The Institution of Structural Engineers

Stability of buildings

DECEMBER 1988

The Institution of Structural Engineers

11 UPPER BELGRAVE STREET, LONDON S W l X 8BH
Constitution of ad hoc Committee

K. C. White, BSc(Eng), CEng, FIStructE, FICE, FIHT, Chairman (Director, Travers Morgan Ltd.)
P. R. Bartle, CEng, FlStructE
G. Davison, BSc, CEng, MIStructE, MICE (London Borough of Wandsworth)
B. H. Fisher, BSc, CEng, FIStructE, FICE, (Chairman, Editorial Panel)
(Cooper Macdonald & Partners)
H. B. Gould, CEng, FIStructE, FICE, (Consultant, G. Maunsell & Partners)
R. Hankin. BSc(Hons), CEng, MIStructE, MICE (G. Maunsell & Partners)
T. W. Hill, CEng, MIStructE, MICE, FIAS (previously District Surveyor)
M. W. Manning, MA(Cantab), CEng, MIStructE (Ove Arup & Partners)
J. F. A. Moore, MA(Cantab). BSc(Eng). ARSM, DIC, PhD, CEng. MIStructE
(Building Research Establishment)
R. Narayanan, BE, MSc, DIC, PhD, CEng, FIStructE, FICE, MASCE (The Steel
Construction Institute, previously with University College, Cardiff)
F. H. Needham, BSc, FIStructE, FICE (The Institution of Structural Engineers, previously
with CONSTRADO)
J. B. Price, BSc(Eng), CEng, FIStructE (FC Precast Concrete Ltd.)
D. W. Quinion, BSc(Eng), FEng, FIStructE, FICE (Tarmac Construction Ltd.)
J. G. Sunley, BSc, MSc, CEng. FIStructE, FIWSc (TRADA)
R. J. M. Sutherland. BA, FEng, FIStructE, FICE, FIHT (Consultant, Harris & Sutherland)
D. J. Wilson, BSc(Eng). CEng, MIStructE (Travers Morgan Ltd.)

R. J. W. Milne, BSc. Secretary (The Institution of Structural Engineers)

01988:The Institution of Structural Engineers

The Institution of Structural Engineers, as a body is not responsible for the
statements made or the opinions expressed in the following pages.
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the International
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Copyright Act 1956, part 1, section 7, whereby a single copy of an article may be
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library or a class prescribed by the UK Board of Trade Regulations [Statutory
Instruments, 1957 no. 868),no part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission
of the Institution of Structural Engineers. Permission is not, however, required to
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copying of the contents of the publication without permission contravenes the
aforementioned Act.
2 IStructE Stahility
Contents
Foreword 5

Introduction 7
1.1 Aimsofthereport 7
1.2 Definition of stability 7
1.3 Actions 7
1.4 Scope 7

General considerations Y
2.1 Responsibility for building structure 9
2.2 Structural planning Y
2.3 Quality of materials and workmanship Y
2.4 Movements 9
2.5 Tolerances Y
2.6 Deterioration and fire Y
2.7 Alteration and change of use Y
2.8 Standard designs and factory production
of structural components 11
2.9 Construction on site II

Actions -design stage 11

3.1 Permanent actions 11
3.2 Variable actions 11
3.3 Accidental actions 11

Stability -design stage 12

4.1 Permanent and variable sections 12
4.2 Accidental actions 15
4.3 Other actions 17

Stability during alteration or change of use IY

Actions- construction stage 20

6.1 Works below ground 20
6.2 Works above ground 20
6.3 Partially or completed buildings 20

Stability -construction stage 21

7.1 General 21
7.2 Exchange of information 21
7.3 Other considerations 21

Summary 22

Appendix Further guidance for stability

during construction 23
1 Single-storey steel structures 23
2 Multistorey steel structures . 23
3 Heavy industrial buildings with cranes 23
4 Other steel structures 23
5 Wind loading on steel skeletons 23
6 Effect of claddingon steel structures 23
7 Concrete cast insitu framed construction 23
8 Precast concrete framed and panel construction 24
9 Other concrete structures 24
10 Structures of timber. laminated plywood.
aluminium and composite materials such
as G R P and G R C 24
11 Masonry 24

References 24
IStructE Stability
 Foreword

In 1971the Institution of Structural Engineers published a report on the Stabiky of

modern buildings as a result of its conference on industrialized buildings, the collapseof
prefabricated buildings under erection at Aldershot and the aftermath of the tragic
accident at Ronan Point. That report was largely concerned with high-rise construction,
and it was in 1984 that the Institution formed a Committee to prepare a successor tod,eal
with stability of all types of building whether high or low rise.
The new report was to describe the disturbing forces, to advise on stability for most
forms of construction, and to consider stability duringconstruction.
One of the difficulties facing the Committee was to arrive at a definition ofstability
for buildings and how to separate considerations of stability from those of strength.
Expressions such as ‘sensitivity’, ‘structural integrity’, ‘robustness’ and ‘lack of obvious
or hidden wobbliness’ were put before the Committee but rejected in favourof
‘stability’ with a definition in the text.
The report sets out the many aspects of design and construction that have to be taken
into account so that structures remain in a stable state at all times. It is hoped that it will
make a positive contribution to good practice in the office and on site.
During the preparation, many people have commented, and the Institution would be
grateful if any further comment could be forwarded to it.
Lastly, I would express my thanks to the members of the Committee and their
organizations and also to the Committee Secretary, Mr. R. J. W. Milne, for all their
efforts, carried out in an enthusiastic and harmonious manner which characterized the
work.

June 1988 K. C. White, Chairman, ad hoc Committee

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IStructE Stability 5
1 Introduction
1.1 Aims of the report
Structural engineering is the science and art of designing
and making with economy and elegance buildings, bridges,
frameworks and other similar structures so that they can
safely resist the forces to which they may be subjected. This
report confines itself to buildings.
Structural safety depends on both material strength and
stability. It is vital that designers should distinguish be-
tween the two. This report deals with stability not strength,
and describes the actions to be considered at the design and
construction stages and subsequently so that the building
remains stable throughout its life.
Stability is essentially an inherent property, very largely
independent of strength. Yet lack of stability has probably
caused more structural problems than have shortcomings in
material strength. Stability is susceptible to numerical
analysis only to a limited extent.
Fig. 1 aims to convey at a glance the essence of stability.
A house of cards is unstable, but the material is not
seriously stressed. Those masonry buildings that fail do so
mostly by instability rather than by overstressing. Slender
beams, or columns may become unstable or buckle at loads
well below those which the material itself can support. Lack
of bracing can allow instability to occur leading to collapse.
Overturning of a complete structure is an extreme example
of instability.
1.2 Definition of stability
Provided that displacements induced by normal loads are
acceptable, then a building may be said to be stable if:
0 a minor change in its form, condition, normal loading or
equipment would not cause partial or complete collapse
and
0 it is not unduly sensitive to change resulting from
accidental or other actions
Normal loads include the permanent and variable actions
for which the building has been designed.
The phrase ‘is not unduly sensitive to change’ should be
broadly interpreted to mean that the building should be so
designed that it will not be damaged by accidental or other
actions to an extent disproportionate to the magnitudes of
the original causes of damage.
1.3 Actions
In the preparation of Eurocodes, permanent and imposed
loads, events such as explosions, impact, fires, etc. and
natural agents (e.g. climate, geographical and environmen-
tal) are regarded as agents causing actions to be imposed on
the structure. It has therefore been decided to use this
nomenclature in this report and to define the actions to be
taken into account when considering the stability of
buildings as follows:
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IStructE Stability
1. permanent actions, i.e. dead and permanently imposed
loads ~
2. variable actions, i.e. imposed, wind, snow, dynamic
loads and predictable impacts
3. accidental actions, e.g. unpredictable impact, explosion
and seismic
4. other actions, i.e. temperatue, moisture, deterioration,
creep, fire and foundation movements
5. actions resulting from alterations or change of use.
Permanent and variable actions may both be classed as
normal loads because they occur commonly, and are
defined in Codes of Practice, as opposed to accidental
actions where the likelihood of occurrence is small and the
magnitude is largely unknown. Temperature, moisture,
deterioration, creep, and fire actions can affect all build-
ings, and an assessment of their magnitude can be made.
Foundation movement may induce an action on a building
or occur as a result of the action of a building.
Stability should not be jeopardized by combinations of
the actions.
1.4 Scope
In this report reference is made to British practice and
standards. However, this should not be taken as limiting its
scope or its range of applications to the U K only. The
overall appreciation of stability and the strategy adopted to
achieve stability will be the same wherever the buildings are
required, but some actions will assume greater significance
in different parts of the world.
Considerations that affect the stability of a structure or
building may change or assume greater importance as its
size increases. Greater attention may have to be paid to
stability in their design and construction. However, any
attempt to place structures or buildings into classes in
relation to stability would be arbitrary and therefore cause
anomalies, whether they are based on type of use, extent of
occupancy or materials of construction.
A form of construction should be used so that the
structure is not unduly sensitive to a particular use, and so
that the form of the structure is not being extended beyond
the range where experience has shown it to be stable, unless
special care is taken during its design.
Building regulations place requirements on certain
buildings. These requirements do not aim to achieve
greater stability than for other buildings but are considered
necessary to provide an adequate standard for all buildings.
Other considerations, economic or political, may impose
more stringent requirements for stability for certain build-
ings, but these should not detract from the requirement
that all buildings should have a minimum level of stability.
This report is therefore intended to apply to all buildings
whether permanent or temporary and to encompass those
where alterations or changes of use are being considered.
 Y Y

1 I lil I 1 1 t 1

Plan Plan

77;
Elevation
I
_+

Elevation
I

Stable in both X and Y directions Stable laterally in Y direction

Unstable longitudinally in X direction

Movement joints i.e. complete

separation from ground floor level upward
Stair I l i f t tower
(concrete walls)

/
Ramp structure
Elevation due to i t s geometry

L =

0
I =
2 General considerations

2.1 Responsibility for building structure 5 . Although it should be recognized that some local damage
One engineer should be responsible for the overall design cannot be avoided, movements may be accommodated by:
including stability of any building structure and should have 0 limiting the extent of movement
the duty to see that the designs and details of all structural 0 the provision of joints to accommodate movements
parts and components comply with the stability require- 0 detailing of connections and bearings so as to accommo-
ments, even where some or all of the structural designs and date movements and to minimize and control their
details of some parts or components are developed by deterioration.
others.
When the working drawings have been completed, it
should be the responsibility of one engineer to appraise
independently the whole design to see that requirements 2.5 Tolerances
for stability have been incorporated in all elements, and can Implications of tolerances adopted in design should be
be met during the construction stage. considered in assessing stability.
A statement accompanied by sketches showing stability Problems can occur if standards of accuracy are assumed
requirements should be prepared when necessary, e.g. for during design that are not achievable in construction.
any unusual design or for a structure having particular Designs should therefore be based on tolerances that can
vulnerability. This should be made available to the contrac- be reasonably attained. The effects of unrealistic tolerances
tor who will be responsible for the stability of the building specified for construction can particularly affect the stabil-
structure and for any temporary works during its construc- ity of structures and buildings employing prefabricated
tion. structural components or employing prefabricated building
components in in situ construction.
The assessment of tolerances to be specified should be
2.2 Structural planning based on clearly stated assumptions on such matters as
The main loadbearing elements of a building should be material properties, manufacturing and erection tolerances
positioned and sized to provide a building that is stable and erection procedures. This will be of particular import-
against the effects of normal loads. There should be defined ance where the design of components is undertaken by
paths that transmit these loads to the ground. The location other engineers who may, in the absence of specific
and sizes of the main loadbearing elements should be so guidance from the engineer with overall responsibility,
arranged that the structure is not unduly sensitive to the adopt differing philosophies in their approach.
effects of accidental and other actions.
If a check reveals that the building is likely to be sensitive
to these effects then the structure should either be replan-
ned or modified as described in Section 4. 2.6 Deterioration and fire
When movement joints are incorporated then each part Deterioration of structural and building components and
of the structure between joints should be considered as a the effects of fire can lead to loss of stability. Generally,
separate building for stability purposes. deterioration will take place over an extended period of
Consideration should be given to the arrangements of time, but an exception to this is the effect of fire.
main loadbearing elements so that they are accessible for When deterioration becomes evident it is essential that a
inspection and maintenance, and so that non-loadbearing means of monitoring it is established as soon as possible so
elements can be replaced. that warnings are given should the deterioration continue
Finally, the effects of the construction process on the to the point where stability may be impaired.
overall stability of the structure during erection and on With regard to fire, guidance in the relevant British
completion should be assessed. Standards and Codes of Practice should be observed, or if
the design is based on fire-engineering princi les, the
2.3 Quality of materials and workmanship
B
assumptions made in the design should be vali ated.
Designs of buildings are based on specified qualities for the
materials and workmanship to be used. Weaknesses or
deficiencies by comparison with specified requirements 2.7 Alterations and change of use
may cause instability. Specifications for materials and Alteration to a structure or building may reduce stability to
workmanship should be unambiguous, precise and such an extent that in the extreme (e.g. by the removal or
appropriate to the particular project. The application of alteration of an element) collapse of the structure or of an
quality-management schemes by suppliers and contractors adjacent building may result. During the design of the
should provide assurance that the materials and workman- alteration particular attention should be paid to stability
ship, respectively, conform to specified standards. It is considerations and to temporary weaknesses created in the
nevertheless desirable that designers ascertain that such structure arising from the proposed construction sequence.
schemes apply to the particular components and workman- Change of use of a structure or building may result in
ship required, and that the schemes are being im- changes of loading that, in the extreme, may overload an
plemented. element to such an extent as to give rise to instability.
To allow assessments to be made of the effects of change
of use or alterations, it is highly desirable to have access to
2.4 Movements the original structural design documents. To serve this
All structures and buildings are subject to movements and purpose among others, it is recommended that these
deformations during construction and in service. Some documents are retained by building owners, occupiers and
arising from various actions are listed on Table 1 in Section designers.
IStructE Stability 9
 2.8 Standard designs and factory production 2.9 Construction on site
of structural components
Modern methods of construction have relied increasingly
on factory production of major structural components for
some types of building. As a result. buildings are con-
structed based on common designs and using common
components. Consideration of stability of such designs and
components should be commensurate with the total quanti-
ty of buildings to which they will be applied. Each
individual building constructed of such designs and compo-
nents should be separately checked for stability.
10
Most instances of instability in structures and buildings
occur on site during construction. The actions and mea-
sures that should be considered so that structures remain
stable during construction a're described in Sections 6 and 7,
respectively. Construction work should be undertaken only
by those who will exercise their duty to supervise the work
so that the requirements of the design and specification for
materials and workmanship are achieved, and so that the
stability of the temporary and permanent works is main-
.tained at all times.
3 Actions -design stage

The permanent, variable and accidental actions to be taken applied to the structure in order to accommodate the
into account are described in this Section. For the details of effects of inaccuracy in construction of stability. These
other actions see subsection 4.3. should be calculated, and their effect assessed in accord-
ance with the requirements of these British standards.
3.1 Permanent actions Dynamic loads
Dead loads Where it can be foreseen that normal operating conditions
Dead loads as defined in BS 6399: Part 1' are generally may induce dynamic loading on structures, suitable precau-
regarded as being calculable to a reasonable degree of tions should be adopted in the design. For simple cases, this
accuracy. may be achieved by a straightforward enhancement of the
It should be recognized that variations between calcu- static load to cater for the dynamic effects. More complex
lated and the actual load of the structure, finishes, cladding situations may require a dynamic analysis to determine the
and other permanent fixtures may occur as a result of the response of the structure to the applied load.
following: In cases where significant dynamic loadings are being
introduced into a building, structural damping may need to
0 deviations from design dimensions during construction be considered to minimize resonance effects in floors, or in
0 deviations from design densities the structure as a whole. These measures may increase the
0 changes in moisture content dead loads and thus affect the stability of the structure.
0 alterations, additions and demolition. Dynamic loads arising from the operation of machinery
For some buildings these variations may be significant. and gantry cranes are defined briefly in BS 6399: Part 1 ' .
Predictable impacts
3.2 Variable actions The impact loads stated in BS 6399: Part 1 ' and other
Imposed loads British Standards to be used in design are derived from
Imposed loads as defined in BS 6399: Part 1' should predictable impacts. Their effects on the stability of
normally be used for calculating the loads on all structural structures should be taken into account in the design for
members. normal loads.
The maximum and minimum imposed loads on all
members should be assessed to determine the adverse or
beneficial load combinations to be used in the design for
stability. 3.3 Accidental actions
Impact
Wind loads Accidental impact loads to be considered are those that
Wind loads as defined in CP3: Chapter V: Part 2' (or BS could arise from the impact of vehicles on structural
6399: Part 2, in course of preparation) should be used for. members that are vulnerable to such impacts, and which
calculating wind loads on all buildings. exceed the predictable impacts stated in subsection 3.2.
This Code deals with wind loads on buildings and their
components, and treats these as static loads since the Explosions
dynamic response of most building structures is not signifi- The nature of explosions and the factors influencing their
cant. However with the present trend towards lighter and magnitude make it difficult to characterize explosive loads
taller structures, there is likely to be a need to determine satisfactorily. Guidance for some types of explosives (i.e.
the dynamic response of a wider range of buildings. Special dust, high-explosive chemicals, etc.) may be obtained from
investigations, including model studies, may be necessary the relevant British Standards. Generally, it will be neces-
in such cases. sary to adopt an approach that does not require knowledge
of either explosive loads or of detailed structural response
Roof loads but which will enable measures to be taken to avoid
Imposed loads as defined in BS 6399: Part 33should be used disproportionate collapse of the building.
for calculating the loads on roof and other externally Some British Standards prescribe arbitrary values for
exposed members. detailed design based on a specified pressure of 34 kN/m2,
This Standard gives variation of the magnitude of the intended to lead to buildings that will not be unduly
snow load for different climatic and topographical condi- sensitive to the effects of explosions.
tions. Due to its geometry or location of certain roofs,
drifting of snow or accumulation of melted water may give Seismic loads
rise to greater than normal imposed loads on some parts of The UK is not free from earth tremors, although the
the roof. The effects of this, especially those due to majority of these are not normally of such significance as to
asymmetrical snow loading, on the stability of the structure cause more than superficial damage to buildings designed,
should be assessed. to meet the minimum strength and stability criteria re-
In certain environments or locations the possibility of quired by British Standards. Where specific design is
dust deposits imposing loads greater than those specified in required because of the particular nature of the building,
the British Standard for roof loading should be considered. information on the frequency and magnitude of recorded
earth tremors in the UK, and worldwide, can be obtained
Notional horizontal loads from the Institute of Geographical Sciences in Edinburgh.
British Standards for the structural use of some of the Use can then be made of one of the recognized codes in
structural materials define notional horizontal loads to be determining the seismic loads to be used.
IStructE Stability II
 4 Stability -design stage

This Section describes the measures to be considered in Braced frames

design so that structures remain stable. These measures are Examples of some typical braced frames are shown in Figs.
listed separately for each of the actions, but it is important 2, 3 and 4:
that the possibilities of some of these acting in combination
should also be considered. 0 Fig. 2 shows a building that is rectangular on plan and has
bracing members around the lift shaft and stairs
4.1 Permanent and variable actions 0 Fig. 3 shows a building square on plan with central core
0 Fig. 4 shows a building square on plan with perimeter
Structural members should be so arranged that:
bracing members.
0 there is at least one clearly defined path through which Note: Not all the bracing members are shown on these
the effects of the actions are transmitted to the ground Figures, having been omitted for clarity,
0 structural members whose stability relies on the assump-
In all these examples, the horizontal
tion that they are restrained in position are connected to a y-direction are transmitted in the x- and
forces members
to the bracing by
bracing member that is of sufficient strength and stiffness suitably designed floors and roofs acting as horizontal
to provide the required restraint.
girders. There are other arrangements or locations of
There are two forms of structure to be considered. i.e.
those that have braced frames and those that are unbraced
and are allowed to sway.

Rest of bracing
not shown for clarity

Bracing members
around lift shaft

Bracing members around stairs

(Walls or Structural members)

Fig. 2 Braced frame: rectangular 011 plarl

Note: roof and floors w11 act ils horizontal girdus provided that lhc! arc dcsigncd and dctailcd t o do S O .

12 IStructE Stability
bracing members that could be used, but emphasis should
be on the provision of bracing members in two vertical
planes approximately at right-angles to each other. These
bracing members may take the form of walls, or structural
members in either tension or compression, which should
preferably be symmetrically positioned on plan to avoid
torsional effects, especially in the case of very tall buildings.
Unbraced frames
Examples of single-storey frames unbraced in one direction
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, for single and multiple spans,
respectively. While single-storey buildings are shown in the
Figures, the same structural arrangements also apply to
multistorey buildings. In each case the frames in the
x-direction are unbraced, and their stability is provided
from within the frame by rigid connections that should be of
sufficient size and stiffness to provide restraint against the
IStructE Stability
rotation assumed in the analysis. Their deflection in the
x-direction should be kept within serviceability limits. .
In the y-direction the horizontal forces should be
transmitted to the bracing members by the roof, or floors
for multistorey buildings, or by specially designed tie
members for single-storey buildings. Such tie members
should also be provided to restrain in position the frames in
the y-direction, i.e. on their weak axis in bending.
Bracing members may take the form of walls or structu-
ral members in either tension o r compression or members
with their strong axis in bending in the y-direction designed
a? portals in the longitudinal direction.
Roof plane bracing shoud also be provided to transmit
the horizontal forces on the gable ends to the bracing
members in the y-direction.
The location and number of braced bays shown in Figs. 5
and 6 are indicative only.
13
 Rest of bracing
not shown for clarity

Bracing member walls

a t each corner

Bracing members tension or

compression bracing at each corner

Fig. 4 Braced frame: square on plane with perimeter

bracing
Fig. 5 Frame unbraced in one direction: single span

Bracing member wall or

tension bracing

Alternative location
for bracing members

Bracing members
wall or compression bracing

14 ISt r w t E St a bi Iit !i
Masonry structures
Masonry structures should normally be considered as
braced forms of construction, with strategically placed
masonry elements providing the bracing. The provision of
structural staircases, and lift shafts may contribute to
satisfying the bracing requirements. An example of a
masonry structure is shown in Fig. 7.
For overall stability, particular attention should be paid
to the followihg items as ringed in Fig. 7:
0 bonding or tying together of all intersecting walls
0 provision of, returns where practicable at ends of load
bearing walls
0 provision of bracing walls to external walls
0 provision of internal bracing walls
0 provision of strapping of the floors and roof at their
bearings to the loadbearing walls.
In addition, the effects of movement joints, uplift due to
wind and accidental actions should be considered.
Common features
Diaphragms
One of the common features of many forms of construction
is that the floors and in some cases the roofs act as
horizontal diaphragms distributing forces to the ‘bracing’
Valley bracing members
wall or compression bracing
or columns with their strong .
axis in the’y’direction to form
portals a s shown below
Valley beam
IStructE Stability
members. Special attention must be paid to these floors and
roofs so that they and their connections are capable of
providing the load path to the ‘bracing’ members.
Tie members
Another common feature of many forms of construction is
that tie members are provided to connect individual
structural members to the ‘bracing’ members. Special
attention must be paid to the design of these tie members so
that they are capable of affording the restraint assumed in
the design, and to the buckling and torsional restraint of the
individual tie members.
4.2 Accidental actions
Buildings and their structural members should be designed
to limit the extent of damage that may be caused by
accidental actions. Acceptable limits of damage are defined
in building regulations and British Standards for the safety
of people. There may be other considerations that may
impose further limits, but it should be recognized that some
damage arising from accidental actions cannot be avoided.
Defence strategies available for limiting damage arising
from accidental actions are:
V
Note : 1. Roof plane and side wall bracing a s for
single span shown on fig.5 (omitted for clarity)
2. Rocf plane bracing may be taken across a
2 span building to take wind from valley
to the side wall
Fig. 6 Frame unbraced in one direction: multiple span
15
0 enhancement of continuity stable following the notional removal of individual ele-
0 strengthening of structure ments in turn. Generally, structures should not be wholly
0 provision of multiple load paths dependent for their stability on the structural integrity of a
0 provision of relief single connection or element. Where this situation is found
0 control measures. during design, the structural form should be re-examined.
The appropriateness of the choice of strategy to be used If the situation cannot be avoided, then particular consid-
for any particular design may be constrained by economic eration should be given to the design of the connection or
or practical considerations. element to ensure that it will have ample strength and
toughness.
Enhancement of continuity
Relief provision
This strategy consists of the provision of increases in the
resistance of the joints of structural members to enhance This strategy consists of the inclusion of devices to allow the
the effects of continuity on the structure. building to avoid carrying the load resulting from an
accidental action. Examples of this approach include the
Strengthening of structure introduction of load-shedding devices such as venting for
explosions or the introduction of weak joints in walls and
This strategy consists of the provision of local or general floors to prevent transmission of load.
increases in the resistance of structural members to en-
hance the overall strength of the structure. The strategy will Control measures
increase the size of the accidental action needed to
precipitate failure and will reduce the likelihood of instabil- This strategy consists of the use of environmental and
ity. It will not necessarily alter any brittle characteristics of performance monitoring and control systems
the structure nor the nature of its final failure. They may be designed so that:
0 the building is used as the designer intended by rapid
Provision of multiple loadpaths feedback of information to prevent misuse by the occu-
This strategy requires the design of a structure in such a way pants
that load may be shed into other paths of resistance in the 0 repair and maintenance is instigated following non-
event of a local failure caused by an accidental action. critical damage
A practical way of checking whether multiple loadpaths 0 accidental actions affecting the structure or building are
are present is to assess whether the structure will remain avoided, e.g. by the installation of bollards, fire compart-
mentation, fire alarms, etc.
It is expected that the use of control systems will become
increasingly appropriate as their cost reduces and their
reliability increases.

KQY
1. The bonding or tying together
of all intersecting walls
2. The provision of returns where practicable
a t ends of loadbearing walls
3. The provision of bracing walls to external walls
4. The provision of internal bracing walls
5. Provision of strapping of the floors and roof a t
their bearings to the loadbearing walls Fig. 7 Mltsonry structure
16 I St ruct E Stability
4.3 Other actions movement properties of the materials and the relevant,
This subsection describes some of the other actions that environmental conditions to be expected in the location of
may contribute to loss of stability and gives advice on how the building, or its components.
to limit the damage caused by the effects of such actions on Deterioration
stability. To limit the effects of these other actions:
Most structural materials will suffer some form of de-
0 the recommendations and rules of good practice con- terioration of physical properties in certain adverse en-
tained in the relevant British Standards should be vironmental conditions. Extreme magnitudes of deteriora-
followed to provide protection against the possibility of tion can cause instability. Table 2 contains a list of the
the effects of these other actions reaching extreme values potential causes of deterioration of common structural
0 the measures and defence strategies as described in materials, i.e. metals, concrete, timber and masonry. This
subsection 4.2 should be considered as applying to these list should however not be considered as being exhaustive.
other actions.
Movement effects
All structures and buildings are subject to movements and Table 2 Deterioration of structural materials
deformations, which may occur during construction, in
service or in both. Some of the actions and resulting material cause of deterioration
movement effects are listed in Table 1, although this list metals corrosion (including stress and molecular/
should not be regarded as exhaustive. crystalline boundary corrosions)
galvanic action
fatigue
Table 1 Movement effects resulting from actions embrittlement (including.hydrogen embrittlement)
strain hardening
actions resulting movement effects
concrete corrosion of embedded metal and consequential
dead loads elastic and non-linear expansion
imposed loads bending and shear deformations abrasion and erosion
wind loads combined with axial and freezing and thawing
snow loads plan;lr strains, and elastic aggressive atmospheres
dynamic load and time-dependent movements aggressive soils
accidental load in the supporting ground aggressive chemicals
explosions including consolidation reactive constituents
seismic loads settlement and subsidence
timber insects
temperature changes expansion, contraction and fungi
and differentials bending of structural members wet rot
and building components marine borers
frost action and shrinkage and expansion of masonry freezing and thawing
moisture content building components; aggressive chemicals
changes in the differential swelling reactive constituents
construction shrinkage or settlement abrasion and erosion
materials and of supporting ground corrosion of wall ties
supporting ground incompatibility of mortar and masonry
chemical changes expansion and shrinkage or
such as conversion erosion of building materials Signs of deterioration will often emerge in the form of
attack by acid, alkali, rusting, cracking or spalling, occurring well before any
sulphates, etc. significant signs of instability become noticeable. The
consequences of deterioration of structural elements that
are not accessible for inspection should be considered.
When movements are restrained or are non-uniform, When deterioration becomes evident, it is essential that a
actions may arise within the structure or its building means of monitoring it is established as soon as possible to
elements which may affect their local or indeed their provide warning of the need for action before stability is
general stability. Collapse of a structure because of such impaired.
movements is rare, but serviceability failures could, if
unchecked or neglected, eventually threaten the stability of Creep
the structure or its components. Deformation in structural members and building com-
Progressive changes in the condition of structural ele- ponents caused by creep can cause instability. An estimate
ments and the accumulation of local damage or irreversible of the likely magnitude of these deformations can be made
movement may lead to instability. The bodily displacement from the time-dependent pro erties of the materials and
of a wall or beam on its seating or rotational movements at P
the duration and incidence o the sustained loads.
bearings could cause progressive spalling of the supports,
as illustrated in Fig. 8. Fire
The magnitude of the imposed deformations listed in Dimensions of structural members are most commonly
Table 1 may be estimated from the thermal and physical chosen to give satisfactory performance for prescribed
properties of the materials and the expected range of eriods of fire exposure using prescriptive design data
temperatures in the location of the buildings, and the Eased on the results of the tests. Elements designed in this
aspect of the components. Some guidance may be obtained way can be expected to retain adequate strength and
from B R E digest 22S4 in respect of thermal movements, stiffness for the prescribed period. Particular attention
and other documents should be consulted for the effects of should also be paid to joints and connections and to the
chemical changes. maintenance of continuity in the structure in fire condi-
tions.
Moisture In some circumstances, a more detailed view of be-
The ingress and egress of moisture into structural members haviour will be required in order to assess stability. For
and building components can cause movements giving rise instance, it may be felt necessary to determine the deflec-
to instability. An indication of the magnitude of such tions or forces induced by heating and their influence on
moisture movements can be derived from the moisture- stability. Here, a full fire-engineering approach will be
IStructE Stability 17
required with the fire action being defined by an ambient
temperaturehime characteristic and due allowance being
taken of the change in properties of the structure with time
and temperature. The different strategies described in
Section 4 may be considered in these circumstances.
The nominal hours of fire resistance for structural
members are determined by the uses for which a building or
part thereof are to be designed and are usually prescribed
by building regulations for the saving of life.
The required ‘hours’ or ‘fire loading’ for structural
members may be obtained from:
0 data tabulated in the relevant British Standards for the
material of which the structural member is to be con-
structed
0 data determined from specific fire-resistance tests
0 fire-engineering calculations.
Fire may cause large displacements or rotations of those
elements directly exposed to fire and may also affect parts
of the structure remote from the vicinity of the fire. The
whole structure should be assessed for stability following a
fire. The stability of a fire-damaged structure prior to repair
should be assessed as described in Section 5 , although the
assessment of the nature and significance of the damage
and of any repair measures may be more complex.
Foundation movements
The magnitude of the foundation movements that can
cause destabilizing actions (i.e. differential settlement,
heave or sliding) may be estimated from geotechnical
considerations, together with the effect of trees. The effects
of these movements on the structure should be restricted to
values that will not cause instability in any part of the
structure.

Movement of beam,-b
or slab

.- 1 -.
Diurnal and seasonal temperature
movement causing beam or slab
to slip off seating

Crack in beam d Thermal movement andlor shrinkage

Dowel causing tension failure of seating
reinforcement Movement causes

‘Crack in support

As desi

Ratchet effect due to movements

causing bending in column and push
on walls and failure at beam end or
edge of slab or seating

After movement

Moisture movement in supporting

ground causing rotation of base and
resulting movement of top of support

3 Rotation of base

Friction at seating with load defect

in concrete due to shrinkage andlor
insufficient compaction of concrete
I Vertical load coinciding with beam or slab

I
\
seating position
Crack in support

Fig. 8 Effect of movements

18 IStructE Stabilitv
5 Stability during alteration or change of use

Alteration to a structure or building may reduce stability to

such an extent that, in the extreme, collapse may result.
Change of use of a structure or building may result in
changes of loading that in the extreme may overload an
element, to such an extent, as to give rise to instability.
The procedures to be observed both before and during
carrying out alterations to a structure and before permitting
a change of use are:
0 the careful assessment of the stability of the structure at
each stage of any alterations or change of use (see Section
4)
0 if available, the assembly of the following original
documents:
the ‘as-built’ drawings
original design parameters
any special features affecting demolition
details of any modifications or additions to structure,
finishes and services subsequent to the original
design or construction
records of inspections
records of maintenance work
0 even where these basic structural data are available, the
undertaking of a full or partial structural appraisal of the
existing structure depending on the extent of the altera-
tions and change of use proposed. Guidance can some-
times to obtained from contemporary design guides and
textbooks in respect of likely design loadings and design
methods. Records may also sometimes be obtained from
the appropriate local building control department or
district surveyor’s office. Caution should however be
exercised when using records, as these may not fully
reflect the current or indeed the ‘as-built’ structure
0 the preparation of a method statement detailing the
sequence of the work, the type of construction plant and
tools to be used and the precautions to be taken at each
stage to guard against instability.

IStruc!E Stability
6 Actions -construction stage

During construction of a building, actions can occur that
may affect the stability of the temporary works, the
partially completed permenent works, or adjacent struc-
tures.
Actions to be considered at the various stages in the
construction process are described under the following
headings:
works below ground
works above ground
partially/totally completed permanent works.
6.1 Works below ground
Actions to be taken into account should be assessed from
the results of the site surveys and soil investigations, which
should be carried out before'the design and construction of
any building commences. These are:
earth pressure
water pressure
actions on and from adjacent structures/building
actions on and from adjacent traffic routes
actions on and from groundwater lowering
actions on and from any services adjacent to the site.
Variable actions from the environment
The environmental loads to be considered include:
wind
water, and wave action if present
snow
ice
direct sunlight.
6.3 Partially or totally completed buildings
The actions to be taken into account:
0 the actions used for the desi n of the building as defined
in Section 3, and their ef fpect on the stability of the
partially or totally erected building. In particular,
adverse variations in the geometric shape and/or reduced
strength arising from incomplete construction should be
considered
0 the actions used for the design of the temporary works as
defined in subsections 6.1 and 6.2 and their effect on the
stability of the partially or totally erected building.

6.2 Works above ground

The magnitudes of the loads to be taken into account for
the design of temporary works above ground should be
determined from the relevant clauses in BS 5979. These
are:
Permanent actions
The self-weights to be considered, which include:
the formwork
the falsework structure
any ancillary temporary works connected to the false-
work, such as:
access ramps and scaffolding '

hoist and other tower structures

loading storage platforms
raking and flying shores
temporary struts and bracing
any permanent works elements forming an integral part
of the temporary works

Variable actions
The imposed loads to be considered should include those
arising from:
permanent works (i.e. structural steelwork reinforce-
ment and concrete with particular attention to wet
concrete)
construction operations, including:
working areas
storage areas
pedestrian traffic
vehicular traffic
static plant
mobile plant
impact from any of the above
20 IStructE Stability
7 Stability -construction stage

This Section describes some of the measures to be consi- stacking of building materials on temporary works or on
0
dered during construction so that partially and fully completed permanent works such that stability of the
completed structures remain stable particularly as a partial- partially completed permanent work could be effected
ly erected structure may behave in a manner quite different 0 the necessity of the provision of temporary bracing or
from that of the completed structure. propping and when they may be removed
0 the design of end-connections of temporary steel or
7.1 General timber bracing or strutting to resist forces in the bracing
The constructor should appoint one of his engineers to be members. It should not be possible for wedges and packs
responsible for the stability of the permanent, partially to become displaced under load reversals or vibration.
completed and tern orary works during the whole of the The insertion and securing of bracing should be control-
construction period: It should be his duty to see that led so that distortion of members and the creation of
structural members are so constructed that: excessive loads are avoided
0 checks so that loads applied to foundations can be safely
0 there is a clearly defined path through which the actions accepted without undue movement
listed in Section 6 are transmitted safely to the founda- 0 demolition operations and the effect of use of explosives
tions ,on the stability of the building should be planned with
0 structural members that are assumed to be restrained in equal care to that used for the design of the permanent
position &e securely connected to a bracing member or works. Where more than one contractor is operating on
members of sufficient s i x and stiffness to provide the the site, there is need for close cooperation to avoid one
required restraint jeopardizing the work of the other.
0 the consequences of damage to temporary or permanent
works are assessed in a similar manner to those described Further guidance for stability during construction applic-
in subsections 4.2 and 4.3 to take account of accidental able to different forms of structure is given in the
and other actions, respectively. Appendix.

7.2 Exchange of information

Before construction starts the following exchange of in-
formation should take place so that all concerned under-
stand what needs to be done:
Information from designer to constructor
In addition to the drawings and specifications the
following should also be supplied:
design loading
factual results of site surveys and soil investigations
stability criteria, if requested
load capacity of members, if requested
limits on positions of construction joints
lifting positions on members to be erected as single
gieces
in uence of post-tensioning on adjacent members of the
supporting falsework
Information from constructor to designer
A construction method statement should be prepared,
which should include the following:
construction or erection procedure
use, weight and location of plant
programme
sequence of construction or erection
details of temporary works to be used to ensure stability
at all stages
details of provision and timing of installation and
removal of temporary bracing of support members
details of holes to be drilled and of fixings to be attached
to
permanent construction for construction or erection
purposes.

7.3 Other considerations

The following should also be considered for their effects on
the stability of the temporary or permanent works:
0 partial cladding that could affect the magnitude and
distribution of wind load
IStructE Stability 21
8 Summary

This report has been written by practising engineers for the

use of their colleagues. It has attempted to assemble in one
document the many considerations affecting stability of
buildings. In some instances, it may be argued that the
report has strayed into strength consideration, but this
merely illustrates the difficulties in separating these two
concepts. Much detailed advice has been included for the
sake of completeness, but it must be emphasized that the
relevance of the many matters described to any one
particular building must be left to the judgment of the
engineer. The report is intended to describe the ‘state of
art’ as existing in 1988, and it should not be considered as
increasing the duties and responsibilities of engineers
beyond those accepted as good practice.
Finally, it must be accepted that a degree of local damage
may occur because of the effects of the actions described in
this report. This cannot be avoided, but the implementa-
tion of the measures described in this report should enable
such damage to be both localized, and limited to an extent
proportionate to the cause of the damage.

22 IStructE Stability

*.
Appendix Further guidance for stability during construction
Guidance is given for stability during construction applicable to
different forms of structure as follows:
' runs, with the crane under load, should be carried out, and if such
A1 Framed single-storey steel structures
Single-storey steel structures without cranes consist of either
portal frames or column and beams (which may be plain-rolled or
cold-formed sections), lattice girders or a combination of both.
The first bay to be erected should be that incorporating the
permanent bracing, in all three planes. This steelwork should be
plumbed, lined and levelled prior to the bracing being installed,
and the permanent connections in the whole of this bay, including
the grouting of the bases should then be effected. In this way, a
stiff box should be created to which subsequent steelwork can be
tied. In the event that the design does not provide permanent
bracing (i.e. it relies on the subsequent cladding to provide shear
stiffness, either vertically or horizontally or both) then temporary
bracing should be provided, preferably in the end bays. Should
difficulty be experienced, due to the permanent or temporary
bracing not fitting as a result of fabrication errors or accidental
damage during transport, n o attempt to proceed with erection
should be made until the problem has been remedied and the
bracing installed.
A2 Multistorey steel structures
A multistorey steel structure should be divided into sections for
the purpose of lining and Icvelling. Each section should be of such
size that lining and levelliiig, or adjustment, may be carried out
without difficulty. The correct checking sequence should be
adopted; first, the position and alignment of columns at founda-
tion level; secondly, the plumbing of the columns; and thirdly, the
levels, which are best checked at the ends, of the lowest level of
beams. The permanent connections in that part of the structure
should then be made. The temporary bracing should not be
removed until the bases have been grouted, the grout had time to
harden, and the permanent connections made.
Unclad structures may experience temperature ranges well in
excess of those anticipated in service, which may affect the
verticality of columns subsequent to the making of the permanent
connections. Ideally, the temperature at which the columns are to
be within the specified tolerance on verticality should be stated in
advance. It may therefore be necessary to carry out the surveying
work at night. In any case, this should be carried out at a time
when the steelwork is not subject to strong sunlight, and its
temperature is reasonably uniform.
Some beams in a partly erected frame may be laterally
unrestrained, even though they may have been designed as fully
'
restrained by the floors to be erected later. This needs to be taken
into account when crane or other loads, such as members stacked
prior to erection, are to be imposed on the steel framework. In
addition, although some measure of joint rigidity may have been
assumed in design, such rigidity will be almost entirely absent
when the steelwork is merely tack-bolted together. This needs to
be taken into account when considering wind loads during
construction, and the need for temporary bracing.
A crane mounted on the steelwork of a structure that is tall
relative to its plan dimensions can impose a torque on the
steelwork when the crane is slewing under load. The structure
should possess adequate resistance to this torque in order to avoid
unacceptable movements.
Further details may be obtained from reference 6.
A3 Heavy industrial buildings with cranes
Most of the guidance above is equally applicable in this type of
building. which may incorporate multistorey sections as well as
single-storey bays of considerable height and span.
The accuracy of the tracking of the gantry rails will be critical to
the stability of the building. Inaccuracy in these components could
IStructE Stability
!
lead to crabbing and possibly jamming of the crane when
installed, which may impose large forces on the structure. Trial
troubles occur, the structure should be carefully examined to
determine if overstraining has taken place, particularly to bolted
connections.
A4 Other steel structures
These comprise everything from fire-escape staircases to
radiotelescopes, including hoppers and silos, water towers,
conveyor frames, electricity transmission towers, and a wide
variety of industrial plant structures. As there are few common
factors in these, advice can be only in general terms. It is not
uncommon for large girders or assembled sections to be lifted by
crane into position. This often requires careful selection of the
lifting procedure to avoid damage. Members or sections that are
weak on one plane must be protected from handling stresses in
that plane.
A5 Wind loading on steel skeletons
Assessment of the wind forces on the unclad or partly clad
structure should be carried out. It is possible that in a complex
structure the resistance of it to the passage of wind may be greater
than when fully clad, and thus total wind forces may be greater
than on the completed building. In addition, certain individual
members, such as gantry girders, may well experience wind loads
of considerable magnitude for which they may not have been
designed.
A6 Effect of cladding on steel structures
When a structure is to be clad to form a building it is common
practice that the cladding is commenced as soon as, but not
before, a section of the framework has been lined, levelled and
the connections finalized. Although this practice is undesirable,
clear instructions should be given regarding the stacking of
sheeting or decking members on the framework during erection to
avoid excessive local loads or torsional instability. A partially clad
structure will be subjected to different magnitudes and distribu-
tions of wind loads than the completed structure. In some cases,
the sequence of cladding operations should be defined to control
such loads and reduce the risk damage to the cladding and its
fixings.
A7 Concrete cast in situ framed construction
This type of construction proceeds in a progressive manner using
formwork to shape the reinforced concrete members and false-
work to provide temporary support until the structure (and not
just individual members) becomes self-supporting. The Joint
Report of the Institution and the Concrete Society on Formwork'
and the Code of Practice on Falsework BS 5979 provide guidance
to good working practices. For multistorey construction, it is
necessary for the designer and constructor to agree how beams
and floors are to be cast and supported to avoid the application of
unacceptable loads on to construction already completed beneath
them. To control the contraction stresses that develop as concrete
matures, it may be necessary to incorporate construction joints
and/or shrinkage bays between adjacent bays or members, and
any necessary requirements should be indicated by the designer.
It is important that the expectations of alignment and accuracy are
compatible with achievable standards of workmanship. When
concrete members are cast on formwork they will deflect, and
precambering may be needed. Post-tensioned members will move
when stressed and will redistribute loads among supporting,
falsework members or between any points of restraint. The effect
of inclement weather on in situ construction should be assessed
and protection provided if considered necessary.
L3

A8 Precast concrete framed and panel
construction
This consists of an assembly of concrete members previously cast
at ground level in a factory or on the site. The design of the
members and the accuracy expected in their construction should
recognize the standards achievable and methods available in site
conditions. Concrete members will generally be heavier than
comparable structural steel members and be more demanding on
crane capacity and handling methods. The detailing of connec-
tions, between members should recognize the possible difficulties
in making the connections, which are usually above ground level.
When panel members are assembled on surfaces, allowance
should be made for the probable unevenness of the matching
surfaces and the use of packings and/or grouting.
When prestressed units are used and assembled alongside each
other they should have similar shapes before and after loads are
applied to them. When precast floor beams or units are designed
to work in conjunction with a cast-in-place concrete topping, they
may need to be supported temporarily until that additional
concrete has matured and the complete section can act composite-
ly under its dead load.
Instability may arise when insufficient care has been given to
the specification and achievement of tolerable deviations in
dimensions of members, particularly when they are supported on
limited bearing areas. The consequences of minimal support
being obtained and of impact when members are placed on their
supports should be considered.
A9 Other concrete structures
The guidance in subsection A 8 applies to other concrete struc-
tures, which frequently contain a mixture of precast and cast in
situ construction. The appropriate use of precast members can
speed up erection time for members that otherwise could not
sustain loads until the in situ concrete has matured. The stability
of precast concrete components of members. which will finally be
composite, should always be checked when receiving loads and
moments during construction.
Concrete floors are frequently cast on permanent metal soffit
forms, and care should be taken to avoid overloading the metal
References
1. BS 6399: Loading f o r buildings, Part 1: Code of practice f o r
dead and imposed loads, British Standards Institution. Lon-
don, 1984
2. C P 3: Code of basic data f o r the design of buildings, Chapter V:
Loading, Part 2: Wind loads, British Standards Institution.
London 1972
3. BS 6399: Loading f o r buildings, Part 3: Code of practice for
snow loads, British Standards Institution, London, 1987
24
..
sections as the concrete is placed. It may be necessary to provide
propping to control deflections during casting.
A10 Structures of timber, laminated plywood,
aluminium and composite materials such as GRP
and GRC
These require attention to the guidance outlined above so that the
members remain stable during and after erection. Structures are
increasingly being conceived not as frames but as membranes or
vaults often assisted into and maintained in position by tension
members or internal air pressure. In such cases, the elements of
the structure should be handled without damage o r detriment to
their subsequent performance. These structures, being cornpara-
tively light, should be handled with great care when exposed to
wind loads until erection is complete.
A l l Masonry
When masonry is incorporated into the facade of tall buildings the
consequences of movements in the frame affecting the stability of
the masonry should be considered. A concrete frame will creep
under load and the resulting movements transmitted into the
masonry should be absorbed by soft joints usually formed at
storey heights. Racking movements of structural frames may also’
pass into the masonry. These movements should be resisted by the
masonry or voids should be provided to accommodate them.
When the masonry is to provide restraint to lateral movements.
the connections should be designed for the purpose. External
masonry has also to resist external inward and suction wind loads
and is subject to thermal movements. The consequences of these
loads on stability during the erection stage should be considered
and temporary supports or protection provided if necessary.
When masonry is to be supported on concrete nibs to beams, the
nibs should be detailed to such tolerances that the necessary
bearing is provided. They should always be reinforced.
During the construction of masonry, due attention should be
paid to its stability under wind and other imposed loads, including
accidental impacts. The sequence and rate of laying of masonry
should be adjusted so that the masonry can develop adequate
strength to resist these loads.
4. Estimation of thermal and moisture movements and stresses:
Part 2, Digest 228, B R E Watford. Aug. 1979
5. BS 5975: Code of practice f o r falsework, British Standards
Institution, London, 1982
6. Needham, F. H.: ‘Site inspection of structural steelwork’.
Proc. I C E , Part 1, 70, 1981, p. 395
7. Formwork, Joint report of Concrete Society and IStructE.
Concrete Society, London. 1987
IStructE Stahility