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 EYEWITNESS GUIDES

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 LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH,
MELBOURNE, and DELHI

Project editor Kitty Blount

Art editor Clair Watson
Editor Fran Baines
A book rest supporting Production Kate Oliver
a copy of the Qur’an
Special photography Steve Teague
Picture research Angela Anderson, Alex Pepper,
Deborah Pownall, and Sarah Pownall
Traditional silk costume
DTP designer Siu Yin Ho from China
Jacket designer Dean Price

This Eyewitness ® Guide has been conceived by

Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard

First American Edition, 2002

00 01 02 03 04 05 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Published in the United States by

Sixteenth-century painting
of Muslim astronomers
DK Publishing, Inc. Two of the Rightly Guided Caliphs,
375 Hudson Street Companions of the Prophet
New York, New York 10014
Copyright © 2002 Dorling Kindersley Limited

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright

Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by
Dorling Kindersley Limited.

A catalog record of this book is available from

the Library of Congress.
ISBN 0-7894-8870-1 (plc)
ISBN 0-7894-8871-X (alb)

Color reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore Tenth-century Arabic copy of a

Bronze bird from Persia herbal encyclopedia by Greek
Printed in Singapore by Toppan, China
surgeon Dioscorides

Saudi Arabian
woman wearing a
face veil

A caravan of pilgrims, including a camel

carrying a pavillion called a mahmal.

See our complete

product line at
www.dk.com
Coffeepot

4
 Contents
6
Early Arabia
8
The Prophet Muhammad
10
The Qur’an
12
The Five Pillars of Islam
18
The mosque Mamluk mosque lamp

20
The caliphate
22 46
First conquests Spain
24 48
Scholars and teachers Africa
28 50
The spread of learning Mongols and Turks
32 52
Nomadic or settled Central Asia, Iran, and India
34 54
Islamic culture China and Southeast Asia
36 56
The Islamic city Costume and jewelry
38 58
Merchants and travelers Islamic society
42 60
The crusades Festivals and ceremonies
44 64
Arms and armor Index and acknowledgments

5

DATE HARVEST
Settlements grew up at the
small oases that are dotted
around the Arabian
Peninsula. Here there was a
reliable water supply and
date palms grew, providing
a succulent harvest for the
local people.
PETRIFIED FOREST
The Arabian Peninsula is, for the
most part, an inhospitable terrain of
desert and harsh landscapes, such as
these jagged rocks. The most fertile
area is Yemen, which gets monsoon
rains from the Indian Ocean.
Early Arabia
THE ARABIAN PENINSULA is home to
the Arab people. There had already been
advanced cultures in this area before the
birth of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam,
in the sixth century. Arabia’s position at a
crossroads between Asia, Africa, and Europe SOUTH ARABIC INSCRIPTION
The Sabaeans, who ruled southern Arabia
allowed many Arabs to make fortunes between the eighth and second centuries BCE,
trading. Although most of the Arab tribes used a script called South Arabic. Archaeologists
have found many inscriptions in this angular
worshiped their own idols, Christians, Jews, script, which passed out of use after the
and followers of Abraham worshiped One Sabaeans lost power.
God. When Muhammad told them that the
religion of the One God had been revealed
to him and that at last they
had a message, the
Qur’an, in their own
language and a
religion called Islam,
some were
enthusiastic.
DESERT DUNES
Much of Arabia is desert –
either vast expanses of sand
with rolling dunes or the
desert of black volcanic rocks
around the city of Mecca.
The name Arab means
“nomad” because, in such an
environment, many Arab
people adopted a nomadic
way of life in order to survive.
WOMAN FROM PALMYRA
The city of Palmyra in the Syrian
desert was built where several trade
routes met. Its people became rich
because they charged merchants a
tax when they passed through. This
Palmyra woman is displaying her
wealth in the form of gold jewelry.
6
 THE ARAB WORLD
30° 50° 60° 70°
40° The Arabian Peninsula lies
20°
Dan Aral
between the Red Sea and the
ube
Sea Persian Gulf. The Arab
EU RO PE A S I A peoples built towns in the
Black Sea

Ca
Ca fertile area of Yemen, at oases,
G uc and on the coasts. To the

sp
(A Ox
G
40° Constantinople as
G
mu us
us Da Bukhara 40° northeast, the Sasanid Empire

ia
GAthens GPergamum
K ry a
GREECE u ra ) Samarkand of the Persians occupied Iran.

n S
A N A T O L I A To the northwest lay the
GMerv G

ea
Ara
Christian Byzantine Empire.

s
BYZANTINE EMPIRE Balkh
G
Lake

G
Lake

G sh
Edessa Van

GG Ku
Urmia
Tarsus Altar for burning frankincense

M
Antioch
du

ES
M Cyprus Nishapur
ed
OP
Aleppo n
ite Eu

i
OT

H
G GDamascus
rra
SASANID EMPIRE

Tigr
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AM
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ra
Sea Beirut
te

is
IA
s

Za
Iranian
GJerusalem

and
G

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30°

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os
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Alexandria M
ou
Plateau
-y e
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E G Y P T a
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Nil

BYZANTINE GTabukTayma’ N a f u d G Siraf

E M P I R E GThebes G Pe
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i an GHormuz
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De s e rt lf
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T r o pi cer
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c o f Ca
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JA

OMAN
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le
Ni

20° Jedda G G Mecca

G Tá ’if
Arabian
l í
20°

Peninsula
K há
A

‘ a
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Rub
e d

PRECIOUS PERFUME
Ar- Sea Frankincense was one of Arabia’s
F

Nile most prized products, and it was

S e

G Meroë
At b

G Ma‘rib widely traded. Trade routes criss-

ara

YEM

G
crossed the peninsula and many of
a
R

0 miles 500
the area’s early cities, such as
G
Adulis
GSennar G Zafar 0 km 500 Ma’rib and the Nabatean town of
EN

Aksum
GAden
I

Petra (in modern Jordan), grew up

Bl u e N

en along the roads. Trade has been

Ad Socotra vital to the area ever since.
ile

Gulf of
C

10° 10°
W h i t e N il e A BY S SI N I A H orn of
INDIAN OCEAN
A

Af ri ca
30° 40° 50° 60°

The Arab world at the time of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad in 570

WALLS AT MA’RIB
Ma’rib, in Yemen, was
the capital city of the
Sabaeans, and some
of its ancient walls
survive. Ma’rib was
built on a trade route
and grew into a large,
thriving city, with a
palace (home of the
Queen of Sheba) and
many houses. There
was also a famous
dam, an amazing feat
of engineering for the
seventh century BCE.

Continued on next page

7
 The Prophet Muhammad
M UHAMMAD WAS BORN IN 570 in the city of Mecca
(in what is now Saudi Arabia). He was a member of
the Quraysh tribe. Orphaned as a boy, he was brought
up by his grandfather and uncle. His mission as
Prophet of Islam began in 610, when the Qur’an was
first revealed to him. Three years later, Muhammad
began to preach. He attracted some followers, but his
teachings about the one God were not widely
welcomed in Mecca, where most of the people
worshiped idols, many different pagan gods.
Eventually he moved to the city of Medina, which
became the center of a great Islamic civilization.
ARCHANGEL GABRIEL
The Qur’an (pp. 10–11) was revealed to Muhammad by
the archangel Gabriel, the angel of revelation. On an
occasion known as the Night of Destiny, the revelation
began. Then the Qur’an was communicated in small
parts over a number of years.

WRITTEN OR SPOKEN
This calligraphy
represents the name
of the Prophet,
Muhammad. According
to tradition, he actually
has 200 names,
including Habib Allah
(Beloved of God) and
Miftah al-Jannah (Key THE LIFE OF A TRADER
of Paradise). When As a young man, Muhammad became a merchant, working for a
referring to Muhammad, wealthy widow called Khadija. Arabia was crisscrossed with trading
Muslims usually add the routes linking the peninsula with the Mediterranean and the Indian
phrase ‘alayhi-s-salam Ocean. Muhammad traveled with camel caravans along these routes
(peace be upon him). and made several trading journeys as far as Syria. Khadija was
The word “Muhammad” written in calligraphy impressed with Muhammad, and, although she was considerably
older than he was, the two married.

JABAL AN-NUR
Jabal an-Nur (the Mountain of Light) a few miles
THE PROPHET
from Mecca, is the place where Muhammad
went to meditate. Every year, during the Muhammad, whose
month of Ramadan (p. 15), Muhammad name is shown here
retired to the mountain to pray, fast, in stylized form, is
and give to the poor. It was on one the Prophet of Islam.
of these retreats that the Muslims see him as
Prophet received the first the last of a series of
revelation of the Qur’an. prophets, including
Abraham, Moses, and
Jesus, all of whom
were mortal.

ON THE MOUNTAIN
When visiting Jabal an-Nur,
Muhammad stayed in a cave called
Hirah, at the top of the rocky peak.
The cave, with an opening that faced
toward Mecca, was very small, but
there was enough space for
Muhammad to pray. One of the
Prophet’s daughters used to climb
the mountain to bring him food so
that he could stay in the cave for the
whole month of Ramadan.

8
 Star pattern
based on “Allah”
in Arabic script

ALLAH
Allah is the name of the
one God in whom Muslims
believe and upon whom all
life and all existence
Muhammad’s
depends. He is unique and
face is veiled
infinitely greater than any
because Islam
thing He has created. The
does not allow
Qur’an says that He is
him to be
“unbegotten.” In other
depicted.
words, He is eternal, having
no origin and no end. He is
and always will be. The
archangel
Gabriel

The
Prophet’s
mosque

MEDINA
Muhammad was persecuted in his native Mecca and some of
his followers took refuge in Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia)
under the Christian ruler there. In 622, people from the city
of Yathrib, later called Medina, to the north of Mecca, invited
Muhammad to go and live there. The Prophet and his THE NIGHT JOURNEY
followers took up the invitation. Their migration, known as One night the archangel Gabriel woke The Buraq
the hijrah, forms the start of the Islamic era. Eventually Muhammad and led him to a steed called
Muhammad defeated the pagans and cleared the idols from the Buraq, which the Prophet mounted
the Ka‘ba, so Islam could flourish in Mecca, too. (p. 61). The Buraq carried Muhammad to
the “Furthest Mosque” in Jerusalem, from
where he ascended to heaven.

Pattern based
on names of the
Companions

MUHAMMAD’S TOMB
The Prophet died in
the lap of his favorite COMPANIONS
wife, ‘A’isha, in her The Prophet’s
apartment near the Companions
mosque at Medina. were his closest
His tomb was built where followers. They listened
he died. Later, his close carefully to his teachings,
Companions Abu Bakr and memorized the Qur’an, and
‘Umar, the first two caliphs, were passed it on to others before it
buried on either side. was written down.

9
The Qur’an
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 The Five Pillars of Islam
SHAHADA
The Muslim profession of
faith is called the Shahada. The
THERE ARE FIVE FUNDAMENTAL requirements of
English translation of it is: Islam, called the Five Pillars of Islam. The first
“There is no god but God;
Muhammad is the
and most important is the profession of faith.
messenger of God.” Islam, which means “submission” and comes
“In the name of Allah, Muslims use the Arabic
the Merciful, the word for God, which is
from the word “peace,” is considered by
Compassionate.” “Allah.” When Muslims Muslims to be a restating of the same truth –
use the term Allah, they
are referring to the same
belief in the one God – that was revealed to the
God that is worshipped by Christians and the Jews. This faith was revealed
Christians and Jews. The
words of the Shahada are through all God’s prophets, including Moses and
heard often in the Muslim Jesus, or Musa and ‘Isa as they are known in
world because they are
repeated during the call to Arabic. Muslims believe that God’s final and
CRESCENT MOON AND STAR
A crescent moon with a star above
prayer. The Shahada is
normally whispered in a
most universal message was revealed to the last
it was used as a symbol by the
Turks in the 15th century. Since
Muslim baby’s ear at birth of the prophets – the Prophet Muhammad. Faith
and at the time of death. in this one God is the basic belief of the Islamic
then it has become the symbol of
Islam. The words of the Shahada in
Arabic calligraphy have been used
religion. The remaining four Pillars of Islam
here to form the shape of the moon. require all Muslims to be committed to prayer,
The words, “In the name of Allah,
the Merciful, the Compassionate,” almsgiving, fasting, and the pilgrimage to Mecca.
make the star.

Prayer
Muslims must pray at five set times during
the day. These regular prayers, known as salah,
make up the second Pillar of Islam. Muslims
may pray on their own or in a group, but
every Friday at midday, Muslim men are
required to gather together for salat al-juma‘a,
or Friday prayers. Friday prayers are led by
an imam (literally “one who stands in front”),
who will also give a sermon, or khutba.

All members of the community

are considered equal in the eyes of
Allah so they all perform the same
rituals of ablution and prayer.
RISE UP FOR PRAYER
Five times each day the adhan, or
call to prayer, is heard in Muslim
communities. The times for prayer
are between first light and sunrise
(fajr), just after noon (zuhr), in late
afternoon (‘asr), after sunset
(maghrib), and evening (‘isha). The
traditional practice is for someone to
make the call from the minaret. The
first muezzin was Bilal, a freed black
slave, chosen for his fine voice.

PREPARING FOR PRAYER

Before prayer, a Muslim must
prepare by ridding the mind of
distracting thoughts and by
cleansing the body. Ritual washing is
normally done using running water –
either at the fountain at the mosque
or using a tap and basin in the
home. In places where there is
no water, such as the desert,
Muslims may use sand or a
stone for ritual cleansing.

12
IN THE DIRECTION OF MECCA Qibla
Because Muslims face the Ka’ba in Mecca during indicator
prayers, they need to know the direction,
qibla, of the city. In the Middle Ages,
people made instruments to determine
the direction. In mosques, a niche,
mihrab, in the wall indicates the PRAYER MAT
direction of Mecca. The majority of Muslims
pray on a mat, and some
PRAYER BEADS people take this with them
Allah is referred to in many wherever they go, so that they
different ways, known as al-asma are always able to use it. Prayer
al-husna, meaning the 99 beautiful rugs are often beautifully made,
names. Many Muslim names, such but any mat, from a silk rug to a
as ‘Abd al-Rahman, servant of piece of reed matting, may be
the Merciful One, are based on used. It is also permissible to
one of these names. The string of pray on the uncovered ground,
99 beads, like a rosary, that a provided that it is clean.
Muslim uses in private prayer, is a
reminder of the 99 Divine names.
Prayer beads may be used
to repeat the 99 beautiful
names, or to repeat other
phrases used in prayer.

Iranian
prayer mat

1THE RAK‘A BEGINS

The words Allahu Akbar – Allah
is greater (than all else) – open
the rak‘a. Then Allah is praised,
and the first sura, or chapter, of
the Qur’an, called al-Fatiha – the
Opening – is spoken, together
with a second sura.

5 PEACE
The final
stage is called

4 SITTING
This seated
salam, or peace.
The person looks
position, called julus, to left and right,
gives the opportunity and then says,

3 PROSTRATION
This position,
known as sujud, shows
for a short silent prayer. “Peace be with
Then the prostration is you and the
repeated. The sequence mercy of Allah.”
the Muslim’s humility. concludes with a short These words are
The worshipper says prayer for the addressed to all
silently, “Glory to my community of Muslims present, seen and
Lord the Most High. and for the worshipper’s unseen.
Allah is greater.” sins to be forgiven.

2 BOWING DOWN
When another passage
from the Qur’an has been
Stages of prayer
recited, the worshipper Prayer is performed following a precise order of
bows down, to show words and motions. Each unit of this order is called
respect for Allah. This a rak‘a and is composed of several stages. During
motion, called ruku‘, is prayers the rak‘a is repeated two, three, or four times
followed by qiyam,
standing and
– the exact number depends on which of the five
praising Allah. daily prayers is being performed.

Continued on next page

13
Continued from previous page

Almsgiving WATER SUPPLY

The giving of alms (gifts) to the poor and needy is
very important in Islam. Of all the ways in which one
can give to the poor, the most formal is by paying a
tax called zakat, which is one of the Five Pillars of
Islam. The amount of zakat that a person has to pay is
worked out as a percentage of their wealth. The tax is
distributed among the poor and may also be used to
help other needy members of society.
In addition to paying zakat, a person
may make other personal donations
to help the community. These can
provide useful facilities such as this
public drinking fountain in Istanbul,
Turkey. Many Muslim countries are
in dry areas where water can be
hard to come by, so giving money
for a fountain is especially useful.

PUBLIC BATHS
Hygiene is very important in Islam, and
baths are a common sight in towns in
Muslim countries. They are often paid for by
donations. A typical public bath has a
changing room, often roofed with a shallow
dome, connected to a series of rooms at
different temperatures. The hottest of all is
the steam room, where the bather works up
a sweat before being cleaned and massaged.

HOSPITALS
The places where the sick are
treated are another group of
facilities that have been
paid for by almsgiving.
This beautiful latticed
window is part of a
hospital originally
financed with
almsgiving contributions.
Medicine was one area
where the Muslim world
made many advances before
the West (p. 30).

MONEY OR GOODS
Zakat is commonly paid in money but
may also be given in the form of
goods. In both cases, rates of payment
are laid down, starting at 2.5 percent
of a person’s wealth. A person’s home
and other essential items are not
counted when determining what they
will pay. The word zakat means
“purification”, because it is believed
that giving up part of your wealth
purifies what remains.

FOOD FOR THE POOR

In some parts of Muslim India, FOR LASTING GOOD
large cooking pots, or deghs, are This document details a gift made
used to prepare food outdoors. to the state for good works. This
At the shrine of Ajmer, two type of gift is known as a waqf, and
deghs are used to make food for once given, it cannot be reclaimed.
the needy, and people visiting Gifts like this go toward the
the shrine make charitable gifts upkeep of mosques and buildings
of food for the pots. such as hospitals.

14
 A PROPER MEAL
During Ramadan,
Muslims break their fast
after sunset with a light snack,
which may consist simply of a
few dates with water. Sunset
prayers are followed by the main
meal. This is a bigger meal, but should
not be too large because Muslims are
not encouraged to eat heavily after the
day’s fast. In addition, the snack should
have already taken the edge off a person’s
hunger, so a simple dish, such as vegetable
soup with bread, may be eaten.

JOYFUL PROCESSION
When the great solemnity of the month of
Ramadan comes to an end, there may be a
procession. This illustration, from a 13th-century
book from Baghdad, shows a procession
accompanied with trumpets and banners.

Fasting
Muhammad received the first revelation of
the Qur’an during the month of Ramadan,
and this month has a special significance in
Islam. Every day during Ramadan, Muslims
fast from dawn to sunset, avoiding food,
drink, and sexual relations. Although this
fast, or sawm, is one of the Pillars of Islam,
not everyone has to go without food. For
example, those who are too sick to fast,
women who are pregnant, and very young
children may be excused.

SIGNALING RAMADAN
In many Muslim countries, it is the
custom to fire cannons before the
first day of Ramadan, to signal the ENDING RAMADAN
beginning of the month. Cannons The end of Ramadan is
are also used to signal the marked by the festival of
beginning and end of each day ‘Id al-Fitr – the feast of the
of Ramadan. breaking of the fast –
(p. 60). At the beginning
of this festival, the whole
community gathers at an
outdoor prayer area (or at a
mosque) to perform the ‘Id
prayer. Celebrations last for
three days, during which
time alms are given to the
poor and friends may
exchange gifts.

Continued on next page

15
 Continued from previous page
Pilgrimage CLOTHS OF THE KA’BA
The Ka’ba (below) is a stone
building, roughly 43 ft (13 m)
The final Pillar of Islam is across, that stands at the
pilgrimage, or hajj. All Muslims center of the Sacred Mosque
aim to perform this “greater at Mecca. It is a sanctuary
pilgrimage” once in their lives. dedicated to God that dates
back to the time of Adam.
Hajj involves a series of rites The Ka’ba is covered with a
that take place annually over black cloth embroidered with
several days at the Sacred verses of the Qur’an. Every
Mosque at Mecca and the year, the cloth is renewed,
and pieces of the old cloth
nearby areas of Mina, (left) are given away. These
Muzdalifa, and Arafat. A fragments are treated with
shorter pilgrimage to Mecca, reverence, as is this cloth that
known as ‘umrah, forms part once hung inside the Ka’ba.
Piece of cloth from the Ka’ba
of the hajj, but may be
performed by itself at any
time of the year.

AT THE KA’BA
Upon arrival in Mecca, the
pilgrims perform ‘umrah, when
they circle seven times around
the Ka’ba and then pray near
the Station of Abraham. In
16

memory of Hagar, the mother

GUIDEBOOK
of Abraham’s eldest son,
An ancient guidebook to Mecca illustrates
Ishmael, the pilgrims then run
features of the Sacred Mosque. It shows the
back and forth between two Quotation from the Qur’an stepped minbar, from which the sermon is
small hills known as Safa and saying that the pilgrimage to preached (p. 19), together with a hanging lamp.
Marwa after drinking water Mecca is a duty for all who
from the well of Zamzam. can make their way there

HAJJ
After performing ‘umrah, the pilgrims leave
Mecca and travel to the valley of Mina. On the
second day, they go to Arafat and pray for
forgiveness. This is said to give pilgrims a
foretaste of the Day of Judgment, when they
will rise from the dead, have their souls judged
by Allah, and enter paradise if they are worthy.
On their way back, they stop at Muzdalifa, Tile with the Plan
where they spend part of the night resting, of the Sacred
praying, and gathering small pebbles before Mosque at Mecca,
returning to Mina. On the third day, they throw known in Arabic
seven of the pebbles at the largest of the three as the Masjid
stone pillars, which represents the temptations al-Haram
of Satan. For the following two days, the
pilgrims stay at Mina and throw further
pebbles at the pillars. They must also make an
animal sacrifice. They then wash, and clip their
hair or shave their heads, to symbolize a new
beginning, before returning to Mecca to make
the final seven circuits around the Ka’ba.
 IHRAM
Pilgrims must be
in a special state of
consecration, or holiness, Rows of arches
known as ihram, achieved surrounding the
by washing and declaring Ka‘ba were hung
their intention. Male with oil lights.
pilgrims wear a simple Today the Mosque
costume that symbolizes is lit electrically.
ihram. It consists of two
large pieces of seamless,
unstitched, white
cloth. The Ka’ba

The multazam –
an area of wall
thought to be
particularly holy

The Station of
Abraham, from
which Abraham
directed the
rebuilding of
the Ka‘ba

The
17

minbar

The Black
Stone

THE ROAD TO MECCA

This 13th-century picture shows the colorful
tents of a group of rich pilgrims. They are on
their way to Mecca and have not yet put on
the costume of ihram. Pilgrims still use tents
today. At the time of hajj, the area around
Mina is filled with thousands of pure white
tents. Pilgrims will usually also visit the
Prophet’s Mosque in Medina during their stay.

PILGRIM’S HOUSE PLACE OF ABRAHAM

In some places it is traditional
for pilgrims to commemorate
their journey by decorating the
walls of their houses when they
return home. The paintings on
this Egyptian house show the
airplane on which the pilgrim
flew to Saudi Arabia, the Ka‘ba,
and the Grand Mosque at
Mecca, and the pilgrim himself,
wearing the costume of ihram.
The Ka’ba is said to have been
founded by Adam, the father of
humankind, who is considered
by Muslims to be the first
prophet. It was rebuilt by Abraham
and his son, Ishmael. Set into one
corner of the Ka‘ba is the Black Stone, a
meteorite, said to have been used by Adam
when the Ka‘ba was first built. The Black
Stone was lost, and then found again by
Abraham and put in its present position.

CENTERS OF LEARNING
Many big mosques have libraries,
which contain books on religious
subjects, including Islamic law.
In addition, it is common for
mosques to have schools where
children learn to memorize and
recite the Qur’an.
The mosque
M
OSQUES ARE BUILDINGS that are specifically used
for prayer and are open for prayer all the way
through the week. In addition, mosques fulfill several
other functions in the Muslim community. They
provide places where religious discussions can take
place, and where education and charitable work can
be organized. Most mosques serve their local area
and form the spiritual center of the community. They are built
and run by local people, though they may be funded by
donations from the wealthy. In addition, a town has one main
mosque, where Friday prayers are held.

INSIDE A MOSQUE Model of a

Mosques vary enormously in design, from mosque Mosque
simple plain rooms to vast ornate buildings dome
– there is no one standard design. All that
is really needed is a space in which the Prayer hall The mihrab is a
community can pray and some way of niche indicating the
indicating the direction of Mecca. But there direction of Mecca.
are standards of behavior and dress that
must be observed inside every mosque.
People take off their shoes and cover their
heads before going in, and often an area of
the mosque is reserved for women.

The courtyard
is a place to
meditate or read.

Prayer hall
floor is
covered
with
carpets.

Crescent finial
Entrance
to mosque
The call to prayer
is given from the
minaret.

A fountain or
area for washing
is found inside.

STYLES OF MINARET
A minaret is the highest point of a
BRITISH MOSQUE mosque, from which the muezzin
Mosques are often traditionally gives the call to prayer
built in the local style (p. 12). Minarets have been built in many Minaret Minaret Minaret Minaret of
of architecture, like different styles. They can be lavishly of Sinan’s of Salihiye of Giralda, Samarra
this example in a decorated or plain; square, many-sided, Mosque, Mosque, Mosque, Great
British city. or round; slender or stocky. Damascus Syria Spain Mosque, Iraq

18
 MINBAR OIL LAMP
At Friday prayers the The traditional way of
congregation listens to lighting a mosque was to
the khutba, a sermon use oil lamps. These large,
given by the imam from hanging lamps could be
a raised pulpit called the brightly decorated, like
minbar. Some minbars, this example of bronze
which can be beautifully covered with gold and
adorned with inlay and silver, so that they
carving, have survived reflected the light
from 1,000 years ago. and shone more
brightly. People who
wanted to give alms
often made gifts of
money for oil for
the lamps in their
mosque.

15th-century
mosque lamp

Mosque finial of
Selimiye Mosque
in Turkey

Elaborate tile
decoration

BLUE MOSQUE IN ISTANBUL SYDNEY MOSQUE

In 1453, the Ottomans took over Constantinople
(modern Istanbul). The Christian churches there were
lavishly decorated and roofed with domes. Ottoman
architects built their mosques in a similar style. One
of the greatest is the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, known
as the Blue Mosque because of its blue-tiled interior.
The first Muslims to reach Australia
were Afghan and Punjabi camel drivers,
arriving between 1867 and 1918 to
provide essential outback transportation
services. Many more Muslims arrived
during the late 20th century.

AFRICAN MOSQUE
The earliest mosques had more simple designs, like
this 16th-century mosque in Africa. Domes and intricate
decoration developed later. The nature of the building,
however, is not significant in a mosque. Its function as a
meeting place to pray is the most important thing.

MOSQUE DECORATION
As Muslims prospered, they devoted
more of their wealth to their faith, and
some mosques were adorned with
sumptuous decoration, like these tiles
atop a minaret in Turkey. Carpets for the
prayer hall were another favorite gift.

Continued on next page

19
 0 yds 500

The caliphate

N
0m 500
Outer wall

Basra Syrian
Gate Gate

go
ve
r nm e n t off i ce
s IN 632, THE PROHET MUHAMMAD died leaving no obvious
guard
house
successor, so prominent Muslims came together to choose
s

a leader. They elected Abu Bakr and gave him the title

es a nd shop s
es an d shop

inner
palace wall khalifa (caliph), which means “successor” or “viceroy.”
mosque
Some people thought that the right candidate was ‘Ali,
guard
house the Prophet’s cousin, who had married Fatima, the
us

us
Prophet’s daughter. Those who favored ‘Ali as caliph
ho

ho
go
ver
n m e n t o ff i c
es became known as Shi’i Muslims, “supporters” of ‘Ali. In
Kufa Khurasan
656, ‘Ali became caliph, but Muslims were still divided
Gate Gate
about how the caliph should be chosen. Sunni Muslims
supported the system of an elected caliphate. Shi’i
THE ROUND CITY OF BAGHDAD
The first dynasty of Islam was the Umayyad, who Muslims believed that the caliphs
ruled from Damascus, Syria. In 749, they were
replaced by the Abbasid caliphs who ruled for
should be descended from ‘Ali
over 500 years from their capital in Baghdad, Iraq. and Fatima.
The city was founded in 763 and was planned as a
great circle. This shape, with gates aligned with the
compass points, was like a map of the universe.
“Allah is the Light of the
THE ROLE OF THE CALIPH
The caliph was the symbolic head of the
Heavens and the Earth;
Muslim community throughout the world.
He was expected to rule in accordance with the likeness of His Light
Islamic principles and to lead the army. He
also gave authority to Muslim leaders who is as a niche wherein
were often very powerful in their own right.
The Mamluk sultanate, for example, ruled in Egypt is a lamp.”
until the 16th century. This is a Mamluk mosque
lamp. Such lamps were often decorated with script SURA AL-NUR, LIGHT CHAPTER, THE QUR’AN
from the Sura al-Nur of the Qur’an (right).

THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS

Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman,
and ‘Ali were the first four
caliphs and are greatly
revered. As close
Companions of the Prophet,
they followed his example.
Because of this they are
known as the Rightly
Guided Caliphs.
Dhu’l-Faqar, the
twin-bladed
sword of ‘Ali
EARLY CALIPH
Representation of living
creatures is discouraged in
Islam because it is believed
that Allah alone should
have the divine right of
creation. However,
this early portrait
shows a caliph, in a
style imitated from
pre-Islamic
Persian coins.

20
 CALIPH’S GIFT
Rulers like eighth-
century caliph Harun
al-Rashid were very
powerful. Harun
exchanged gifts with
Charlemagne, the
Frankish emperor who
ruled a vast area of
Western Europe. He
sent Charlemagne
this jeweled pitcher,
with an elephant.

TIRAZ
Repeating calligraphic
inscription Some caliphs gave courtiers,
Calligraphy reads,
ambassadors, and foreign rulers
“Allah, Muhammad,
lengths of specially made cloth – tiraz
Fatima, and ‘Ali, Hasan
– or robes, woven with calligraphy. In
and Husayn.”
particular, this was a custom of the
Shi’i Fatimid caliphs (who claimed to
be descendents of ‘Ali and Fatima) of
Cairo. The cloths were inscribed with
the caliphs’ names, Islamic prayers,
or poems, and were highly prized.

SHI’I STANDARD
In 680 at Kerbala, the army of the Umayyad
caliph killed Hussayn, son of ‘Ali and Fatima. Inscription
The battle standard (above) was used to mark the proclaiming the
point at which the Shi’i army collected before the unity of Allah
battle began and was then a focal point for the
army. What happened at Kerbala divided Shi’i
and Sunni Muslims still more deeply. Today,
around one-tenth of all Muslims are Shi’i.

LADEN WITH GIFTS

One of the duties of the caliph was to protect
the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, together
with pilgrims journeying there. Pilgrims often
traveled with camels heavily loaded with gifts.

UMAYYAD COIN
Abd al-Malik, one of the
Umayyad caliphs, minted
this coin when they ruled
from Damascus, Syria. After
their defeat by the Abbasids,
an offshoot of the Umayyad
caliphate ruled Muslim lands
in the West from Spain.
ATATURK
The last caliphs were
the Ottoman rulers of
Turkey. In 1923,
Turkey’s first
president, Kemal
Atatürk, came to
power. He decided to
modernize his country
and in 1924 he
abolished the
caliphate.

21
 First conquests GPoitiers
FRANCE
Da
n ube Aral Sea

Cas
G
Black Sea
Constantinople

pian
SPAIN
THE FIRST THREE CALIPHS GCordoba BYZANTINE EMPIRE
G M ed

Sea
SYRIA

Tig
Carthage
anean Sea DamascusG
it e rr Eu
Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ph

ris
rat
Alexandria G

us
PE RSI A es

Ind
‘Uthman, expanded their EGYPT SIND

territory quickly, creating an A R A BIA INDIA

GMecca

Re
S a h a r a
empire that eventually

d
le
Ni
Arabian
Arab Empire

Se
Sea

CROWN OF RECCESUINTH
This crown was worn by an
early Muslim ruler of Spain,
at the request of his wife,
who was a princess of the
Germanic people, the Visigoths.
a
stretched from the Arabian by 632
by 661 0 miles 1000
Peninsula to Spain. Much by 750 0 km 1000
IN DIAN
O CEAN
land was gained by military
conquest, but Islam also spread peacefully into EXPANDING EMPIRE
By the end of ‘Uthman’s reign in
areas where local rulers made alliances with the 656, the empire included Arabia,
Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Iraq,
caliphs. People of other religions living in these large parts of Persia (modern-day
areas – Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians – Iran), and Sind (modern-day
Pakistan). The Umayyad dynasty
became known as dhimmis (protected people) (661–750) expanded into the rest
because they were protected in return for the of North Africa and Spain and
pushed eastward.
payment of a tax. Later, other peoples, including
Hindus in western India,
also became dhimmis.

ROCK OF GIBRALTAR
Muslim forces landed in Spain in 711, arriving first
on the Rock of Gibraltar under their commander, a
Berber former slave, Tariq, from whom Gibraltar
takes its name (Jebel Tariq). By 715, they had taken
over most of Spain, settling mainly in the south,
MAP OF JERUSALEM and soon their armies were entering France.
This mosaic map shows Jerusalem in the sixth century. It
must have looked like this in 638 when, during the reign
of caliph ‘Umar, the Muslims conquered the city. For many
centuries, the city’s Islamic rulers governed Jerusalem in a
way that was tolerant of the Jews and Christians who lived
there and regarded it as a holy place.

MOSQUE DECORATION
Mosques were built all
around the empire, and
many were lavishly
decorated. This arch, above
MOSQUE AT DAMASCUS a doorway at the Great
Under the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus,
dynasty, the city of shows how Muslim
Damascus in Syria stone masons used
became the capital of different marbles,
the Islamic empire. The together with inlays
Umayyads built the and mosaics made
Great Mosque in the of other brightly
early eighth century. colored stones.

22
RUINS OF CARTHAGE Roman triumphal
The great North African city of Carthage, first the home of the Phoenicians, arch, Carthage
had been ruled by the Romans before it became an outpost of the Christian
Byzantine empire for a short time. The victim of many battles, in 697–8
Carthage fell to Muslim armies. The native Berber population who lived there CHARLES MARTEL, KING OF THE FRANKS
soon accepted Islam and joined the westward drive of the Muslim forces. In the eighth century, much of Western Europe
was ruled by a Germanic people called the
OUT IN FORCE Franks, under their king, Charles Martel. In 732,
This image from an early manuscript shows Charles defeated the Muslim army between
Muslim soldiers gathering near their tents. Tours and Poitiers, France, which marked the
Soldiers like these, efficient and well northwestern limit of the Muslim empire. Five
disciplined, were greatly feared in years later, he also drove the Muslims out of
Western Europe. They advanced as southern France.
far as France to conquer areas such
as Languedoc and
Burgundy.

BATTLE STANDARD
In 1212, Spain saw a battle at Navas de Tolosa, between the
Almohads, the local Muslim dynasty, and a Christian army. The
Almohads, who marched behind this standard, were defeated,
and Muslim power in Spain was weakened.

23

AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITY
Cairo’s al-Azhar University was founded in the
10th century and became the world’s most
famous Islamic university. Renowned for its
philosophical and theological scholarship, its
name means “the resplendent.” Many academic
traditions, such as the distinction between
graduates and undergraduates, began at al-Azhar.
MADRASAH AT CAIRO
A madrasah was a school in which
subjects such as law, logic,
mathematics, and history were
taught. Madrasahs were usually
arranged around a courtyard,
with large halls for teaching and
smaller rooms for the students.
Scholars and teachers
LEARNING HAS ALWAYS PLAYED a huge
part in the Islamic world. A system of
education developed in which children
learned to memorize and recite the text
of the Qur’an at school. When they had
mastered this, they could become
students at a higher-level school called
a madrasah. Still more advanced
study could be followed at
university level. Muslim education
has always had a religious basis,
and the high standards produced
scholars in a range of fields, from AVICENNA
mathematics to poetry. The scholar Ibn Sina (980–1037), known
in the West as Avicenna, wrote many
important books on medicine and
philosophy. In both fields, he developed
the work of the ancient Greeks.
GLOBE
By the 13th
century,
Muslim scholars
knew a vast
amount about
astronomy (p. 29).
They produced celestial
globes like this to show the
positions of stars in the sky.
SCHOLAR’S TOMB
Sometimes a famous scholar is
commemorated with a large tomb. Bin Ali,
a notable scholar of the 14th century from
Yemen, was buried in this striking double-
domed tomb near Dhofar, Oman.
24
 QUR’AN
Arabic scholarship has always been central
to Islam. Muslims traditionally learn to recite
the entire Qur’an by heart, and they always
recite it in the original Arabic, no matter
LIBRARY BOOKS
what language they use in everyday life.
Centers of learning grew up in big cities
such as Baghdad, Iraq, and Damascus,
Syria, and these had libraries that were
often much larger than the collections in
Western cities and universities.

LAW BOOK
Muslim scholars
produced some
very advanced
A MULLAH
laws. From the
A mullah is a person who is learned
earliest times, for
in religion. Most mullahs have had
example, Muslim
a formal religious training, but the
women – unlike
title can be given to someone with a
women in the West –
reputation for religious scholarship.
had the right to own
and inherit property.
This book contains POETRY READING
information about how Recited or set to music, poetry was
inheritance was important in Arabia even before the
calculated. time of Muhammad. It continued to
be popular. In addition to religious
subjects, common poetic themes
Inkpot were love and politics.
made of
gold and
agate

AGATE INKPOT
Calligraphy was an important and
respected art. While most writing materials
were simple, some very fine pieces, like this
19th century inkpot, were also made.

Continued on next page

25
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The Islamic city
MUSLIMS INHERITED ideas about city
planning from early civilizations such as
ancient Rome, and they built large cities
with facilities that were far in advance of
those in Europe. A typical city in the
year 1000 would have had a large
mosque – usually with a school and
library – and a market and baths.
There were also caravanseries,
which were hotels providing Main
accommodation for traveling mosque
merchants and their animals.
WATER FOR SALE TOWN PLAN City walls
Water sellers were a common Houses in an old Islamic city, such as Fez,
sight in many Middle Eastern were tightly packed, but each house had a private
cities before reliable water courtyard with a small garden and a fountain, as well as
supplies were installed. a flat rooftop. Many cities, especially in Turkey and Mughul Central
They can still be seen India (pp. 52–53), had public gardens beyond the walls. square
in some places.

Metal
drinking SEEKING A CURE
cups Medicine was advanced in the Muslim
world (pp. 30–31) and some Islamic cities
became renowned for their able doctors.
Travelers would often return home with
news of remarkable cures using remedies
such as herbs and spices, and spread this
knowledge further
around the
Islamic world
and beyond.

MARKET PLACES
Suqs, or covered markets, are usually large,
busy places. They are arranged so that shops
selling similar goods are close together, so
purchasers can compare quality and prices,
and so that the official market inspectors
(p. 58) can do their job effectively.

Lookout tower gives a

good vantage point and
firing platform.
THE CITY GRAVEYARD
Burial places were usually outside the city
walls. They were pleasant, green spaces
with trees, which provided somewhere to
walk, meditate, or enjoy the fresh air. Most
people had simple graves, marked with a
single stone.
Battlements to
conceal defenders
 PUBLIC BATHS
Going to the baths was a social occasion
– an opportunity to meet friends and
exchange news – as well as a chance to
get clean. This painting from Persia
shows men visiting the baths. Women
would use the baths at a different
time of day.

TELLING A STORY
In some cities, comfortable coffee houses
provided entertainment. People went to
this coffee house in Istanbul both for
refreshments and to while away the
hours listening to the local storyteller.

PIGEON POST
Major Islamic cities were
connected with an efficient
postal service. Mail
was transported by
camels, mules, or horses,
and in 1150, the Sultan of WATERWHEELS
Baghdad even started a Bringing water into the city was sometimes
postal service using a major task. In Hamah, Syria, two huge
carrier pigeons. wooden waterwheels mounted on massive
CITY WALLS stone arches were built to raise water from
Walls enclosed many Muslim cities. They had the river to supply the town. Building wheels
to be strong enough to keep out attackers, give like this required great engineering skill.
City walls, somewhere for defenders to stand safely, and
Morocco provide a good view of the surrounding
countryside. Gates could be locked to keep out
enemies, or opened, when guards could keep an
eye on who was entering and leaving the city.
Merchants and travellers
IBN BATTUTA
Among the early Muslim
travelers, Ibn Battuta, from
Tangier (in present-day
Morocco), was the most
remarkable. Setting out on
the Pilgrimage in 1325, he
continued traveling, going
75,000 miles (120,000 km) in
29 years. He visited West
and East Africa, Arabia,
India, and China, and when
he returned he told the story
of his adventures to the
Sultan of Morocco.
T RADE HAS ALWAYS played a key role in
the Islamic world. The Prophet himself
came from a people who had long ago
established the two great caravan
journeys from Mecca, the Winter
Caravan to the Yemen and the Summer
Caravan to the outskirts of the Roman
Empire. When Muslim armies took over
territory, traders were quick to follow,
opening up routes that led east to
China, south into Africa, northwest to
Europe, and southeast across the Indian
Ocean. The faith of Islam was soon
spread by merchants as far as Malaysia MERCHANTS ON THE MOVE
This 13th-century illustration of merchants comes
and Indonesia. Muslims did not only from a book by the writer al-Hariri, who came from
travel for trade, they also went in search Basra, Iraq. Men like these didn’t just carry items for
sale; they also carried ideas, inventions, and Islam
of knowledge, on diplomatic missions, itself, which was often introduced to new areas by
and of course to make the Pilgrimage. merchants who settled far from home.

20° G
40° 60° 80° 100°
0 miles
120°
1000 Islamic trade
Silver coins Moscow S i b e rO i a
b routes
from Baghdad
G Kiev ga A S I A 0 km 1000
GKarakorum
Ir

ys
found in a Viking
l

t
Vo

h
E U R O P E
grave in Sweden
GVenice GCaffa GAstrakhan Aral MONGOLIA
G
Lake Balkhash
Caspian Sea Shangdu
G Constantinople
Black Sea
GNaples Bukhara Samarkand Kashgar
Sea
Anxi
GG G G G o b i
Beijing G 40°
G
Athens Anatolia Tig
G G G
G G

Yell o
Rayy Merv
G
ris

Sicily
G G
Balkh
G
Khotan
G
Aleppo wR
G Mediterranean Sea
GG G
Baghdad
Herat Kabul H i T I B E T Xian
iv er

Tripoli Alexandria
Damascus
Basra m G ng
tze
G
Cairo
Jerusalem
s
a l a
y a s
G G Ya Hangzhou
Th

Hormuz Delhi
G
u
e

Ind

EGYPT Ganges CHINA

G G GYunnan GGuangzhou
Gu
Re

G G MeccaArabian
lf

Patna Chittagong
Tropic of Cancer
d

Jedda INDIA Pagan 20°

G
Se

Peninsula Arabian
M

Bay of Pegu
eko

Sea
Thon G GAngkor
Bengal
a

G 100°
Nile

ng

Aden Philippines
G
Calicut Buri

A F R I C A Quilon
G Ceylon
South
China
Maldive
Sea
G Brunei
COINS FOR TRADE
Archeologists have found out where Congo Mogadishu G Islands G
Malacca
120°
Su

Equator
ma

Islamic traders went by unearthing I N D I A N O C E A N Borneo

tra

20° 40° 60° 80°

their coins. The Viking lands, Sri
Lanka, and the heart of China are
three places where Muslim coins have
been discovered. Islamic coins were
widely respected because of the high
proportion of precious metals they
contained. These currencies greatly
helped the growth of world trade.
TRADE ROUTES
Official reports, travelers’ tales, and archeology have all
provided clues about the routes taken by Muslim
traders. One route stood out above all – the Silk Road.
It was actually a number of roads across Central Asia,
linking China and Europe, passing through many parts
of the Muslim world on the way.

SALT CARAVAN
This salt caravan is traveling to Timbuktu in Mali
(p. 48). Salt was essential for seasoning and preserving
food, and early Muslims sold it for vast sums. There were
rich sources of salt in Africa, at places such as Taghaza,
today in Algeria, where the locals even constructed
buildings from salt. From here, caravans carried salt
south, and the merchants spread Islam as they traveled.

38
DHOW
The most common trading vessels in the Tasseled
Indian Ocean were dhows, which are still saddlebag
used today. With their triangular sails, these
boats are easy to maneuver and sail in
headwinds. Their captains navigated by
looking at the stars and many of them
also used the
magnetic compass. BACTRIAN CAMEL
They also had an With their great
excellent staying power and
knowledge of their ability to
currents, sea- produce milk on a
marks, and diet of bitter
winds. vegetation and foul-
tasting water, camels
enabled the Muslims
to survive and travel in
inhospitable places. The
two-humped Bactrian camel
was found on the northern
routes, the one-humped
dromedary in the south.

CANDY FOR SALE

In countries such as Saudi Arabia, stores and
Ropes help markets have extremely enticing candy counters.
support mast For centuries, the Arab world has had a reputation
for its confectioneries, and English words such as
“sugar” and “candy” come from Arabic.

Furled lateen
(triangular) sail

Main mast NOMAD WOMAN SPINNING

This painting shows an Egyptian livestock
herder and his wife outside their tent. The
woman is spinning wool to make thread.
She uses some of this to make clothes for
herself and her family. What is left over
can be sold at a local market.

Stern rudder

Continued on next page

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 Arms and armor
BY THE 11TH CENTURY, Muslims were highly skilled in metal
craftsmanship – and this included weapon production. For a
fighting man, good arms and armor were often a matter of life
and death, so soldiers wanted the best equipment that they could
afford. The mounted warriors of the Islamic world used the
sword, lance, and mace. Most were also skilled archers. Beautiful
and intricate swords, shields, and other weaponry were the envy
of the non-Muslim world. However,
Muslim armies were also quick to
adopt weapons that originated
in the West, such as cannons
and firearms.

19th-century
Indian steel
shield with gilt
CANNON MINIATURE decoration
By the early 14th century, European
armorers were starting to make cannons
and these powerful weapons were quickly
taken up by Muslim armies. This painting
shows cannons being used by Muslim
troops at the Siege of Vienna in 1529.

TURKISH HELMET
This Turkish helmet dates from around
1500. It is made of iron and patterned
with silver. It carries the mark of the
“Arsenal of Constantinople” (now
Istanbul) where the weapons and
armor of the Turkish army were held.
SHIELD OF STEEL
The Mongols developed small, round shields
made of leather. When enemy archers fired,
their arrows stuck in the leather and could be
pulled out and reused. Later round shields
were made of steel with a curving surface, to
protect the user from both bullets and sword
blows. Shields like this were popular in India
and Iran from the 18th century onward.

Sword and sheath of

Shah Tamasp of
Persia

Handle hides a slender dagger.

GRENADE
First used in China, grenades
containing gunpowder were
used by both Muslims and
Christians in the Middle Ages.
This 13th-century example was
made of clay in Damascus, Syria.

44
 Jambiya (and sheath,
below right)

MACE
Maces were Khanjar and
sometimes carried decorated sheath
as a sign of rank, but
they were also fighting
weapons used by
mounted warriors. In
skilled hands, a mace
could break an opponent’s
bones, even if he was
wearing armor.

Steel mace
from Persia
KHANJAR
In many parts of the Muslim
world it was common for
men, and even boys, to
carry weapons. This is a
20th-century dagger from
Yemen, called a khanjar.
JAMBIYA
First made in the
Arabian Peninsula,
the jambiya was a curved dagger.
It proved popular – either as a
plain fighting dagger or as an
ornate ceremonial weapon – and
spread all over the Muslim world.
SHOOTING LESSON
Handheld guns first appeared in
Western Europe in the 15th century
and Muslim soldiers soon began to
use them. It was not long before
Muslim craft workers started to
make such weapons for themselves,
often in workshops run by master-
armorers from Portugal. In this
picture, 16th century Indian
Emperor Akbar is learning how to
handle one of the latest weapons.

Gold-barreled musket
MUSKET
When they were first imported to the
East, guns like this European flintlock
musket were resisted by high-ranking
Muslim soldiers, who preferred the bow
and the curved sword. But when their
enemies began to take up firearms,
Muslim warriors were forced to do the
same, and weapons like the musket
were valued all over Asia.

SWORDS AND BATTLE-AXES

The tabar, or battle-ax, was a widespread weapon. Such axes had
steel blades and were not always as ornate as this one, which is
adorned with silver and gilding. Muslim soldiers also fought with
distinctive swords with curved blades that broadened toward the
tip. In Europe these were known as scimitars (above).

45
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China and Southeast Asia Name of Allah

ISLAM HAS BEEN PRACTICED in China

since the seventh century when it was
introduced to coastal cities by Arab
traders. Over the next 200 years,
merchants traveling the Silk
Road took Islam into the interior.
The Muslims of China today are a
diverse people descended from
many different ethnic groups,
including ethnic Chinese, Mongols, and
Persians, each with their own customs and
cultures. Islam also reached Southeast Asia
BY SEA
through trade, and today the largest
Some Muslim Muslim population in the world Outline of bird where
merchants traveled
from the mainland to is in Indonesia. wax covered the fabric
during dyeing
Southeast Asia in
traditional boats BATIK
with striking Typical Chinese China and Southeast Asia have always
curved prows. upward-curving traded in beautiful fabrics, such as silks. This
roof piece has been dyed using the process called
batik, which was invented in Java. The dyer
applies wax to the parts of the fabric which
are to remain uncolored, then soaks the
material in dye. When dry, the material is
boiled or scraped to remove the wax.

Carved stone MOSQUE INTERIOR, BEIJING

decoration By the early 20th century there was a
from Xi’an sizeable Muslim minority in China. In
mosque the larger cities there are lavish mosques
like the Niu Jie mosque (above), which
has pillars lacquered in black and gold,
and walls decorated with both Arabic
and Chinese motifs. Most of China’s
Muslims live in the rural northwestern
province of Xinjiang, where the
mosques are usually much plainer.

GRAND MOSQUE IN THE CITY OF XI’AN,

When China became communist in 1949, Muslims were
given some religious freedom, but during the Cultural
Revolution (1966–1976) all religions were outlawed, and
mosques were destroyed or closed. In the 1980s, however,
many mosques were reopened or rebuilt. China’s oldest
mosque, the Grand Mosque in Xi’an, can be visited today.

54
 ROD PUPPET
The shadow puppet theater
called wayang golek is
performed with carved and
painted wooden figures that
are manipulated with rods.
Wayang is a traditional Javanese
entertainment, widely enjoyed
by Muslims at festivals and
celebrations.

Articulated arm

Wooden rod is
used to move
puppet’s arm.
WEARING THE TUDONG
These schoolgirls from Brunei are
wearing the tudong, a form of head-
covering that extends down to conceal
the neck and upper body. Wearing the
tudong is just one way in which women
can obey the Qur’an’s instruction to
dress modestly (p. 56).

BOWL FOR RICE

Rice is the staple
food in both China
and Southeast Asia.
It is eaten from small
round bowls made of
porcelain – a type of
pottery that was widely
traded, forging an important
link between China, the
Muslim world, and the West.

Clothing conceals stick MIX OF STYLES

used to hold puppet.
MALAYSIAN MOSQUE
Because Islam was brought
to Southeast Asia by well-
traveled merchants, the area
has always been influenced
by a mix of cultures.
This Malaysian mosque is
decorated in the style of
mosques in Iran
and India.
CARAVANSERAI
Merchants traveling by land needed
places to stay, so the locals built
caravanserais (p. 36) on the routes
through Asia to China. In these simple
stone buildings, merchants could find a
bed and somewhere to stable their camels.
This modern mosque in Kuala Kangsar,
Malaysia, was built after the country
became independent in 1957. This was
a good time for Muslims in Malaysia
because Islam was recognized as the
state’s official religion.

55
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LUNAR CALENDAR
The Islamic calendar is
based on the phases of the
Moon. Each year has 12
lunar months of 29 or 30
days each, and a total of
354 days. Each month
begins with the sighting
of the new Moon.
THE ISLAMIC CALENDAR
MUHARRAM
The sacred month, 30 days
1: Ra’s al-’Am (New Year)
10: Ashura
Festivals and ceremonies
THE MUSLIM CALENDAR contains a number
of yearly festivals. Some commemorate key
events in the history of the faith, such as
the birthday of the Prophet or the Night
Journey. Others are connected with the Five
Pillars of Islam: ‘Id al-Adha (the feast of the
sacrifice) takes place during the time of the
pilgrimage, and ‘Id al-Fitr marks the end of
Ramadan, the month of fasting. There are also
festivals such as Nauruz in Iran to celebrate the
New Year, and celebrations, from birth to
marriage, to mark key points in a Muslim’s life.
KERBALA
RAMADAN Kerbala, Iraq, is where Muhammad’s
During the month of Ramadan, grandson Husayn was killed in 680.
Muslims fast between sunrise and Husayn’s shrine (above) is sacred to the
sunset (p.15). At sunset each day, Shi’i Muslims, who are the largest
people first pray and then eat. religious group in Iran and Iraq. The
Special lights, such as this star- death of Husayn is marked by the
shaped lantern, may be lit during festival of Ashura (see opposite).
the evening meal.
MAWLID AN-NABI
These boys from Kenya are
taking part in a procession
celebrating Mawlid an-Nabi, the
birthday of the Prophet. This
day is a public holiday and is
also marked with recitations of a
poem called the Burdah, in praise
of Muhammad.
“EID MUBARAK”
During the festival of ‘Id al-Fitr, people
knock on the doors of neighbors,
greeting them with the phrase “Eid
Mubarak” (Blessed Eid). Friends or
relatives living away are sent Eid
greeting cards (left).
Eid greeting
card
‘ID BALLOONS
Colorful balloons are a
popular feature of the
celebrations of ‘Id al-Fitr,
which marks the end of
Stained glass Ramadan (p. 15). Celebrations
panel include a festival prayer, a
substantial breakfast, and the
giving of alms to the poor.
SAFAR RABI’ AL-AWWAL
The month which is void The first spring
29 days 30 days
12: Mawlid an-Nabi (birthday of the Prophet)
60
 SALLAH FESTIVAL
Some Muslim festivals
are local celebrations
that take part in just
one country or region
of the Islamic world.
For example, the Sallah
festival is held in
northern Nigeria as
part of the rituals
marking the end of
Ramadan. The
highlight is a colorful
procession featuring
chiefs in ceremonial
robes, brightly
costumed horsemen,
and lute players.

ASHURA
The festival of Ashura
marks the death of
WHIRLING DERVISH
Husayn and, in one of
Members of the Sufi Mevlevi the ceremonies, models
order (p. 35) hold festivals at of Husayn’s tomb are
which they perform their carried through the
“whirling” dance, known as streets. Plays reenacting
sama‘. One such festival the death of Husayn
marks the death of their may also be performed.
founder, the great Sufi
poet and mystic,
Jalaluddin Rumi
(1207–73). WEDDING CELEBRATIONS
In Islam, a contract of marriage is made by
the groom giving the bride-to-be a dowry,
and the bride then giving consent to
marriage before witnesses. The dowry
may be presented in an embroidered
wallet. Wedding celebrations vary
according to the local traditions of the
different areas of the Muslim world, but
will usually include recitations from the
Qur’an and a great feast.

KHITAN
Muslim boys are usually Dowry wallet
circumcised in a ceremony called
khitan. This is often done around
age seven, though it may be done
any time before a boy reaches 12
years old. These Turkish boys are
attending a mosque before their
khitan ceremony.

LAYLAT AL-ISRA’ WA’L-MI‘RAJ

On the 27th day of the month
of Rajab, Muslims celebrate
Muhammad’s Night Journey,
when he rode the beast called
the Buraq, and his Ascension
to Heaven (p. 9). This is called The Buraq is a
Laylat al-Isra’ wa’l-mi‘raj, the “miraculous steed,”
Night of the Journey although depictions
and Ascension. of the beast vary.

RABI’ATH-THANI JUMADA-L-ULA JUMADA-TH-THANIYYAH

The second spring The first month of dryness The second month of dryness
29 days 30 days 29 days

Continued on next page

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