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BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
VOL. 63. PP. 1117-1142. 23 FIGS.. 1 PL. NOVEMBER 1952
BY ARTHUR N. STRAHLER
ABSTRACT
The percentage hypsometric curve (area-altitude curve) relates horizontal cross-sectional area of a drain-
age basin to relative elevation above basin mouth. By use of dimensionless parameters, curves can be de-
scribed and compared irrespective of true scale. Curves show distinctive differences both in sinuosity of form
and in proportionate area below the curve, here termed the hypsometric integral. A simple three-variable
function provides a satisfactory series of model curves to which most natural hypsometric curves can be
fitted. The hypsometric curve can be equated to a mean ground-slope curve if length of contour belt is
taken into account.
Stages of youth, maturity, and old age in regions of homogeneous rock give a distinctive series of hyp-
sometric forms, but mature and old stages give identical curves unless monadnock masses are present. It is
therefore proposed that this terminology be replaced by one consisting of an inequilibrium stage, an equilib-
rium stage, and a monadnock phase.
Detailed morphometric analysis of basins in five sample areas in the equilibrium stage show distinctive,
though small, differences in hypsometric integrals and curve forms. In general, drainage basin height, slope
steepness, stream channel gradient, and drainage density show a good negative correlation with mean
integrals. Lithologic and structural differences between areas or recent minor uplifts may account for certain
curve differences. Regions of strong horizontal structural benching give a modified series of hypsometric
curves.
Practical applications of hypsometric analysis are foreseen in hydrology, soil erosion and sedimenta-
tion studies, and military science.
CONTENTS
TEXT Page
age
2. The percentage hypsometric function.. .. 1120
3. Integration of the hypsometric function.. 1121
Introduction 1118 4. Model hypsometric function 1122
Principles of hypsometric analysis 1118 5. Family of curves for the value r = 0.1... 1122
Hypsometric curve in absolute units 1118 5. Comparison of several curve families. . . . 1123
Percentage hypsometric curve 1119 7. Graphic solution of integrals and ex-
Method of obtaining hypsometric data.... 1119 ponents 1124
Integration of the hypsometric function. . . 1120 8. Small drainage basin in badlands, Perth
A model hypsometric function 1121 Amboy, New Jersey 1125
Inflection points and slopes 1123 9. Hypsometric curve of basin shown in Fig-
Relation of hypsometric curve to ground ure 8 1126
slopes 1125 10. Hypothetical drainage basin 1126
Geomorphic applications of hypsometric 11. Contour belt 1126
analysis. . . 1128 12. Correlation of mean ground slopes and
The geomorphic cycle 1128 adjusted slopes of hypsometric curve seg-
Characteristics of the equilibrium stage.... 1130 ments 1127
Relation of hypsometric forms to drainage 13. True mean-slope curve of basin shown in
forms 1136 Figure 8 1128
Geologic factors affecting equilibrium forms. 1136 14. Inequilibrium (youthful) stage 1129
Influence of horizontal structure 1139 15. Equilibrium (mature) stage 1130
Practical applications of hypsometric analysis. 1140 15. Monadnock phase 1131
References cited 1141 17. Mean hypsometric curves of five areas
m
TT T T CTT> A TTY% re ^* equilibrium stage 1132
ILLUSTRATIONS ig Representative basins from five sample
Figure Page areas 1133
1. Figure of reference in percentage hypso- 19. Stream numbers and bifurcation ratios
metric analysis 1119 for five sample areas 1137
1117
1118 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
Page Facing
Plate page
20. Stream lengths and length ratios for five
sample areas ......................... 1137 *• Model hypsometric curves for five values
21. Hypsometric curves of three basins in °* r .................................. *"'
Mesa Verde Region ................... 1139 TABLES
22. Hypsometric curves of three basins near Page
Soissons, France ...................... 1140 \ Morphometric data for five sample areas. . 1134
23. Hypsometric curves of large drainage 2. Statistical data for mean integrals of five
basins ............................... 1140 areas ................................. 1135
ing, where the surfaces lies approximately The method has been used by Langbein (1947)
horizontal. Where these surfaces have a pro- for hydrologic investigations. Two ratios are
nounced regional slope, they may not appear involved (Fig. 1): (1) ratio of area between
on the curve. Because a good topographic map, the contour and the upper perimeter (Area a)
from which the hypsometric curve was pre- to total drainage basin area (Area A), repre-
pared, will usually show these features, the
justification for an elaborate hypsometric
process for interpreting geomorphic history
is doubtful.
For analysis of the form quality of erosional
topography, use of absolute units is unsatis-
factory because areas of different size and re-
lief cannot be compared, and the slope of the
curve depends on the arbitrary selection of
scales. To overcome these difficulties, it is de-
sirable to use dimensionless parameters inde-
pendent of absolute scale of topographic fea-
tures.
the following steps: First, the drainage basin special field maps on a large scale must first be
is selected and outlined. Selection of the basin surveyed.
is influenced by the purpose of the investiga- Height ratios are obtained by first determin-
tion, which may call for a study of the first- ing the total range between basin mouth and
order drainage basins or of composite basins summit point. The height of each measured
contour above the mouth elevation is then
Y determined and ratios to total basin height
1.0 computed. These will range from 0.0 to 1.0
in inverse series to the area ratios.
The ratios are plotted on any convenient
cross-section paper and the curve drawn
&S> smoothly with the aid of a draftsman's curve.
O) For purposes of comparison with model curves
^^ illustrated in Plate 1, cross-section paper of
c c
2'* 10 divisions per % inch should be used, allotting
•>- o a square 5 inches wide to the hypsometric
o^
Q. graph.
O
contours closely crowded, every second or If we now divide both sides of this equation
fifth contour is used, except near the summit by H and A, which are constant terms,
where all available contours are used. Obviously summit el
the value of hypsometric analysis depends on
use of sufficiently accurate and large-scale
maps for the drainage basins involved. Where
texture is fine and unit basins very small, y rsummitel^ / fr
1 =
Stream orders have been defined by Horton ff3 Jbas..l A
(1945, p. 281-283), but the writer has followed a
somewhat different system of determining orders: This expresses the ratio of volume lying be-
The smallest, or "finger-tip", channels constitute
the first-order segments. For the most part these neath the surface, V, to the entire volume of the
carry wet-weather streams and are normally dry.
A second-order segment is formed by the junction reference figure, HA. Because — x, and
of any two first-order streams; a third-order seg- A a.
ment is formed by the joining of any two second- y, by our definition, then
order streams, etc. This method avoids the neces-
sity of subjective decisions, inherent in Horton's v rw
method, and assures that there will be only one II
stream bearing the highest order number.
PRINCIPLES OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1121
Y
100%
AV=QAh
-c
0>
o
t>
cc
R
d-a'
In subsequent illustrations of the model hypso-
metric equation (Figs. 5, 6; PL 1) the abscissa
appears scaled in terms of R.
To plot a family of model curves having one
particular degree of sinuosity, a value of /
is selected; curves within each family are therj
obtained by using different values of the ex-
ponent, z.3
As an illustration of a family of curves, that
particular family in which r = 0.1 is given
in Figure 5. Curves for several values of z,
ranging from 0.0625 to 2.0, are shown. Plate
FIGURE 4.—MODEL HYPSOMETRIC FUNCTION 1 gives five families of curves and can be used
for fitting of natural curves by inspection.
d-x Curves represented by this model function
= ^-0.1
have the following characteristics (1) The curves
Curve of inflection are s-shaped where z < 1, but are of simple
) points
'>H
concave-up form where z > 1. (2) Where z
< 1, curves entering at A have a slope, where-
as they are tangent to the vertical through the
point B.
Decreasing the value of r increases the degree
of sinuosity of the curve, thereby reducing the
slope of the curve in the region of inflection.
This effect may be seen by studying individual
curves for the families r= 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25,
and 0.5 (Fig. 6). For comparison, five curves
were selected whose integral is approximately
the same.
It is not practical to obtain the hypsometric
integrals of theoretical curves by mathematical
procedures, hence these were obtained by the
.1 .E .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 l<0 writer by planimeter measurement for all
x-a (Proportion of total basin areaj curves plotted. On each model curve (PI. 1),
the integral is given. The values are only ap-
FIGURE 5.—FAMILY OF CURVES FOR THE VALUE, proximate, being subject to errors in measure-
r = 0.1
For selected values of 2. Given alse are the inte-
grals and the slope of each curve at its inflection 3
For plotting, the following form of equation III
point. (Other curve families are given in Plate 1.) can be used:
merit as well as errors in plotting the curves the second derivative of the function equal to 0.
from which they were measured. For plotting, it is convenient to find the inflec-
Because one method of fitting model curves tion point in terms of R in Equation IV, as
to natural hypsometric curves involves the the following equation:
matching of integrals, it is desirable to have a
means of obtaining from a given integral the V Jfc - 1
+ * ~ 2r
exponent, z, of a particular model curve which 2(1- r)
possesses that integral. A graphic solution is
shown in Figure 7. Given an integral, measured where Ri is the value of R at which the curve
by planimeter from a natural hypsometric inflects. Inflection points and the curves on
curve, and having selected by inspection the which they lie are shown on the graphs for the
curve family whose value of r gives the closest several values of r (Fig. 5; PI. 1).
fit as to shape, one can read the desired value Inflection points have morphological sig-
of z. nificance on hypsometric curves because they
mark the level at which the rate of decrease of
Inflection Points and Slopes mass upwards changes from an increasingly
rapid rate of decrease to a diminishing rate of
The point of inflection on any of the model decrease. Further investigation may prove
hypsometric curves where z is less than 1.0 this feature to be related to dynamic factors,
may be obtained by the usual method of setting such as the relative importance of sheet runoff
1124 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
Equilibriumi .
postage
(Maturity,
Old Age )
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Integral
FIGURE 7.—GRAPHIC SOLUTION OF INTEGRALS AND EXPONENTS
For curve families produced by five selected values of r. (See Plate 1 for further data.)
and creep at higher levels compared to channel decreases. For the curve family r = 0.5, the
erosion at lower levels. slopes approach 80 per cent near the center of
While the position of the inflection point on a the diagram, while for the family r = 0.01 they
natural hypsometric curve is greatly affected are reduced to about 30 per cent.
by chance irregularities of form not significant Hypsometric slope at the inflection point is
in the gross aspect of the drainage basin, the thus a form characteristic which can be rapidly
slope of the curve in the general region of the determined and used as one means of fitting
inflection can be expected to be a reliable form natural to model curves. When the slope of the
element. Comparisons of the curve families natural curve in the vicinity of its inflection
show that slope at the inflection point is steep point has been measured, the curve can be
where r has high values and diminishes as r matched to the family having a similar slope.
PRINCIPLES OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1125
Then, by matching integrals, the particular identical with the hypsometric curve. Ob-
value of z can be determined. viously a drainage basin cannot fulfill this con-
Precise values of slope at inflection points dition while narrowing to a mouth through
can be determined from Equation IV by taking which all drainage is discharged by a narrow
the first derivative of the function and sub-
stituting for R the various values of these in-
flection points already obtained. In view of the 87.0
labor of calculation involved and the fact that
exact values are not required for any uses of 90
hypsometric analysis thus far made, the slopes
listed opposite each integral on the graphs 99.70
were determined by direct angular measure-
ment from the graphs. These are, of course,
subject to errors in the use of the protractor on 100.4
a curve drawn through a number of plotted
points.
°08' ACTUAL
42^x42° 16' GROUND H
SLOPE
57o\53°08'
57\53°08
5753°08'
HYPSOMETRIC ~>\44°09'
CURVE
-^ 3^40*03'
5703a\35044'
65°30\36°56'
75°\46°281
79°\420481
_ 840\32000'
'0 Tl .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
R e l a t i v e area -J-
FIGURE 9. —HYPSOMETRIC CURVE OP BASIN SHOWN IN FIGURE 8
Showing relation between slope of segments of hypsometric curve and actual mean ground slopes of
corresponding segments.
Upper contour^
FIGURE 11.—CONTOUR BELT
Showing method of calculating mean length,
width, and slope of contour belt.
1.0 determine the mean slope of the ground within
FIGURE 10.—HYPOTHETICAL DRAINAGE BASIN h
In which slope of hypsometric curve is identical this particular contour belt, for, tan a = w
—,
with ground-slope curve.
PRINCIPLES OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1127
X 1.0
UJ
ID
O
O
E
i-
iLl
O
o.
x
u_ ^
o
UJ
o
CO
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
GROUND SLOPE ( tan c
FIGURE 12.—CORRELATION OF MEAN GROUND SLOPES AND ADJUSTED SLOPES OF
HYPSOMETRIC CURVE SEGMENTS
Basin 1 same as that in Figures 8 and 9.
shown in Figure 8 are written directly on the where 9 — slope of hypsometric curve
hypsometric curve (Fig. 9) opposite the par- a = mean ground slope
ticular segments to which they relate. The / = contour length at given relative height
calculated mean slope figures compared with L = length of longest contour in basin
the slope of the hypsometric curve shows K = a constant
rough correspondence only in the upper part.
If, however, we correlate the mean ground To test the usefulness of this equation, the
slope figures with the contour map of the values of ground slope have been plotted against
basin, the slope angles vary as the spacing of corresponding values of hypsometric curve
the contours, being highest in the midsection, slope for each contour interval of the drainage
where slopes up to 53° are found. basin (Fig. 12, Basin 1). Also plotted on Figure
Relationship of hypsometric curve to mean 12 are corresponding data for a second drainage
1128 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
I2°08'
9lMean slope
between
Q)
0>
, successive
530 8
°o , one-foot
95 53° 08 contours.
C
o .4 4° 09
40° 03'
LJ
90
TOO
.795
50
0 .50 1.00
Hills, southern California. Here divides are metric curve shows no significant variations
narrow and no vestiges remain of an original from the mature form, and a low integral re-
surface. The hypsometric curve passes ap- sults only where monadnocks remain. For ex-
proximately across the center of the diagram, ample, a drainage basin in northern Alabama
with a hypsometric integral of 43%, and is where low relief has developed on weak shales
smoothly s-shaped. This particular curve is and limestones, but with prominent monad-
typical of third- or fourth-order basins in rela- nock masses of sandstone which are outliers
tively homogeneous rocks. of a retreating escarpment, has a strongly
In late mature and old stages of topography, concave hypsometric curve; the integral,
despite the attainment of low relief, the hypso- 17.6%, is unusually low (Fig. 16). After monad-
1130 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
925
620
0 Feet 3000
1105
100
_
H
.50
.176
.50 100
by plotting the arithmetic means of the or- follows the mean curve shown in Figure 17.
dinates of the six individual basin curves at In this way the reader can visualize the appear-
every ten per cent division on the abscissa ance of a drainage basin embodying the charac-
(Fig. 17). Figure 18 shows one drainage basin teristics of the mean hypsometric curve. Table
from each of the five areas; that basin was se- 1 gives additional data relating to composition
lected whose hypsometric curve most closely of the drainage systems.
1132 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
The five areas selected are all areas of den- Cambrian Wissahickon schists of the Piedmont
dritic drainage, largely free from significant Province in Virginia by the first area: moderate
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
ET
o>
.c
.4
0 Piedmont (Va.)
(|) Gulf Coastal Plain (La.)
0> (DOzark Plateau (III.)
QC
(DVerdugo Hills (Calif.)
.©Great Smoky Mts. (N.Car.)
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Q_
Relative area A
FIGURE 17.—MEAN HYPSOMETRIC CURVES OF FIVE AREAS IN THE EQUILIBRIUM STAGE
Curve 1: from Belmont Quadrangle, Virginia, U.S.A.M.S. 1:25,000. Curve 2: from Mittie Quadrangle,
Louisiana, U. S. Geological Survey, 1:24,000. Curve 3: Wolf Lake Quadrangle, Illinois, U. S. Geological
Survey, 1:24,000. Curve 4: La Crescenta, Glendale and Sunland Quadrangles, California, U. S. Geological
Survey, 1:24,000. Curve 5: Judson and Bryson Quadrangles, North Carolina, T.V.A., 1:24,000.
structural control. Long-continued fluvial ero- relief developed on cherts and cherty limestones
sion has removed all traces of flat interstream of the Ozark Plateau province is exemplified
uplands and it is assumed that the basins are by the third area. Extremely rugged terrain of
stable in form and that the total regimen of strong relief and steep slopes on deeply weath-
erosion and transportation processes is in a ered metasediments of the lower coastal
steady state. In relief, lithology and rock ranges of the Los Angeles region is seen in the
structure, vegetation, and climate, however, fourth area; great relief with moderately steep
the five areas differ widely. Extremely low slopes on deeply weathered Precambrian Wissa-
relief on weak Pliocene deposits of the Citro- hickon schists of the southern flank of the Great
nelle formation in western Louisiana is repre- Smoky Mountains in the fifth area.
sented by the second area; low relief on Pre- Investigation of the five areas involved:
GEOMORPfflC APPLICATIONS OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1133
I. Piedmont (Va.)
500 YDS
2. Gulf Coastal Plain (La.)
500 YDS
250 YDS
i 1
4. Verdugo
Hills (Calif.)
(1) analysis of the hypsometric curves, similar- The mean curves shown in Figure 17 have
ities and differences, and their degree of resem- appreciable differences both in hypsometric
blance to the model hypsometric function; integral and in form. The mean curves were
(2) a comparison of hypsometric data with fitted to the theoretical function by inspection,
other categories of data, such as drainage net- and the apparent best fits are described on the
work and slope characteristics. It was hoped curves and in Table 1 by values of r and z.
that significant differences in the hypsometric All five curves were best described by the fam-
curves could be correlated with significant ilies having r values 0.1 or 0.25 and we may
differences in other drainage basin characteris- infer that mature topography in relatively
tics, and that this might provide clues to causa- homogeneous materials tends to fall within
tive factors determining the hypsometric prop- this general range. Fit was very good for curves
erties of mature topography. 1 and 5, but was good only in the inflection
1134 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
1. Piedmont Belmont, Va. 141 3 4 6 0 4.15 5.67 0.234 0.345 1.130 1.47 327
USAMS 1-25,000
2.Gulf Coastal Plain Mittie, La. 96 27 8 (2) 355 3.37 0260 0.427 0.844 1.65 1.97
USGS 1=24,000
3.0zark Plateau Wolf Lake, III. 198 38 10 (4) 5.21 330 0.099 0.132 0368 1.33 2.79
USGS l'24,000
4.V«rdugo Hills Glendale.Sunland, 201 38 9 0 5.29 4.22 0.062 0.116 0.295 1.87 254
Cat USGS l>24,000
5. Great Smokies Bryson Judson, 389 87 24 6 4.47 3.62 0.115 0.185 0.269 1.61 1.60
N.C. USGSI-24jrjOO
zone and at one end in the other three. All inherent in small samples despite the fact that
natural hypsometric curves suffer from some no real differences exist from one area to the
degree of misfitness at the lower end owing to other as regards the hypsometric characteris-
the development of a valley-bottom flat which tics. We must assume first that the sampling
prevents the curve from approaching the value was randomized. In actual fact, basins were
of 1.0 on the abscissa as closely as on the selected which appeared most representative
model curves. of the general facies of the area as a whole.
All five mean curves show a similar slope in None was discarded or added after data analy-
the inflection zone. This ranges from 0.52 to sis was begun. At the time of selection the
0.65 (27J^° to 33°), and may prove to be a com- writer was not aware of possible differences in
mon characteristic of the mature or equilib- hypsometric or other form characteristics which
rium form, along with the tendency to resemble might later appear, nor did he have in mind
the family of curves having values of r of 0.1 any particular trend which he expected the
to 0.25. Note also that the location of the in- analysis to reveal. The selection, therefore
flection point of the curve is generally higher while not mechanically randomized, is thought
for the areas of low relief (Nos. 1-3) than in the to be free of conscious prejudice.
areas of great relief (Nos. 4 and 5). Within any Table 2 gives the sample mean, estimated
one of the families of model curves, the inflec- standard deviation of the population (s), and
tion point likewise moves down as the integral standard error of the mean (sj) for each sam-
diminishes, but in the five mean curves shown ple, consisting of the hypsometric integrals of
here the inflection points all tend to be located the six individual basin curves. The table also
higher than in the model curves to which they shows the percentage probabilities of any two
were fitted. samples being drawn from a population with
Because each of the mean curves represents the same mean. The significance test is based
a sample of only six basins, and the differences, upon the I distribution, which is used for small
while conspicuous on the graph, are not great, samples. In this instance all tests involved
it might well prove that the differences be- samples of 6 and the table of t is entered under
tween integrals are not statistically significant, the heading of 10 degrees of freedom. The
but might result from expectable variations probability stated is that representing the area
GEOMORPHIC APPLICATIONS OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1135
7.47 5159 6.90 175.0 0.0113 0-39' 9.9° .1745 £968 025 .333 .6009
9.58 44.40 4.64 61.0 0.0033 0*10' 3.4* .0594 5420 0.10 25 5317
226 31.10 13.78 326.0 0.0352 1*52' 28° 15' 537 .4928 0.10 29 .5890
0.77 2028 26.17 875.8 0.2246 12*40' 44.7* .9896 .4684 025 50 .6494
5.14 72.71 14.16 1880.2 0.1233 ro2' 41* 15' .867 .4084 0.10 .40 .5206
under both tails of the t distribution curve, Note that, in Table 2, no significant difference
and hence tells the probability of obtaining is found between means of any two samples
differences of sample means as great as, or whose mean integrals differ by only 5 or 6%
greater than, the observed differences, with or less, but is present when the means differ
the possibility of either mean being the larger. by 8% or more. While we cannot easily deter-
1136 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
mine the significance of the ranking, or the length ratios (Figs. 19, 20). Horton (1945, p.
probability of rearrangements being likely to 290) states that bifurcation ratios range from
occur in the ranking if similar samples of six about 2 for flat or rolling country up to 3 or 4
basins were repeatedly drawn, we can perhaps for mountainous regions. The writer's data,
safely infer that any two consecutive members based on large-scale maps checked in the field
of the series might readily reverse their order or by stereoscopic study of air photographs,
if another set of samples was taken, but that show not only considerably higher ratios, but a
it is most unlikely that one of the last two mem- complete lack of correlation of ratio with relief.
bers of the series could switch places with the Horton's data were taken from comparatively
first two. crude, small-scale maps and he must have
omitted a large proportion of the stream chan-
Relation of Hypsometric Forms to Drainage nels of first and second order which actually
Forms exist.
A positive correlation is evident between the
It is not immediately apparent just why any average length of the stream segments of any
two integrals of the mean hypsometric curves given order in each area and the corresponding
should differ significantly, or why they should mean hypsometric integrals. Figure 20, in which
fall into the general sequence which they take. mean stream lengths are plotted against order
In an effort to obtain clues to this problem, numbers, shows progressive decline in stream
measurement was made of the stream number length from left to right, in the same order as
and length characteristics, drainage density, that in which the integrals diminish. Although
slopes, relief, and stream gradients. These reversals occur in the trends of the first and
data are tabulated in Table 1. A number of ob- second order lengths, the values for areas 1 and
servations relating to correlation, or lack of 2 are always higher than those of areas 3, 4
correlation, among the various form factors of and 5.
the topography are as follows: Because length of stream segments tends to
In general, drainage basin height, slope become less as drainage density increases, it is
steepness, stream channel gradients and drain- only to be expected that the first two areas,
age density show a good but negative correla- whose texture is coarse, would have longer
tion with the integral of the hypsometric curve. stream segments than the last three areas,
We may say that mature basins of low relief, whose texture is much finer. Now, since the
gentle slopes, gentle stream gradients, and low mean integrals decrease as drainage density
drainage density tend to have relatively high increases, the effect is to give a positive correla-
integrals; that areas of strong relief, steep tion between mean stream segment lengths
slopes, steep stream gradients, and high drain- and mean hypsometric integrals.
age density tend to give relatively low integrals
in the average drainage basin of the third or Geologic Factors A/ecting Equilibrium Forms
fourth order. Table 1 bears this out well if
over-all trend of the series is considered, but Turning from a purely quantitative analysis
the values of areas 1 and 2 are in reverse order, of the various categories of morphometric data
as are the values of areas 4 and 5. As already to a qualitative approach, there are several
stated, however, differences of integral in these topographic and geologic factors apparent to
two pairs of samples are not significant (see the investigator to which he can attribute cer-
Table 2) and they might easily exchange posi- tain of the differences in hypsometric curve
tions on the list if another sample were taken. forms.
What is significant is that Nos. 1 and 2 show The extreme members of the series (curves 1
very much lower values of drainage density, and 5, Fig. 17) are developed on essentially
basin height, slope steepness, and stream gra- similar types of rock, mapped as the Wissa-
dient than do Nos. 4 and 5, while No. 3 occu- hickon schist. A / test of significance of dif-
pies an intermediate position in all cases. ference of sample mean integrals (Table 2)
No correlation seems to exist between hypso- shows a probability less than .001, leading us to
metric integrals and either bifurcation ratios or discard the hypothesis that both samples have
GEOMORPHIC APPLICATIONS OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1137
1000
LJ
S T R E A M ORDERS
FIGURE 19.—STREAM NUMBERS AND BIFURCATION RATIOS FOR FIVE SAMPLE AREAS
Fitted curve has slope of bifurcation ratio, n, whose mean value is given for each area. Number beside
each dot is order number.
0.04
STREAM O.RDERS
FIGURE 20.—STREAM LENGTHS AND LENGTH RATIOS FOR FIVE SAMPLE AREAS
Fitted curve has slope of length ratio, ri, averaged for each area. Number beside each dot is order number.
1138 A. N. STRAHLER—ANALYSIS OF TOPOGRAPHY
the same popalation mean. The hypothesis Among localities 2, 3, and 4, hypsometric
that similarity of rock gives similarity of in- differences are not strong. The curves of the
tegral is not sustained. Some other cause (or Ozark Plateau basins and those of the Verdugo
causes) has produced a significant difference in Hills basins are remarkably similar, with no
the mean hypsometric integrals. significant difference statistically (Table 2),
Cause of the hypsometric curve differences despite the fact that the Ozark Plateau is a
may lie in the geomorphic histories of the two region of flat-lying Paleozoic chert and cherty
areas. The Piedmont locality is thought to have limestone with an over-all uniformity of sum-
been reduced to a peneplain, then dissected mit levels, whereas the Verdugo Hills are part
into a rolling topography of low relief in the of a rugged, up-faulted mountain block con-
present cycle. If so, the high integral (almost sisting of metamorphosed sediments and in-
0.60) may be an expression of submaturity, trusive bodies. The Ozark curve departs from
with extensive divide areas as yet not entirely the theoretical function at the upper end, where
transformed into the equilibrium slopes of the an excessive concavity is developed. This may
mature stage. But neither field examination be an expression of the sapping of weaker for-
nor map-air photograph study shows a distinc- mations from beneath more resistant beds near
tive unconsumed upland element, such as one the summit, a condition which might be ex-
is accustomed to seeing, for example, on the pected in horizontal sedimentary strata.
Maryland coastal plain (Fig. 14) or in the older The hypsometric curve of the Louisiana Gulf
drift plains of the middle west where maturity Coastal Plain locality has a relatively high
is being approached. Instead, the divides are integral, 0.54, but is otherwise quite conven-
broadly rounded and nothing suggests a com- tional in appearance. Such small relief and
posite topography involving two distinct cycles. faint slopes prevail here that very little of value
The high integral of this hypsometric curve can be discerned from the topographic map or
may, however, mean that, following the at- air photographs. The area is located within
tainment of an equilibrium system, an accelera- the belt assigned to the Montgomery Terrace
tion of stream corrasion associated with increas- of Sangamon age by Fisk (1939, p. 193) at
ing relief set in, perhaps induced by regional elevations from 120 to 140 feet. The surface
upwarping and an over-all steepening of gra- is underlain by the sandy Citronelle formation.
dient of east-flowing master streams. Do we The high integral might perhaps be explained
have here a manifestation of the Penckian by a submature condition, in which insufficient
principle of waxing development (aufsteigende time has elapsed for attainment of full maturity.
Entwicklung) ? As in the Piedmont locality, however, nothing
The basins in the south flank of the Great in the topography suggests remnants of an
Smoky Mountains produce a mean hypso- initial surface not as yet completely consumed.
metric curve with an unusually low integral, The high integral may perhaps be a reflection
about 0.40 (Fig. 17). The inflection point is of slightly accelerated stream erosion rates as
located low on the curve, and the upper two- a result of recently accelerated southward
thirds of the curve takes a broadly concave tilting of the region associated with epeirogenic
form. The topographic maps show a noticeable uplifts (Fisk, 1939, p. 199) and might perhaps
steepening of slopes above the level of 2800- be a manifestation of waxing development
3000 feet occurring at about 40%-50% of
(aufsteigende Entwichlung). At the present
the basin height. The steepening of slopes with
elementary stage of our investigations of the
higher elevation is not sharply denned, as in-
structural benching found in a region of hori- quantitative characteristics of erosional to-
zontal strata, but may be caused by differences pography, we lack criteria for distinguishing
in rate of rock weathering at low and high alti- among hypsometric curve forms modified by
tudes. For example, if rate of alteration of the epeirogenic crustal movements, those modified
feldspars and ferromagnesian minerals were by rejuvenations induced by falling sea level,
appreciably faster in the warmer temperatures and those representing stages in attainment
of the valleys, an opening out of the valley of equilibrium under stable crustal and sea
bottoms might perhaps be expected. level conditions.
GEOMORPHIC APPLICATIONS OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1139
Influence of Horizontal Structure underlain by the Mancos shale, well out beyond
the limits of the escarpment. Here no ves-
It is obvious that drainage basins developed tiges remain of the overlying resistant formation
in horizontally layered rocks, whether sedi- and the basin is in a virtually homogeneous
mentary strata or lavas, will have strongly
modified hypsometric curves if there are
marked differences in rock resistance on a
scale which is large in proportion to the height [} Plateau with deep
of the basin. In the region of cherts and cherty canyons
limestones of the Ozark Plateau Province,
described above as one of the mature areas in
apparently homogeneous materials, structural
benching did not seem to produce any con-
spicuous influence in the hypsometric form.
Let us turn, then, to a contrasting example,
where structural control is predominant: the Butte rising
above shale
regions of cliffs, buttes, and mesas of the south- lowland
ern Mesa Verde, located in northwestern New
Mexico, within the Rattlesnake and Chimney
Rock quadrangles.
Figure 21 compares three hypsometric curves. .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
The first is of a drainage basin about 4 square Relative area -7-
A
miles in extent consisting of a deeply-incised FIGURE 21.—HYPSOMETRIC CURVES or THREE
canyon surrounded by a stripped structural BASINS IN MESA VERDE REGION, NORTH-
surface of low relief. The canyon is cut into WESTERN NEW MEXICO
the Mesa Verde sandstones and represents a From Chimney Rock Quadrangle, New Mexico,
U. S. Geological Survey, 1:62,500.
deep re-entrant into the ragged escarpment
rising above a broad lowland of weak Mancos
weak material. Here, as is normal in the equi-
shales. As we might expect, the hypsometric
librium stage, the integral is close to 50% and
curve has a high integral, 68%, and resembles
the curve has a smooth, s-shaped form which is
the curve of a youthful region in the inequi-
well described by the model hypsometric func-
librium stage of development, except for a
tion with the values r = O.OS, z = .275.
considerable degree of relief in the upper
To summarize the effect of massive, resistant
part of the basin, above the flattened part of
horizontal strata of an erosional escarpment
the curve which represents the break from
upon the hypsometric function: a high integral
canyon walls to stripped surface. In the nor-
characterizes the early phases of development
mal curve of the young basin (Fig. 14), relief
in the zone of canyon dissection close to the
on the interstream areas is much less, as we
cliffs; the integral drops to low values as the
would expect of an initial surface of deposition.
proportion of basin of low relief on weak rock
The second curve in Figure 21 shows an
increases and the remnants of resistant rock
abnormally low integral, 33%. This basin is
diminish; and finally, when the basin is entirely
almost entirely in Mancos shale, which ex-
in weak rock, the curve reverts to the normal
tends out from the base of the escarpment but
form of the equilibrium stage.
includes a small remnant of the Mesa Verde
A good example of the modified hypsometric
sandstone, Chimney Rock, rising strikingly
curve resulting from the presence of a massive,
from the shale plain. This basin represents a resistant formation above a weaker rock is
stage in retreat of a cliff line in which the re- found in the dissected plateau near Soissons,
sistant bed is all but completely removed. France, north and south of the Aisne River.
It is in virtually the same phase as the monad- There the Tertiary chalk forms an extensive
nock phase of the normal cycle (Fig. 16). interstream upland surface at 170-200 meters
The third curve, intermediate between the elevation. The Aisne and its immediate tribu-
first and second, represents a basin entirely taries have cut into weak sands and clays be-
114 0 A. N. STRAHLER—ANA
1.0 pronounced convexity in the upper third of the
^^_ curve. This curve has a double inflection and
^ does not fit the model hypsometric function.
.8 ^^5 —
h \ ^N
H PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HYPSOMETRIC
.6 ^\^ ANALYSIS
\\
The hypsometric analysis of drainage basins
4 YV \ has several applications, both hydrologic and
topographic. Langbein (1947) applied the per-
X& centage hypsometric curve to a number of
.2 X New England drainage basins (Fig. 23) of a
^ much larger order of size than those analyzed
• here, but the curves have basically similar
0 forms and can be described by the model
3 .2 a .6.4 .8 l.( hypsometric function. On Figure 23 the values
A
of r and z are given for the best fit. Fit ranges
FIG CTRE 22. —HYPSOMETRIC CURVES OF THREE from fair to excellent, and the results are satis-
BASINS NEAR SOISSONS, FRANCE
Showing influence of a resistant chalk formation factory considering that most of these basins
upon curve form. From Soissons Quadrangle, lie in a glaciated area combined with complex
France, 1:50,000. structure.
Referring to practical value of hypsometric
data in hydrology, Langbein states (1947,
p. 141):
"For example, snow surveys generally show an
increase in depth of cover and water equivalent
with increase in altitude; the area-altitude relation
provides a means for estimating the mean depth
of snow or its water equivalent over a drainage
basin. Barrows (1933) describes a significant varia-
tion in annual precipitation and runoff in the Con-
necticut River Basin with respect to altitude. The
obvious variation in temperature with change in
altitude is further indication of the utility of the
area-altitude distribution curve."
Another application might be found in the
calculation of sediment load derived from a
small drainage basin in relation to slope. Be-
.2 4 .6 .8 1.0
Relative area ^
cause the hypsometric function combines the
value of slope and surface area at any elevation
FIGURE 23.—HYPSOMETRIC CURVES or LARGE of the basin, it might help obtain more precise
DRAINAGE BASINS
From Langbein (1947). Values of r and z, added calculations of expected source of maximum
by writer, were fitted by inspection. sediment derived from surface runoff in a
typical basin of a given order of magnitude.
neath the chalk, giving the drainage basins Dr. Luna B. Leopold (personal communi-
steep inner slopes but very gentle slopes on the cation) has applied the hypsometric method to
extensive divides. Curves of three third-order analysis of the relationship of vegetative cover
basins ranging from 14-26 square kilometers to the areal distribution of surface exposed to
in area differ slightly in integral, but are re- erosion in the Rio Puerco watershed, New
markably alike in form (Fig. 22). Note that the Mexico. Because of distinctive vertical zoning
resistant chalk produces a high integral and a of grassland, woodland, and forest, the relative
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HYPSOMETRIC ANALYSIS 1141
surface areas underlain by each vegetative aspect of the terrain is given a numerical state-
type can be described by the hypsometric ment.
function, which can thus be used as a basis Planning of soil erosion control measures and
for calculation. Furthermore, because rainfall land utilization may profit from topographic
increases with elevation, the hypsometric analysis in which such terrain elements as
function can be used to calculate the total area hypsometric qualities, slope steepness, and
subject to a given amount of rainfall. drainage density are quantitatively stated.
A military application of the hypsometric
method is foreseen in the use of the hypsometric REFERENCES CITED
integral as a term descriptive of the character
Barrows, H. K. (1933) Precipitation and runoff and
of the terrain in quantitative terms. A high altitude relations for Connecticut River, Am.
integral, such as that in Figure 14 would indi- Geophys. Union, Tr., 14th Ann. Meeting, p.
cate extensive interstream areas of low relief, 396-406.
Fisk, H. N. (1939) Depositional terrace slopes in
suitable to the rapid movement of mechanized Louisiana, Jour. Geomorph., vol. 2, p. 181-
forces, but with the valleys forming small nar- 200.
row pockets suitable for defense and not read- Horton, R. E. (1941) Sheet erosion—present and
past, Am. Geophys. Union, Tr., Symposium
ily observed from outside. A medium integral on dynamics of land erosion, 1941, p. 299-305.
would indicate that the land surface was almost (1945) Erosional development of streams and
their drainage basins; hydrophysical approach
entirely in slope, which might be steep in a to quantitative morphology, Geol. Soc. Am.,
given region, and lacking in extensive belts of Bull., vol. 56, p. 275-370.
easy trafncability, either in the valley floors Langbein, W. B. et al. (1947) Topographic charac-
teristics of drainage basins, U. S. Geol. Survey,
or along the divides. A very low integral would W.-S. Paper 968-C, p. 125-157.
mean the development of extensive intercon- Rouse, Hunter (1937) Modern conceptions of the
mechanics of fluid turbulence, Am. Soc. Civ.
nected valley floors adapted to rapid move- Eng. Tr., vol. 109, p. 523-543.
ment, but with isolated hill summits which Strahler, A. N. (1950) Equilibrium theory of ero-
sional slopes approached by frequency distribu-
would offer defense positions with wide visibil- tion analysis, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 248, p. 673-
ity. Obviously these terrain characteristics 696, 800-814.
can be seen at a glance from any contour DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,
topographic map, and hypsometric analysis NEW YORK 27, N. Y.
would be of value only in quantitative calcula- MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED BY THE SECRETARY OF
THE SOCIETY, DECEMBER 12, 1951.
tions using empirical formulas in which each PROJECT GRANT 525-48.