WATER QUALITY AND

WATER POLLUTION
 n
u sio
I n tr
Detergents-P e r Cl
t
a :N a
SS, Pesticides, NOM Human Waste: Organics, W
l TDS
t
N,,P& Pathogens Sa
Industries:
Organics, Salinity
Eutrophication
Cr,Cd,Pb, Hg
Stream Pollution

Bioaccumulation &
Natural Impurities: Biomagnification
Dissolved Solids: TDS:
Ca, Mg, HCO3, Fe, Mn,,
SO4, Cl, K, Mn, Even
Arsenic & Fluoride

IMPURITIES IN HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

 Size Classification of Impurities
Micrometer Scale
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1.0 10 102 103

Aqueous Salts Virus Protozoa Silt Sand

Metal Ions Bacteria (Coliform)

Trihalomethanes Clay Cryptosporidium

Pesticides Humic Acid

Dissolved Colloids Suspended Substances

Precipitation Coagulation & Flocculation Ultrafiltration, Microfiltration
Oxidation Ultrafiltration & Nanofiltration Sand Filtration
Reverse Osmosis Slow Sand Filtration
How Much ?? (mg/L) Organic, Inorganic, Color, Odor

Presence of impurities in such

quantity and of such nature as
to impair the use of water for
designated purpose
WATER POLLUTION
Drinking, Bathing, Industrial use,
Fishing, Recreation
 Impurities in Water

• Physical
• Chemical
• Bacteriological
• Biological
Water Quality ????
Effective Use
Water Quality ????
Effective Use
 Physical Water Quality Parameters

• Parameters respond to the senses of

• Sight: Suspended Solids: SS or TSS,
Turbidity, Color
• Touch: Temperature
• Taste: Taste
• Smell: Odor
 Suspended Solids

Suspended Solids:
– Volatile (Organic: Algae, bacteria)
– Inert/fixed (Inorganic: Clay, Silt)
• Generally used for Wastewater
• Surrogate parameter: Turbidity
– SS=0 (Clear groundwater) –
– 300 mg/L (sewage)-
– 1000 mg/L (Monsoon Rivers)-
– 100,000 mg/L (Food Industry wastewater)
 Suspended Solids
• Suspended Solids: SS or TSS
Drinking Waters

(Uses turbidity in place of TSS) Drinking Waters

Aesthetics, interference with other processes, treatment doses & sizing
(Turbidity)

Indian Standards Turbidty < 5 NTU
Natural Waters

Direct hazard to aquatic life: Settled & Causes Anaerobic Conditions

Siltation and hydraulic problems
Wastewaters

Measure strength & treatment efficiency

mass balance of solids for operation and sizing of sludge treatment, handling
& disposal facilities )

estimate of active biomass for process control (VSS) bacterial populations

Regulatory control on effluent (TSS) Indian Standards < 100 mg/L
 2. Pour
1. Weigh new Sample
filter and insert

5. Measure
Change in
Weight 3. Start
suction pump
4. Remove filter
Dry at 103oC and re-weigh

6. Divide this by the volume filtered

we get TSS Suction Flask
CEE 370 L#5 12
 Turbidity: Surrogate for TSS

• Normally used for

drinking water: Due to
very Low TSS
• Imparts opaqueness &
color
 Drinking Water
• Generally less than 1 NTU for clean water.
• India Standard : 5 NTU: turbidity of 5 NTU is just noticeable
in a glass of water. Developed Countries <0.3 NTU
• highly turbid harbor microorganisms capable of causing
disease in humans, or if the particles have adsorbed toxic
organic or inorganic compounds.
• The 1993 WHO Guidelines indicate that a turbidity above 5
NTU may give rise to consumer complaints.
• The United States EPA regulations require turbidity to be less
than 5 NTU
 Measurement
A measure of the clarity of a water. It is determined by light scattering
using a turbidimeter.

Sample Cell

Light Source

Photomultiplier

CEE 370 L#5 16

 Color
• By organic debris, leaves, tannins, humic acids: Natural
color
• Iron and Manganese: Brown & Blackish Color
• Different types of Industries.
• Measured by Spectrophotometer
• Aesthetic problem, Color causing substances react with
Chlorine and form THM
• Can be removed by Coagulation-Flocculation, Activated
Carbon Adsorption & Ozonation
 Taste & Odor

• Alkaline material: Bitter taste.

• Metallic Salts : Salty Taste.
• Organic Material: Reduced Products of Sulphur:
Rotten Eggs.
• Aesthetically displeasing for consumers.
• Removed by Activated Carbon Adsorption &
Ozonation.
 Temperature/Thermal Pollution

• Life threatening: Trout & Salmon

• Beneficial: for some fishes
• Within certain limits- promotes fish growth, fishing may
improve
• Sudden change in temperature—undesirable
With increase in temp.:
• Metabolic rate increases by a factor of 2 for each 10 degree C
rise in temp.
• DO requirement increases & Available DO reduces
 Chemical Water Quality Parameters
• Total Dissolved Solids:
– Major Ions (Ca, Mg, HCO3, SO4, Na, Cl)
• Hardness
• Fluorides
• Metals:
– Non Toxic: Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, Zn
– Toxic: Cr, Cd, Pb, Hg
• Organics
– Biodegradable
– Non-Biodegradable
• Nutrients:
– Nitrogen
– Phosphorus
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) or Salts
• Dissolved solids, or salts, may be present as any number
of ions
– Cations: Na+, K+, Mg 2+, Ca2+
– Anions: Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-
• Typically measures as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
• Water classification
– freshwater < 1500 mg/L TDS
– brackish water 1500 – 5000 mg/L
– saline water >5000 mg/L
– sea water 30-34 g/L
 Total Dissolved Solids

• Comprise sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate,

bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese,
nitrate (and nitrite) and phosphate.
• The palatability of drinking water has been rated according to TDS
concentrations as follows :

– mg/L quality
– <80 Excellent
– 80-500 Good
– 500-800 Fair
– 800-1000 Poor
– >1000 Unacceptable
 TDS Standards (Drinking Water)

• Water with extremely low TDS may taste flat and insipid
(tasteless).
• High TDS associated with excessive scaling in pipes, fittings
and household appliances.
• Based on taste, TDS < 500 mg/L is regarded as good quality
water
• TDS up to 1000 mg/L is acceptable to many communities
 TDS Measurement

• Take filtered Sample in

Crucible.
• Heat it 103oC in Hot air
oven
• Weigh Dry crucible.
• Increase in wt/ Vol. of
sample = TDS
 Electrical conductivity: Surrogate
for TDS

• TDS or Total Dissolved Solids is a measure of the total

ions in solution.
• EC is actually a measure of the ionic activity of a solution
in term of its capacity to transmit current.
• In dilute solution TDS and EC :
TDS (mg/L) = A x EC (µS/cm)
where A = 0.5
Conductivity Values
 Conductivity Meter

Calibrate Button

Put Auto calibrate button: put the

electode in 1413 micro s/cm or
0.01 M KCl solution conductivity
solution, it will autocalibrate
 Auto-Calibrated
Another Conductivity meter

Find conductivity of tap water sample

 High TDS

Irrigated Land Damaged by Salt

Country
(million Ha)

7.0
India
6.7
China
4.2
Pakistan
4.2
USA
2.4
Uzbekistan
1.7
Iran
1.0
Turkmenistan
0.9
Egypt
28.1
Subtotal
World Estimate
47.7
 Ion Balance (meq/L)
Ca Mg Na
HCO3- Cl- SO4-

% Error = + є meq of Cations – є meq of Anions * 100

є meq of Anions+ є meq of Cations

Ca = 55 mg/L, Mg = 18 mg/L, Na= 98 mg/L

HCO3 = 250 mg/L, SO4 = 60 mg/L, Cl 89 mg/L
Check its balance
 Hardness
A term often used to characterize the ability of a water to:

cause soap scum

Ca2+ + (Soap)- ↔ Ca(Soap)2 (s)

increase the amount of soap needed

cause scaling on pipes

cause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium
carbonate crystals

leave stains on plumbing fixtures
 Formation of Hardness
Precipitation

Topsoil

Subsoil

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Limestone CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 → Mg(HCO3)2
 Fluorides
• Occurs in few types of sedimentary or igneous
rocks
• Toxic to humans in large quantities: discoloration
of teeth if fluoride > 2mg/L
• > 5 mg/L causes bone fluorosis or other
abnormalities.
• Can be removed by alum and ion exchange
methods
 Sulphates & Chlorides
• Chloride-250 mg/L
– Taste
– Corrosion
– Palatability
• SO4 – 200 mg/L
– Gastro-intestinal
– No Long term health effect
– Palatability
– Scales
– Reduced Form odor and inhibit anaerobic activity
 Metals
• Na (non- toxic): Bitter taste and health hazard to
cardiac and kidney patients. Standard (250 mg/L)
• Iron & Manganese (non- toxic): Impart color.
• What about Iron (0.3 mg/L) , Mn (0.1 mg/L) &
Cu (0.05 mg/L) ? – So stringent ?
• Arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead
mercury: Hazardous: concentrated by food chains
and greatest danger to the top of food chain
organisms
 Heavy Metals
•Important ones- Hg, Pb, Cd, As
•Toxic Non-degradable
•Essential nutrients-Cr, Fe
•Cr, Cd in higher doses – nervous system / kidney damage,
creation of mutation , induction of tumors

•Inhaled / Ingested: Absorption –depends on particular

metal and form .
•Ex. Liquid Hg- not very toxic
•Hg Vapor- Highly Toxic/ enters lungs./ diffused in to
blood stream/ can pass in to the brain / damage the central
nervous system
 Heavy Metals

• Kidney/complex filter/ eliminate toxic substance

from body.
• Kidney- Contain millions of excretory units-
nephrons chemical toxic to kidney-
nephrotoxins
• Example Of nephrotoxic metals-Cd, Pb, Hg
 Pesticides

Kill undesirable organisms

Insecticides , herbicides,

Rodenticides,

Fungicides

Volatile Organic Compounds

Most commonly found contaminated in GW

Suspected carcinogens/ Mutagens

Can be removed by aeration
 DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Characteristics Standard Remarks
Color Colorless Generally cause by decaying vegetation or industries

Odor Unobjectionable Caused by biological reactions and sewage

Turbidity 5 NTU

Dissolved solids mg/L, 500 Beyond this palatability decreases and may cause gastro
Max intestinal irritation from minerals, metals

pH 6.5-8.5 Beyond this range, the water will affect the mucous membrane
and/or water supply system

Total Alkalinity 200 mg/L

Total hardness (as 300 Encrustation in water supply structure and adverse effects on
CaCO3) mg/L, Max domestic use
 Characteristics Standard Remarks
Chlorides (as Cl) mg/L, 250 Beyond this limit, taste, corrosion and palatability are
max affected

Fluoride (as F) mg/L, Max 1.0 Fluoride may be kept as low as possible. High fluoride may
cause fluorosis, Less than 1 mg/L help to prevent dental
activities in children.

Sulphate (as SO4) mg/L, 200 Beyond this limit, taste/appearance are affected, has adverse
Max effect on domestic uses and water supply structures

Nitrate (as NO3-N) mg/L, 45 as NO3-N Beyond this methaemoglobinemia takes place.
Max 10 mg/L as (bluish discoloration)
NO3

Bacterial Counts: Nil

 Organics in Water
Natural Sources
Human Activities
CHNO

Biodegradable Non-Biodegradable
Can be utilized by naturally Resistant to biological degradation:
occurring Microorganisms Exceptionally strong bonds

Starch Fats Protein Alcohols, acids, Tannic acid, lignic acid, cellulose,
aldehydes, esters phenols,Polysaccharides, benzenes,
detergents, insecticides, pesticides
Biodegradable Organics: Oxygen Demanding
Nature
 Dissolved Oxygen Depletion
Waste With Biodegradable Organics
 Oxygen-Demanding Material
• Increased Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
can result in
– anaerobic conditions.
– Anaerobic conditions lead to fish kills and bad smell
(H2S, NH3).
• High oxygen levels necessary for healthy stream ecology
– trout require 5-8 mg/L dissolved oxygen (DO)
– carp require 3 mg/L DO
– aesthetic problem <1 mg/L
 Biodegradable organics
Oxygen-Demanding Material
• Measured in Terms of BOD
• BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand): amount of
oxygen (DO, Dissolved Oxygen) required for the
biological decomposition of organic matter. The
oxygen consumed is related to the amount of
biodegradable organics.
• When organic substances are broken down in
water, oxygen is consumed
organic C + O2 → CO2
Measure of BOD =
Initial oxygen- Final
Organic C : protein, Carbohydrates, Fats etc., Oxygen after 5 days
in Human Waste
 Equivalent of Organics

• Oxygen Equivalent of Total Organics: COD

• Oxygen Equivalent of Biodegradable Organics:
BOD
• Oxygen Equivalent of non-Biodegradable
Organics: COD-BOD
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

• Amount of oxygen required by bacteria while

stabilizing the decomposable organic matter under
aerobic conditions.
• It involves the measurement of oxygen consumed
by living organisms.
 Biochemical Reaction
New Cells/CO2

Oxygen
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Measurement
• Take sample of waste; dilute with oxygen saturated water;
add nutrients and microorganisms (seed).
• Measure dissolved oxygen (DO) levels over 5 day.
• Temperature 20° C.
• In dark (prevents algae from growing), Plastic Bottle.
• Final DO concentration must be > 2 mg/L .
• Need at least 2 mg/L change in DO over 5 days.
 Simple BOD Measurement

Measure DO
after 3 or Five
days

Measure DO of the Put into 20oC incubator for

sample 5 days or 27o C for 3 days
 Calculations BOD
• If initial DO of a sample is 8 mg/L and final DO
after 5 days is 2 mg/L. What is the BOD of the
Sample.
• If initial DO of a sample is 8 mg/L and final DO
after 5 days is 0 mg/L. What is the BOD of the
Sample

54
 Dilution
Range of BOD in Dilution % Sample of volume in 300 ml Dilution Factor
mg/LO2 of BOD Bottle
0-6 No dilution 300 1

4-12 50 150 1/50 % = 2

10-30 20 60 5
20-60 10 30 10
40-120 5 15 20
100-300 2 6 50
200-600 1 3
400-1200 0.5 1.5
1000-3000 0.2 0.6
2000-6000 0.1 0.3
 Problem
• If the above sample is diluted 10 times, then
final DO after 5 days was 5 mg/L, What is the
BOD5 ?

Undiluted: Initial DO - Final DO = BOD

Diluted: ((Initial DO - Final DO)) x Dilution Factor
 Example 1

• A BOD test was conducted in the laboratory using

wastewater being dumped into River Yamuna.
The samples are prepared by adding 3.00 mL of
wastewater to the 300.0 mL BOD bottles. The
bottles are filled to capacity with seeded dilution
water.
 Example 1: Raw Data

Time Diluted Sample DO Blank Seeded Sample DO

(Days) (mg/L) (mg/L)
0 7.95 8.15
1 3.75 8.1
2 3 8.05
3 2.75 8
4 2.15 7.95
5 1.8 7.9
 Example 1: Calculations
• What is the BOD5 of the sample?
[(DOi − DO f ) - (Bi − Bf )(1 − P)]
BOD m =
P
P = dilution factor = volume sample/ total volume
Bi , Bf = initial and final DO concentrations of the
seeded diluted water (blank)
DOi , DO f = initial and final DO concentrations of the
diluted sample

• Plot the BOD with respect to time.

Example 1: Time – Concentration Plot

700
600
500
BOD (mg/L)

400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (days)
Modeling BOD as a First-order Reaction
 Modeling BOD Reactions

Assume rate of decomposition of organic waste is

proportional to the waste that is left in the flask.
dL t
= - kL t
dt
where Lt = amount of BOD left after time t
k = the BOD rate constant (time -1 )
Solving this equation yields :
Lt = L o e − kt
where Lo is the ultimate carbonaceo us oxygen demand
BOD Utilized
Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Lt = amount of O2 demand left in sample at

time, t
Lo = amount of O2 demand left initially (at time 0,
no DO demand has been exerted, so BOD = 0)
At any time, Lo = BODt + Lt (that is the amount
of DO demand used up and the amount
of DO that could be used up eventually)
Assuming that DO depletion is first order
BODt = Lo(1 - e-kt)
 Example 2
• If the BOD5 of a waste is 102 mg/L and the BOD20
(corresponds to the ultimate BOD) is 158 mg/L, what
is k (base e) ?

(
BOD t = L0 1 − e − kt
)
BOD t
1− = e − kt
L0

 BOD t 
ln1 −  = −kt
 L0 
 Example 2 (cont)
 BOD t 
− ln1 − 
 L0 
k=
t
 102 mg/L 
− ln1 − 
 158 mg/L 
k=
5 day

k = 0 .21 day -1
 Significance of k

700
600

K=0.6 day-1
500
BOD (mg/L)

400
300
K=0.2 day-1
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (days)
 Biological Oxygen Demand:
Temperature Dependence
• Temperature dependence of biochemical
oxygen demand
! As temperature increases, metabolism increases,
utilization of DO also increases
kt = k20θT-20
θ = 1.135 if T is between 4 - 20 oC
θ = 1.056 if T is between 20 - 30 oC
 Example 3
The BOD rate constant, k, was determined
empirically to be 0.20 days-1 at 20 oC.

– What is k if the temperature of the water increases

to 27 oC?
– What is k if the temperature of the water
decreases to 14 oC?
 Example 3
(
k 25 = 0.20 day (1.056)
-1
) 25 − 20

k 25 = 0.26 day -1

(
k10 = 0.20 day (1.135)
-1
) 10 − 20

k10 = 0.056 day -1

 Non-Biodegradable Organics
• Molecules with exceptionally strong bonds (some
polysaccharides) and ringed structures (benzene)
• Constituent of woody plants: tannic and lignin acids,
cellulose, phenols,
• Petroleum products, pesticides, industrial chemicals:
Toxic to microorganism.
• Total (Biodegradable+non Biodegradable) can be
measured in terms of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
• Individual Organics are Analyzed by GC &/or High
Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) and other
sophisticated methods
 COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
• Oxygen equivalent of the organic matter of a
sample susceptible to oxidation by a strong
chemical oxidant.
• Uses a strong chemical oxidant in an acid solution
and heat to oxidize organic carbon to CO2 and
H2O.
• Oxygen demand is determined by measuring the
amount of oxidant consumed using titrimetric or
photometric methods.
 Stochiometry of COD
−2 + =3  a
Cn H a Ob + Ψ Cr2 O + 8 Ψ H → nCO2 + 2 Ψ Cr +  4Ψ +  H2O
7
 2
Organic Strong Sulphuric Carbon dioxide Chromic acid
Matter Oxidant Acid
Potassium
Dichromate

HEATING 2 HOURS 150 OC

Orange Green
Colored Colored

2n a b
Where: Ψ= + −
3 6 3
 Dissolved Oxygen Depletion
Waste With Biodegradable Organics
Algae & Algal Blooms
 Nutrients
• N, P, ,K, S, Ca, Fe, Mn, B, CO: Essential for growth
• Considered Pollutants: It support the excessive
growth of aquatic life.
• Aquatic Species- Three important one: C, N, P
• Nutrient Enrichment: Blooms of algae/
– Diurnal variation of oxygen : remove DO/water cannot support normal
life forms/
– die, decompose – consume oxygen
– add color turbidity, odor, tastes/
– reduced acceptability for water supply
• Limiting nutrients- Seawater-N
• Fresh Water-P
Nutrients ( Nitrogen & Phosphorus)
• Principal sources are proteins, amines. Ammonia Nitrogen
is formed by the decomposition of these components.
Phosphorus from human waste & detergents.
• Although essential for primary production, an excess of
nutrients will result in eutrophication.
• Eutrophication will stimulate the growth of algae,
resulting in strong oxygen production during daytime.
• Respiration during the night and degradation of dead algae
will lead to anaerobic conditions (fish kills).
 Phosphorus

• Phosphorus is typically the limiting nutrient in lakes, and

algae growth is linked to phosphorus inputs.

• Problems
– aesthetic
– taste and odor in drinking water
– can be toxic, especially to farm animals
– fouling
– diurnal DO cycles
 Phosphorus
• P Sources
– fertilizers
– detergents
• P can exist in a variety of chemical forms, so total
P in normally measured
 Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient in ocean
waters and some streams
• Nitrogen can exist in numerous forms, but nitrate
(NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonia (NH3) are most
commonly measured
• Sources are primarily from human waste and
fertilizers.
 Biological Water Quality Parameters

• Water Body Hosting Large number of species with

well balanced number of individuals : Healthy
System
• Fish: Trout: Higher Quality of Water than Carp
• For Human Use and Consumption: Pathogens:
Capable of infecting or transmitting disease to
Humans
 Pathogens

• Bacteria, Virus, Protozoa, helminths: Water-related diseases

(e.g. gastro-intestinal, typhoid, shigellosis, hepatitis and
cholera) : main health concerns in the world.
• Often contamination through contact with water or via food
(e.g. via irrigated agriculture, or via fish/shellfish).
 Pathogenic Organisms

• Organisms colonize the intestinal tract but can live for a

period of time outside the body
• Carriers (who may or may not exhibit disease symptoms)
excrete these intestinal tract organism in very large numbers.
• When water is contaminated by excreta, the organisms can
be transmitted to those who contact the water.
Impacts on Human Health
 Pathogenic Organisms (Virus)
Virus (less than 1 micrometer, Associated Disease
smallest creature)
Poliovirus Poliomycetis
Hepatitis-A Virus Infectious Hepatitis
Adenovirus Respiratory, eye infections
Others Gastroenteritis, diarrhea
Nervous System disorders: Immunization
Poliovirus

Bacteriophage
Pathogenic Organisms (Bacteria)
Bacteria (unicellular, <10 micrometer) Associated Disease

Salmonella Typhi Typhoid fever

Shigella Bacillary dysentry
Vibrio Chlolera Cholera
Yesina Enterocolitica Gastroenteritis

Gastrointestinal Infections

Salmonella typhi
 Pathogenic Organisms (Protozoa)
Protozoa (10-50 micrometer, unicellular) Associated Disease
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebic dysentry
Giardia Lambia Diarrhea
Cryptosporidium Diarrhea

Milder Gastrointestinal Infections

Giardia Lambia
Pathogenic Organisms (Helminths)

Helminths Associated Disease

Hookworm Hookworm
Roundworm Ascariasis
Whipworm Trichuriasis

Parasitic Worms
Infection
 Classification of Water Associated
Diseases
Transmission Description Examples of diseases
mechanism

Water borne Oral ingestion of pathogens in water Cholera, typhoid, bacillary,

contaminated by urine or feces trachoma,

Water-washed Disease spread enhanced by scarcity Trachoma, dysentery

of water making cleanliness difficult

Water -based Water provides habitat for Schistosomiasis

intermediate organism, transmission
to human through water contact

Water Related Insect vectors (mosquitoes) rely on Malaria, yellow fever,

water for habitat, human water dengue
contact not needed
 Classification of Water Associated
Diseases
Transmission Description Examples of diseases
mechanism
Water borne Oral ingestion of pathogens in water Cholera, typhoid, bacillary,
contaminated by urine or feces trachoma,

Water-washed Disease spread enhanced by scarcity Trachoma, dysentry

of water making cleanliness difficult

Water -based Water provides habitat for intermediate Schistosomiasis

organism, transmission to human
through water contact

Water Related Insect vectors (mosquitoes) rely on Malaria, yellow fever,

water for habitat, human water contact dengue
not needed
 Trachoma
• Trachoma is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis and it is spread
by direct contact with eye, nose, and throat secretions from
affected individuals, or contact with fomites (inanimate objects),
such as towels and/or washcloths, that have had similar contact
with these secretions.
• Flies can also be a route of mechanical transmission. Untreated,
repeated trachoma infections result in entropion—a painful form
of permanent blindness when the eyelids turn inward, causing
the eyelashes to scratch the cornea.
• Children are the most susceptible to infection due to their
tendency to easily get dirty, but the blinding effects or more
severe symptoms are often not felt until adulthood.
Size of this preview: 787 × 600 pixels
 Disease Rates and Risk

Disease Vector Morbidity Mortality Population at

Risk
Diarrheal Microorganisms > 1.5 billion 4 million > 2 billion
Diseases

Schistosomiasis Water snails 200 million 200,000 500-600 million

Malaria Mosquitoes 267 million 1-2 million 2.1 billion

Onchocerciasis Backflies 18 million 20-50,000 90 million

Source : UNEP 1993

 Analysis of Pathogens
• Analysis of known pathogens time consuming. Test for
specific microorganisms only when needed.
• Generally purity of water is checked by using indicator
microorganisms.
• Indicator microorganism should be:
– Always present when pathogens are present and always absent when
pathogens are absent
– Applicable to all types of water.
– Native to intestinal track of humans
– For the safety of lab personnel's: not pathogen itself
 Indicator Organism

• Fecal Coliform groups, several strains principal is E

Coli.: Non pathogenic and longer survival time
outside the human body.
• Simple tests to determine the presence or absence
and enumeration.
• Membrane filter technique or multiple tube tests.
 Total Coliforms Analysis

Peptone (Dilution) Autoclaved Lauryl

Water Tryptose Broth
Series Dilution of Sample

(-) (+)
No. of TC calculated from MPN Sample Inoculation into Broth
Incubation at 35±0.5°C for 24
Table (APHA, 1998)
hr
 ( Environment)
(River Bathing Standards)
PARAMETERS PERMISSIBLE LIMIT

 BOD 3 mg/L (MAXIMUM)

 DO 5 mg/L (MINIMUM)
 COLIFORM (FAECAL) 500 (DESIRABLE)
MPN
2500 (MAX. PERMISSIBLE) 100 ml

BOD - BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

DO - DISSOLVED OXYGEN
MPN - MOST PROBABLE NUMBER
 Treated Water Quality Standards

INTO WATER BODY ON LAND

BOD (mg/l) 30 100

T S S (mg/l) 50 200

FAECAL (MPN/100 ml) 1000 (Desirable)

COLIFORMS
10000 (Maximum)

TSS : Indian Standards: 100 mg/L

NRCP (National River Conservation Plan): 50 mg/L
No Indian standards for Fecal coliforms