Chapter 32

Koga Irrigation Scheme Water Quality

Assessment, Relation to Streamflow
and Implication on Crop Yield

Degarege Fentie Densaw, Essayas K. Ayana and Temesgen Enku

Abstract The Koga irrigation scheme is the first attempt of eleven major proposed
large-scale irrigation schemes in Lake Tana sub-basin in the Upper Blue Nile Basin.
The schemes are to provide water for small holder farmers. The completion of Koga
scheme poses various challenges and provides important lessons in implementing
and operating large-scale irrigation projects. With anticipated increased agricultural
productivity, one of the foreseeable challenges will be the continuous assessment of
the water quality. This study assesses the quality status of Koga River by analysing
samples collected from planned sampling locations. Two sampling campaigns were
undertaken, and 23 physical and chemical water quality parameters were measured
using standard methods. On the basis of FAO irrigation water quality guideline,
Koga irrigation water is well within limits of salinity, sodicity and toxicity hazard
except above the threshold value of boron. Among the dominant crops cultivated
potato, barley and wheat production are susceptible to yield reduction. A detailed
investigation is required to quantify the extent of yield reduction incurred due to
higher level of boron. Multivariate statistical technique is applied for the evaluation
of relationship between streamflow and various water quality parameters.

Keywords Koga irrigation scheme
Koga Dam
Koga River
Irrigation water


quality Upper Blue Nile Basin

D.F. Densaw
E.K. Ayana (&)
T. Enku

School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering,
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
e-mail: ekk45@cornell.edu
D.F. Densaw
e-mail: degaregefentie@yahoo.com
T. Enku
e-mail: temesgenku@gmail.com
E.K. Ayana
Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology,
Columbia University, New York, USA
E.K. Ayana
GeoSpatial Data and Technology Center (GDTC), Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 727

A.M. Melesse and W. Abtew (eds.), Landscape Dynamics, Soils
and Hydrological Processes in Varied Climates, Springer Geography,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18787-7_32
728 D.F. Densaw et al.

32.1 Introduction

Crop production consumes a significant proportion of available water resources in

the world (Viala 2008). With the increase in world population, the demand for food
will undoubtedly increase. In subsistence farming economies where the produc-
tivity is considerably low, this will translate into land use change and subsequently
decline in ecosystem services (Marx 2011). Studies indicate that climate change
will further strain the availability of water resources mostly in areas where adequate
water infrastructures are absent. In Ethiopia, where the study is conducted, agri-
culture employs about 84 % of the country’s population and accounts for nearly
half of the gross domestic product (GDP) (EPA 1997). High agricultural produc-
tivity can be achieved by applying appropriate irrigation management systems
through intensive cropping systems to alleviate problems of drought and limitations
posed by land shortage. Accordingly, the Government of Ethiopia gives emphasis
to the development of the irrigation sub-sector by assisting and supporting farmers
to improve irrigation management practices and the promotion of modern irrigation
systems on small-scale (less than 200 ha), medium-scale (200–3000 ha) and
large-scale (over 3000 ha) schemes (OCDE 2001). According to the report on
marketing assessment and cost recovery study in Koga carried out in February
2013, Ethiopian irrigation potential is estimated at 3.7 million hectare, but only
some 197,000 ha has been developed (GIRDC 2013).
Expanding small-scale irrigation is challenging in the highlands due to the very
low streamflow during the dry season, and the only way to irrigate large areas of
peasant land during the dry season would be to construct storage reservoirs (OCDE
2001). The Koga irrigation scheme is the first attempt by the Government of
Ethiopia to develop a large-scale irrigation (7000 ha) and supposed to be managed
and funded farmers (Marx 2011). Koga irrigation scheme is intended to reduce
poverty through substantial increase in household income and improve food
security and nutritional practices thereby promoting human and economic devel-
opment in the region. As irrigation infrastructure gradually stretched to the project
extent, more land came under irrigation. Documents at the site office indicate that
the irrigated area increased substantially from 700 ha in 2009 to more than 5100 ha
in 2012 (GIRDC 2013).
Irrigation water quality can affect crop productivity. Irrigation water quality
affects crop yield and soil physical conditions and can affect fertility, irrigation
system performance, longevity, and irrigation demand. Therefore, knowledge of
irrigation water quality is critical to understanding what management changes are
necessary for long-term productivity (Bauder et al. 2007).
Quality of surface water is mainly controlled by geological structure and min-
eralogy of the watersheds, the chemical reactions that take place within the water-
shed as well as the type of land uses and anthropogenic activities (Alexakis 2008,
2011). Irrigation waters contain salts of varying concentration. Most of the applied
water is removed by evapotranspiration leaving the salt behind. This leads to an
increase in salt concentration of soils and hence additional water requirement to
32 Koga Irrigation Scheme Water Quality Assessment, Relation … 729

leach (Rhoades 1972). Extensive literature is available on water quality monitoring

and assessment for irrigation uses (Saeedi et al. 2010; Aghazadeh and Mogaddam
2011; Palma et al. 2010; Suthar et al. 2010; Pazand and Hezarkhani 2012).
The objective of this study is to assess the suitability of water quality of Koga
Dam with respect to FAO’s irrigation water quality standards and widely used crop
types. In irrigation water evaluation, emphases are placed on the chemical and
physical characteristics of the water and only rarely are any other factors considered
important (Ayalneh 2004). The analysis is thus confined to chemical and physical
characteristics as these induce major water quality-related problems in irrigation
agriculture such as salinity, water infiltration rate alteration and specific ion toxicity.
In this study, field samples were collected and analysed in the laboratory, but
existing water quality data were also included to expand the data for evaluating
temporal variation of the water quality parameters.

32.2 Materials and Methods

32.2.1 Study Area

The Koga irrigation and watershed management project is located south of Lake
Tana in the Upper Blue Nile Basin of Ethiopia (Lat. 11° 10′N–11° 25′N, Long.
37° 02′E–37° 17′E), Fig. 32.1. The Koga River that drains the 250 km2 watershed is
a tributary of the Gilgel Abay River in the headwaters of the Blue Nile basin which
flows into Lake Tana. With the elevation between 1900 and 3200 m, the watershed
is subject to the inter-tropical convergence zone and a single rainy season that
begins in June and lasts through September resulting in 70 % of the river flow. The
high rainfall variability renders high vulnerability among small-scale farmers who
rely on rain-fed agriculture. According to Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy
(MoWIE), there is 80 % probability of at least 1245 mm rainfall in a year. Koga
River minimum flow occurs in April and in May, just before the onset of the rainy
season. The average discharge based on 44 years of record (1959–2002) is
4.78 m3 s−1. The most important environmental problems observed in the area are
soil erosion, deforestation, and poor land use and management. The rate of soil loss
in the furthest upstream portions of the watershed exceeds the soil formation rate, in
part because of severe deforestation in the 1970s and 1980s (Tilahun 2009).
The Koga River is a tributary of the Blue Nile River draining watersheds of various
levels of degradation. Hydrology of the Nile River Basin has been studied by various
researchers. These studies encompass various areas including streamflow modelling,
sediment dynamics, teleconnections and river flow, land use dynamics, climate
change impact, groundwater flow modelling, hydrodynamics of Lake Tana, water
allocation and demand analysis (Melesse et al. 2009a, b, 2011, 2014; Abtew et al.
2009a, b; Abtew and Melesse 2014a, b, c; Yitayew and Melesse 2011; Chebud and
Melesse 2009a, b, 2013; Setegn et al. 2009a, b, 2010; Melesse 2011).
730 D.F. Densaw et al.

Fig. 32.1 The Koga watershed, reservoir and irrigation command area in the Lake Tana sub-basin

32.2.2 Data and Analysis

Site visits were made to Koga watershed and command areas to assess the existing
situations in the area including the experiences of the farmers in rain-fed as well as
irrigated agriculture. Water samples were collected at three sampling sites in April
2014 and at two sampling sites in May 2014 (Fig. 32.2). Sites recommended for
future monitoring are used in collecting the samples so as to ensure data continuity.
The sampling sites are selected based on their representativeness, safety and
security, availability of stable streambed and suitability to avoid disturbing influ-
ences (BRL 2009). Grab samples were collected using plastic bottles rinsed with the
water to be sampled. Koga River water quality test results compiled during the
project design and measurements made by other researchers (Eriksson 2012) and
project-related data were retrieved from MoWIE and Koga Irrigation and
Watershed Management Office (KIWMO).
All samples were labelled with sampling date, location, time and other pertinent
information. Samples were collected in April 2014 at river entry to the reservoir
(river mouth), station 1; in the reservoir nearby the intake tower, station 2; and at a
secondary irrigation canal, station 3. On a second campaign conducted in May
2014, samples were collected at two sites: at river entry to the reservoir and nearby
the intake tower. Water release to the canals was interrupted, and hence, samples
could not be collected from the irrigation canal. Twenty three water quality
32 Koga Irrigation Scheme Water Quality Assessment, Relation … 731

Fig. 32.2 Water quality sampling locations in Koga watershed

parameters were measured from samples collected in April 2012 and May 2014.
Sampling, preservation and transportation of the water samples to the laboratory
were as per standard methods. Sample analysis in the laboratory followed the
standard protocols (APPA 2005).
According to survey carried out in May 2007, farmers’ preferences of crops from
the most to the least to be grown were onion, potato, tomato, pepper, barley, fruits,
wheat, maize, sugarcane, cabbage and beetroot (Horecha 2008). Nevertheless,
production statistics for the year 2012 showed that potato covered 42 %, barely
20 % and wheat 31 % of the total irrigated area. On the basis of available literature,
the implication of current water quality on the yield is described (Rhoades 1972;
Bauder et al. 2007; Fipps 2003a; Wilcox 1955). The impact of the water quality on
the sustainability of Koga irrigation scheme is also explained. Statistical correlation
technique is used to assess correlation between outflows to the irrigation command
areas with physico-chemical parameters of Koga irrigation water.

32.3 Results and Discussion

The water quality analysis result from the April and May 2014 sampling is provided
in Table 32.1a, where parameter concentrations and applicable limits for irrigation
water are shown. Table 32.1b shows data from previous sampling and analysis by
732 D.F. Densaw et al.

Table 32.1 Koga River water quality. a April and May 2014. b 1995, 2011 and 2012
(a)
Parameter Limit May 2014 April 2014
River mouth Intake River mouth Intake Canal
Temperature (°C) 25.4 25.2 28 23.5 22.5
pH 6.5–8.4 7.71 7.97 8.55 8.22 8.17
DO (mg L−1) 9.85 7.5 7.85
EC (µS cm−1) <750 40 87 249 135.8 124.9
TDS (mg L−1) 500 27 58 148.2 87.5 75
Turbidity (NTU) 855 309 74.1 311 228.5
Alkalinity (mg L−1) 30 45 157.5 62.5 67.5
TSS (mg L−1) 21.5 30.5 25.5
Na (mg L−1) 3.6 3.6 7.5 3.5 3.7
SAR <10 0.15 0.12 0.35 0.11 0.18
Chloride (mg L−1) 70 0 1 28 24 24.5
NH3 (mg L−1) 0.16 0.09 0.115
NO2 (mg L−1) 0.025 0.12 0.035
NO3 (mg L−1) 45 0.66 1.7 1.13
SO4 (mg L−1) 250 3 9.5 10.5
PO4 (mg L−1) 1.4 0.135 0.15
Boron (mg L−1) 1.7 1.85 0.8 1.75 1.8
Mg (mg L−1) 20 28 11 34 42.5
Ca (mg L−1) 12 23 16.5 18 18.5
K (mg L−1) 3.2 0.7 0
TH (mg L−1) 497 186 222
Fe (mg L−1) 5 0 0.05 0.02
Mn (mg L−1) 0.2 0.003 0.007 0.005
(b)
Parameter Limit Eriksson Tana Sub-basin Office (sampling year and month) MoWIE
(canal)
2012/4 2011/12 2012/01 2012/3 2012/6 2012/7 2012/8 1995
Temperature (°C) 6.5–8.4 24.7 21.4 14.9 20 16.7 19.3 19.3 20.1
pH 7.3 7.9 7.79 7.96 6.99 7.58 7.78 6.33
DO (mg L−1) <750 4.44 3.9 3.63 4.02 8.8
EC (µS cm−1) 500 275 100 110 140 38 72 64 122.1
TDS (mg L−1) 50 50 89 24 46 41 61.3
Turbidity (NTU) 90 58.8 56.3 57 110 1002 1002
Alkalinity 79 117 130 130 285 430 355
(mg L−1)
TSS (mg L−1)
Na (mg L−1) <10
SAR 70 1.59
Chloride
(mg L−1)
NH3 (mg L−1) 0.04 0.13 0.05 0.71 3.7 0.71 0.51
NO2 (mg L−1) 45 0.005 0.03 0.03 0.03 1.47 0.35 0.29
(continued)
32 Koga Irrigation Scheme Water Quality Assessment, Relation … 733

Table 32.1 (continued)

(b)
Parameter Limit Eriksson Tana Sub-basin Office (sampling year and month) MoWIE
(canal)
2012/4 2011/12 2012/01 2012/3 2012/6 2012/7 2012/8 1995
NO3 (mg L−1) 250 0.35 0.18 0.27 0.85 0.85 1
SO4 (mg L−1) 22 21 22 83 200 185 0
PO4 (mg L−1) 0.15 0.67 0.3 0.42 10 2.13 1.82
Boron (mg L−1) 2.2 1.3
Mg (mg L−1)
Ca (mg L−1)
K (mg L−1)
TH (mg L−1) 5 95 108 130 500 750 420
Fe (mg L−1) 0.2 2.28 1 2.14 5 3.6 2.8 0.5
Mn (mg L−1)

Eriksson (2012), by Tana Sub-basin Office and by MoWIE with data collected in
1995, 2011 and 2012. Table 32.2 shows all the data and comparison of each
parameter observation with FAO irrigation water quality recommended standards.

32.3.1 Salinity Hazard

Salinity level with regard to irrigation is very important as increase in salinity

increases the osmotic potential of the soil water. The energy required by plants to
uptake water increases with increased osmotic potential resulting in increased
respiration and decline in yield (Akinyemi and Souley 2014). FAO irrigation water
quality guidelines recommend ECw be less than 250 µS cm−1 and TDS below
450 mg L−1 (Ayers and Westcot 1985), Table 32.2. Water with EC less than
250 μmhos cm−1 is considered excellent, from 251–750 μmhos cm−1 is good, from
751–2000 μmhos cm−1 is permissible and that with greater than 2000 μmhos cm−1
is unsuitable for irrigation (Fipps 2003b). Koga irrigation water mean values of
salinity indicators, ECw and TDS (Fig. 32.3), on the basis of all available data, are
120 μmhos cm−1 and 63 mg L−1 and 127 μmhos cm−1 and 79 mg L−1 based on
samples in this study. μmhos cm−1 is equivalent to µS cm−1.

32.3.2 Sodicity Hazard

Sodic waters are classified in relation to irrigation based on the ranges of SAR
(sodium absorption ratio) values. Water with SAR ranging from 0 to 3 is considered
 734

Table 32.2 Comparison of Koga irrigation water quality with FAO standards
Parameter 1995 Dec Jan Mar Jun Jul Aug Apr Apr May FAO threshold Remark
2011 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2014 2014
ECw (µS cm−1) 122.6 100 110 140 38 72 64 275 124.9 87 <250 Ok
Na (mg L−1) 3.7 3.6
SAR 1.59 0.18 0.12 <12 Ok
Chloride as Cl (mg L−1) 2 – – – – – – – 15 0 <70 Ok
Boron (mg L−1) 1.3 – – – – – – 2.2 1.8 1.85 <0.75 Not Ok
pH 6.33 7.9 7.79 7.96 6.99 7.58 7.78 7.3 8.17 7.97 6.5–8.4 Ok
Turbidity (NTU) – 58.8 56.3 57 110 1002 1002 90 228.5 309 NRL
Alkalinity (mg L−1) – 117 130 130 285 430 355 79 67.5 105 NRL
TDS (mg L−1) 61.3 50 50 89 24 46 41 – 240 58 <450 Ok
TSS (mg L−1) 255 NRL
DO (mg L−1) 8.8 – – 4.44 3.9 3.63 4.02 – 7.85 NRL
SO4 (mg L−1) 0 22 21 22 83 200 185 – 10.5 <90 Partly Ok
PO4 (mg L−1) – 0.67 0.3 0.42 10 2.13 1.82 0.15 0.15 <0.4 Ok
NH3 (mg L−1) – 0.13 0.05 0.71 3.7 0.71 0.51 0.04 0.12 NRL
NO2 (mg L−1) – 0.03 0.03 0.03 1.47 0.35 0.29 0.005 0.035 NRL
NO3 (mg L−1) – 0.35 0.18 0.27 0.85 0.85 1 – 1.13 <50 Ok
Ca (mg L−1) 96 18.5 23 <100 Ok
Mg (mg L−1) 42.5 28 Ok
K (mg L−1) 0 <20 Ok
Fe (mg L−1) 0.5 2.28 1 2.14 5 3.6 2.8 – 0.02 <5 Ok
D.F. Densaw et al.
32 Koga Irrigation Scheme Water Quality Assessment, Relation … 735

Fig. 32.3 Salinity indicators 200

for Koga River irrigation
water 160 ECw (µS/cm)
120 TDS (mg/l)

80
40
0
1995 2011 2012 2014
Year

good and with greater than 9 considered unsuitable for irrigation purpose (Joshi
2009). Sodium, when present in the soil in exchangeable form, causes adverse
change in soil structure. An excess of sodium will cause clay particles to disperse
instead of aggregate and in some cases also to swell. This results in a soil with low
porosity, poor permeability and poor aeration when wet, large clods separated by
deep cracks when dry. At higher concentration (>40 mg L−1), sodium has also the
ability to disperse soil. Dispersion of soil results in reduced rates of infiltration of
water and air into the soil. When such soils dry up, crusting occurs making tilling
difficult and thus adversely interfering with seed germination and seedling emer-
gence (Jensen 1980). Overall mean sodicity for Koga irrigation water as determined
from the whole data is SAR value of 0.63 which is much below the threshold of 12
recommended by FAO guideline (Table 32.2). In the present study, SAR was found
to be 0.18 at the irrigation canal. The low value of SAR for Koga irrigation water
can be categorized as water of excellent category. It can be used for irrigation on
almost all soil types with little danger of the development of harmful levels of
exchangeable sodium.

32.3.3 Toxicity

Toxicity indicators with reference to the FAO guideline are all well below the
threshold values with Cl (5.7 vs. 70), SO4 (15 vs. 90) and NO3 (0.5 vs. 50) mg L−1.
However, observed boron concentration in the overall data (1.79 mg L−1) as well as
the measurements made for this study (1.83 mg L−1) indicates higher level of
concentration as compared to the 0.75 mg L−1 FAO threshold (Fig. 32.4,
Table 32.2). Figure 32.4 also shows concentration of nutrients (PO4, NH3, NO2,
NO3 and boron).
736 D.F. Densaw et al.

3 PO4
NH3
2

mg/l
NO2
1 NO3
Boron
0
1995 2011 2012 2014
Year

Fig. 32.4 Nutrient concentration, toxicity indicator and boron concentration

32.4 Implication on Crop Yield and Irrigation

Sustainability

Boron is essential in low amounts, but toxic at higher concentrations and affects
both yield and germination process. Boron toxicity can occur at concentrations less
than 1.0 mg L−1 on sensitive crops. The literatures indicate that boron tends to
occur in association with saline conditions and the yield response of plants to
increasing boron concentrations is similar to their response to increasing salinity.
The yield remains unaffected until a threshold concentration is reached, after which
yield declines linearly (Forestry 1996). Ashagre et al. (2014) reported a decrease in
germination percentage and rate, shoot and root lengths, shoot and root fresh and
dry weights, root number, root–shoot ratio and seedling vigour index beyond
0.25 mg L−1. Chauhan and Powar (1978) found in a micro-plot experiment that

Table 32.3 Major crops in Koga area and sensitivity to water quality parameters
Crop Parameter Remark
type Salinity ECw Na (SAR) Chloride Boron (mg L−1)
(dS m−1)
Potato 1.1 Moderately 1–2 Allowable
sensitive limit (Ayers
Wheat 4 Semi-sensitive Highly 0.75–1 and Westcot
(10.1–18) tolerant 1985)
Barley 5.3 Tolerant Highly 0.75–1
(>26.1) tolerant
Maize 1.1 Sensitive (<10) Moderately 2–4
tolerant
Onion 0.8 Semi-tolerant sensitive 0.5–0.75
(18.1–26)
Pepper 1 Moderately 1–2
sensitive
Cabbage 1.2 Moderately 2–4
sensitive
Tomato 1.7 Semi-sensitive Moderately 4–6
(10.1–18) sensitive
32 Koga Irrigation Scheme Water Quality Assessment, Relation … 737

Table 32.4 Correlation between streamflow and water quality parameter concentration
Parameter Sampling months r p-value Remark
Dec, Jan, Mar, Apr, Apr,
2011 2012 2012 2012 2014
Q (m3 s−1) 5.5 4.5 3 3 4
EC (µS/cm) 100 110 140 124.9 −0.98 0.02 Q versus EC
pH 7.9 7.79 7.96 7.3 8.17 0.35 0.56 Q versus pH
Turbidity 90 58.8 57 90 228.5 0.06 0.93 Q versus Tur
(NTU)
Alkalinity 117 130 130 79 67.5 0.25 0.68 Q versus
(mg L−1) Alkalinity
NH3 0.13 0.05 0.71 0.04 0.12 −0.44 0.46 Q versus
(mg L−1) NH3
PO4 0.67 0.3 0.42 0.15 0.15 0.63 0.25 Q versus
(mg L−1) PO4
NO2 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.005 0.035 0.49 0.4 Q versus
(mg L−1) NO2
NO3 0.35 0.18 0.27 – 1.13 −0.1 0.9 Q versus
(mg L−1) NO3
SO4 22 21 22 – 10.5 0.15 0.85 Q versus
(mg L−1) SO4
Fe (mg L−1) 2.28 1 2.14 – 0.02 0.13 0.87 Q versus Fe

1.5 mg L−1 boron in the irrigation water was toxic for wheat sensitivity. Major
crops produced in Koga area and tolerance to sodium, chloride and boron are
shown in Table 32.3.

32.5 Water Quality Parameters Relation to Streamflow

Correlation between streamflows and water quality parameters were evaluated to

examine concentration changes with change in flow. It was found that only electric
conductivity (salinity) has a statistically significant negative correlation with flow
(r = −0.98, p = 0.02). As shown in Table 32.4, the listed parameters have no
significant relationship with streamflow.

32.6 Conclusions

Water quality parameters monitoring indicated that Koga irrigation water quality is
generally suitable for irrigation purpose except the relatively high content of boron.
The pH, EC (salinity), sodium (SAR), chloride, calcium, magnesium, potassium,
738 D.F. Densaw et al.

nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphate, iron and manganese contents of Koga irrigation

water are all within the acceptable range based on irrigation water quality standard
of FAO. Koga River water has no major water quality problem with respect to
irrigation in the last 19 years based on Koga irrigation water quality test results
obtained by previous studies and this study. The boron content of Koga irrigation
water is relatively high, which is in the range of 0.7–3 mg L−1 (slight to moderate
degree of restriction on using this water) as set by FAO. Referring to the major
irrigated crops in the study area, wheat production will be affected by the higher
boron concentration. The exact impact on yield should be investigated in further
detail. Crops such as onion, barley and garlic are also highly sensitive to boron
according to FAO’s sensitivity ranges, and hence, increased care in the selection of
crop and management alternatives is strongly recommended. Increased frequency
of sampling should show temporal variation and source identification of boron in
the Koga watershed.

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