AE 231 Thermodynamics

Week 3
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sinan Eyi
 Chapter 4

ENERGY TRANSFER

2
 Energy Types
• In engineering thermodynamics the change in
energy of a system is composed of three
contributions:
►Kinetic energy
►Gravitational potential energy
►Internal energy

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 Kinetic Energy
►The change in kinetic energy is associated with the
motion of the system as a whole relative to an
external coordinate frame such as the surface of the
earth.
►For a system of mass m the change in kinetic energy
from state 1 to state 2 is

∆KE = KE2 – KE1 =

1
2
m V2
2
− (
V1
2
)
where
►V1 and V2 denote the initial and final velocity magnitudes.
►The symbol ∆ denotes: final value minus initial value.
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 Gravitational Potential Energy
►The change in gravitational potential energy is
associated with the position of the system in the
earth’s gravitational field.
►For a system of mass m the change in potential
energy from state 1 to state 2 is
∆PE = PE2 – PE1 = mg(z2 – z1)

where
►z1 and z2 denote the initial and final elevations relative to
the surface of the earth, respectively.
►g is the acceleration of gravity.
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 Internal Energy
► The change in internal energy is associated with the the kinetic
and potential energies of the particles that form the system
► There is no simple expression for evaluating internal energy
change for a wide range of applications. In most cases we will
evaluate internal energy change using data from tables.
► Like kinetic and gravitational potential energy, internal energy
is an extensive property.
►Internal energy is represented by U.
►The specific internal energy on a mass basis is u.
►The specific internal energy on a molar basis is

6
 Internal Energy
a Thermodynamic Property
►Internal energy is one of the independent
property of a pure substance.
►The state of pure substance can be determined
with internal energy and another independent
property.
►In saturated liquid and vapor region

U = Uliq + U vap
mu = mliqu f + mvapug
u = (1 − x ) u f + xug u = u f + xu fg
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 Change in Energy of a System
►The change in energy of a system from state 1 to
state 2 is
E2 – E1 = (U2 – U1) + (KE2 – KE1) + (PE2 – PE1)

∆E = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE
►Since an arbitrary value E1 can be assigned to the
energy of a system at a given state 1, no particular
significance can be attached to the value of energy at
state 1 or any other state. Only changes in the energy
of a system between states have significance.
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 Energy Transfer
►Energy can be transferred to/from a system
by two means:
►Work
►Heat

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 Work

►Work is defined as a force F acting through a

displacement x.
2
W = ∫ Fdx
1

10
 Energy Transfer by Work
►The symbol W denotes an amount of energy
transferred across the boundary of a system by work.
►Since engineering thermodynamics is often concerned
with internal combustion engines, turbines, and electric
generators whose purpose is to do work, it is convenient
to regard the work done by a system as positive.
►W > 0: work done by the system
►W < 0: work done on the system
The same sign convention is used for the rate of energy
transfer by work – called power, denoted by

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 Illustrations of Work
►When a spring is compressed,
energy is transferred to the spring
by work.
►When a gas in a closed vessel is
stirred, energy is transferred to the
gas by work.
►When a battery is charged
electrically, energy is transferred to
the battery contents by work.
►The first three examples of work are encompassed by
mechanics. The last example is an example of the
broader interpretation of work encountered in
thermodynamics. 12
 Moving Boundary Work
►A case having many practical applications is a gas (or
liquid) undergoing an expansion (or compression)
process while confined in a piston-cylinder assembly.

►During the process, the gas exerts a normal force on

the piston, F = pA , where p is the pressure at the
interface between the gas and piston and A is the area of
the piston face. 13
 Moving Boundary Work
►From mechanics, the work done by the gas as the
piston face moves from x1 to x2 is given by
X2 X2
W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ pAdx
X1 X1

►Since the product Adx = dV , where V is the volume of

the gas, this becomes
V2

W=
∫
V1
pdV

►For a compression, dV is negative and so is the value

of the integral, in keeping with the sign convention for
work. 14
 Moving Boundary Work
► P is the absolute pressure and is always positive.
► When dV is positive, W is positive.
► When dV is negative, W is negative.
► The boundary work for each process will be different.

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 Moving Boundary Work
►To perform the integral of requires a relationship
between gas pressure at the interface between the gas
and piston and the total gas volume.
►During an actual expansion of a gas such a
relationship may be difficult, or even impossible, to
obtain owing to non-equilibrium effects during the
process – for example, effects related to combustion in
the cylinder of an automobile engine.
►In most such applications, the work value can be
obtained only by experiment.

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 Moving Boundary Work
►The work of idealized processes can be evaluated.
►In idealized processes, we assume that the gas
undergoes a sequence of equilibrium states. Such an
idealized expansion (or compression) is called a
quasiequilibrium process.

17
 Moving Boundary Work
►In a quasiequilibrium
expansion, the gas moves
along a pressure-volume
curve, or path, as shown.

►The work done by the gas

on the piston is given by the
area under the curve of
pressure versus volume.

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 Moving Boundary Work
►In order to callculate the boundary work we need the
pressure-volume relationship for the process.
P = f (V )

19
 Constant Volume Processes
►If the volume is held constant, dV = 0, and the
boundary work equation becomes

P 1

P-V diagram for V = constant

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 Constant Pressure Processes
►If the pressure is held constant, the boundary
work equation becomes
P 2 1

P-V DIAGRAM for P = CONSTANT

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Constant Temperature Processes
►If the temperature of an ideal gas system is held
constant, the equation of state provides the
pressure-volume relation.

2
P

V
P-V DIAGRAM for T = CONSTANT

mRT
P=
V

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 Polytropic Processes
►The polytropic process is one in which the pressure-
volume relation is given as
PV n = constant
►The exponent n may have any value from minus infinity
to plus infinity depending on the process. Some of the
more common values are given below.
Process Exponent n
Constant pressure 0
Constant volume ∞
Isothermal & ideal gas 1
Adiabatic & ideal gas k = CP/CV
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 Polytropic Processes
►Here, k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure Cp to specific heat at constant volume CV.
►The boundary work in polytropic process is found by
substituting the pressure-volume relation into the
boundary work equation.

24
 Energy Transfer by Heat
►Energy transfers by heat are induced only as a
result of a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings.
►Net energy transfer by heat occurs only in the
direction of decreasing temperature.

25
 Modes of Heat Transfer
►For any particular application, energy transfer
by heat can occur by one or more of three modes:
►conduction
►radiation
convection
►convection

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 Conduction
►Conduction is the transfer of energy
from more energetic particles of a
substance to less energetic adjacent
particles due to interactions between
them.
►The time rate of energy transfer by
conduction is quantified by Fourier’s law.
►An application of Fourier’s law to a
plane wall at steady state is shown at
right.

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 Conduction
►By Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer across any plane
normal to the x direction, Qɺ x , is proportional to the wall area,
A, and the temperature gradient in the x direction, dT/dx,
dT
Qx = −κA
ɺ
dx
where
►κ is a proportionality constant, a property of the wall
material called the thermal conductivity.
►The minus sign is a consequence of energy transfer in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
►In this case, temperature varies linearly with x, and thus
dT T2 − T1  T2 − T1 
= (< 0) Q x = −κA 
ɺ

dx L  L  28
 Example 1
Question: A flat wall is composed of 20 cm of brick having a thermal conductivity kt = 0.72
W/m⋅K. The right face temperature of the brick is 900°C, and the left face temperature of the
brick is 20°C. Determine the rate of heat conduction through the wall per unit area of wall.

Tright = 900°C

Tleft = 20°C

20 cm

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 Example 1
Solution:

Tright = 900°C

Tleft = 20°C

20 cm

∆T
Qcond = kt A
ɺ
∆x
Qɺ cond ∆T W (900 − 20) K
= kt = 0.72
A ∆x m⋅K 0.2m
W
= 3168 2
m

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 Thermal Radiation
►Thermal radiation is energy transported by
electromagnetic waves (or photons). Unlike
conduction, thermal radiation requires no
intervening medium and can take place in a vacuum.
►The time rate of energy transfer by radiation is
quantified by expressions developed from the
Stefan-Boltzman law.

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 Thermal Radiation
►Radiation heat transfer between
the surfaces at temperature Tb and
Ts (Tb > Ts)

►Net energy is transferred in the direction of the arrow and

quantified by
Qɺ e = εσA[Tb4 − Ts4 ]
where
►A is the area of the smaller surface,
►ε is a property of the surface called its emissivity,
►σ is the Stefan-Boltzman constant.
32
 Convection
►Convection is energy transfer between a solid
surface and an adjacent gas or liquid by the
combined effects of conduction and bulk flow within
the gas or liquid.
►The rate of energy transfer by convection is
quantified by Newton’s law of cooling.

33
 Convection
►An application involving
energy transfer by convection
from a transistor to air
passing over it is shown at
right.

►Energy is transferred in the direction of the arrow and

quantified by
Qɺ c = hA[Tb − Tf ]
where
►A is the area of the transistor’s surface and
►h is an empirical parameter called the convection heat
transfer coefficient.
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 Convection

The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from Newton's law of cooling.

35
 Example 2
Question: A vehicle is to be parked overnight in the open away from large surrounding
objects. It is desired to know if dew or frost may form on the vehicle top. Assume the
following:

•Convection coefficient h from ambient air to vehicle top is 6.0 W/m2⋅°C.

•Equivalent sky temperature is -18°C.
•Emissivity of vehicle top is 0.84.
•Negligible conduction from inside vehicle to top of vehicle.

Determine the temperature of the vehicle top when the air temperature is 5°C. State which
formation (dew or frost) occurs.

Tair = 5 C Tsky = -18 C

Qconv Qrad

Ttop

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 Example 2
Solution: Under steady-state conditions, the energy convected to the vehicle top is equal to
the energy radiated to the sky.

Qɺ conv = Qɺ rad
The energy convected from the ambient air to the vehicle top is

Qɺ conv = Atop h (Tair − Ttop )

The energy radiated from the top to the night sky is

(
Qɺ rad = εσAtop Ttop
4
− Tsky
4
)
Setting these two heat transfers equal gives

(
Atop h(Tair − Ttop ) = εσAtop Ttop
4
− Tsky
4
)
(
h(Tair − Ttop ) = εσ Ttop
4
− Tsky
4
)
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 Example 2
6.0
W
2
m K
[ ]
(5 + 273) − Ttop K

= (0.84 ) 5.67 x10

−8 W  4

m2 K 4 
[
Ttop − (− 18 + 273 )4
]K 4

Write the equation for Ttop in C (T K = TC + 273)

(0.84 )(5.67 )  + 
4
 
(5 − Ttop ) = 
Ttop 273
 − (2.55) 
4

6.0  100  

Using the EES software package

Ttop = −3.38 ° C

Since Ttop is below the triple point of water, 0.01°C, the water vapor in the air will form frost
on the car top.
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 Chapter 5
ENERGY EQUATION FOR A
CONTROL MASS

39
 Closed System Energy Balance
►The conservation of energy for a control mass (closed
sytem) can be expressed as
change in the amount net amount of energy net amount of energy
of energy contained transferred in across transferred out across
within a system the system boundary by the system boundary
during some time heat transfer during by work during the
interval the time interval time interval
►Using previously defined symbols
E2 – E1 = Q – W
►Alternatively, ∆KE + ∆PE + ∆U = Q – W
A minus sign appears before W because energy transfer by work
from the system to the surrounding is taken as positive.
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 Closed System Energy Balance

►The time rate form of the closed system energy

balance is
dE ɺ ɺ
= Q −W
dt
►The rate form can be expressed as
time rate of change net rate at which net rate at which
of the energy energy is being energy is being
contained within transferred in transferred out
the system at by heat transfer by work at
time t at time t time t

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 Energy Balance for Cycles
►In cycles, the initial and final states are identical

►The first law of thermodynamics, for cycles

∆E = E2 − E1 = 0 Q −W = 0
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 Enthalpy
a Thermodynamic Property
►Neglecting the kinetic and potential energy
change, the first law of thermodynamics becomes

Q12 = U 2 –U1 + W12

►Work done by system
2
W12 = ∫ PdV
1
►If the pressure is constant
2
W12 = P ∫ dV = P (V2 − V1 )
1
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 Enthalpy
a Thermodynamic Property
Q12 = U 2 –U1 + PV
2 2 − PV
1 1

Q12 = (U 2 + PV
2 2 ) – (U1 + PV
1 1)

►Heat transfer during this process

Q12 = (U + PV )2 – (U + PV )1
►It is convenient to define a new property, enthalpy
H = U + PV h = u + Pv
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 Constant Volume and Pressure
Specific Heats
►Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy
required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of
a substance by one degree as the volume is
maintained constant.
►Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy
required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of
a substance by one degree as the pressure is
maintained constant.

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 Constant Volume and Pressure
Specific Heats

Specific heat is the energy

required to raise the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance by Constant-volume and constant-pressure specific
one degree in a specified way. heats cv and cp (values are for helium gas).

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 Constant Volume and Pressure
Specific Heats

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

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