Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering 13

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Current Trends in Energy Efficient Electrical Machines

CEPOI Radu Daniel, JAȘCĂU Flavia Florina, SZABÓ Loránd

Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Department of Electrical Machines and Drives, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
28 Memorandumului str., 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, E-mail: Lorand.Szabo@emd.utcluj.ro

Abstract – It is well-known that mankind is facing with
the pressure of climate change. There are two basic
ways to significantly reduce harmful emissions: to
radically increase the share of renewable energy
resources, and to use the electrical power more
efficiently. As electrical machines are using a
significant part of the total electric power generated
round the world, their efficiency improvements can
have a noteworthy impact. The paper presents the main
energy efficiency related regulations, the most
applicable efficiency increasing technical solutions
and possibilities to replace the most widely used
squirrel cage induction machines with more efficient
variants.
Keywords: electrical machines, energy efficiency,
energy efficiency standards, losses, synchronous
reluctance machines.
ABBREVIATIONS
3D – three-dimensional
CAD – Computer Aided Design
CEMEP – European Committee of Manufacturers of
Electrical Machines and Power Systems
d.c. – direct current
EC – European Commission
EPAct– US Energy Policy Act
IE – International Energy Efficiency Classification
IEC – International Electrotechnical Committee
IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IM – induction machine
MEPS – Minimum performance standards
NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(USA)
NO SiFe – non-oriented silicon-iron (alloy)
PMSM – permanent magnet synchronous machine
SyncRel –synchronous reluctance machine
SMC – soft magnetic composite
VSD – variable speed drives
I. INTRODUCTION
After the great oil crisis of the 1970's everything
related to energy was rethought in all the developed
countries. Energy saving became a major concern both
for the governments and population.
Statistics cited in the literature indicate that electrical
machines consume yearly 679 TWh of electric energy.
This means round 66% of the total industrial electrical
power and about 40% of the total electrical power
generated around the world (see Fig. 1) [1].
Fig. 1. Electrical energy used by motors [2].
Therefore, any improvements performed in the field
of electrical machine efficiency can lead to very huge
energy savings on a global level. A 1% efficiency
increase could reduce the electrical power consumption
by an equivalent to 3.5 million barrels of oil only in the
USA. These savings can be multiplied by about 4 to
obtain the worldwide savings [3].
These issues are very important also if we put them
into the general context of overall industrial efficiency,
which is yet very low. Only 14% of the industry is
efficient [4]. So, there are a lot of improvements to
perform in this field.
The efficient use of electrical machines can be
achieved by two ways: to exploit the motors loaded near
their rated torque, or by using so-called energy efficient
motors. The successful application of the first variant
depends only on the users, since they must use motors of
proper power for the given applications.
The spread of the highly efficient motor is twofold. It
must exist an offer on the market by the manufacturers,
and the users has to realize the long-term benefits of
their employment.
Formerly, at the manufacturer side, the setting of
motor efficiency target was a compromise with its price.
More efficient motors have greater initial (purchase)
cost, but in time, having less power consumption, the
costs of exploitation are less. It must be mentioned that
the use of superior efficiency electrical machines has an
impact also on the power factor and indirectly through
this to the exploitation costs. This has to be analyzed by
case to case since in some instances the power factor
also increased with the improve of the efficiency, and in
other ones is decreased [5].
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The apportion of predictable life cycle costs of an
electrical machine considering 25 years working time is
given in Fig. 2. As it can be seen, the greatest part of the
expenses is due to electrical energy consumption, while
its purchase costs are minor [6]. In addition, the higher
efficiency machines are of higher quality and their
maintenance costs are less and their expected lifetime is
greater.
Fig. 2. Average share of the motor life cycle costs [6].
Therefore, the industrial consumers has to make a
correct decision concerning the electrical machine to be
acquired, taking into account both technical and
financial aspects [5]. Nowadays this decision is much
simpler, since diverse regulations suggest or obligate the
purchase of energy efficient electrical machines.
II. ENERGY EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL
MACHINE RELATED REGULATIONS
The increased interest for electrical machines
efficiency issues started at the beginning of the 1980's.
But in that decade no standards for efficiency levels
were yet imposed. Only during the beginning 1990's the
first energy efficiency levels for electrical machines
were defined in the USA by the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
The first significant milestone in the field of the
energy efficient machines regulations was the Energy
Policy Act (EPAct) voted by the USA Congress in 1992,
which included the minimum efficiency levels for
electrical motors [7]. It imposed that all electrical
machines manufactured or imported in the USA must
meet well-defined minimum energy efficiency.
Some years later, in 1998, this was followed by the
recommendation of the European Committee of
Manufacturers of Electrical Machines and Power
Systems (CEMEP), containing an electrical motor
efficiency classification: Eff1 for high efficiency, Eff2
for standard efficiency and Eff3 for low efficiency, as
depicted in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. The efficiency classes defined by CEMEP [8].
All of these catalyzed the developments in the field
of high efficient electrical machines. Only in a few years
the manufacturers were already promoting motors with
higher efficiency than mandatory imposed by EPAct, as
E-Plus® (Magnetek), Energy Saver® (General Electric),
Premium Efficiency Super-E® (Baldor Electric),
Premium Efficiency® (Toshiba), etc. [9], [5].
Hence, NEMA in 2002 defined a new classification
scheme for the so-called "premium higher efficiency
motors". As the researches and developments in the field
were intensively continued, in only three years the
NEMA Premium motors already achieved a share of
16% of the electrical machines market in USA [1].
These basic regulations were followed by numerous
country-specific ones in the developed countries round
the world, as Canada, Australia, New Zeeland, Japan,
South Korea, China, Brazil, etc. [10].
It should be mentioned, that these directives did not
cover all the manufactured electrical machines. So,
motors above 375 kW, those designed for hazardous
areas (the so-called ATEX motors) and many other
types were not included, although they have significant
application segment.
Several impacts were expected from these new
regulations, as electrical consumption decreasing,
reducing environment pollution, money save, and
overall system optimization and reliability improvement
for all the electrical machines users, and diminishing
operating cost for buildings, etc.
The regulations concerning the electrical machine
efficiency were naturally followed by standards for
testing the increased energy efficiency motors. These
contained well-defined instructions for the way to
conduct and report these laboratory tests. The first was
the IEEE 112 Standard in 2004 for polyphase induction
machines (IMs), followed by the standard IEEE 113 for
d.c. machines in 1985. These standards covered not only
the imposed tests for determining the efficiency, but also
of other important parameters and characteristics of the
electrical machines. IEEE 114 and 115 standards
followed for other types of electrical machines [1].
In Europe, the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) also developed his own testing
standards. IEC 61972 was issued in 2002 for testing
three-phase IMs. It contained two methods to measure
their efficiency and losses. The first, the so-called
input-output method (similar to that given in the
IEEE 112-B standard) imposed a direct measurement of
the stray load losses. The second method permitted a
simpler approach, the use of different assigned variable
allowances depending of the machine output power for
estimating the stray load losses [11]. This was later
replaced by the IEC 60034-2-1 standard, which
contained also some refined requirements for the used
instrumentation and their accuracy [12].
In 2008 the worldwide different efficiency
classifications were unified by the IEC 60034-30
standard, which specifies electrical efficiency classes for
single-speed, three-phase, both 50 Hz and 60 Hz
frequency squirrel cage IMs that have up to 3 pole pairs,
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power between 750 W and 375 kW, voltage less than
1000 V, and which are working continuously (upon S1
duty cycle) or intermittently with greater than 80%
duration factor (S3 duty cycle). Upon this standard, the
IMs can be categorized upon their energy efficiency in:
standard (IE1), high (IE2) and premium (IE3) [3]. The
efficiency plots function of power for these categories
are given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. The efficiency classes defined by IEC 60034-30.
Later two extra efficiency classes were proposed to
cover the new machines with higher efficiency: super
premium (IE4) and ultra premium (IE5).
In the European Union, an important breakthrough
took place in 2009, when the European Commission
(EC) Regulation 640/2009 was adopted. This very
clearly specifies all the requirements concerning the
"ecodesign" of electrical machines (upon the Ecodesign
Directive – 2009/125/EC), and the use of variable speed
drives (VSD). This was amended by the EC regulation
4/2014 to avoid formerly discovered ambiguities in EC
Regulation 640/2009 [13].
A very strict timeline was set up. From 16th June
2011, all the marketed electrical machines had to be at
least of IE2 class. Beginning with 1st January 2015, for
the grid connected motors with rated power in the range
of 7.5÷375 kW the minimum class of IE3 was imposed,
and IE2 class for those used in VSD systems. From 1st
January 2017, the coverage of the these regulations was
extended also for the machines having output power
between 0.75 kW and 7.5 kW [13].
In the EU due to these mandatory rules the share of
the energy efficient electrical machines increased
drastically in the 1998–2012 period, as it can be seen in
Fig. 5 [13].
Fig. 5. Share of electrical machines of different energy
efficiency classes in the EU during 1998-2012 [13].
15
III. TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS FOR
IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY
For electrical machines high efficiency can be
achieved in many ways, as [5], [14]:
 improving their design by applying superior
algorithms, computer aided design (CAD)
software and advanced optimization tools [15],
[16];
 using more and better quality ferromagnetic
materials for the iron cores [17], [6];
 applying conductors of higher cross-section (and
of less resistance) and optimizing the slot shapes
[18];
 using better quality insulator materials, avoiding
also space reduction;
 diminishing mechanical and windage losses by
optimized fan and airflow design, improving
motor housing sealing, and applying less friction
rolling bearings [19];
 reducing stray losses by minimizing air-gap
harmonics by optimized design of slots [20];
 improving mechanical manufacturing assuring
low tolerance, enabled of using advanced
machining devices;
 better equilibration of the rotor, resulting in
decrease of mechanical losses and improving the
machine life-time;
 decreasing the heating and the ventilation.
A. Reducing Losses
Understandably, by reducing the losses of electrical
machines their efficiency will be increased. There are
several losses in electrical machines, as copper losses,
iron core losses, windage and friction losses, stray load
losses, etc. [21]. The greatest losses are in the
conductors and the iron cores. The share among the
losses depends on the power of the machine, as it can be
seen in Fig. 6 [3]
Fig. 6. The share of losses in IMs [3]
Stator losses (also known as I2R losses) are due to
current flow through the resistance of the windings.
Basically, they can be diminished by increasing the
cross section and the mass of winding conductors. They
can be further decreased by optimized winding designs,
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which has to result in lower winding resistance. By
applying Cu (having higher electrical conductivity)
instead of Al for IMs for casting the rotor, the squirrel
cage resistance, and directly the rotor losses can be
reduced [22], [23]. Rotor Cu losses can be removed
completely by applying line-start permanent magnet
synchronous machines (see section IV of the paper).
The windage and friction losses are due to bearing
friction and air flow resistance, and are independent of
motor load. They can be reduced by applying better
quality and lower friction bearings, having no fins on
their end-rings [22], [24]. Another efficiency improving
method is to use smaller bearing (having less friction) at
the fan-end of the machine, since that side is more
lightly loaded and does not require for typical loads
similar bearing as that at the drive-end [3].
Stray load losses are due the leakage fluxes passing
through metallic parts (conductors, iron core and
housing) of the electrical machine, which are generating
eddy currents and extra heat. Their reduction can be
performed by means of diminishing the rotor resistance
and thus enabling the IM to work at low slips. Their
computation is very complicated, therefore their
reduction is a veritable engineering challenge [22], [24].
The losses diminishing has supplementary also an
indirect effect of efficiency increase. As less heat is
produced, the cooling load of the machine is also
reduced.
B. Using Higher Quality Magnetic Materials
The focus in the field of magnetic materials used in
electrical machines is on high magnetic saturation and
permeability, low specific iron losses and good
mechanical strength.
Higher quality ferromagnetic materials used for the
core manufacturing has a benefic influence on their
efficiency. These superior materials enable higher
magnetic saturations and magnetic flux density, and thus
at the same output power less core volume is required.
This means a smaller amount of iron losses and greater
efficiency. The specific iron losses have also a
significant influence on the efficiency. Supplementary,
thinner laminations are also leading to iron core losses
decrease.
Most commonly the iron cores of the electrical
machines are manufactured from the classical
non-oriented silicon-iron alloys (NO SiFe), frequently
named as electric or lamination steels. These iron alloys
have up to 6.5% silicon and maximum 0.5% manganese
and aluminum. Their global production is round 10 Mt,
which is 80% of the world soft magnetic material
production [6].
Nowadays, a continually growing variety of
magnetic materials are getting greater and greater share
on the market. The developments are concerning new or
improved compositions, material processing and
delivery forms [6], [17]. These all are real engineering
challenge for all researchers working in the field of
designing improved efficiency electrical machines.
The NO SiFe alloys are saturated under 2 T, while
their specific iron losses are in the range of 0.9÷4 W/kg.
Unfortunately, the novel magnetic materials, as high (up
to 6.5%) Si content non-oriented silicon-iron alloys, the
36÷50% Ni content NiFe laminations or the Fe-based
amorphous materials (the so-called metallic glasses),
with less specific iron losses have also less magnetic
saturation [6].
Other competitors on this market are the soft
magnetic composites (SMC). They are isotropic Fe
powder particles bounded by an insulating coating,
manufactured by means of conventional powder
metallurgical processes. Their magnetic properties
compared with laminated NO SiFe alloy sheets are yet
slightly bad. But their three-dimensional (3D) isotropic
magnetic properties permit complex 3D magnetic flux
paths within special electrical machines construction,
enabling for numerous new and advanced machine
topologies [25], [26].
Therefore, in the very close future the high-quality
NO SiFe alloys do not have yet serious competitors for
mass product electrical machines, even if further
improvements in their performances are not possible
without increasing costs, or decreasing their mechanical
properties [27].
Any ferromagnetic material should be used, a
general requirement is to have very thin laminations (for
eddy current losses reduction), but still enough strong
from mechanical point of view [18].
C. Technology related improvements
The electrical machine manufacturers face a high
pressure for further improve the efficiency of their
products. Nowadays it is impossible to remain in
competition only by applying optimized design and
developing new machine structures. Advances must be
made also in technology to achieve higher quality and to
reduce costs [18], [28].
The electrical machines obligatory must be
assembled automatically. Hence production efficiency
can be improved, production scale improved and the
production can be cheaper.
By segmenting the iron cores into modules, stamping
and winding costs can be reduced, also lamination
material savings can be achieved [29].
Winding costs can be reduced by applying improved
winding schemes, which can enable an easier
manufacturing and also copper consumption reduction
[30].
IV. HIGH EFFICIENCY ALTERNATIVES OF
INDUCTION MACHINES
Several special electrical machines designed for a
specific application can achieve higher efficiencies than
general purpose IMs [31]. But in the category of mass
produced electrical machines the real competitors are
only the permanent magnet synchronous machines
(PMSM) and the synchronous reluctance machines
(SyncRel). The competition is becoming fiercer and the
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researches in the field more complicated as the
manufacturers are targeting the highest efficiency
classes, as super premium efficiency (IE4) and ultra
premium efficiency (IE5), which are very hard to be
achieved with squirrel cage IMs manufactured by means
of actual technologies.
In the last years line-start PMSMs of super premium
efficiency (IE4) class entered the industrial electrical
machines market. The price of the IE4 line-start PMSM
is about 2.2÷3.8 times higher than that of an equivalent
IE2 class squirrel cage IM. On the other hand, if it is
operating more than 6,000 hours per year, its payback
time is estimated to be less than 3 years. This can be
very attractive for all industrial actors [32]. Its single
drawback is due starting problems with high inertia load.
The SyncRel seems to be one of the best alternatives
to high efficiency IM. Its stator is identical to that of the
IM, but its rotor is passive (not having neither
permanent magnets, nor windings) [31], [33]. As it can
be seen in Fig. 7, the distinctive feature of this variable
reluctance motor is its rotor, having a special design
with optimized shape iron sheets and flux barriers. It has
high magnetic anisotropy due to its great saliency ratio,
the ratio of the inductances on the direct (d) and
quadrature axis (q).
Fig. 7. The cross section of the SyncRel.
The key of the very high efficiency is the passive
rotor, having very small losses (see Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Losses comparison of IM and SyncRel.
17
When compared with the IM, it has also good
efficiency when it is underloaded, and has higher torque
density and overload capacities. As less heat is
generated in its interior, it is more easy to be cooled
[34].
Syncrel has another significant advantage when
usual motors have to be replaced by energy efficient
ones. Since the high efficiency IMs are of greater size
than the usual ones at the same parameters, the high
efficiency SyncRels have the same centerline shaft
height as those to be replaced. Therefore, the upgrading
is easy and facile, without the need for mechanical
modifications [34].
It should be also mentioned, that although SyncRels
fulfill the IEC 60034-30 standard for an IE4 class
machine, they cannot be labeled as IE4 motors, since the
standard is only for grid connected electrical machines
[34].
CONCLUSIONS
The importance and global impact of applying more
efficient electrical machines was emphasized in the
paper. As the nowadays marketed electrical machines
are close to their maximum efficiency possible, and
there are a lot of design and exploitation related
approaches for efficiency improvements, the further
enhancements are a real engineering challenge for all the
specialist working in this field of engineering.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Romanian
Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research,
Development and Innovation Funding (UEFISCDI) via
the Small Wind Turbines Optimization and Market
Promotion (SWTOMP) ERANet-LAC project number
21/2017.
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