N I N GA C H A R C O AVLE N T U R E
7.r Planning of Projects zII
7.2 Selection of Charcoal EquiPment 2r4
7.7 Concl-usions 220220
References 222222
Chapter 8
S N D A C T I V A T E DC H A R C O A L
C H A R C O ABLR I Q U E T T E A
M A N U F A C TIU
NRG 2?3
8.1 The Briquetting Process 223223
8.r.I Simple Briquetting EquiPment 227227
8.2 The Activated Charcoal Process 228
R ef e r e n c e s 233233
Chapter 9
S A F E T YP R E C A U T I O NASN D E N V I R O N M E N TC AOL N S ] D E R A T I O N S 234
9.I S a f e t y i n C h a r c o a l -O p e r a t i o n s 234
9.2 Safety Devices and EquiPment 236
9.3 G e n e r a l -S a f e g u a r d i n g o f C h a r c o a l P l a n t s 237
9.4 Precautions for Charcoal Storage 238
9.5 Environmental Considerations for the
Charcoal--Maker 239
Chapter I0
C H A R C O ALLA B O R A T O RWYO R K 243
10.1 Analysis 244
IO.2 B e n c h - S c a . L eC a r b o n i z a t i o n T e s t s ?57
R ef e r e n c es 253
APPENDICES 254
Appendix I Case Studies 255
Appendix 2 Energy Distribution Diagram 265
Appendix f Addresses of Consui.tants, Institutes,
and Equipment Suppliers 268
Appendix 4 Conversion TabIes 275
LIST OF ILLUSIRATIONS
F i g ur e s
i n a d e q u a t e k n o w L e d g eo f t h e s t a t e of the art
-xv-
lack of the experience needeo to deveLop charcoaL
proj ect s .
T H E R EI S N O W A S T EI N T H E W O R L D
W A S T EI S A N E N E R G Y
RESERVE
WALTER
EMRICH
Neu-fsenbUrg, September1984
Chapter l
S T H E C H A R C O APLR O C E S S
H I S T O R YA N D F U N D A M E N T AOL F
- J
utilization of raw material up to a few mirlimetres in
diameter. This opened the door to a new category of raw
material resources until then untapped and neglected, namely
agriculturaL and industrial wastes and forestaL residues.
0ne is tempted to say that these reserves, which abound in
developing countries, are almost unlimited. Their use to
provide household fuel, industrial charcoal and chemical raw
materials could make an important contribution to the
conservation of other natura-L resources, especially the
highly endangered forests.
when early man invented charcoal, its only use was as a
reductant to obtain metals from their ores. Numerous
applications have been added since then, and new markets
have opened their doors to the effective charcoal-maker.
soon af ter the Second viorld lvar, people in industrialized
countries rediscovered the excellent properties of charcoal
for barbequeing. This specialized
sector of the charcoal
industry has now become a major economic factor, comprising
also thousands of manufacturers of grirls and utensils.
sufficientry accurate data on the production and
consumption of charcoal and the by-products are difficult to
obtain. Besides charcoal, fuerwood is the main energy
carrier with which people cook their daily food in
developing countries. The worrd consumption of fuelwoodr per
capita, including charcoal- was estimated at o.j7 ^3 in
r978 ( 5) . However, in the developed worrd the per capita
usage reached only 0.ll ^3, compared with o.46 ^3 in the
developing world.
The United Nations Conference in Nairobi, 1 9 8 1, (e)
concluded that approximately 2,000 mirlion people are
utilizing firewood and charcoar for cooking and heating. For
several hundred million of them, it is al-ready impossible to
find a sufficient supply of firewood because of the ruinous
exploitation of forests.
Here the modern charcoal technology
with high-grade energy recovery systems can find a new task.
By tapping the vast waste reserves of the world, the
charcoal- industry can make one of its most important
contributions to mankind by helping to Provide for the
energy needs of the future, especially in a1l develoPing
countries.
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FigUre I Diagramof dry distiilation ( Z )
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Figure I a Temperature Diagram of dry distittation(7)
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Figures I and la are
representative of the dry
distillation ofEuropean softwood and hardwood. They also
show the amount of pyrotysis oil which can be recovered
during the entire carbonization process.
During continuous carbonization the raw material moves
vertically, normalry from top to bottom of the retort or
converter. The feed passes through various temperature
phases as stated above, one at a time (see Figure Z).
Whereas the charcoal leaves the reaction container at the
bottom, the vapour-containing gases are drawn off at the top.
The mixture of gas and vapours expelled from a
continuous carbonization process remains uniform during the
desired period of time, e. g. for weeks or months. Another
advantage of continuous operation is its fl-exibitity in
relation to the residence time of the raw material and the
relatively short
time it remains within the hot zone. Both
these characteristics have a great influence on the process
yield and the composition of pyrolysis oil or gas.
Many tests have shown that the pyrolysis oil containing
vapours undergo certain cracking processes on the hot wall_s
of retorts and tubes. These processes are enhanced by
prolonged residence times, thus undesired crusts and
depositions will occur.
To start
up the carbonization and to maintain higher
temperaturesr eXternal- heating is required. During the long
history of industrial charcoal-making, many heating systems
have been tried. All- were intended to reduce expenses and
fuel costs. 0n1y the three basic types shown in Figure j
have survived and are in oeneraL use.
AA
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controlled combustion
Raw material CC Pyrolysis oil
of raw materials.
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combustion of f ire-
Raw material CC Pyrolysis oil
wood, fuel oil or
Char
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Tpye A: Most common system. Part of the raw material is
burnt under controlled air inlet. The combustion
heat provides the energy for maintenance of the
p r o c e s s . R e c o m m e n d a b l eo n l y
in locations where raw
materiaJ- prices are low ( w a s t e material).
Type B: Retort or converter heated from the outside under
strict excl-usion of oxygen. Fuel can be provided
from the off-gases.
Type C: Very expensive heating system. Raw material- comes
in direct contact with t h e h o t g a s e s . C h a r c o a J -a n d
by-product yields are high. R e c o m m e n d a b l ef o r very
large plant capacities only.
. 1. 4 . 1 C h a r c o a l
T h i s d ef i n i t i o n d i s t i n g u i s h e s c h a r c o a l f r o m c o k e, w h i c h
is formed by carbonization of fluid organic matter such as
plastic coal or petrol_eum(when heated, coking coal becomes
plastic before it carbonizes). It also distinguishes
bituminous coal-s and lignite from charcoal, because they
have not been subject to carbonizing temperatures during
their metamorphoses.
The charcoal-maker differentiates between lump charcoal,
charcoaL f ines, charcoal- dust, charcoa.Lbriquettes, pBllets,
extrudates, and activated charcoal_.
R e d C o a I : S a m ea s h a l f - b u r n t charcoal- or rrbrandstr
I .4 .3 Process Gas
(a) 0ff-gas n o t p a s s e d t h r o u g h a s c r u b b e r/ c h i l l e r
that is
system. It contains the pyrolysis oil vapours and is usually
referred to as I'high Btu converter gast'r Deaning that it has
a high calorif ic val-ue.
20-
charcoal produced in those kilns varies between 65 % and
80 %, the yields rarely exceeding 15 % based on the weight
of the dry fuelwood charge.
Statements that the recovery rate of a charcoal pit or
an earthmound operation is I'well over 20 %u must be regarded
as unfounded. Because of the fact that a significant
depletion of wood resources all over the worLd can be
observed as a consequence of wasteful- charcoal conversion
and the rigid arguing of their defenders, it seems quite
appropriate to shed some light on the complexity of the
whole problem.
charcoal output (t g)
t*=
wood input (kg)
or energy:
c h a r c o a l - o u t p u t ( M J)
%=
wood input (MJ)
rle
lrrlhile can easily be cal-cul-ated if the energy
content of wood and its char yield is known, the
weight-based efficiency criterion tw varies depending on
j ust how one defines c h a r c o a . l - . U n fo r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s n o
universally accepted definition of charcoal-. However, most
of the literature on carbonization agrees that measured on
a dry weight basis - charcoal- should exhibit a fixed carbon
content of at l_east 75 % (tne other principal componentsare
hydrogen: 4.I %; oxygen: 15.Z %; nitrogen: 0.8 %; and
m i n e r a l - s : 3 . 4 % ).
0n the input side, the biomass source wood is composed
of cel-l-u1ose, lignin, hemicel_1ul_ose, extractives and
mineral-s. terms rn
of chemical- composition, one can
distinguishbetween hardwood and softwood: on the average,
hardwood contains about 4J % cel-1u1ose, zi % lignin and
35 % hemicellulose, whereas softwood usually contains 43 %
cellulose, 29 % Iignin and 28 % hemicellulose. These
differences in composition affect heat content; the higher
the tignin and extractives content, the higher is the gross
calorific value of wood.
where
Eigure 5.
Carbon Content and
Higher Heating Value
of Fuels
C (o/")
NHV ( MJ/ks)
ügure Sa
Moisture Contentand
rVef Heating Value of
Average TropicalWood
MC ( o/o)
Assuming that the higher heating vaLue of average
tropical ( d r y ) wood is 20 MJ/kg ( 3 ) , t h e c u r v e p r e s e nted in
Figure 5a can be derived from the above formula.
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This woul-d have resulted in USD 70.00 per ton in 1983.
The indicated cost is for charcoal at the kiln site ready
for transportation.
The cal-culation, however, does not a.l-1ow
f or l-abour overhead and profits.
2.I.2 T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n
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AIl gaps between the logs or branches are filled in with
s m a l - l - e rw o o d l o g s , o f f - c u t s , e t c . t o m a k e t h e p i l e a s c o m p a c t
as possible which facilitates the direct heat transfer when
the carbonization has started.
Al-so special- care has to be taken to the surface of the
pile that it shows an even profile and makes a good support
f or the cover of l-eaves and soil.
The lower layer of the cover is made with Ieaves, straw
or grass. 0n top a sandy soil- or l-oam are applied
approximately 20 to 25 cm thick.
An important improvement can be achieved by putting in
metal sheets before the outer soil cover is made. This will
reduce defil-ement of the charcoal- by dropping of soil down
during the carbonization, when the mound is slowly sinkingt
and when it is uncovered at the end.
These metal sheets can be gathered from scrap or cut out
of spent oil drums. Depending on the usage they will,
however, corrode in a more or l-ess short time and have to be
replaced then. Recent cal-culations have shown that this type
of operation may become quite costly in countries where
scrap prices are high.
The igniting of a kiln is' done either through the air
inl-et hol-es on the base or through the centre hol-e at the
top. In every case, to enhance the firing kindJ-ing wood, oil
soaked fabrics are used or a shovelful of glowing charcoal
is put into the centre hol-e on the kiln top.
After the kiln has I'caught fireil the operator observes
carefully the col-our of the smoke exiting the mound. Dense
white smoke wiII be issued for the first day or days
indicating that the water of the fuel-wood is being
evaporated.
After this initial period, the length of the time
depends on the size of the kiln r froisture content of the
charge, thickness of the woodlogs, etc., the smoke will turn
b l - u e a n d b e c o m e sc l e a r eventually.
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The skilled operator feeLs frequently the walls of the
kiln for col-d or hot spots and uses a wooden stick for
probing the conditions of the wood charge and searching for
uncarbonized parts.
Based on his findings he closes or opens the vents at
the kiln base.
Besides these observations he must l-ook for cracks in
the kiln cover which do appear during the entire
carbonisation cycle, due to the continuous shrinking of the
charge and in the same grade as charcoal is formed. Cracks
must be sealed immediately to prevent the influx of air
w h i c h w o u l - d c a u s e b u r n i n g o f t h e f u e l - w o o dt o a s h e s .
When charring is judged complete, alI vents and the
centre hol-e at the top will be cl-osed and seal-ed with earth.
For the sealing of larger kilns clay and stones are used.
The cooling time of the kiln depends a.l-sovery much on
its capacity or size. It may take a few days or up to
several weeks.
During the cooling phase the kiln remains under
permanent supervision, and must be kept airtight. 0therwise
the charcoal- inside catches fire and starts glowing which
prolongs the cooling time considerably.
I t ' J h e nt h e e a r t h m o u n d k i l n has cool-ed out it is uncovered
and the charcoal crop separated from fines and rfbrandsff by
screening or other simple meansand madeready for sale.
Photo I and 2 show the beginning and the end of an
earthmound charring cycle of a smaLt kiln, as usually
carried out. They al-so reveal that the operator does not
display great ski11. 0bviousLy the obtained charcoal- crop is
of poor quality and defiled with soil-.
Earthmound kilns can be enlarged up to a diameter of
15 m and over, whith space capacities of l-50 ^3. However,
large scale earthmound kilns have to be modified and their
construction needs very much ski11.
They require centre firing canals as shown in Figure 7.
Some details of such a canal structure can be seen in
Figure 8. also, h,hich refers to a special kiln type
described in the followinq section.
2 . 1 . 1 T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n with Chimney
F i ri n g
st'icks
Firi ng
sti cks
Cover:soil rsand,
i++RNi++RN
titi
F lu e
Fi gUf g 9 . An earthmound
ki I n with chimney.
the opening of the smoke stack may have to be reduced and
adapted to the size of the wood pile.
In many cases a stack made from firebricks is employed
thus eliminating corrosion probl-ems. These chimneys are
preferred in charcoal operations with Iarge plant sites and
where the fuelwood is permanently carried to.
Figure 9 shows a medium size earthmound kiln with an
attached chimney assembled from spent oil drums. The centre
pillar as shown in Figure 9 guarantees the firing of the
wood pile from top to bottom at the same time. The
carbonization wilI pr.ogless from the centre to the edges
almost equally and within the entire height of the kiIn.
Chimney kilns ar'e usually lighted with a torch. During the
opelation the same observations and probings are neceSsary
as already mentioned in the section dealing with regular
earthmoundkilns.
0wing to the higher temperatures which can be achieved
the charcoal produced in these kilns has a.Low content of
vol-atile matter and consequently a higher heating val-ue as
comparedto normal earthmoundcharcoal.
One disadvantage which is connected with aIl kilns
having a l-oose shell has to be seen in the always present
danger of showing cracks during the carbonization and
cooling phase.
This contributed to the fact that many charcoal
producers turned to kilns with fixed shells, which are
represented by the hangar and round griIl types and which
will be described Later.
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In the first circumstance the chimney is designed to
expel aIl gases generated during
the carbonization process
into the ambient atmosphere. I n t h e latter case the chimney
serVeS two pUlpoSeS: condensing part of the gases and
guiding the uncondensableportions to the outside.
Since the investment cost woul-d not al-low the
instal-l-ation of chiller and scrubber systems the earthmound
operator has to limit himself to the col-lection of only part
of the charcoal- by-products. In this case it will be mainly
wood tar.
From 100 steres of wood normally 25 tons of condensate
can be recovered (8). It consists of water, acids and tar.
In practice about 2 tons of tar can be lecovered from it (9).
Since all wood tars contain a high ploportion of heavy
organic chemical-s with higher melting and boiling points the
condensation of them by aircoolers is quite efficient.
For this reason, the way the hot gases trave.l through
the stack, has to be extended to al-1ow them to dispose of
part of their tangible heat within the chimney area'
resulting in partial
condensation.
This can be accomplished by putting in the chimney some
metal- sheets which force the gases to fl-ow around them and
do not permit them to escape on a direct way.
Figure I0 displays the simple design for a three
sectional- kiln stack made from oil drums.
In many cases a higher chimney wiIl be required lo
provide an adequate travel route for the gases.
The condensed tar and oils will be col-l-ected at the
bottom of the stack and l-ead through a pipe into the storage
drum.
The structure of the wood pile with supporting grate
beneath and the shell are built in the same mannel as with
regular kil-ns.
0f courSe, some special structures have been in USe with
more or l-ess signif icant ef f ects. The best resul-ts the
author has achieved were with fixed shell kilns of the
hangar type and with a modified Brazilian Beehive kiln.
The economics which can be achieved by the recovery of
charcoal by-products will depend very much on the use-market
prices for them. In 1983, according to a market survey
performed by the author in African and some Asian markets
the production cost for charcoal in earthmound kilns ranged
between USD 48.00 and 62.OO per ton of lump charcoal. Tar
sales would have reduced the production cost by USDL5.00 to
22.OOper ton.
2 . 2 C h a r c o a l - M a k i n q w i t h P o r t a b l e a n d M o v a b l - eK i l n s
-39-
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The key to the Tongan design is the opening, about 20 cm
wide, which is cut along the vertical side of the drum (see
Figure 1I). With the drum lying on its side and the opening
facing the plevailing breeze, a fire is built inside. The
Low cost: The only costs invoLved aIe the drum and the
tools to cut it open (hammer,chisel, bush knife)'
t holcs ( 5 cm dia. )
for hiln air inlet
L id ( 50 cm dia.) with
l0 cm hole and handle
q,
A - H = Concrete emplacements for kilns
l-4= Kilns in operation
Figure 17 A i r i n l e t c h a n n e l sa t t h c
bottom of a portable metal
kiln with wood grate
The size of the wood to be charged to the kiln must not
exceed 50 cm in length and the m a x i m u md i a m e t e r is 20 cm.
Wood with a diameter greater than this should be split
before kilning. The TPI kiln takes approximately 7 *3 of
fuelwood.
After placing the l-ower section of the kiln onto the
supporting air inLet channeLs the bottom of the kiln is laid
out with stringers forming a grate. Care has to be taken,
that the air channels protruding into the kiln are not
blocked by the wood charge.
The fuelwood is normally placed horizontally in
successive Iayers, filling in as many gaps as possible. It
is advisable to place the thicker logs in the centre of the
kiln where they wiII be more exposed to the heat as close to
a wall.
For the lighting of the kiln several points at the base
will be prepared with kindling material and for the ignition
a flame is necessary.
During the carbonization colour of the smoke, wall
temperature and leaks have to be watched. For the cooling of
the kiln alI openings are closed and the smoke stacks were
taken down before.
The author has experimented with various kilns of the
TPI type in East Africa and has established the following
working schedule with hardwood (acacia d.):
Sufficient
Base section to cut:
Top and bottom 5 0 m mx 5 0 m mx 6 pieces,
rings 7 mmmild stee.l- each 2 43O mm
( m .s . ) a n g l e long
Body 3 m mm . s . s h e e t 3 pieces,
each 2 43O mm
x900 mm
or:
Body J m mm . s . s h e e t t pieces each
2480mmx
900 mm
Upper section
Top ring 5 0 m mx 5 0 m mx 7 pieces,
3 m m m .s . a n g l e each
2 3 9 8 m ml o n g
Bottom ring 5 0 m mx 5 0 m m x t pieces,
3 m mm . s . s t r i p each
2 798 mml-ono
Body ? m mm . s . s h e e t 3 pieces,
e ac h
2 448 mmx
900 mm
Top coveq
Cover sectors 2 m mm . s . s h e e t 2 pieces,
Steam ports 5 0 m m x 3 m mm . s . 4 p i e c e s ,
st rip each 630 mm
long
Lifting h a n d l e s 1 0 m md i a m e t e r 4 pieces,
m.s. rod each 500 mm
( concrete rein- lonq
forcing bar)
S m o k es t a c k s ( 4 p e r k i l n )
Thin-walled steel 4 Piecest
pipe e a c h 2 3 O Om m
l -onq
t o 2 5 Or 0 0 0 .
The kiln design investment capital
is simple, re-
the
quirements are 1ow, and a surprisingly good quality of char-
coal is produced both for household fuel and industrial uses-
Both concrete and brick types must comply with a number
of important requirements to be succesful-. The kiln must be
simple to construct, relatively unaffected by thermal
stresses on heating and cool-ing, and strong enough to
withstand the mechanical- stresses of loading and unl-oading.
It must be unaffected by rain and weather over six to ten
years.
The kiln must permit control of the entry of air at all
times, and for the cooling phase there has to be a provision
f or ef f ective hermetic seal-ing. It must be of reasonabJ-y
lightweight construction to all-ow cooling to take place
fairly easily and yet provide good thermal- insulation for
the wood undergoing carbonization, otherwise the origination
of col-d spots due to wind impact on the kiln walls will
prevent proper burning of the charcoal- and lead to excessive
production of partially c a r b o n i z e d w o o d ( b r a n d s) a n d l - o w
yields. The ability of the brick kiln to conserve the heat
of carbonization is an important factor in its high
conversion efficiency of wood to charcoal.
The design of these kilns has been refined over a long
period of time. They can be differentiated by their shape
into hangar kilns ( r e c t a n g u l a r of square shape) and round
brick kilns.
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Schwartz and Reichenbach types require considerable amounts
of steel for buckstays on the kiln chamber, and steel grates
and doors for the furnace. Their yields (when the firewood
is counted) are not in practice superior to the others. The
Missouri kiln is weII proven, it has been developed in
practice, and is stilI in use in the United States. It is
usually made of reinforced concrete or concrete breeze
blocks and has steel chimneys and doors. Its yield is
similar to the Argentine and Brazilian furnace. It is fitted
with large steel doors which aIlow mechanical equipment to
be used for loading and unl-oading. It has two disadvantages
for developing world use: it requires a lot of steel and
cement for its construction (both are costly r and are
usually imported items), and it is not so easy to cooL as
other furnaces. It is thus more suited for use in temperate
climates where the materials and skiIIs for steel and
reinforced concrete conStruction are at hand and l-ow air
temperatures permit easy cooling. It is attractive where
labour, front-end loaders etc., are readily available.
The masonry-type
walls of these kilns should be
supported by a continous perimeter-type reinforced eoncrete
footing. The footing shourd extend at least 25 cm below the
surface of weII-drained ground. If only intermittent winter
operation is planned in areas where the ground freezes, the
footing shourd
extend berow the frostline. rf continous
winter is planned or if
operation frost seldom or never
occurs, a minimum footing depth of 25 cm may be used (see
Figures 21 2?).
It is very important that the first course of blocks be
carefully laid in a fulr bed of mortar. rf the base and
second courses are accurately laid, the balance of the
blocks will go into place with arl joints perfectry broken.
Alr blocks are laid with the hollow cores vertical. rf
hollow core blocks are used in the top course, all cores
must be filled with mortar to prevent channetling of air
into the kiln
through cracks that might deverop on the inner
wall surface ( 1 5).
Neat cement or the standard r:J mix of cement and sand
may be used to lever off the tops of the front wall bloeks
over which the bottom of the angle-iron lintel must rest in
order to sear off the ceiling cover with
of sand. A piece
bright sheet metal may also be used between the angle lintel
and the top of the wall to permit the linter to sride more
easily along the top of the warl. A loose brick may be used
to retain the sand at the end of the lintel.
0 n e o r t w o c o u r s e s o f b r i c k a r e c o m m o n l yl a i d a r o u n d t h e
top edge of the kiln to act as a coping. The purpose of the
coping is to help prevent the ceiling sand from being washed
and blown off the ceiling steel. sections of steer rails or
r-beams can serve both as a coping material- and as a support
for the ceiling beams. They arso distribute the weight of
the ceiling beams arong the side walls and restrain the
walls from bowing outwards at the top.
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Good workmanship is very important when laying the
walJs. If an experienced mason is not available, some good
m a n u a l o f r e c o m m e n d e dp r a c t i c e s s h o u l d b e c o n s u l t e d b e f o r e
attempting to lay any brock. such publications will provide
dimensions of the various types of blocks, recommended
mortar mixes, and many helpfur suggestions for buirding a
good waLl.
All mortar joints must be carefully compressed and left
neat and compact, either in a concave or V-shape. such
joints will provide a good valley for searing compoundas
sealing becomes necessary during operation. 0ther types of
mortar joints are not recommended.
Either one or as many as four chimneys are normalry
used. ll/hen only one chimney is used, it is located -i.n the
centre of the rear walr. when three
chimneys are used,
another is added at the lengthwise centre of each side wall.
when four are used, one is praced at or near each of the
corners of the kiln.
15 or 25 cm diameter sheet-metar chimneys are supported
on roose resting on masonry blocks. chimney bases are
constructed from l-oose pier-type masonry blocks ptaced
directly on the ground, with loose steel plate covers
resting on the blocks. Two 1.0 by 40 by 50 cm prates are
used at each chimney. 0ne plate next to the kiln is left
loose and removable so that a shovelful of sand can be added
for cl-osing-off the chimney during the cooling period.
Partial or fu11-length insuration of metar-type chimneys
is helpful in colder climates to retard the condensation and
buird-up of tars. chimney tile has been used successfutly
inside masonry block chimneys, particularry those partiarly
or wholly buried in an earth fi1I. Somecommercial chimneys
have been made from concrete masonry block without any
lining. All chimneys should extend at least l0 cm above the
top of the kiln structure.
Front-entry air
suppry has given satisfatory results in
both one- and three-chimney designs. Front air entry is most
easiry obtained by hanging the sliding metal door so that
-68
there ale about 8 cm of clearance at the floor line' It is
Operation:
STRETCHER
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Satisfactory carbonization depends primarily on
maintenance of proper burning conditions in the coaling
zone. Sufficient heat must be generated first to dry the
wood and then to maintain the temperature necessary for
efficient carbonization. At the same time, the burning must
be limited so that only sufficient heat is present to
produce good charcoal. Kiln temperature is thus the most
rel-iabIe measure of control-.
For the production of good-quality charcoal, kiln
temperatures from about 450o to 550o C are Iequired. This
charcoal- will have a fixed
c a r b o n content of about 75 to 82
per cent. Prolonged higher temperatures will reduce the
yield of charcoal without necessarily u p g r a d i ng it for
recreational use. If, on the other hand, coaling
temperatures remain quite 1ow, the charcoal may be too high
in vol-atil-es.
During the coaling cycle, caref u.l- check of
a kiln
temperatures shoul-d be made and the air p o r t s a d j u s t e d as
n e c e S S a I y . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d a t - l - e a s te v e r y
2 to 3 hours for control-. More frequent checks
satisfactory
are advisable when seasoned wood is coaled or during periods
of strong or variable winds.
The air supply is regulated by varying the size of the
air port openings. Undesirable fast combustion caused by
strong winds can be modified oI controlled by the use of
baffles in front of the air openings. The Iocation of
openings for air to be admitted during coaling depends
largely on the kiln design and the coaling pattern desired.
In general, coaling time is related to kiln size. When
the wood and opelating conditions ale similar, the time
required for coaling in a 35 ^3 kiln witl be approximately
twice that in one of 18 ^3 capacity. Means for modifying
the rather fixed rate of temperature rise to coal-ing
conditions in kiln charges aIe limited. Attempts to speed up
the rate for example, by al-Iowing mole air to enter
will raise kiln t e m p e r a t u r e s e x c e s s i v e . l - ya n d i m p a i r c h a r c o a l
yields and properties (15).
73-
rt is possible, however, to adjust coaling time by
changing the size of the coaring zone and the manner in
which it is directed
through the charge. rn rectangular
kilns it has been possible to reduce the coaling time
greatry by centre firing. rn the application of this method,
the coaring zone widens in opposite directions
simultaneously, as compared to the one-direction movement
obtained with end firing.
cooling
cycle. when coaring has been compreted, arr air
ports are seal-ed for the start of the cooling cycre. After
the ports are sealed, the chimneys should remain open untiL
smoking has practicarty stopped. This permits the escape of
any smoke that may be formed during cooling and prevents the
development of gas pressure in the kiln. chimneys can
usuarry be sealed from I to z hours after the air ports have
been cl-osed. They should be seared immediatety after they
stop smoking, because f resh air may be drawn in by norma.l.
cooling, or a downdraught in an idle chimney may admit
enough air to support combustion or possibry cause an
explosion.
when temperatures have been reduced to 650 c or less, it
is generarly safe practice to open the kirn. Before the kiln
is opened for discharge, however, the charcoaL should be
checked for localized hot areas that were not evident during
the overalr kiln temperatures measurements. This
check
should be made by opening severaL air ports and one or more
chimneys. rf the temperature does not rise within z hours,
it is considered safe to open the kiln compretely. rf the
temperature rises, however, the kiln s h o u J _ db e r e s e a l _ e d a n d
carefully checked for sources of air leakage.
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-'77
forms the side and rear walls of the circul-ar kiln. This
type is known as the "s1ope-type kiln" (see Figure 28). It
uses far fewer bricks. Many thousand of these kilns are in
operation in Minas Gerais and elsewhere in Brazil. They are
very popular among the smal1, independent charcoal-
producers. Their operation is somewhat easier than that of
the beehive brick kilns because there is only one air port
to control, as compared with 18 for the regular beehive
kilns. Chemical and physical- composition as well as the
yields of charcoal- are c o m p a r a b . l - et o those obtained in
beehive brick kiLns.
Emergencyports
otr Stack
OD
2 , 4 0m
inlet port
Stack
FigUfe 2 7 . n e B r a z i l i a nb e e h i v b
erick kiln.
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Since the necessary energy for the carbonj-zation is
transferred by gases (leaving the fire chamber) only, the
kiln behaves like a charcoal- retort with all its advantages:
high charcoal- yie1d, because no wood of the kiln charge is
burnt away; high fixed carbon content of the produced
charcoal, because the terminal- temperature of the
carbonization cycle can be very well controlled.
The externally heated Brazilian brick kiln is perfectly
suited for a charcoal operation receiving the raw material
supply from fueLwood plantations or c.l-earcutting actions in
forests, that is, for all commercial purposes where the
requirements are high charcoaL yield and optimal quality.
Because the kiln has only one smoke stack through which
the carbonization gases are guided it is a.l-so feasible to
collect charcoal by-products. With properly adapted recovery
equipment attractive quantities of pyrolysis oil- may be
gathered.
The author has established a number of beehive
operations during the past years and it was found that the
investment costs were quite n o m i n a . l -a n d c o u . l - db e a f f o r d e d by
smal-Iholder charcoal-makers al-so. In most cases the
firebricks for the kiln construction were made by the
operators or charcoal students rather than purchased, so far
adequate clay supply was available at the kiln site.
Under these conditions the average construction
expenditures for the 50 mf-vo.l-ume kiln ranged between
USD650.- and 800.- which resul-ts into investment costs
between USD I7.- and 16.- per kiln -r3, approximately 10
t o 1 5 t i m e s l o w e r a s c o m p a r e d t o a m e t a . l -k i l n .
As mentioned already the Iifespan of all brick kilns is
very high and exceeds in general- their usage periods by far.
Should the need arise to move his operation to another area
the owner has two choices to do so. He may dismantle the
kiln and carry the bricks to the new plant site for
reconstruction or he may seLect to seIl the kiln as building
material- to buyers who will put it in service elsewhere.
Under these view points the investment of a charcoal-
operation with fire brick kilns becomeseven more attractive
to the potential charcoal maker.
The construction material- for a Brazilian beehive kiln
consists of fire bricks, mortar made from cIay, a three- or
four-sectional iron band for the tightening of the dome and
two steel angle lintels for each door.
The building of a Brazilian beehive charcoaL brick kiln
needs Some experience. Therefore, it is advisabLe for the
untaught charcoaf-maker and especially for the newcomer in
the trade to acquire the necessaly ski]l by training.
Preferably, the instruction at the
shoul-d be arranged
envisaged plant site and during the course one or more kilns
can be erected and put in use.
Also the operation of the kiln must be Learned to obtain
a n o p t i m a l r e c o m p e n s ef r o m t h e i n v e s t e d c a p i t a l .
T h e c h a r g i n g o f t h e k i l n c o m m e n c e sw i t h t h e f o r m i n g o f a
grate on the bottom to al-1ow free gas circulation. The
stringers are alranged in such a way that the air can fLow
f reely to the kil-n centre.
The fuelwood logs are placed vertically, the thinner
pieces against the wal-L and thicker logs towards the centre.
0n top of the vertical- pile the fuelwood will be placed
horizontally until it reaches the ceiling of the dome. All
logs must be p a c k e d together as cl-ose as possible to utilise
the kiln capacity to its maximumand to make direct heat
transfer easier ( P h o t o 5).
Some kindling is positioned close to the ignition
opening which is usually the uppel part of the charging gate
or the central- opening in the dome.
After the ignition white smoke will be issued which
turns to a dark colour later. This is considered to be a
safe sign, that the kiln has t'caught fireI and the ignition
opening wilI be plugged.
The carbonization process proceeds from the top of the
kiln to the bottom or from the charging gate to the kiln
centre, depending on where it had been lighted.
The operator observes during the entire cycle the smoke
issued from the stacks. Carbonization proceeds as long as
the colour of the smokeis white or clear (Photo 5).
The draft of the air entering the air inlet ports is
regulated by varying the position of brick stones loosely
incLined against the porthol-e entries.
Occasionally a crack may occur in the kiln shell
indicated by exiting smoke. This presents no major problem
and can be easily corrected by brushing over the leak with a
clay slurry which should be always at hand.
Also during the cooling phase the kiln shell will be
brushed over with the slurry several- times. The number of
brushings varies between two and four.
After the kiln has cool-ed down to 50o 7Oo C the kiln
is opened rapidly. The skilled operator wil-1 smeLl from the
issuing gases whether there is fire inside the kiIn. In that
case he will extinguish it with a spray of water. Therefore
always approximately 2OOIitres in a drum must be kept ready
for use.
It is good during unloading to' separate all uncharred
pieces of wood. The discharging of the charcoal is done
manually and special rakes with wide-spaced prongs are in
use.
The discharged charcoal- is heaped near the kiln and
a L l - o w e dt o c u r e t h r o u g h a e r a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l - d a y s .
Fresh charcoa.l- absorbs oxygen eagerly which is
accompanied by a rise of the temperature and may cause
spontaneous ignition. Therefore, the fresh charcoal is
carefully watched by the kiln operator during the curing
days. In case of ignition he sprays water over to suppress
fire.
For the duration of the cycle of a Brazil-ian charcoal
fire brick kiln no uniform schedule exists, because this
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wilI be influenced by several factors, including moisture
content and diameter of the fuelwood.
The following data have been derived from different
commercial operations and may serve the planner and the
prospective charcoal maker as a guideline:
F u e l - w o o dl o a d i n g a n d
charcoal- discharging 88 h o u r s
Carbonization 80 hours
C o oI i n g 7 0 h o u rs
Total cycle 158 hours
Commercialoperations :
- -8'78'7
of smoke which can cause embarrassment to residential areas
in the vicinity or to the employees working in the centre.
Each battery is attended by two men onlyr one charcoal
operator and a helper.
The centre provides aII necessities for efficient
charcoal making, €. g. water supply r maintenance s h o pt
stockyard for fuelwood, bägging and Ioading facilities for
the charcoal, etc.
0ne charcoal- battery requires space of the following
dimensions: length 70 m and width JO rl.
An important point for the selection of the site is the
elevation of the field. An ideaL set-up is presented in the
Figure 7O.
In general the production battery
rates for one kiln
range between 5.500 and 6.000 ^3 of charcoal pel year (19).
-88-
The size of the bricks shoul-d be O.24 m x O.I2 m x
0.06 m. But deviations are the rul-e.
For a large-scal-e kitn more than 15.000 bricks will be
necessaly and the medium sized half olange kiln with
straight jacket requires not more than 2.5OO stones. The
mortar is made from clay and water only. To facilitate the
dismantling of the kiln l-ater, aPFloximately 10% oF charcoal
dust are added, which makes the separation of the bricks
easier.
Everything which has been said in the plevious section
concerning the lifespan and durability of a Brazilian kiln
can be applied to the Argentine kiln as well-.
However, the construction of Argentine kilns Iequiles
mole skill and the bricks of the cupola must be carefully
arranged and oriented.
This skill and the experience can usually be acquired by
the charcoal-maker within eight weeks which woul-d al-so
include the instruction time for the operation of the kilns.
Photo 9 shows charcoaf students who have almost
completed a half orange kiln with straight jacket within one
week. The normal- construction time for one kiln by two
skilled charcoal operators is.six days.
The photo also shows the typical technique of arranging
the bricks of the cupola by resetting them. To achieve a
high kiln v o l - u m et h e d i s t a n c e s between each brick layer and
the centre point of the kiln are extended starting from the
cupola base thus stretching the cupola ark into a more oval
shaped form.
The shifting distances depend on the size of the
firebricks and can be precalculated. They differ between
0.50 and 6.50 cm from one brick layer to the other.
The following describes the operational procedures for a
half orange kiln with straight jacket which the author
considers as the best method to obtain good resul-ts.
Similar methods of practice may be used to run other
Argentine kilns but in each instance they have to be adapted
and aJ-tered accordingly.
-89-
Figure 3l Hatf-orange kitn with straight iacket.
0peration of the half-orange kiln
Fuelwood
The fuelwood is cut into pieces approx. 1.00 m I.3O m
in length ( m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r o f 5 . 0 c f r r m a x i m u md i a m e t e r o f
50.0 cm).
The fuelwood which is transported to the kiln site
should be stored as close as possible to each kiln. A
m i n i m u mo f f i v e to six weeks air-drying time is recommended.
Thicker logs e. g. with a diameter in excess of
20 cm should be split once or twice to facilitate the
reduction of moisture content and to shorten the
carbonization time.
-94
Iqnition of the charge (see photo I0)
-95-
As soon as the smoke from a particular smoke port has
clearly turned bluish, the operator uses a stick to probe
inside towards the centre of the kiln to ascertain whether
or not there is an obstruction (uncarbonized wood). If there
is n o i m p e d i m e n t, this smoke port may be cl-osed. If
uncarbonized or partly carbonized wood blocks up the path of
the probe stick to the centre, the hole may be partially
closed using a specially fitted brick. But under no
circumstanees shoul-dit be sealed completely.
This procedure serves to delay the combustion of the
charcoal- in the vicinity of the smoke port and enhances
carbonization.
If the hoLe is re-checked within one hour and the second
probe indicates that a significant amount of uncarbonized
wood is still present, it is advisable to sl-ow down the air
influx by partially closing the two nearest air inlet hol-es
at the base of the kiln using brick I'stoppersr'.
After all of the l-ower smoke ports have been closed and
properly sealed, smoke will also begin to exit through some
of the air inl-et holes.
This is perfectly normal- and all monitoring and
operational- producers must be followed until the last air
inlet hole has been closed and sealed, at which point the
cooling phase begins.
If the kiln has been properly charged and operated, the
carbonization phase should be completed some ten to twelve
hours after ignition.
- 9'1
stamped down. The water drainage ditches ar,ound the kilns
must always be kept unobstructed and c.Lear of aIl rubbish.
The economics
Fire
copra dryer
wood kiln
gas engi ne
steam generator
dryer for charcoal
bri quettes
cooler and chiller
for pyrolysis oil
extraction
Retort I Retort 2
Figure 33 C a rb o -6 a s re to rt p lant w i th charcoal gas
re c o v e ry f o r c o m m e rci al use ( 22 )
which the author has subjected to several trials and has
proved commercially successful-.
101
content can be reduced by kiln drying using the charcoal gas
emitted by the process for heating.
Size reduction of the waste matter is usually not
necessary. Branches or cotton sticks, as an example, can be
h o g g e d o r b r o k e n i n s m a l - 1p i e c e s b y s i m p l e m e a n s .
The prepared raw feed is Loaded on curved trays, which
fit the cross-section of each retort as much as possible.
These trays are made from sheet metal and are left in
the retort until the charcoal is ready.
0peration (22)
Economicconsiderations
1 0 8-
The most revolutionary step forward was made by the
introduction of equipment for the charcoaling of biomass in
the broadest sense. UntiI then, roundwood, thick branches of
trees from natural- forests were the onry choice. l,lith the
first appearance of continuously run vertical retorts, the
residues and waste discharged by sawmilIs, plantations and
f o o d p r o c e s s o r s a l - s o b e c a m ei m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c h a r c o a l - m a k e r .
Biomass converters were first developed for very large
plants with a charcoal- production capacity exceeding a
thousand tons per month. The equipment was borrowed from
other industries, e. g . fertilizer and cement plants, and
adapted to charcoaling.
Since the installed plant capacity vtlas high, huge
accumul-ations of raw feedr €. g. s a w d u s t, bark r DUtshells,
were a necessity for economic operation. In many cases, the
coll-ecting of waste and residues proved uneconomic and was
therefore abandoned.
After the new furnaces had been employed by large
charcoal plants for a while, the s m a l - l -c h a r c o a l - - m a k e r a r s o
became interested also, at first in North America.
Commercial plants vüere erected between 1960 and 1965 and
soon proved their economic feasibility.
For the cl-assification of charcoaL technology, this
handbook employs a modern terminology which differentiates
between traditional charcoal-making ( kiln t e c h n o l o g y) a n d
the industrial processes. rn this context, kiln technology
means a1l equipment producing charcoa.L as the sole product,
whereas retorts or converters are essential elements of the
industrial plant,
capable of recovering and refining
chareoal by-products in commercial grades and quantities.
1 1 0-
Aperture
II
Gas
par t iti o n
Central heating
ptpe
Combustion
chamber
Figure 34 T h e C a rb o fu rnace.
gases takes place starting from the base of the centre pipe;
after combustion, the gases escape into the air (or into a
regenerator) through the right-hand section. The heat output
of this kiln is excellent owing to the utilization of the
non-condensable gases. Adjustment, howevel, is so fine that
it is difficult to regulate constantly; it is considered
that the kiln is suitable above aIl for the treatment of
resinous woods of very even quality and for the direct
extraction of high-quality tar.
oo
\\
JJ
.\t)
trtr
FigUfe 36 A smaller Bosnic ptant with interchangeable
retorts.
aside for cooling the charcoal- inside. The burning chamber
is now ready to take in the next retort with a fresh charge.
The changing is done quickly to prevent the burning chamber
from cooling-off, thus saving fuel.
These plants demonstrate two features of industrial
carbonization which had been neglected by the traditional
charcoal-maker until then
1 1 6-
f .l. 2.1 T h e l r l a g o nR e t o r t
Process description
+,+,
cc
G'G'
CLCL
PP
LL
L.n oo
(uct +,+,
!! ct)ct) (l,(l,
EE LL
.-
-.tt cc
oo
(J'g ('l('l
.? ßtßt
ctl ctl .n.n --
co
##
.eL
--
OLL
o(1,o
FOL
(J-lF
oo JI
:l
ta ßt(J(u
+, (u EnO .o
L.r E C, L-Cl
O L.r L 6, =
P L€ It'+' L
FIFI
O O.r-C ttt ()
E,JVt(J=q/t
[]tIltllll
(lt (ltsf sf tr, tr,tC,tC,
F F GJ GJ
The carbonization
time totals one working day. After the
coaling phase has terminated, the lorries are pulled from
the retort and pushed with the growing charcoar into the
cooling cyrinder. To facilitate the lorry transfer and to
prevent vigorous burning of the charcoal when it comes into
contact with the air, these coolers are positioned in front
of each retort cylinder. The cooring of the charcoal to the
point where it is no longer sel-f-igniting can be shortened
by spraying water on the cool_ercylinder.
The off-gasesare passed through a cooler and scrubber
to strip the pyrolysis oil from them. rn our irlustration, a
fractionating coLumn is attached to the p l a n t for the
recovery of raw acetic acid from the oiI. This addition is
not necessary if the pyrolysis oil is to serve only as a
f uel-.
Operational data
C a p a c i t y : A p p r o x. t 5 ^ 3 .
0perational data
oo
oo
(u(u
tttttt
oo
oo
gg
cc
oo C)C)
(u(u
c+,
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+t lttC EE
Gl CL.r (,(,
(ucn cl oo
5
C)
LL
o-ct
O
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L-C'- oo
.F E(J .o ss
uo-c (u(u
o+, c) (t,(t,
vt =L
ctoL
ctr L+, O oo
I (u L.F
-trt L.Fo L (u
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()+) = L O- glgl
L(J|tl00(u grgr
c) (u r/rr+- ().cl :f
e L L- L LLLL
LO|E0cto
O Or >O >r u-u-
lF =(uCr(u
{J()>L>
ctn,-,cltlc LL
Gl 5.r Ot O G'G'
u-o(J(Jg)q) +,+,
lFlF
llill||lllll
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LL
;;
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o,o, oo
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cc
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LL
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EE
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xx
(u(u +,+,
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(v) (v)
oo
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o Gl-c
oo ctrctr PP
EL LL
-E 'F
ll,
(u(u
v Gtct EE
.}J
==
!L E
(J(J
.T,
L .r4l O
O .n.O 'F e,e,
+, O E P
O, Ld ,a (u(u
L.c=
LLL(J .O FF
c,or(uo cE
o o.rrF
Gt CLo
c .l' O
oq- u
.l
O'r O L'r col
älä
t/,LIJ(l,+,UIL
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(u ur l-.o t ttrtF
Er C' J-O I
L L+' L E(F C
ct ct ct () OtF C'
JF=t/t(JOt!
llllllillll11l
<co(Ja|rlu-(9
Average yield: Charcoal- 33-38 %; commercially obtained
from 1 ^3 wood (lgO kg dry wood): acetic acid (raw)
22-23 kg, m e t h a n o l _ ( r a w ) e- A k g , t a r a n d o i l _ s 5 i k g .
Energy demand: O.7 mil-lion kcal /ton of dry
w o o dI
100 KlVh/ton of dry wood. These figures do not include
the el-ectricity consumption of the sawmil-l- (wood
preparation ) .
o o ur urr/r r/r
ulul
o >>ct
(Jr- CD
ool
sr '- '-(F
16 > >q-
c!, c!,
cL cL
o- o-oo
[ilüll
lrjl.t-(r-
,n,n
tntn
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JJ (J(J
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55 t!t!
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.P.P
EE
LO (J(J
oo cc
(u(u
(' ttrL t-t-
>E(u
(l).r D
u-u-
-+r-EE (u(u
o.tt|orE
LGq. FF
r(l)(J
fo focL cL tntn
.rOC(l
L ott)
.l
orl
+, +, +, +,ctrctr
Gt+) Vr c
-l
E L 5'r
o-cr+, (ul
=+.' E.O
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Ll
dr|E (J - =l
trDltrDl
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<cct(-)o LLI
The charcoaL is discharged at the retort plenum and
carried away to the storage. A separate charcoal- coo.l-er is
not provided because the l-ower retort segment assumes this
rol-e.
In Figure 4O, smal-l- auto-controlled lorries take the
c h a r t o t h e d e s i r e d l - o c a t i o n s t o s a v e m a n p o v { e rc o s t s .
The SIFIC process can be run either without by-product
coJ-l-ection, or with the necessary attachments f or recovery
(as explained in Chapter 4), the equipment and apparatus
being the same. Their capacities, sizes, etc. must be
adapted individually.
The heating system for the retort is commercially proved
and functions according to the principle described in
Chapter t.I.2.2 (Reichert Retort Process). The fuel for the
burning chamber is picked up at the scrubber for the
necessary recirculating gas stream which passes through the
retort charge.
Attention has to be given to the influence of wood
moisture content and the energy demand of the heating
system. The data in the following table have been obtained
f r o m c o m m e r c i a l -p l a n t s by carbonization of European hardwood
species. The unit on which the energy consumption, the
recircul-ating gas quantities and el-ectricity were based is
expressed in cubic metre of solid air-dry wood substance
( f m ) . T h i s i s a c o m m o nt e r m i n t h e
charcoal- industry local
and I fm corresponds to 75O kg on average (hardwoodonly):
125 -
The proportionality of energy demand to raw material
moisture is not the only probl-em. With increasing
evaporation rates, the install-ed capacity of the plant is
reduced and consequently production sl-owsdown.
These drawbacks can be eased or avoided if the incoming
wood is passed through a dryer before entering the retort.
The options for rar^/ material drying and the details are
described in Chapter 5.
Several- attempts have been made to simplify the SIFIC
process. 0ne of the results was the CISR Lambiotte Retort.
PLants have been commercially run for a number of years' and
the main features are shown in Photo I2 and Figure 40. The
retort is heated by an internal- combustion device which
burns part of the recycled pyroligneous vapours (off-gas).
This compensaLes for the energy needs of wood drying '
c h a r c o a l - c o o l i n g a n d g e n e r a l h e a t . l - o s s e so f t h e r e t o r t .
The excess of pyroligneous vapours is taken from the top
of the retort and is led back for use or re-use. To be
easily combustible, the vapours must be produced from wood
w i t h a m a x i m u mm o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f 30 %. The combustion air
can be wel-1 controlled, thus ensuring oxygen deficiency and
regulating the retort temperature.
The carbonization temperature is fixed to obtain a good
quality of charcoal. In the lower part of the retort, a
second gas circul-ation coo.l-s the charcoal- before it l-eaves
the converter. This gas stream is refrigerated and washed in
a scrubber.
t26-
oo
oo
q)q)
* t
cc
or{
.S o*
bb
.!o
ot
-JO
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aa
EE
oo
{{
tt
VlVl
\\
oo
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+-+-
\\
oo
ii
.\oo
(U(U
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!!
t4t4
aa
\\
:p
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_
Ot l\.\\.\
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'c; c
oo
UU
oo
qq
Expected yields: approx 2.5OO tons lumP charcoal I
production of pyrolysis oil is feasible, but extra
equipment is necessary.
r29 -
Developing countries, in contrast to the industriarized
countries, abound in forestaL and agricurtural waste
which constitutes a valuabre raw material source for
charcoaL and by-product generation.
ut
FTNES I
O L L E C T O tR
HOGGED
FEED
DRYER
D R I ED
FEED
FUEL
PYROLYSIS GAS
UNIT SCRUBBER
DRIED.FEED
S U R G EB I N
FUEt
GAS
OIRTY SCRUEBIN6
AIR BLOWER otL otL
otL
STORAGE
FILTER TANK otL
CAKE FILTER
CHAR
STORAGE
BIN
- 131-
Dried feed is retrieved
and conveyed from the surge bin
at a metered rate to the pyrolysis unit. Here the feed is
thermally converted to char (charcoal) and oil (pyrolysis
oil) and gas vapours (heating gas), The charcoar- is
discharged from the bottom of the converter into a sealed
s c r e w c o n v e y e r w h e r e i t i s c o o J _ e dw i t h w a t e r s p r a y .
The oir
and gas vapours are drawn from the top of the
converter into the off-gas system. This stream flows through
a scrubber-chiller. Here most of the pyrolysis oiI vapours
are condensed. The uncondensed gases then fl_ow through a
demister which coal-esces the mists into a separate riquid
oil stream. The remaining fuel gases are drawn through the
draught fan and forced into burners to supply heat to the
dryer and to other on-site units such as boilers, kilns,
briquette dryer, etc.
The newly condensed pyrolysis oir frows to a rotary
vacuum filter (i r n e e s s a r y) where solid particles are
removed. Then the clean oil is stored and is available for
use as liquid fuel. rn many charcoar operations the
pyrolysis oil vapours are not c o n d e n s e dI instead, the
off-gases from the top of the
are burned in an converter
auxiliary steam boiler. The steam produced in this way can
be piped and sold 'rover the fence' which is the desired
practice in many plants.
The integration of rapid pyrolysis prants into existing
industries, with regard to the prevailing socio-economic
situation of devetoping countries, is one of the most
important tasks for the charcoal industry planner. The
possiblities available to him can be numerous and they
should be surveyed carefurly during a research programme
(see also Chapter 7).
The criteria for rapid pyrorysis plants may r be
s u m m a r i z e da s f o l l o w s :
C o n v e r s i o n o f s m a . L lm
_ aterial f ragments on1y.
--
t32 t32
Limiting the moisture content of the Iaw material by
mixing of dry with wet material r or pre-drying.
temperatures.
There are several types of mul-tiple hearth furnaces on
the market. However, one of the most important points to
waste oil-s.
The trend of technical- development is to improve the
overaLl economics of the multipte hearthfurnace by adding
equipment to make USe of the conVerter gaS. Thereforet
systems have been developed with predrying instal-lations and
steam boil-ers to recovel the energy contained in the
136
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C, C, |.rl|.rl
lrl lrl C\.C\.
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F F :Z :ZCl Cl l^l l^l tJ tJJ J rt',rt',
trJ trJ
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L ' E T ! < O . CL d CCC JJ( (J J
atrl
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I
T h e c r u d e g a s p a s s e s t h r o u g h a d i s e n g a g e m e n tz o n e ( H ) i n
the chamber above the charcoal bed before it is withdrawn
from the apparatus.
Since the decomposition of the particles is an
exothermic process, it is necessary only to heat the
particles to reaction temperature and to suppry enough heat
to replace heat lost by conductionr rädiation and by
endothermic reactions. The operation of the unit is
continuous.
A continuous fluid bed gasifier for s m a l - l -p a r t i c l e s has
been developed for this process, in which fuer gas is
produced as a major product. The fragments to be gasified
may range from particles of 3 cm down to a very fine dust in
size. The decomposition rate of the small particles is very
rapid, and this is important for commercial purposes.
(A) is a closed chamber or reactor which may be of any
desired cross-sectionar shape,
usually round. The but is
chamber has an upwardly converging section (c) at its upper
end. The chamber may be formed of stainl-ess steel and
covered by suitable insulation material. A refractory lined
insulation reactor wilr all-ow a rarge range of temperatures
for broader industrial applications. The bed of charcoal (D)
is maintained in the lower section of the chamber.
0xygen-containing gas is continuousry directed into this
bed.
rf bone-dryr preheated, smal-1 particle feed is used,
larger yield and higher heating fuel- gas are obtained
value
than by conventional continuous gas producer operation. The
heating value of the gäsr when the gasifier is operated with
air, is about twice that obtained by conventionar. gas
producers. The higher gas yield is a resuLt of more rapid
thermal decomposition obtained with smal-t particre feed,
dried and preheated to
its decomposition temperature. The
higher heating value of the gas produeed is due to Lower air
requirements for gasification of dry, preheated wood. The
nitrogen in the air is the main factor in reducinq the
heating value of producer fuel gas (7).
1 3 8-
Technical and Process Data (7)
Converter
_-]! :
T:[-l t T.T
tl iltl
U U Uu
L--.r - J_ __
/ -1 /-t
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Cooling water
Revolving lock
Charcoal discharge
( C o u rtesy of A ME R IC A N C A N C O.
Greenw i ch, C onn. )
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cE
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t : , , : cJ cJ o-o-
a . r : a t-{ t-{.-l.-l
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EO
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Raw materiaL receipt
r43 -
The equipment is intended to operate outdoors in most
weather conditions. Materials and workmanship are such that
the apparatus can perform without interference from snow,
rain, frost or freezing rain. Any components that cannot
meet these requirements must be protected.
T h e m a x i m u md i a g o n a L d i m e n s i o n o f wood particles should
not exceed 1.8 cm. The process is designed to handle a wide
range of feeds, from unsized sawdust to hogged or chipped
wood. There is no requirement to size-sort the feed material
prior to pyrolysis. At a given pyrolysis temperature, the
char time function of the dimension of the largest
is a
piece to be charred (always taking the smallest dimension of
a given particle).
The wood feed is automatically loaded into the top of
the reactor by a 23 cm auger which el-evates the feed from
f loor l-evel. Charcoal is un.l-oaded on a presettable
time/voLume schedul-e by a 23 cm auger which e.Levates the
charcoal to a height of I.2 m (see Figure 45).
Both augers are tightly flanged to the reactor, thus
preventing air or gas leaks at these points. A flange is
provided at the exit end of the off-Ioad auger for
convenient sealing to the userrs char-handling facility.
oo
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Mass and enerqv balance per hour of operation
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(0(0
Il o
Ct'Ct' 6g 6g ._t ._t C)C)
.-l == ooo
f{f{ HO
0)0) ]J]J (I)t{F{E ol @
+,+, oo +ro(d0 ajl o)
(o(o oo OEIt{ Fll o
== =CJO(L uJl :l
References
-t47-
Chapter 4
T E C H N I Q U EFSO R R E C O V E R I NC
GO M M E R C I APLR O D U C TFSR O MP Y R O L Y S I S
OIL
4. L P vr o L v s i s 0 i l - R e c o v e r v
149 -
4.2 Crude Acetic Acid and Acetone Recovery
151
for concentration. The azeotrope distilted at the top of the
dehydration tank is condensed and separates out into a light
layer containing 98.9 per cent butyl acetate and a watery
layer containing only 0.8 per cent of the latter. The light
layer is returned through the dehydration tank (see Figure
46) .
The plant Deutsche GoId und Silber
bel-onging to the
Scheidenanstalt uses the acetic ether method for the
extraction of acetic acid. Pyroligneous acid freed from wood
spirit is introduced into the top of a L0-metre tower filled
with the ether. At the same time, a counter-current of
acetic ether is introduced from the bottom. The tower is
fitted with rashig rings to ensure good contact. Working is
continuous (5).
At the bottom of the tower, there is a run-off of water
containing some dissolved ether which is coLlected by
rectifying. A mixture of ether and acetic acid with a littIe
tar is given off from the top. The ether is col-lected by
rectification and recycled into the extraction tower. The
separation of crude acetic acid and tar is effected by
vacuum distillation. The resultant acetic acid is at 95 per
cent; it is rectified.
It is not known whether this very attractive process can
offer the same guarantees of rel-iability as those using the
various French techniques.
Acetone can be obtained by passing the pyloligneous acid
( after separating out wood spirit ) or the pyrolgneous
distillate o
over catal-ysers at 500 C.
t52 -
c,4
-ffi+-ffi LL
c,c,
cc
lFlF
(u(u
LL
oo
(o(o
.A.A
'? rV o,
>o tntn
._^ ._^
vlvl
EE
vt vt iaia oo
LL
9 L
EO., CLCL
.F..)
+, +, äiäi -c-c
ro3 +,+,
-c -c +)+)
..
+rLl,,l
(u (u.t, .t,.tt.tt
+,+,
gg
c =F= C'C'
oo
.F ll ll 1l CLCL
r{- r{-O)O)
L' L' ct ct o, o,
(u+, L ItoIto
> C+r oo
o(tlc oo
ctct (J- Cl E LL
oo o cl-c, .F GIGI
(J(J Lsu EE
LL -O -tQ |J|J
(t(t cc - O ( J O
(.)(.)oo O t t l !
.e9, trU
ttl'r 'trt
+,+, E . e -c +, .F .l
,O,Ov r + r u +(l)r ((J-
u u
NN .r (lt ltl 16 \01
cc 3 . E . ,
E - P, ol
oo- - Q ) . e O,' (u tO.F
ltlt O.t:'+) !Es+t
(u
ol
LL L = o 5 5+, Ll
GIGI
(J(J rö3 5öEä =l
s)l
11 ll 11 ll ]tilllll 'Fl
<co(Jcl ct-o ()E u-I
-153-
65 70 % methanol
10 I5 % acetone
I0 I5 % methyl acetate
II 33 % a c e t a l d e h y d e
0.5 II % a l l y l i c al-coho1, etc.
gg
=u
t€
trP
öa
G \t t
=-.^
1414
oo F3ü I
oo
oo
OlOl ::N E
oo
u)u)
oo
uu
oo
cc
oo
EEP S
(l,(l, ruru oo !LL
U
(J(J
55
(D(D
\\ rfl{ b
lttltt\
{Qu Ioo
UU
oo
qq
Nl
oo \l
OlOl II
cc ot
\l
oo JI
oo oiloil
\\
r; \{- l- l
-155-
Light oils 5.0 %
Heavy oils 10.0 %
Pitch 64.6 %
- t5'7
from it by successive treatment with soda, steam and acid
and 1astly by distillation.
Creosote used for wood preservation is really oil of
creosote.
P r o c e s s i n g o f i n s o . L u b L es o f t w o o d t a r
1 5 8-
and injecting steam which carries off all products except
the tar. The resulting distillate is washed with soda
solution which fixes any fatty acids and the phenols, as
well as resinifying aldehydes and condensing acetone. The
alkaline solution is separated and treated with dilute
sulphuric acidr so eliminating the furanes, the aldehydes
and the unsaturated compounds.
The washed oil is recti fied either with an uncovered
furnace or in a steam bath, the quality of the product being
improved by vacuum distillation at 110o to 120o C. The
resulting distillate is a commercial oil of turpentine.
T r e a t m e n t o f s o l - u b L et a r (extraction tar)
1 5 9-
By employing current technology and advanced equipment,
a modern charcoaL plant can be operated as an energy
self-sufficient entity (10).
Industry has reported energy utilization factors, as
c o m p a r e dw i t h t h e t o t a l energy input, of up to 85 %.
It is commonlybelieved in the industry that the energy
losses of charcoal- plants
cannot be reduced below 17 %,
perhaps even 20 %. These I ' n aturaL'r losses result from the
eseape of tangible heat through the insulation of equipment,
through cooling water, and heat l-osses from the
freshly-discharged charcoal- which is well above ambient
temperature.
Evidently, the investment of a potential- charcoal-maker
is Iimited by cost-benefit considerations, in particuLar by
the market value of his products. Consequently, many
c h a r c o a l - - m a k e r sh a v e n o c h o i c e b u t t o a c c e p t a g l o b a l energy
bal-ance well below the optimum of 85 % as a resul-t of lack
of demand.
Looking to the future, it should be noted that several-
institutes and private companies have resumed their research
programmes on the optimal utilization of charcoal-
by-products. This research line had been neglected during
the period of cheap petroleum and natural gas.
This branch of specialized chemistry dealing with the
modification of pyrolysis products still- encounters
difficuLties inherent in the nature of pyrolytic compounds,
for example the strong tendency to sel f-polymerization of
some of these products. However, research in this difficult
area is progressing; in particular, there is significant
progress in the catalytic heat pressure treatment of
pyrolysis oiI.
V'lhile awaiting the results which are expected from the
research efforts, it must be accepted that, for the time
beingr pyrolytic oils and charcoal- gas will be restricted to
the replacement of fuels for steam boilers, brick factories,
cement and fertilizer plants, gas engines, etc.
References
--
t62 t62
A natural forest is a reSoUIce which, in the economistrs
jargon, glew without labour inputs from man. The aim of
forest m a n a g e m e n ti s to harvest a m a x i m u mt i m b e r clop from
such a forest without destroying its productivity as an
on-going ecosystem and, at the Same time, minimize the
inputs needed to achieve this. The resul-t of this process is
expressed in t h e m e a n a n n u a l - a l - . 1 - o w a b lo- e
fftake or cut of the
forest, usually measured in cubic metres peI hectare.
Theoretically, o n e c o u l - d I e m o v e a v o l - u m ee q u a l t o t h i s e a c h
year and the forest would maintain itself. In practice r the
intelVention of man produces long-term changes in the
forest, especially in the tropics, changing the species
composition and the diameter classes of the mature, natural
forest after harvesting and regeneration. htherever possiblet
a forest should be managed to produce the product mix of
highest val-ue sawlogs and veneer logs are first priority.
Fuelwood has the l-owest value; it is wood which cannot
n o r m a l l y b e s o . l - df o r a n y o t h e r p u r p o s e . I t s p r i c e i s u s u a l l y
below pulpwood for the paper industry.
The usual- compromise achieved even in countries where
forest m a n a g e m e n ti s strong and well-oriented is that a
certain area of forest is al-located for fuelwood supply with
t h e a n n u a l - a l - l - o w a b l - ec u t s e t a t a l - e v e l b e l i e v e d s u s t a i n a b l - e
from the knowledge available at the time. The fuel-wood
harvesting enterprise then endeavours to stay within the
prescribed cut to maximize the
and harvest by making
effective buse of
r a n c h w o o d , d e a d t i m b e r a n d s m a I l diameter
wood of poor quality, etc, which is not normally incl-uded in
the assessed standing volume for yield calculations. To
avoid damaging the forest system, howeVer' there needs to be
c o n s t a n t m o n i t o r i n g a n d m e a s u r e m e n tb y t h e f o r e s t m a n a g e m e n t
authorities to ensure that target regeneration and growth
rates are being achieved and to decide whether the aLl-owable
cut may be increased or must be reduced.
As already sources which are ideally
mentioned, other
suited for charcoaL-making are the residues of forestry and
the primary and secondary wood industry G).
1 6 3-
Numerous feedstocks have been tried out successfully by
carbonization during the rast three decades. Among those
w h i c h h a v e f o u n d w i d e s p r e a d c o m m e r c i a l -u s e a r e :
164 -
Furthermore, extremely good yields of tar and naval stores
(turpentine, pine oil ) can be extracted from these oils,
which makes them a valuable fuel (5).
1 6 5-
correctly on
suitable sites, growth can be rapid. Mean
annual increments ( i , | n f
) of 15 20 ^3 per ha over 12
20 years rotations are not uncommon.
T h e e s t a b l - i s h m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n to f fuelwood plantations
is a specialized branch of forestry. Further di s c u s s i o n
w o u . L de x c e e d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s handbook.
sugarcane bagasse
-166-
The quality of charcoal made from different agricul-turaL
residues can Vary greatly, e.g., nutshell-s are a classic Iaw
material for activated charcoal. The char displays a high
degree of hardness with 1ow attrition rates.
The naturaL mineraJ- content of Some raw materials
severely Iimits their applications, because aIl the minerals
will be found eventually in the char and increase its ash
content. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c a . l - o r i fi c v a l - u e o f c h a r c o a l - m a d e
from such materiaLs is pooI, and industriaL consumers
requiring low ash content would reject it. Therefore' high
ash containing charcoal is usually briquetted and soLd as
cooking fuel.
The yields of charcoal made from agriculturaL residues
also Vary greatly and cannot be compared to those made from
wood or wood waste. Yields range between 15 % and 45 %,
based on the dry feed. The same variations can be observed
in the output of pyrolysis oil-s. AIso the composition and
burning characteristics of these pyrolysis oils are very
different.
Research in this field has not yet explored allthe
opportunities for uses. fnvestigations
industrial are going
on to test the oil as a source of aLternative cal fueL. For
the time being, its major commercial- vaLue remains as a
substitute for fuel oil in industrial- boiler furnaces.
One of the advantages of agricul-tural residues for the
charcoal plant is that large quantities can be seculed in
almost bone-dry condition. A supply of this kind makes
predrying equipment obsol-ete and reduces operationa.L costs
considerably.
It remains to be seen what efforts deveLoping countries
will make in this a view to reducing their enelgy
field with
bilIs and securing cheap cooking fuel- for the people. Most
of these countries abound with untapped agricultural waste
resources.
Before the introduction of small conversion units, the
economy of the charcoal plant depended on the concentration
of, and the cost of collecting huge rah, material reserves.
The picture has changed completely: a.Lready, relatively
small- waste accumul-ations will sustain a charcoal plant
economically.
5 . f . 1 - K e y F a c t o r s i n W o o dS u P P l y
t69 -
Felling and bucking to required lengths; splitting may
be required.
l r / o o da t t a c k e d b y f u n g i a n d m i l d e w g i v e s a I o w e r y i e l d i n
distillation products and charcoal. The latter, moreover, is
of inferior quality, being fragile, of Lower density and
more readily inflammable in the atmosphere.
All the mineral substances in the wood ( the chief
eLements being calcium, magnesiumr Potassium, sodium, iron,
manganese,phosphoric acid) wiIl be present in the charcoal.
The proportions and composition of ash wilI be of great
importance, €specially for metallurgical charcoa-l-.
trlhile the basic composition is fairly constant, this is
far from the case with the chief chemical eonstituents. lllood
yields the following substances:
I7I -
3. True cel-lulose equivaLent to glucose obtained by total
saccharification;
M a n n a n e sa n d g a l a c t a n e s , a l w a y s p r e s e n t i n resinous, and
often in negligible quantities i n d e c i d u o u s w o o d sI
5. Lignine.
172 -
T h e r e fo r e , the f uel-wood goes f irst to the sawmil-1.
Charcoal plants usually employ two bandsaws and circular
saws, and a conveyor for carrying the sized logs to the
retort, either directly o r v i a a m e c h a n i c a l -d r y e r .
The sawmill of a charcoal plant usually works one shift
per day. Some of the larger charcoaL plants have instaLled
continuously operating automatic saws, thus eliminating
l-abour almost completely.
The importance of the moisture content of the raw
material and the relationship between moisture content and
the duration of the carbonization cycle has already been
mentioned. In many plants it may be preferable to sacrifice
a portion of the plant capacity in order to obtain a quicker
return on the money expended for wood preparation. However,
one practical point should not be overl-ooked, and that is
that dried wood is much lighter than wet woodr äD important
consideration for all charcoal- plants where the work is done
manually. An average six steres of wood, freshly felled
woul-dweigh approximately four tons, bUt after drying there
would be one ton less to handle. If this figure is
multiplied by 10 or 15 per day (the number of steres per
charge) tne men loading wet wood will lift I0 to 15 tons
more water than men handling dry wood.
Very large industrial carbonization plants do not take
any chances. The mechanical- dryer forms part of their
standard equipment. The principle of the wood dryer is shown
in Figure 48 (8).
The Iogs are carried continuously to the top of the
cylindrically shaped dryer by an eLevator. The combustion
chamber is fired
with the off-gases of the retort or
pyrolysis The hot gases are drawn and propelled through
oi1.
the wood charge (up-draught system), recirculated, and the
excess is expelled from the dryer by an off-gas fan. During
the drying procedure, the wood charge moves slow1y down to
the bottom of the cylinder where it is continuously
di scharged.
r'13-
G-- }lood 40X
moisture
l-rl-r
t-l
)!qr i
-
>Wood201
moisture
a = D ry i n g c y l i n d e r
b = Entrance for green wood
c = D i s c h a rg e l o c k s fo r dry w ood
d = Combustionchamberfor retort gas
e = H e a ti n g g a s fa n
f = O ff-g a s fa n
- 1 7 4-
Large charcoal plants keep a reserve of wood stored
nearby for periods when the wood supply stops. This can be
due to climatic conditions, such as the rainy season,
hurricanes, or heavy snow faI1, or other causes such as
transport strikes.
A retort requires a certain amount of time to cool down
to normal temperature, and also needs time to heat up to its
operational temperature. The hull of a retort or converter
is protected by refractory lining, and this lining can be
severely damaged by rapid temperature change. It f o.l-lows
that any breakdown in the supply of wood, with consequent
cooling of the retort, causes an undesirabl-e production
standstill.
Incoming wood loads which exceed the immediate demand
are normally transferred to the storage area. The storage
area should be situated close to the charcoal- plant so that
the wood can be movedon hand-propelled trucks or carts.
The best wood storage results have been achieved with
stockpilings up to a height of 8 m. The length of the piles
will be Iimited by the dimensions of the storage area. 0f
course, the area should be open so as to expose the wood
piles to the sunl-ight and wind as much as possible. If two
or more wood piles have to be set upr the aisles should be
kept wide open to allow the wind to pass freely. A distance
of 7 m between the piles is customary.
In temperate countries, wood can be stored over 12
months in this way without danger of attack by fungi and
insects. In the tropics the m a x j . m u ms t o r a g e time will be
much shorter.
Al-1 the above applies to the carbonization practice of
roundwood, firewood, branches, slabs and off-cuts of
sawmills in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r a t , ' lm a t e r i a l - s s t i l l in common
use for most charcoal plants. Forestal- residues, waste from
wood processors and agricultural waste will require a
different treatment, which is norrnally simpler and fess
costly.
In practice, the high cost of transporting and preparing
fueLwood has made other Sources more attractive for the
charcoal-maker.
The cost limitations connected with the supply and the
on-site p l e p a r a t i o n o f f u el-wood cannot be defined for all
cases. A significant attitude of both large and smalL
charcoal-makers seems to be gaining ground. This is
refl-ected in the fact that aIl new charcoal enterprises are
structured with a high degree of flexibility which enables
them to adapt their equipment to n e t r , /I a w materials and
resources whenever the economic situation demands a change
of feedstocks.
R ef e r e n c e s
1 7 8-
Although price is by far the most important reason for
selecting one or the other brand, buyers have become awale
that significant differences exist in cooking times and
calorific values of various lump charcoaLs (1).
The trend of lump charcoaL consumption cannot be
estimated with sufficient accuracy since statistics are
rarely provided. However, it is the commonbelief of all
persons invo.l-ved in the charcoal trade and production that
t h e d e m a n di s growing steadity.
This upward trend can be expected to accelerate in the
future, owing to the fact that substitutes derived from fuel
oit and other fuels have increased in price dramatically and
h a v e b e c o m eu n a f f o r d a b l e f o r m i l l i o n s of people.
179 -
Export specifications Q)
Lumpcharcoal Briquettes
Without With
enerqv extender enerov extender
A sh e s 3 4% Max. 8% Max. 25 %
M oi s t u r e Less than 5 % 5% 5%
Carbon 80 82% 70 75 % 60 65%
Volatiles 10 15% 10-I 5% l0 15%
B i n d er Max. 8% Max. I %
C a Io r i f i c
Value 5 , 8 0 0 - 7, 2 O O k c a I / k g 5 , 0 0 0 k c a l / k g 5,2OOkcal/kg
1 8 0-
specific pore structure with Iarge surface area
almost smokeLess.
Cementindustry
Specifications (2)
1 8 2-
carbon combines readily with oxygen and sulphur, thus
facilitating metal extraction. Charcoal can therefore be
used for the reduction of copper-containing ores aIso.
Most of the charcoaL used in blast furnaces is made from
hardwood species (eucalyptus). Although charcoal- is
generally acknowledgedto be as good äsr if not better than
coke, there are practical difficulties in obtaining adequate
supplies of charcoal to feed the large iron and steel
capacitites which are needed to achieve a competitive steel
price.
It is only in countries with extensive forests that the
use of charcoal for iron-smelting is likely to be profitable.
Gas/Vapourphase applications
0ther applications
lö5 -
Specifications
1 8 6-
6.5 Special-ity Markets f or Charcoal_
H o rt i c u l t u r e
1 8 8-
6.7 Bv-Product Utilization
1 8 9-
Precautions must be taken in the heating system so that
the oil cannot be advertently heated above 1I0o C-
Pyrolytic tar:
can be obtained by settling down from
concentrated pyrolysis oil and is derived at different
stages of the refining processes for raw acetic acid and
raw methanol. The commercial grades of pyrolytic tars
are distinguished by the flash points ( eO lj3o C),
viscosity and calorific values (:, g00 7r600 kcal /kg) .
They are also di fferentiated by their solubirity in
water.
1 9 1-
Pyrolytic pitch: a residue of tar distillation, has a
dark-brown or black coLour. Charcoal plants normally
supply four different grades which are marked by their
softening points.
192 -
coz 59.O Vol. %
c0 73.O Vol. %
Methane 3.5 Vol. %
H yd r o g e n t.O Vol. %
Vapours, etc. 1.5 Vol. %
P r o d u ct Rawmaterial Application
1 9 3-
Product Ra! material Application
C r u d e m e t h a n o L W o o da l c o h o l Methyl acetate
r94 -
Product Rawmaterial- Iication
6 . 9 C h a r c o a l -C o s t s a n d F u e l P r i c e s
1 9 6-
FueI Material Ashes Moisture Higher heating
% % v a l -u e
KJlkq kcal/kq
Premiumfuels
bituminous coal- 4.1 3 Lr 3 O O 7,5OO
bituminous coke ll 26r7OO 6r4OO
charcoal, Iump 33 55 f 0, 000 7,2OO
charcoal, briquettes 99 44 27,OOO 6r4OO
W o o df u e l s
hardwood, green 1.5 37 10,500 2r5OO
hardwood, dry 0.5 L5 15,500 3,7oo
pine bark 2.9 JJ 20,000 4,800
sawdust, fresh 1.8 45 9, 500 2 r3oO
sawdust, dry 0.8 I4 14,600 3,5OO
Waste-basedfuels
coconut shells 2.5 T2 14r650 tr5oo
bovine manure 17.I 55 15 , 9 0 0 3, 800
bagasse, wet I.3 45 8r35O 2, 000
bagasse, dry I.9 II 15 , 9 0 0 ], 800
coffee husks II 65 6r55O I,550
rice hulls I5.5 66 15,000 3r600
rice straw L9.2 66 14,800 3,55O
paper-mill sludge IO.2 10 12,I00 2r9OO
sewagesludge 1 7. 4 I2 4r7OO I, I20
r 9 8-
almost any other fuel of the primary a n d p r e m i u m g r o u p s'
although fuel prices may valy greatly from country to
sintering processes
steel hardening.
Market survey.
Material tests.
Advertising.
Cl-ient contacts.
Price structuring.
202202
Since the agent or representative acts as a local
broker, he receives a commission to reimburse him for his
expenditures and for remuneration. Fees are based strictly
on sales resuLts and are set out in an annuaL contract.
However, the eventual success of a charcoal business will
depend on the flexibility of the supplier and how quickly he
can serve the needs of the customers.
Last but not least, success wilL be rel-ated to the
technical capability of his production facilities. In other
words, the design of the charcoaL plant may be the limiting
factor.
Africa
East African countries I50 I7O
Madagascar,Mauritius,
South Africa 85 Includes charcoal
briquettes.
West African countries 580 d00
A m er i c a s
Argentina, Brazil 4,9OO Includes charcoal
briquettes.
Canada, USA 1,400 85 % charcoal
b r i q u e t t es
Central America 25 30
A si a
Peoplers Republic of China 2OO 45O
Philippines, India, 100 140 Mainly coconut
Sri Lanka shell charcoal,
including charcoal
briquettes.
Estimated Annual Charcoal Production
(Basis: I98l)
AustraJ-ia NewZealand 70 90
E ur o p e
EECcountries 110 Includes charcoal
briquettes.
Czechoslovakia, Hungary 1r0 Includes charcoal
briquettes.
Romania, Yugoslavia, 30 I n c . L u d e si m p o r t s
Scandinavia from S. America
Poland, USSR 250 300 Not including
Asian territories.
(5) L. J a e g e r , G r u n d l a g e n d e r H o l - z g a s a n l a g e nf u e r or!sfesten
u n d f a h r b a r e n _J e ! r r e ! - Muenchen, F. R. G., L9V5
National pl-anning
-210-
7.1 Planning of Projects
C o n c l - u s i o n sa n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
%%
tf^Xtf^X
'"uLo
/ä/ä
Ac ti v a te d
Carbon
Existi ng
Industry:
ww
Methanol
1,9o^
"r-r?rd"r-r?rd
Ag r i c ul t ur e Various
l'lastes R a wm a t e r i a l s
-2t3-
which the standard of marks for awards should be set fairly
high.
The decision to set up a properly olganized charcoal
industry shouLd be made before the organization of a
charcoal- research and development team. Information gained
from research and deveLoomentwill lead to modification of
some of the SUggested projects and therefore close
consultation and liaison with the Planning D e p a r t m e nt is
essential.
At present chemical charcoal research is concentrating
on the identification of compounds in the pyrotytic oils
from all materials. Research had been dormant during the
long period of cheap petroleum. Today interest is focusing
on the ingredients of pylolytic oil as rare raw materials
for the chemical, pharmaceutical- and cosmetic industries to
substitute for compounds which have their origin in the
synthesis of petroleum derivates. Some objectives, howevert
are farther reaching. Extracts of pyrolysis oiLs can Serve
as an alternative fuel for carS, trucks, ägricultural
equipment and electric genetators, if properly prepared and
gasi fied.
Cogeneration of energy has again become an essential
part of the charcoal industry. Numerous combinations are
possible and can be devetoped. The credits gained from the
sale of by-products can set-off a major part of operationaL
costs and it appears that these contributions wiII become
more attractive in the future.
The case Appendix I
studies (CISR-Lambiotte
given in
plant and Vertical Flow Converter ( Tech-Air) plant) bring
out the main characteristics of a modern plant and give an
insight into the planning process.
zLs--zLs
Heat exchange efficiency is also the reason why most of
the retorts and almost aII kiLns require, for their ploper
charging, specific dimensions for the diameter and length of
the wood 1ogs.
0therwise, penetration of the heating gas
will not be adequate to meet the necessary velocity rate of
heat exchange because of the high density of the charge.
Considerable improvement of the heat exchange can be
achieved if the feed is kept in steady movement, e.9., il't a
continuously opelated converter plant. This energy-saving
effect is demonstrated in the following table for the
continuously opelated in comparison with the
SIFIC retort
batchwise operation of a R e i c h e r t r e t o rt. In both cases, log
sizes and moisture content of the feed were identical (1).
SIFIC retort R E I C H E R Tr e t o r t
Yield of: kg/t dry wood kg/t dry wood
C h ar c o a l 330 t5 0 770 350
M et h a n o l 23 19 2J
Acetic acid 77 66 70
Heating demand 17 kcal/kg dry wood 340 kcal/kg dry wood
Electri. demand 5 . 6 K W h t/ d r y w o o d 2L KWh/t dry wood
- 2 t 7-
sawdust, or by plantations and agriculturaL crop processors
in the form of nutshells, husks, hu11s, Ieaves, twigletst
pulpa from coffee or bagasse from the sugar industry. They
may also have been produced artificially by wood chippers'
farm shredders, etc. fn any event, they tend to cause high
density charges (in some cases they have to be compacted
first) when fed into the converter, consequently reducing
the heat exchange efficiency significantly.
The equipment supplier is therefore obliged to design
and manufacture special machinery for the charcoaL producer.
- -2t82t8
Not all the items in the above list will be necessary in
particul-ar plants. Since an industrial charcoal- plant can
use machinery f rom other industries with minor aLterat.i-ons,
it has become common plactice to employ second hand
equipment as much as possible; this could leduce the initial
investment costs considerably.
Traditionally, the inherited wisdom of rural societies
has played an important part charcoal-making. To use the
in
established method which is known to work successfully in a
locality is the logical option for those who cannot afford
to take risks because of their precarious economic
situation. Where socia.l- f actors aIe dominant, it is usually
very difficult to introduce a new technology of
charcoal-making unl-ess the social- f actors are changed.
Frequently one sees attempts to modify the technology of
charcoal-making by providing aid: inputs such as chain saws'
new kilns and So on. When these inputs ar'e no longer
available, economic necessity forces the producers to revert
to the traditional, successful method with all its obvious
technicaL fauLts. Therefore, carbonizing methods cannot be
evaluated just on the basis of technicai- factors: sociaL
factors are of equal importance.
But good technology is important in the long run in
improving social conditions. Therefore, if social factors
permit, methods which give higher yields of better quality
charcoal- at Lower cost should be used.
Technical equipment appropriate to industrial charcoal-
production on a smalL scale has come into use only since
1 9 6 5 . S i n c e t h e n , t h e s e n e w d e v e l - o p m e n t sh a v e f o l l o w e d a n
ever-j.ncreasing upward trend, not preViously known in the
charcoal- industry.
It may come as a surprise to the outsider that the
investment costS ale frequently a minor conceln of the
entrepreneur because the adaptability of modern equipment
allows the investor to reduce his risks considerably and to
add new capital equipment whenever his funding is sufficient
a n d t h e m a r k e t d e m a n d si t .
7.3 Conclusions
220--220
What should governmentsdo?
F u r t h e r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n sa r e :
T r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e ss h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d .
- -221221
Information should be disseminated to interested groups,
universities, and private investors.
R ef e r e n c e s
(1) F. F l u e g g er C h e m i s c h e T e c h n o . l - o g i ed e s H o l z e s , ( S e, 57),
Munich FRG, 1954
Chapter 8
A N D A C T I V A T E DC H A R C O AM
C H A R C O ABLR I Q U E T T E S LANUFACTURING
F o r m i n g : T h e m o s t c o m m o n l yu s e d p r e s s e s a r e t h e r o l _ l - e r t y p e s
that may be adjusted to differnt pressures and speeds. Photo
14 shows a roIler press discharging pillow briquettes and
Photo 15 a close-up of the briquettes.
qq art of mould
tonfl
Plston plate
Tabl estand
F'igure 50. S i m p l eC h a r c o a lB r i q u e t t i n g P r e s s
( C o u r t e s yo f C a r b o nI n t e r n a t i o n a l , L t d . ,
N e u - l s e n b u r gF, . R . G . )
_226_
serves two purposes: prolongation of the cooking time by
sl-ow heat release(bakeoven effect ) ; and reduction of the
cal-orific value of the briquette (fuel-saving effect).
Dryinq equipment
Chemical activation
77 FF
(J(J
FIFI
u-u-
anan
.t1.t1
(J(J
==
oo
HH
(J(J
EE
oo
66
tu
LL
G'G'
L'L'
(u(u
.F
\G +,+,
ffiffi,fiü
uu
=
- \\
tn\
G'G'
ä\ LL
== --C'C'
lrllrl tt
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oooo ctct
crcr LL
== LEI
fiEfiE
oo
tt
IFL
(,(, +,+,
oo
z,z, c, c,.n.n
oo .o .o
+,+,
F(u
tdtd
== ii CL-
l-rIIl-r l-
>Z>Z c(u
.o cL
L,L, .l.Ct
==
HH
, - l ä .rP
oo tf) | tr
z,z, IL
HH
G , I EE
e,e,
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til
-t-
l-l+,
=l
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(J
rd
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E
.-lP
.' l(, ct
t-l- l< E
-23t-
Photo 16 A rotary kiln for
activation of charcoal in
the Philippines
( Photo t./. Emrich)
-232-
Although details are not available, it is certain that
most producers follow rather standard steam activation
methods with very close control. Major processing variations
arise from adapting to different source materials and from
pre-activation and post-activation carbon treatment designed
to yield particul-ar properties for carbon suitable for
spedific applications (4).
REFERENCES
zJt -
Chapter 9
S A F E T YP R E C A U T I O NASN D E N V I R O N M E N T A
C LO N S I D E R A T I O N S
Expl-osions
Fires
- -235235
Skin irritations
Pressure-relief doors
Water supply
-237 -
Detection of poisonous gases
Safety manual
First-aid accessories
? 3 9-
effluents. Wastewater does not usually occur except in
plants where the by-products are fractionated from the
original pyrolytic oil by distillation.
The environmentai. aspects of industrial charcoal-making
wilt depend vely much on the type of raw material and a.l-so
the throughput capacity. Therefore, component effluents can
be discussed only in a general way.
Char handlinq
E m e r g e n c yv e n t i n g
Wastewater
- z1 |
Precautions against air-borne contamination of the
environment are of greater importance in this case.
Therefore, kiln batteries may not be set up in the
neighbourhood of residential areas since their smoke
e m i s s i o n w o u l d c a u s e a n u i s a n c e . S m o k ee m i s s i o n w i I l a l s o b e
the limiting factor for the number of kitns assembled in a
bat tery .
- L+Z -
Chapter l0
C H A R C O ALLA B O R A T O RYY' I O R K
10.1 Analysis
in raw material-s:
Ashes
in raw material:
- 245
Dimensions of the crucible are: lower diameter 22 ofi, upper
diameter 35 Dffir height without lid 40 mm. The lid has a
pinhole in the centre with a diameter of 1.5 mm ( not
wider ! ). The rim of the tid must comfortably overlap the
brim of the crucible to prevent the intake of air during
heating.
Stand the crucible, with a wire triangle, firmly on a
tripod and heat the bottom gently with a shining flame. The
distance between bunsen burner and crucible should not be
less than 6 cm. After 2 3 minutes, open the gas adjusting
screw and the air control of the bunsen burner to fuI1
capacity and continue until the smalL flame above the
pinhole in the lid goes out. This indicates that all
volatile matter has been driven off (1).
Put the hot crucible into a desiccator with calcium
cloride in the bottom as a desiccant and leave until the
sample has cooled off. Weigh it as usual.
The difference between the initial weight and the final
weight is the content of voLatiles.
The value for fixed carbon is calculated by the
following formula:
Cfi, = 100 % (volatiles + ashes)
Sulphur
Screeninq analysis
44 3.3 mm 1.0 mm
33 2.5 I.0
22 I.5 I.0
II 1.0 o. 65
Assemble the screening set in order, with screen no. 4 on
top and no. I in the lowest position. Accurately weigh I00 g
of dried sample and put it in screen no. 1.
Shake the whole csreening set for 2 minutes, making two
t o - a n d - f r o m o v e m e n t sp e r s e c o n d . T h e n w e i g h t h e r e s i d u e s o f
the fines remaining on each screen. Note down in your report
the different weights as percentages of total initial weight
in the following order:
-248-
10 kg of charcoal are placed in a steel test drum
I,000 mm long, 1 ,000 mm diameter, fitted with four steel-
angles fixed lengthwise inside the drum. The drum is rotated
a t 2 4 r p m f o r o n e h o u r ( t o t a l o f L r t + 4 Or e v o l u t i o n s ) .
Charcoal is first tested at the works reception. The
coal is hand-sieved and only materiaL larger than 3I.75 mm
is tumbler tested to avoid the possibility of fine sizes
protecting the coarser pieces by their cushion effect
against shocks and abrasion.
Before the tumbler test, new average size of the
the
charcoal must be calculated on the resul-ts of the screening
anal-ysis.
Calorific value
Sampling of qas
250 --250
General- remarks
1 0 . 2 B e n c h - S c a l - eC a r b o n i z a t i o n T e s t s
- 251
Thermometer
Bunsenburner
Watercooler
E u r n i n gc h a r c o a l
gas
II
I-
II
öö
Charcoal condensate
References
Rawmaterial : 1 2 , 0 0 0 t o f s a w m ji _ I a n d
agricultural wastes (air
d " Y)
I. P L A N TC A P A C I T Y
b) 0utput
2,2Oo t lump char- I . 4 9 x 1 ' 0 1 0k c a l = 5trT %
c o a l ( 5 , 8 0 0 k c a l -/ k g )
c) Process losses
3r4OOt of moisture
to be evaporated o.34 x 1010 kcal = I2.3 %
( 1 , O0Okcal /kg)
II. C O S TC A L C U L A T I O N S
A. BASIS
Free wastes of a sawmill (slabs) f0,000 t per Year at
30 % moisture.
M a n p o w e v e r :7 p e o p l e . A v e r a g e c o s t $ T r O O O / y r p e r m a n .
B. C a I c u l - a ti o n s
Annual cost: Manpower $ 4 9 ,o o o
0thers (water, electri-
city, bags, fiäintenance,
etc. ) $ 47,OOO
Loan interest: $ l3.zoo
subtotal $ 169,2oo
Amortization $ 48,8oo
T o ta l $ 2 1 8 ,o o o
P r of i t 1 3 O, 2 O O
( t a x e s e x c l - u d e d)
Profit $ 4o5,2oo
Profit $ 4O5,2OO
-258-
V E R T I C A LF L O WC O N V E R T E( R
TECH-AIR)X)
P L A N TC A P A C I T Y
Rawmaterial consumption
Annual production
-2s9-
Enerqv bai.anceof the process
Input
0utput
Process.Losses
I,000 t of moisture to
be evaporated O.l0 x I0I0 kcal = 2.5 %
( I , 000 kcal /kg)
Briquetting dryer
45O t of moisture to
ln
be evaporated 0.04 x I0*" kcal = O.9 %
'ln
I t t o o dP r e p a r a t i o n $ 40,000.-
Carbonizer unit with pyrolysis oiI recovery
and flare-up chimney (fob plant) 380,000.-
Briquetting plant 4 O O , 0 0 0-.
Transportation equipment 5 0 , 0 0 0 .-
$ 8 7 o ,o o o .-
$ I45,000. - $1,015,000.-
Plant site,
p r e p ar a t i o n $ 7 7 , O O O-.
Start -up lf,000. -
l{orking capi tal 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . -
$ , o o. -
3 4 Oo
T O T A LI N V E S T M E N T $ 1, f 5 5 , 0 0 0 .-
Plant Site, Buildings, G e n e r a l -S e r v i c e s
C o st
Total $ 7 7 , 0 0 0 .-
II I. COST CALCULATIONS
A. Basis
Manpower: 22 including
sal-aried staff, average cost
$ 7,000 per year per person.
T o t a l i n v e s t m e n t : $ I r 3 5 5 , 0 0 0 .-
S u bt o t a 1 4 2 5 , 0 0 0 .-
D e p r e c i at i o n 9 0 . 0 0 0 .-
Total costs 5 r 5 , 0 0 0 .-
IV. E C O N O M I CO
SF T H E P R O J E C T
Sales 8I3,000. -
This is sufficient to cover the operationai-
costs and interest, resulting in an excess
cash flow of: f88,000. -
2nd vear of operation (ful1 capacity)
Sales $ r , 6 2 5 ,o o o .-
OperationaL costs 4 2 5 , O O O-.
A c c u m u L a t e dc a s h f l o w $ r,589,000.-
S a .l -e s $ I,626,000.-
0perationa.L costs
(without interest) 3I5 0 0 0 .-
Accumulatedcash flow $ r , 5 3 5 ,o o o .-
It is estimated that at the end of the
third year the return on the invested
capital will be higher than 80 %.
Aopendix 2 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
DIAGRAM
qq
EE
GROSS GROSS
ENERGY
IN ENERGY
IN . . BTU/LB
PRODUCTS PRODUCTS
BTU/LB '.J'.J
OF DRY
OF FEEDFEED
DRY
ctrctr
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(\l(\l
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-267 -
Apendix f
A D D R E S S EOSF C O N S U L T A N T ISN S T I T U I E S A N D E Q U I P M E N TS U P P L I E R S
C O N S U L T I N GF I R M S ANDAND
I N S T I T U T E SP R O V I D I N G
SERVICES
T O T H E C H A R C O AILN D U S T R Y
1. A L D R E DP R O C E S P
S L A N TL I M I T E D
0akwoodChemical lrlorks, Sandy Lane
lVorksop, Notts S80 IEy
United Kingdom
Primary representative:
Phone: 0909 47686I
Telex: 54625
2. C A R B 0 NT N T E R N A T T o N ALLT, D .
Buchenring 7
D-5078 Neu-fsenburg 4
Federal Republic of Germany
Primary representative: Dr. Walter Emrich
P h o n ez O 6 9 69iZOl
TeLex: 4 18967I carb d
'. C E N T R EN A T I O N A LD ' E T U D E SE T D ' E X P E R I M E N T A T I O N
(c r u n c n E E )
ONEEMA
Parc de Tourvoie
92L8O Antony
F r a n ce
Primary representative:
Phone: 666.2L.09
TeIex: 204585
4. TROPICAL
C E N T R ET E C H N I Q UFEO R E S T I E R
45 bis, Avenue de la BeIIe-Gabrielle
9 4 I 3 O N o g e n t - s u r- M a r n e
France
Primary representative: Jaqueline Doat
Phone: 873 32 95
5. ENGINEERS
F O X C O N S T R U C T O&R S
P.0. Box I528
Dothan, Alabama36302
USA
Primary representative: H. E. Sprenger
Phone: 205-794-0701
6. S TECNOLOGIA
F U N D A C ATOR O P I C A LP E S Q U I S A E
Rua Latino GoeIho n. o. 1. J0l
11.000 Campinas SP
B r a zi l
Primary representative: Dora Lange
Phone: 4l -7822
7. A. C. Harris
Consultant
5 Duncraig Raod
Applecross
Western Australia
Primary representative: A. C. Harris
-269 -
8. LAMBIOTTET Cie. S.A.
Avenue Brugmann, ZgO
B.1180 Bruxelles
Belgium
Primary representative: Andre Lecocq
P h o n e: ( O Z ) l 4 l . O I . 4 6
TeLex: 51588 elleco b
9. T R O P I C A LP R O D U C TISN S T I T U T E
CuIham. Abingdon,
0xfordshire, 0X 14 IDA
United Kingdom
Phone: 086-730-755I
M A C H I N E RAYN D E Q U I P M E NSTU P P L I E R S
1. A E R O G L I DC
EORPORATION
P. 0. Box Aeroglide
Raleigh, N. Carolina 276II
USA
Phone: 9I9-851-2000
Area of activity:
W o o dd r y e r s , charcoaL briquetting.
2. A L D R E DP R O C E S P
S L A N TL I M I T E D
0akwoodChemical Works, Sandy Lane
Workshop, Notts S80 j4y
United Kingdom
Phone: O9O9 47686I
Telex: 54625
Area of activitv:
Portable metal kilns, vertical and
horizontal carbonizing units.
3. B E P E X ,G m b H
Daimlerstrasse 9
D-7105 Leingarten
Federal Republic of Germany
Phone: 0713I-4OO82
Telex: 7 28 738
Area of activity:
Charcoal briquetting
4. B I 0 - C A R B O NG
, mbH
Soecking 25
D-8254 Isen /OBB
Federal Republic of Germany
Phone: O8O83-624
Telex: 526 O4t
Area of activity:
Traditional and industrial carbonization plants '
activated carbon plants, training p r o g rammes,
briquetting.
5. C A R B O N E RDAO C K8 0 D
Enrique Marengo 810
San Andres, Prov. Bueno Aires
A r g e nt i n a
Area of activity:
Charcoal briquetting
6. C e C o C oC H U OB O E K EG O S H IK A I S H A
P.0. Box 8
Ibaraki City, Csaka Prefecture
567 Japan
CaIbe address: Cecoco Ibaraki, Japan
Area of activitv:
Cecoco small-scale kilns, briquetting
7. C. DEILMANN
AG-GROUP
P.0.Box 75
D-4444 Bad Bentheim
F. R.G.
Phone: 05922-72-O
Telex: 098 833
Area of activity:
Pyrolysisr gäsification and activation of biomass
8. E N E R C OI N C O R P O R A T E D
01d 0xford VaIley Road lll
P. 0. Box I39 A
Langhorne, Pennsylvania I9O47
USA
Phone: 215-493-6565
Area of activity:
E N E R C 0P y r o l y t i c converter system for biomass conversion
9. E N V I R O T E CBHS P
One Davis Drive
Belmont, California 94OO2
USA
P h o n e : 4 15 - 5 9 2 - 4 0 6 0
Telex: 34-5586
Area of activity:
Multiple hearth futnaces, large-scaLe charcoal production
- 2'12-
R E S O U R C ECSO M P A NAY. G .
I O . E R C OE N E R G Y
Zollikofer Strasse 228
C H - 8 0 0 8Z Ü r i c h
SiwtzerLand
Phone: 0I-551010
Telex: 57-229
L 2 . L U R G I K O H L E& M I N E R A L O E L T E C H N I K
B o c k e n h e i m e rL a n d s t r a s s e 4 2
D-6000 Frankfurt/M. I
Federal Republic of GermanY
Phone: O69-7II9I
TeLex: 4 12360
Area of activity
CK-Process (Reiehert retort)
- 2'13-
1 4 . P R 0 C T 0 R+ S C H W A R T ZI N
, C.
7th Street and Tabor Road
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania I92O
USA
Phone: 215-329-6400
Area of activity:
Charcoal briquette dryers
I5. PROTRAN
INC.
P.0. 8ox IO764
Raleigh, North Carolina 27605
USA
Phone: 9I9-7BI-4I48
Area of activitv:
Fluid bed carbonizer
Area of activitv:
Charcoal plants
Area of activity:
W o o dd r y e r s , c h a r c o a L p l a n t s
- 2't4-
Aooendix 4 C O N V E R S I O N T A B L E S
UNITSOF LENGTH
1 miLe = L76o yards = 5280 feet
1 kilometer = 1000 meters = 0.6214 mile
I mile = I.607 kilometers
I foot = 0.1048 meter = JO.s centimeters
1 meter = t.28O8 feet = 39.37 inches
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
I centimeter = 0.3937 inch
UNITSOF AREA
1 square mite = 640 acres = 2.5899 square
kilometers
I square kilometer = l-,000,000 square = 0.186I square
meters mile
1 acre = 411560 square feet
1 square foot = I44 square inches = o.o929 square
meter
1 square inch = 6.452 square
centimeters
1 square meter = IO.764 square feet
L square centimeter= 0.155 square inch
UNITSOF VOLUME
I.0 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches = 7-48 US gallon
1.0 British imperial-
gallon = I.2 US gallon
1.0 cubic meter = 35.3I4 cubic feet = 264.2 US gallon
1.0 liter = 1000 cubic centi- = 0.2542 US gallon
meters
1 US Barre.L = 42 US gallon = 34.97 Br. imp'
galIon
= 0.158 cubic meter
UNITSOF WEIGHT
1.0 metric ton = 1000 kilograms(Lg) = 2204.6 pounds
(rb)
1.0 kilogram (tg) = 1000 grams (g) = 2.2046 pounds
(tb)
1.0 short ton = 2000 pounds (1b)
UNITSOF PRESSURE
I.0 pound per square incl (psi) = I44 pound per square
foot
1.0 pound per square incl (psi) - 27.7 inches of water*
1.0 pound per square inch (psi) - 2.iI feet of water*
1.0 pound per square inch (psi) - 2.O42 inches of
U N I T S O F P O W E RA N D E N E R G Y
1 . 0 h o r s e p o w e r ( E n g J . i s h) = 746 watt = 0.746
kitowatt (kw)
1.0 horsepower (English) = 550 foot pounds per
seeond
1.0 horsepower (English) = i3rOOO foot pounds per
m in u t e
r.0 kilowatt (kw) = 1000 watt = r.i4 horsepower (hp)
Englisch
1 . 0 h o r s e p o v r e r( n p ) ( E n g l i s h ) = l.0l19 metric horsepower
(cheval-vapeur)
- 2't8-