COMPUTER BASICS

HANDOUT

1
COMPUTER BASICS

Computer - Overview

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to
know about computers. Purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you about computer and its
fundamentals.

Functionalities of a computer

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output
 Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages

Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.

High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who
will spend many months for doing the same task.

Accuracy

2
COMPUTER BASICS

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has
been given.

Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.

3
COMPUTER BASICS

 Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the

program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in

paper work and results in speeding up a process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

Reduction in Cost

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages

Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena

No I.Q

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency

 It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being

Environment

 The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling

 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike a human being.

4
COMPUTER BASICS

COMPUTER

A computer is an electronics device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized
data) and manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of instructions
on how the data is to be processed. Complex computers also include the means for
storing data (including the program, which is also a form of data) for some necessary
duration. A program may be invariable and built into the computer (and called logic
circuitry as it is on microprocessors) or different programs may be provided to the
computer (loaded into its storage and then started by an administrator or user). Today's
computers have both kinds of programming.

The Advantages of Being Computer Literate in The Workforce

Computer literacy refers to the ability to use computer programs in an effective manner.
Computer skills have become increasingly important as companies have started to depend
upon computerized technology to get work done. Computer skills can mean that you can
perform tasks that others in the work force aren’t able to, and you are familiar with and
able to work with programs that businesses use. You will have a better chance of being
successful in a workplace if you are able to navigate computers and use common or
specialized computer programs.

Classification of Computers

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to
purpose, data handling and functionality.

According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose. General
purpose computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store
numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. Specific purpose computers are
designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is
built into the machine.

5
COMPUTER BASICS

According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers
work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained are translated into
data. Modern analog computers usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages,
resistances or currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated. Such computers do
not deal directly with the numbers. They measure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital
computers are those that operate with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in
a digital form. Such computers process data into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give
the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. Hybrid computers incorporate the
measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a digital computer. For
computational purposes, these computers use analog components and for storage, digital
memories are used.

According to functionality, computers are classified as:

Analog Computer

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses
continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved.

Digital Computer

A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented
as digits, usually in the binary number system

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital
and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of
performing complex simulations.

Computer - Types

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately
1
Computer) powerful microprocessor

6
COMPUTER BASICS

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of

2 Mini Computer
supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of
3 Main Frame supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software
technology is different from minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds
4 Supercomputer
of millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual

user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management
applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are
normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end
models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability
as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

7
COMPUTER BASICS

Minicomputer

It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users

simultaneously.

Mainframe

Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting

hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs
concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs

Supercomputer
8
COMPUTER BASICS

Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount
of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting,
scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical
prospecting).

Computer Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being

used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate
dates against each generation have been mentioned which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers

1940 – 1956: First Generation – Vacuum Tubes

These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
As a result, they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing a fortune to
run. These were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat, sucked huge
electricity and subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused ongoing breakdowns.
These first generation computers relied on ‘machine language’ (which is the most basic
programming language that can be understood by computers). These computers were
limited to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper

9
COMPUTER BASICS

tape. Output came out on print-outs. The two notable machines of this era were the
UNIVAC and ENIAC machines – the UNIVAC is the first every commercial computer
which was purchased in 1951 by a business – the US Census Bureau.
1956 – 1963: Second Generation – Transistors
The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second generation
of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used significantly in
computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement over the vacuum
tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat. However, they were
hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, cheaper and less
heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card for input/printouts.
The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic (‘assembly’) languages.
This meant programmers could create instructions in words. About the same time high
level programming languages were being developed (early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first computers to store instructions
into their memories – moving from magnetic drum to magnetic core ‘technology’. The
early versions of these machines were developed for the atomic energy industry.
1964 – 1971: Third Generation – Integrated Circuits
By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturized and put on silicon chips (called
semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of these
machines. These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards and
monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant leap up from the punch
cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run several applications at once using
a central program which functioned to monitor memory.
As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a new
mass market of users emerged during the ‘60s.
1972 – 2010: Fourth Generation – Microprocessors
This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the Intel
4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory,
input/output controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in the
palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year 1981
saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for home use and 1984 saw the
Macintosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond the realm of
computers and into an increasing number of everyday products.

10
COMPUTER BASICS

The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating
networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the
Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user interface
(GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in lap-top capability and
hand-held devices.
2010- Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence
Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of these
technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition.
AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning
to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and Nano technology.
The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately create
machines which can process and respond to natural language, and have capability to learn
and organize themselves.

Computer Applications (Uses of a computer)

Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Education:

Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to make
sense. College students spend an average of 5-6 hours a week on the internet. Research
shows that computers can significantly enhance performance in learning. Students exposed
to the internet say they think the web has helped them improve the quality of their academic
research and of their written work. One revolution in education is the advent of distance
learning. This offers a variety of internet and video-based online courses.

The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE

ComputerBasedEducation.
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.

11
COMPUTER BASICS

 There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to
educate
 the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried
out
 on this basis.

Health and Medicine:

Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical
information can now be digitized. Software is now able to computer the risk of a disease.
Mental health researchers are using computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of
psychotherapy. A patient paralyzed by a stroke has received an implant that allows
communication between his brain and a computer; as a result, he can move a cursor
across a screen by brainpower and convey simple messages. Computers have become
important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc., are also done
by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
Pharma Information System - Computer Checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful
drug’s side effects etc.
Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The
insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers
for their concerns. Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with
information showing

 procedure to continue with policies

12
COMPUTER BASICS

 starting date of the policies next due installment of a policy

 maturity date
 interest’s due
 survival benefits
 bonus
Science:

Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a
“collaboratory”, an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over
the world can work easily together even at a distance. An example is space physics where
space physicists are allowed to band together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from
instruments on four parts of the world.

Engineering Design

Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.

One of major areas is CAD Computeraideddesign. That provides creation and

modification of images. Some fields are:

 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipment’s.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.

Business:

Business clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness.
Some areas of business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing,
retailing, banking, stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better
educated and more knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must be
comfortable with computer technology. The internet has become a popular marketing tool.
The world of cybercash has come to banking – not only smart cards but internet banking,
electronic deposit, bill paying, online stock and bond trading, etc.

13
COMPUTER BASICS

Marketing

In marketing, uses of computer are following:

Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to
be filled by the customers.

Communication

Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received

and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main
areas in this category are:

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Recreation and Entertainment:

Our entertainment and pleasure-time have also been affected by computerization. For
example:

i) In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special effects
and even imaginary characters can play a part in making movies, videos, and commercials.

ii) In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets
for athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.

iii) In restaurants, almost everyone has eaten food where the clerk enters an order by
indicating choices on a rather unusual looking cash register; the device directly enters the
actual data into a computer, and calculates the cost and then prints a receipt.

14
COMPUTER BASICS

Government:

Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control and law
enforcement activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting,
Education, Aviation and many others. Computers play an important role in government.
Some major fields in this category are:

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

Defence:

There are many uses computers in Defence such as:

1) Controlling UAV or unmanned air-crafts an example is Predator. If you have cable I

would recommend watching the shows “Future Weapons" and “Modern Marvels". The
show future weapon gives an entire hour to the predator.

2) They are also used on Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that uses GPS and
Computers to help the missile get to the target.

3) Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the
incoming target to destroy them.

4) Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational
Awareness) and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.

5) Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting equipment’s to and
around the battlefield.

6) Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the
platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.

15
COMPUTER BASICS

7) Computers help design and test new systems.

Sports:

In today's technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every
activity.

Recording Information

Official statistics keepers and some scouts use computers to record statistics, take notes
and chat online while attending and working at a sports event.

Analyzing Movements

The best athletes pay close attention to detail. Computers can slow recorded video and
allow people to study their specific movements to try to improve their tendencies and repair
poor habits.

Writers

Many sportswriters attend several sporting events a week, and they take their computers
with them to write during the game or shortly after while their thoughts are fresh in their
mind.

Scoreboard

While some scoreboards are manually updated, most professional sports venues have very
modern scoreboards that are programmed to update statistics and information immediately
after the information is entered into the computer.

Safety

Computers have aided in the design of safety equipment in sports such as football helmets
to shoes to mouth guards.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS

16
COMPUTER BASICS

All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

Input- The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system

Store Data- Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and
when required.

Processing Data- Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert
them into useful information.

Output Information- The process of producing useful information or results for the user,
such as a printed report or visual display.

Control the workflow- Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
operations are performed.

Input Unit

This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit
makes link between user and computer. The input devices translate the information into
the form understandable by computer.

CPU Central Processing Unit

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions program. It controls the
operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components

 ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Unit

Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from
computer. This unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into the form understandable by users.
17
COMPUTER BASICS

Computer – CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU consists of the following features:

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access memory(RAM).

Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are
two types of memories in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.

18
COMPUTER BASICS

 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/ Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely

 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of
above operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,

matching and merging of data.

19
COMPUTER BASICS

COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Several core components and ancillary subsystems comprise PCs. The core components
provide the basic functionality of the PC. Ancillary subsystems enhance the basic
functionality to support different applications, such as graphics imaging, multimedia
applications, and more. PCs are a package of matched components. The components are
matched for speed (somewhat tuned) to provide the best overall performance. It makes
little sense to have a super-fast Central Processing Unit (CPU) chip and a slow fixed disk
drive or slow Random Access Memory (RAM). Such a combination produces a slow
system. PCs are as fast as their most used and slowest component. Sometimes fixing PC
problems is making sure that the PC components are properly matched for speed.
However, the best PC is always the most reliable PC. Nerds may brag about their fast
PCs, but their PCs rarely fail.

The PC core components ranked from fastest to slowest are:

 CPU chip—fastest
 RAM
 Display adapter
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 Fixed disk drive
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
 Network adapter
 CD-ROM drive
 CD Rewriteable (CD-RW) drive
 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) drive
 Floppy disk drive
 Parallel port
 Serial port
 Mouse
 Keyboard
 The nut behind the keyboard—slowest

Components and subsystems fall into three categories: hardware, software, and network.
Hardware components are those components physically installed in the PC or connected
to it.

20
COMPUTER BASICS

Network connections are either dialup or Local Area Network (LAN). Cable modem and
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) connections are LAN connections as well. The network
connections are attached to PC hardware components and work in conjunction with other
computers and networking hardware residing somewhere on the attached network.

Hardware Components

PC hardware core components include the CPU chip, the ROM, the RAM, chip sets and
buses, the power supply, serial and parallel Input/output (I/O) ports, the floppy disk
controller and drive, the fixed disk controller and drive, the CD-ROM drive, the DVD-
ROM drive, the display adapter and monitor, the keyboard, and the mouse. See Figure 1–
1. These components provide all basic PC functions. Ancillary subsystems are sound
cards, LAN adapters, video cameras, and so forth.

1 Typical PC system.

The main PC chassis contains the central component for all PCs, the Main
Logic Board (MLB). This is sometimes referred to as the system board or
motherboard.

The MLB is based on a specific CPU and supporting chip set. It has a specific bus
configuration and mounts the CPU, the ROM, and the RAM. Serial and parallel
interfaces, as well as the keyboard interface, bus mouse interface, floppy disk controller,
fixed disk Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) controllers, and USB ports are typically
built into the MLB. Proprietary systems and laptop PCs have Video Graphics Array
(VGA) display controllers incorporated into the MLB as well. Other controllers are bus-
connected cards inserted into the bus of the MLB.

Main Chassis

The main chassis or case is the box containing most PC components. Components may
be connected to the main chassis using USB connections. The main chassis would then
contain the PC's core components, and the ancillary subsystems would occupy desktop
space.

21
COMPUTER BASICS

The main chassis for the PC Advanced Technology (AT) contained the MLB, its installed
Intel 286 CPU chip, ROM, and RAM. The supporting chip sets provided Industry
Standard Architecture (ISA) 8-bit and 16-bit connectors for installing adapter cards.
Adapter cards typically installed in the AT were serial and parallel I/O controllers,
display adapters, and disk controllers. The typical AT style PC chassis contained the
floppy drive(s) and a fixed disk. The primary user input was by a keyboard. This was the
typical 1985 PC.

In the early 1990s, PCs changed. At that time, Microsoft Windows made a successful
entrance into the PC marketplace. It pressured PC manufacturers to change main chassis
components more rapidly than before. Similar to the 1980s PCs, most MLBs had an
installed Intel 386 or 486 CPU chip—although some supported Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD) CPU chips—external CPU cache RAM, ROM, and RAM. The MLB also
included the serial and parallel port I/O controllers and IDE fixed disk and floppy disk
controllers. The bus connections were mainly ISA 8-bit and 16-bit connectors. Some
systems had specialized connectors to speed up display and disk access. The Video
Electronics Standards Association (VESA) bus and Extended Industry Standard
Architecture (EISA) MLBs had connectors that supported higher speed transfers than the
ISA bus connectors.

Now PCs incorporate both these evolutionary changes and revolutionary changes. Their
MLB typically has Intel Pentium or AMD Athlon chips, RAM, ROM, built-in floppy
disk, IDE fixed disk, USB, bus mouse, and keyboard controllers. PCs sometimes include
a VGA controller and soundcard components as well. The chip sets and Basic
Input/output System (BIOS) support plug-and-play controller installation and sometimes
a combination of ISA and Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus connectors. New
MLBs are moving rapidly toward legacy-free configurations that support only plug-and-
play PCI bus and USB components. This just means that it will not be your father's PC

22
COMPUTER BASICS

anymore. Also, maintenance and troubleshooting procedures change to accommodate

new types of problems posed by these newer PC technologies.

Computer - Motherboard

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card,
sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be
considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard

A motherboard comes with following features:

 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

 Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of
memories.
 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to
function properly
 Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly
together.

Popular Manufacturers

 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI

Description of Motherboard

23
COMPUTER BASICS

The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws
through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal
components. It provides a single socket for CPU whereas for memory, normally one or
more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive,
and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed
for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound
cards and other expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer,
mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports
which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion for example,
pen drive, digital cameras etc.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is:

 the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

 that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

24
COMPUTER BASICS

Bit
(Binary
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active
Digit)-
state of a component in an electric circuit.

Nibble - A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte -
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which
can represent a data item or a character.

A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits

processed as a unit which varies from computer to computer but is
fixed for each computer.
Word -
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length
and it may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A
computer stores the information in the form of computer words.

Few higher storage units are following

Unit Description

Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte
1 MB = 1024 KB
(MB)

25
COMPUTER BASICS

Giga Byte
1 GB = 1024 MB
(GB)

Tera Byte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB

Peta Byte
1 PB = 1024 TB
(PB)

Computer - Memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small
parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to
memory size minus one. For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit
has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to
65535.

Memory is primarily of three types

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access
them.

26
COMPUTER BASICS

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.
The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided
into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories

 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.

27
COMPUTER BASICS

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can
access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories

 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Computer - Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine
is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

28
COMPUTER BASICS

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in
the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it
can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is
used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

 It has long life

 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

29
COMPUTER BASICS

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This
is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small.
All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

 It has short data lifetime

 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that
are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are
not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

30
COMPUTER BASICS

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of
data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are
inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM
chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40

minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more
than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-
violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet
light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli
second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence,
the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows:

 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified

31
COMPUTER BASICS

Computer – Ports

A port:

 is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer?
 can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to computer or over the internet.

Characteristics

A port has the following characteristics:

 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged
in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports:

Serial Port

 Used for external modems and older computer mouse

 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port

 Used for scanners and printers

 Also called printer port
 25 pin models
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

32
COMPUTER BASICS

PS/2 Port

 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port

 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

 Has 15 holes.
 Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector

 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket

Firewire Port

 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
 Invented by Apple
 Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector

33
COMPUTER BASICS

Modem Port

 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network

Ethernet Port

 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

 Connect network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the
network bandwidth.

Game Port

 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets

 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

Computer – Hardware

Computer hardware is the collection of physical components that constitute a computer

system. Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as
monitor, keyboard, computer data storage, hard disk drive (HDD), graphic card, sound
card, memory (RAM), motherboard, and so on, all of which are tangible physical
objects.[1] By contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware.

Hardware is directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A

combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system

34
COMPUTER BASICS

Examples of Hardware are following:

 Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

 Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.
 Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
 Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded
into the hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.

Computer - Input Devices

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone

35
COMPUTER BASICS

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in
inputting data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104
keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr.No Keys Description

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and
Typing
1 digit keys (0-9) which generally give same
Keys
layout as that of typewriters.
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor
Numeric movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17
2
Keypad keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.
The twelve function keys are present on the
Function keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top
3
Keys of the keyboard. Each function key has unique
meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It
includes four directional arrow keys. Control
Control
4 keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete,
keys
Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

36
COMPUTER BASICS

Special Keyboard also contains some special purpose

5 Purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Keys Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device

having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the
movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse
buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a

monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper
ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all
four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a

displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen

37
COMPUTER BASICS

is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing
element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball
requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball,
a button and a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the
hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from
the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the
disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also
known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

38
COMPUTER BASICS

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of

cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number
are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of
magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is
that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the
text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary
scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an
alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is
connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made
by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

39
COMPUTER BASICS

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller
the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can
be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some
disadvantages of CRT:

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. Example are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

40
COMPUTER BASICS

 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert

sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device)

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is
then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

41
COMPUTER BASICS

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers
are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character
printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size
(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is called
Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of
Daisy (flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers
are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be
sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

42
COMPUTER BASICS

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of
drum is divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e.
for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is
embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48-
character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum
printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, chain of character sets is used so it is called Chain Printer. A

standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

43
COMPUTER BASICS

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print
a complete page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.

 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Give good graphics quality
 Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive.
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

44
COMPUTER BASICS

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new

technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles
of printing modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of
Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Software

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A

program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software

 System Software
 Application Software

System Software

The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared

45
COMPUTER BASICS

by computer manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in

low-level languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,

Assemblers etc.

Features of system software are as follows:

 Close to system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often
called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are following:

 Payroll Software

46
COMPUTER BASICS

 Student Record Software

 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft Powerpoint

Features of application software are as follows:

 Close to user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

STORAGE DEVICE

A storage device is any computing hardware that is used for storing, porting and
extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and
permanently, and can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar
computing device. A storage device may also be known as a storage medium or storage
media.

47
COMPUTER BASICS

Storage devices are one of the core components of any computing device. They store
virtually all the data and applications on a computer, except hardware firmware. They are
available in different form factors depending on the type of underlying device. For
example, a standard computer has multiple storage devices including RAM, cache, a hard
disk, an optical disk drive and externally connected USB drives.

There are two different types of storage devices:

 Primary storage devices: Generally smaller in size, are designed to hold data
temporarily and are internal to the computer. They have the fastest data access
speed, and include RAM and cache memory.
 Secondary storage devices: These usually have large storage capacity, and they
store data permanently. They can be both internal and external to the computer,
and they include the hard disk, compact disk drive and USB storage device.

Examples of storage devices include:

 Hard disk
 DVDs
 CDs
 Magnetic tape
 Flash memory (USB memory sticks)

Computer - Data and Information

What is data?

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized

manner which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by
human or electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters(+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.).

INFORMATION

Information is organized or classified data which has some meaningful values for the
receiver.

48
COMPUTER BASICS

Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics:

 Timely - Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
 Completeness - Information should be complete.

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to

increase their usefulness and add values for particular purpose. Data processing consists
of basic steps input, processing and output. These three steps constitute the data
processing cycle.

 Input - In this step the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when
electronic computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of
several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.
 Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful
form. For example, pay-checks may be calculated from the time cards, or a
summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.
 Output - Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The
particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example,
output data may be pay-checks for employees.

49
COMPUTER BASICS

Computer - Number System

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number
system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent
different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.

A value of each digit in a number can be determined using

 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number
system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal
number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the
hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be written as

(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)

50
COMPUTER BASICS

(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)

1000 + 200 + 30 + 4

1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following

number systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.N. Number System and Description

Binary Number System
1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1
Octal Number System
2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7
Hexa Decimal Number System
3
Base 16. Digits used : 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows:

 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.

 Also called base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2 x
where x represents the last position - 1.

51
COMPUTER BASICS

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 101012 2110

Note : 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows:

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x
where x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Octal Number : 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
Step 3 125708 549610

Note : 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

52
COMPUTER BASICS

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows:

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E =
14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16).
Example 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16).
Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x
Step 1 19FDE16
160))10
((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x
Step 2 19FDE16
160))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note : 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one
base to another. We'll demonstrate here the following:

 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal

53
COMPUTER BASICS

 Other Base System to Non-Decimal

 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

steps

 Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant
digit) of new base number.
 Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
 Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new
base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes
zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

Example

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7 / 2 3 1
Step 4 3 / 2 1 1
Step 5 1 / 2 0 1

54
COMPUTER BASICS

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so
that the first remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder
becomes the most significant digit (MSD).

Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

Other base system to Decimal System

Steps

 Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).
 Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
 Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal.

Example

Binary Number : 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Steps

 Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

 Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

55
COMPUTER BASICS

Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step 1: Convert to Decimal

Octal
Step Decimal Number
Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10
Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5 / 2 2 1
Step 4 2 / 2 1 0
Step 5 1 / 2 0 1

Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Steps

 Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
 Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit. EG

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent:

56
COMPUTER BASICS

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Steps

 Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may
be treated as decimal for this conversion).
 Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single
binary number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps

 Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
 Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example

57
COMPUTER BASICS

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

 Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the

hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
 Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single
binary number.EG

Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

OPERATING SYSTEM AND USER INTERFACE

As already mentioned, in addition to the hardware, a computer also needs a program to

control the devices. This program is called an operating system, OS. This page will
discuss the following:

58
COMPUTER BASICS

 There are different kinds of operating systems: such as Windows, Linux and Mac
OS
 There are also different versions of these operating systems, e.g. Windows 7, 8
and 10
 Operating systems can be used with different user interfaces (UI): text user
interfaces (TUI) and graphical user interfaces (GUI) as examples
 Graphical user interfaces have many similarities in different operating systems:
such as the start menu, desktop etc.

When you can recognize the typical parts of each operating system’s user interface, you
will mostly be able to use both Windows and Linux as well as e.g. Mac OS.

Why an OS is important for the computer

An OS (operating system) is a set of programs which ensure that the computer and its
programs (the hardware and the software) are working together. Among other things, the
OS enables the following:

 Using devices connected to the computer: the OS recognizes peripheral devices

and enables their use through different application programs.
 Installing and using application programs: the application programs that you use
function ‘on top’ of the OS, as it were.
 File management: when you give an application program the command to save or
open a file, for example, the application program will send the command to the
OS, and it will relay the command to the devices connected to the computer.

In addition to the hardware (devices) and software (applications), the OS especially

manages files. Since the files contain digital data (e.g. photos, text, etc) that is important
to you, it is essential that the OS operates reliably! This is why you should always make
sure that the security updates for your OS are always up to date (read more about security
updates).

What happens when I turn on the computer?

– The computer starts to check the functionality of its parts and any devices connected to
it, and starts to look for the OS on its storage devices (hard drives or memories).
– If the OS is discovered, BIOS starts to load the OS into the RAM (Random Access
Memory).
– When the OS has loaded, the computer waits for commands from you.
59
COMPUTER BASICS

Objectives of Operating System

 To make a computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner

 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users and making it easier
for the users to access and use other resources
 To manage the resources of a computer system
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests,
according for resource using and mediating conflicting requests from different
programs and users
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs

Different operating systems

Over the years, several different operating systems have been developed for different
purposes. The most typical OSs in ordinary desktop computers and laptops are Windows,
Linux and Mac OS.

Windows

Windows is a commercial OS that uses windows to execute programs: each program has
its own window, and you can have several programs open at the same time. Windows is
the most popular OS for home PCs, and there are several versions of it. The newest
version is Windows 10.

Linux and Unix

Linux is an open-source OS, which means that its program code is freely available to
program developers. This is why thousands of programmers around the world have
developed Linux, and it is considered the most tested OS in the world. Linux has been
largely influenced by the commercial Unix OS.

In addition to servers, Linux is widely used in home PCs, since there are a great number
of free programs (freeware) (for text and image processing, spreadsheets, publishing,
etc.). Over the years, many different versions of Linux have become available for

60
COMPUTER BASICS

distribution, most of which are free for the user (such as Ubuntu, Fedora and Mint).
Please see the additional reading material for more information on Linux.

Mac OS X

Apple’s Mac computers have their own operating system, OS X. Most of the same
programs are available for computers that use OS X as for PCs, but the exact same
programs cannot be used in these two types of computers: the Mac version of the
Microsoft Office suite cannot be installed on a Windows computer, for example. You can
install other operating systems on Mac computers, but the OS X operating system is only
available for computers made by Apple. Apple’s lighter portable devices (iPads, iPhones)
use a light version of the same operating system, iOS.

Mac computers are popular because OS X is considered fast, easy to learn and very stable
and Apple’s devices are considered well-designed – although rather expensive. Please see
the additional reading material for more information on OS X.

Android

Android is an operating system designed for phones and other mobile devices. Android is
not available for desktop computers, but in mobile devices, it is an extremely popular
operating system: more than a half of all mobile devices in the world run on Android.

Functions of Operating System

There are Many Functions those are Performed by the Operating System But the Main
Goal of Operating System is to Provide the Interface between the user and the hardware. It
Provides the Interface for Working on the System by the user. The various Functions those
are Performed by the Operating System are as Explained below: -

Operating System as a Resource Manager

Operating system also known as the resource manager means, operating system will
manages all the resources that are attached to the system, means all the resource like
memory and processor and all the input and output devices that are attached to the system
are known as the resources of the computer system and the operating system will manage
all the resources of the system. The operating system will identify at which time the cpu
will perform which operation and in which time the memory is used by which programs.
And which input device will respond to which request of the user means when the input

61
COMPUTER BASICS

and output devices are used by the which programs. So this will manage all the resources
those are attached to the computer system.

Storage Management

Operating system also controls the all the storage operations means how the data or files
will be stored into the computers and how the Files will be Accessed by the users etc. All
the Operations those are Responsible for Storing and Accessing the Files is determined by
the Operating System Operating System also allows us Creation of Files, Creation of
Directories and Reading and Writing the data of Files and Directories and also Copy the
contents of the Files and the Directories from One Place to Another Place.

1) Process management: the operating system also treats the process management means
all the processes those are given by the user or the process those are system ‘s own process
are handled by the operating system. the operating system will create the priorities foe the
user and also start or stops the execution of the process and also makes the child process
after dividing the large processes into the small processes.

2) Memory Management: Operating system also manages the memory of the computer
system means provide the memory to the process and also deallocate the memory from the
process. and also defines that if a process gets completed then this will deallocate the
memory from the processes.

3) extended machine: Operating system also behaves like an extended machine means
operating system also provides us sharing of files between multiple users, also provides
some graphical environments and also provides various languages for communications and
also provides many complex operations like using many hardware’s and software’s.

4) mastermind: Operating system also performs many functions and for those reasons we
can say that operating system is a mastermind. it provides booting without an operating
system and provides facility to increase the logical memory of the computer system by
using the physical memory of the computer system and also provides various types of
formats like ntfs and fat file systems.

operating system also controls the errors those have been occurred into the program and
also provides recovery of the system when the system gets damaged means when due to
some hardware failure, if system doesn’t work properly then this recover the system and
also correct the system and also provides us the backup facility. and operating system also
62
COMPUTER BASICS

breaks the large program into the smaller programs those are also called as the threads. and
execute those threads one by one.

User interfaces

A user interface (UI) is the part of an operating system, program or device that the user
uses to input and receive data. A text user interface (TUI, see the image to the left below)
shows text, and its commands are usually written from the keyboard to the command line.
The functions of graphical user interfaces (GUI, right-hand image below) are carried out
by clicking and moving buttons, icons and menus with the mouse.

Larger image: text UI | graphical UI

If you look closer at the above images, you will see that they contain the same
information: the directory list of one of the computer’s directories, so note that you can
often carry out the same tasks with a computer regardless of which kind of UI you are
using.

Text user interface (TUI)

If you wish, you can use most operating systems with a text user interface. In this case,
you will give the commands as text (e.g. “cat tale.txt”), or by controlling the UI menus,
scroll bars, and other structures with the arrow keys and other keys.

63
COMPUTER BASICS

This demonstration will show you how to rename a file in a TUI: the example will show
both the ren (rename) and the dir (directory listing) commands. The use of a TUI does not
differ very much from a GUI (Graphical User Interface) controlled with e.g. a mouse
(many TUIs mirror GUIs).

To display the text-based Command Prompt in Windows, open the Start menu and type
cmd. Press Enter on the keyboard to launch the command prompt in a separate window.
With the command prompt, you can type your commands from the keyboard instead of
using the mouse.

Graphical user interface (GUI)

Most operating systems have a graphical user interface, i.e. instead of writing
commands their use is based on managing graphical objects (such as icons) with the help
of e.g. a mouse. The basic principle of GUIs is generally the same overall, so by knowing
how to use a Windows UI, you will most likely be able to use Linux, as well.

Most GUIs have the following basic components:

 a start menu with all the program groups

 a task bar showing the programs currently in use
 a desktop
 various icons and quick-launch icons.

Server (computing)

In computing, a server is a computer program ( O S) or a device that provides

functionality for other programs or devices, called "clients". A server operating system,
also called a server OS, is an operating system specifically designed to run on servers,
which are specialized computers that operate within a client/server architecture to serve
the requests of client computers on the network.

OR

A server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client)
computers over a local network or the internet. Although any computer running special
software can function as a server, the most typical use of the word references the very
large, high-powered machines that function as the pumps pushing and pulling data across
the internet. Most computer networks support one or more servers that handle specialized

64
COMPUTER BASICS

tasks. As a rule, the larger the network—in terms of clients that connect to it, or the
amount of data that it moves—the more likely it is that several servers play a role, each
dedicated to a specific purpose. Strictly speaking, the server is the software that handles a
task. However, the powerful hardware that supports this software is also usually called a
server because server software coordinating a network of hundreds or thousands of
clients requires hardware much more robust than what you'd buy for ordinary consumer
use.

Common Types of Servers

A large, general-purpose network supporting a medium-sized company will likely deploy

several different types of servers

Web servers, to show pages and run apps in connecting Web browsers

Email servers, to facilitate the sending and receiving of messages

FTP servers, to support the moving of files through File Transfer Protocol tools

Identity servers, to support logins and security roles for authorized users

Hundreds of different types of specialized server types support computer networks. Apart
from the common corporate types, home users often interface with online game servers,
chat servers and even streaming-audio services.

Network Server Types

Many networks on the internet employ a client-server networking model integrating Web
sites and communication services.

An alternative model—peer-to-peer networking—allows all devices on a network to

function as either a server or client as needed. Peer networks offer a greater degree of
privacy because communication between computers is more targeted, but most
implementations of peer-to-peer networking aren't robust enough to support very large
traffic spikes.

65
COMPUTER BASICS

Server Clusters

The word cluster is used broadly in computer networking to refer to implementations of

shared computing resources. Typically, a cluster integrates the resources of two or more
computing devices that could otherwise function separately (often, workstation or server
devices) together for some common purpose.

A Web server farm (a collection of networked Web servers, each with access to content
on the same site) function as a cluster conceptually. However, purists debate the technical
classification of a server farm as a cluster, depending on the details of the hardware and
software configuration.

Servers at Home

Because servers are just software, people can run servers at home, accessible only to
devices attached to their home network. For example, some network-aware hard drives
use the Network Attached Storage server protocol to allow different PCs on the home
network to access a shared set of files.

And the popular Plex media server helps people to consume digital media on TVs and
entertainment devices regardless of whether the media files are on the cloud or on a local
PC.

Most Popular Server Operating Systems

Popular server operating systems include Windows Server, Mac OS X Server, and
variants of Linux such as Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) and SUSE Linux Enterprise
Server.

Windows
When referring to an operating system, Windows or win is an operating environment
created by Microsoft that provides an interface, known as a Graphical User Interface
(GUI), for computers. Windows eliminates the need to memorize commands for the
command line (MS-DOS) by using a mouse to navigate through menus, dialog boxes,
buttons, tabs, and icons. If you are using a PC (IBM) computer, you are most likely using
a version of Windows. If you are on an Apple computer, you are using mac OS.

66
COMPUTER BASICS

Microsoft Windows was first introduced with version 1.0 on November 10, 1983. Since
its release, there have been over a dozen versions of Windows. The most current version
of Windows for end users is Windows 10.

USER ACCOUNT
What is a User Account?

A user account is a collection of settings and information that tells Windows which files
and folders you can access, what you can do on your computer, what are your
preferences, and what network resources you can access when connected to a network.

The user account allows you to authenticate to Windows or any other operating system so
that you are granted authorization to use them. Multi-user operating systems such as
Windows don’t allow a user to use them without having a user account.

In Windows, you can manage your computer’s user accounts by going to the “Control
Panel” and then to “User Accounts and Family Safety > User Accounts.”

A user account in Windows is characterized by the following attributes:

 User name – the name you are giving to that account.

 Password – the password associated with the user account (in Windows 7 or older
versions you can also use blank passwords).
 User group – a collection of user accounts that share the same security rights and
permissions. A user account must be a member of at least one user group.
 Type – all user accounts have a type which defines their permissions and what
they can do in Windows.

Windows 7 User Accounts

Windows 7 and earlier versions has three important types of accounts:

Administrator

The “Administrator” user account has complete control over the PC. He or she can install
anything and make changes that affect all users of that PC.

67
COMPUTER BASICS

Standard

The “Standard” user account can only use the software that’s already installed by the
administrator and change system settings that don’t affect other users.

Guest

The “Guest” account is a special type of user account that has the name Guest and no
password. This is only for users that need temporary access to the PC. This user can only
use the software that’s already installed by the administrator and cannot make any
changes to system settings.

Windows 8 User Accounts

Windows 8 introduces two new types of user accounts, alongside those already in
Windows 7:

Microsoft account

Microsoft accounts are user accounts with an associated e-mail address that give you
access to all Microsoft products and services. They always have password that’s not
blank. If you are using an outlook.com e-mail address (let’s say
howtogeek@outlook.com), you have a Microsoft account with that address.

To further complicate things, Microsoft allows people to create Microsoft accounts using
third-party e-mail services like Gmail. To simplify things for you, remember that you
have a Microsoft account when you use an email address to log into Windows or to any
Microsoft product or service.

Microsoft accounts work on multiple systems and devices. Therefore, you can use the
same account to log into all your Windows 8.x devices, your Xbox One console and your
Windows Phone. You don’t have to create a separate account for each device.

Microsoft accounts can be administrators or standard user accounts.

Local account

Local accounts are classic user accounts that exist locally and can use blank passwords.
For example, in Windows 7 all user accounts are local accounts. Local accounts can be
administrators or standard user accounts. They work on a single system only, so if you do
have multiple devices, you’ll have to create a separate account for each.

68
COMPUTER BASICS

User accounts provide the added benefit of letting you share the same computer with
several people, while having your own files and settings. Each person accesses his or her
user account without interfering with others.

How to tell them apart?

In Windows 8.x you can quickly differentiate local user accounts from Microsoft
accounts by looking at whether they use an email address or not. Look at the screenshot
below, sharing the Manage Accounts window, which is accessed by going to “Control
Panel > User Accounts and Family Safety > User Accounts > Manage Accounts.”

The first account, named Ciprian Rusen, is a Microsoft account. All the other user
accounts are local accounts. The Microsoft account is an administrator, which is marked
by the “Administrator” statement beneath its email address. All other user accounts are
standard user accounts because they do not have the “Administrator” statement.

What is a User Group?

As mentioned earlier, the user group is a collection of user accounts that share the same
security rights and permissions.

Windows has a long list of predefined user groups which includes “Administrators” and
“Users.” However, most predefined user groups do not have user accounts until the
administrator or third-party apps start customizing them. User groups can also be created
by third-party software and services like virtual machines which create hidden user
accounts and groups in order to provide different features or services.

A user account is a member of at least one user group while some user accounts are
members of two groups or more, depending on how they are set.

69
COMPUTER BASICS

For example, all user accounts that are set as administrators will be part of the
“Administrators” group. Standard user accounts are part of the “Users” group. However,
both types of user accounts will become members of the “Home Users” group, when you
start using the Homegroup networking feature in Windows.

User groups are managed automatically by Windows and you won’t need to fiddle with
them, even though you can if you are an administrator. This concept is important so that
you better understand how file sharing works, how permissions are assigned, etc.

What are File & Folder Permissions?

Permissions are a method for assigning access rights to specific user accounts and user
groups. Through the use of permissions, Windows defines which user accounts and user
groups can access which files and folders, and what they can do with them. To put it
simply, permissions are the operating system’s way of telling you what you can or cannot
do with a file or folder.

To learn the permissions of any folder, right click on it and select “Properties.” In the
Properties window, go to the Security tab. In the “Group or user names” section you will
see all the user accounts and use groups that have permissions to that folder. If you select
a group or a user account, then see its assigned permissions, in the “Permissions for
Users” section.

70
COMPUTER BASICS

In Windows, a user account or a user group can receive one of the following permissions
to any file or folder:

 Read – allows the viewing and listing of a file or folder. When viewing a folder,
you can view all its files and subfolders.
 Write – allows writing to a file or adding files and subfolders to a folder.
 List folder contents – this permission can be assigned only to folders. It permits
the viewing and listing of files and subfolders, as well as executing files that are
found in that folder.
 Read & execute – permits the reading and accessing of a file’s contents as well as
its execution. When dealing with folders, it allows the viewing and listing of files
and subfolders, as well as the execution of files.
 Modify – when dealing with files, it allows their reading, writing and deletion.
When dealing with folders, it allows the reading and writing of files and
subfolders, plus the deletion of the folder.
 Full control – it allows reading, writing, changing and deleting of any file and
subfolder.

Generally, files inherit the permissions of the folder where they are placed, but users
can also define specific permissions that are assigned only to a specific file. To make
your computing life simpler, it is best to edit permissions only at a folder level.

Why are Permissions Important to Sharing in Windows?

Permissions are important because when you share something in Windows, you actually
assign a set of permissions to a specific user account or user group. A shared folder can
only be accessed by someone with a user account that has the permission to access that
folder.

For example, when using the Sharing Wizard, you choose the user name or the user
group and then one of these two permission levels:

 Read/Write – it is the equivalent of the “Modify” permission level.

 Read – it is the equivalent of the “Read & execute” permission level.

When using the Sharing Wizard you will also see a permission level named “Owner.”
This is not a permission level per-se. It just signals that the folder you are about to share
is owned by the user account for which you see this entry. An owner has full control over
that folder. You will learn more about the Sharing Wizard and how to use it in lesson 6.

71
COMPUTER BASICS

When using advanced sharing, you can assign one of these three permission levels:

 Full Control – it allows reading, writing, changing, and deleting of any file and
subfolder.
 Change – it is the equivalent of the Modify permission level.
 Read – it is the equivalent of the Read & execute permission level.

When sharing resources with the network, you will encounter a special group that’s
named “Everyone.” This user group stands for anyone with or without a user account on
the computer who is sharing the resource with the network. As you will learn in future
lessons, this user group is very useful when you have a network with very diverse devices
and operating systems. Advanced sharing will be explained in detail, in lesson 7.

Why is it Useful to Use a Microsoft Account in Your Network?

Using a Microsoft account has both benefits (e.g. the ability to sync all your apps and
settings across multiple devices) and downsides (e.g. you will give more data to
Microsoft). From a network sharing perspective, using a Microsoft account can be useful
if you have a network with many PCs and devices with Windows 8.x:

 You log in with the same Microsoft account on all your devices, using the same
credentials.
 You don’t have to create separate local accounts on each computer or device with
Windows 8.x.
 Setting up permissions when sharing is easier because you don’t have to deal with
multiple local user accounts.
 Accessing network shares is also easier because you log in with the same user
account everywhere and you can quickly access everything that’s shared with it.

If you have a very diverse network that includes Macs, Chromebooks or Linux PCs
alongside Windows, then using a Microsoft account doesn’t provide any special benefits
from a network sharing perspective.

How to Create a Folder on a PC

When it comes to computers, the folder is the backbone of organization. Folders help you
separate, label, and move files with ease. Before you can utilize this basic function of a
computer, though, you have to know how to create one.

72
COMPUTER BASICS

1. Find the location where you want to create your folder. If you are going to be
accessing the files often, then you might want to consider creating the folder on
your desktop. Otherwise, your My Documents folder should do.

2. Create the folder. To create the folder, right-click on a blank spot and select New
→ Folder.

3. Name the folder. Type in a preferred name for the folder.

4. Fill the folder. After this you can drag any type of file that you want to organize
into your brand-new folder. You can then double click the folder at any time to
access those files.

How to turn off a computer

Unlike most electrical appliances, a computer shouldn’t be turned off by pressing the
same button that you pressed to turn it ‘on’. If you do that, you can actually lose data or
damage some of the processes in the machine. Think of turning off the computer properly
as letting it fall asleep – just pushing the ‘on’ button or unplugging the computer would
be like knocking it out with a punch!
Follow these step-by-step instructions to help you turn off your computer

These instructions are for Windows 7, but earlier versions are very similar.
Step 1: Click the ‘Windows’ button at the bottom left-hand corner of your screen.
Step 2: Click Shut down.

How to use a computer keyboard?

Whenever you use a computer, you'll probably use a keyboard

The most common kind of keyboard is referred to as a ‘QWERTY’ keyboard after the
keys on the top row of letters. It was invented by C L Scholes in the 1860s when he was
working out the best place to put the keys on a manual typewriter.

73
COMPUTER BASICS

Follow these step-by-step instructions to help you get to know what your keyboard can
do

So that you can carry out the simple exercises below, you’ll need a document open to
type into. Read our guides What is WordPad? and How to open WordPad. Then create a
WordPad document and go through the following steps.

Step 1: Have a good look at your keyboard. The most important keys are labelled on the
diagram below:

Some keyboards, especially those on laptops, will have a slightly different layout. For
example, yours might not have a number pad or the delete key may be in a different
place. But virtually all keyboards will have these important keys somewhere.

Step 2: The main keys are the letter keys. When you type just using these, you get lower-
case print. However, if you hold down a ‘shift key’ (there are two to choose from) at the
same time as you type, you’ll get UPPER-CASE letters.

Try typing your name, including capitals (UPPER-CASE) and spaces. The ‘space bar’
(which you press briefly to make a space) is the wide key at the bottom of the keyboard.

Step 3: If you make a mistake in your typing, there’s always a remedy.

To delete a letter, place your cursor (mouse pointer) just after the letter and click. Then
press Backspace briefly. (Always press briefly – otherwise, you’ll get repeated deletions,
spaces, letters or whatever.) Or place your cursor just before the letter, click and press
Delete.

Step 4: Now try typing a sentence:

74
COMPUTER BASICS

This is a good sentence to practise because it contains most of the letters of the alphabet.

Step 5: You can move the cursor along this sentence without deleting anything by using
the arrow keys:

Try moving the cursor backwards and forwards through your sentence.

Step 6: Now try using the number pad, if you have one.

To use this to type numbers, you have to press the Num Lock key. There may be an
indicator light at the top of the keyboard or on the ‘Num Lock’ key itself to show that it’s
on.

Step 7: You can also type using the numbers on the main keyboard. You’ll find them on
the row of keys above the top line of letters.
75
COMPUTER BASICS

Above these numbers are various symbols, which include ‘£’, ‘&’, ‘!’. To use these, hold
down the Shift key while you type. So if you press ’7′ on its own, you get ’7′, but if you
press ’7′ while you hold down the ‘Shift’ key, you get ‘&’.

Try typing:

You’ll find similar extra symbols elsewhere on the keyboard:

They operate in exactly the same way as the ones above the numbers.

Step 8: If you want everything to appear in upper case, press the Caps Lock key and then
type:

Again, an indicator light may come on to show that your capitals are ‘locked’. Don’t
forget to press this key again when you’re finished to turn ‘Caps Lock’ off.

76
COMPUTER BASICS

Step 9: The ‘Windows’ key comes in a number of different designs, such as the example
to the right.

It does exactly the same thing as the Windows button on the taskbar on your computer
screen. You can choose to open the ‘Start’ menu by pressing this key or by clicking the
button on the taskbar with your mouse.

Step 10: There are a number of ways that you can move round a web page. Try using the
keys below to see where they take you:

Step 10: You’ll be told to use the ‘Control’ (Ctrl) and ‘Alternate’ (Alt) keys for some
operations. When you do so, keep holding down one or the other key or both keys while
you press any other keys.

For example, if you press Ctrl, Alt and Delete all at the same time, a menu will open. To
make it disappear, press the ‘Escape’ (Esc) key in the top left-hand corner of the
keyboard.

77
COMPUTER BASICS

Step 11: Some of the things that you use the mouse for can be done with keyboard
shortcuts. These require you to hold down one key while pressing another, and often
involve using the ‘Ctrl’ and/or ‘Alt’ keys. Some people prefer using them to using the
mouse. There are many shortcuts.

How to use a mouse?

Your computer mouse lets you move the cursor (pointer) round the screen and then
‘click’ to start a program or begin writing in a particular place or open a menu to see what
choices you have. All desktop computers come with a mouse, and you can use one on a
laptop if you don’t like the touchpad that’s built into it.

Invented in 1963 by Douglas Engelbart, the computer mouse has developed over the
years and now comes in a variety of designs. It’s called ‘mouse’ because it has a basic
mouse shape and the cable that attaches it to the computer looks like a tail. When
referring to the device in the plural, both ‘mice’ and ‘mouses’ are acceptable, according
to the Oxford English Dictionary.

Mice were first made with two gear wheels to define direction and then with a ‘trackball’,
all of which moved in contact with a surface. Today optical mice that use light to detect
direction are more common. Mice can also be cordless, making them easier to move.

Follow these step-by-step instructions to help you get to know your mouse

Step 1: Pick up your mouse and have a look at it.

78
COMPUTER BASICS

At the front (which points away from you), there are two buttons – left and right. You
press or, more correctly, ‘click’ these to make things happen.

Most mice also have a wheel in between the buttons that you roll to move up and down
the screen – technically called ‘scrolling’.

Step 2: Learn to hold your mouse comfortably. It’s normally held between your thumb
and little finger like this:

79
COMPUTER BASICS

Step 3: Have a click. Use your index finger to click the left button and your middle finger
to click the right button:

If you’re left-handed, you can use the opposite fingers. However, you can also usually
change the preferences on your computer to swap which buttons do what.

Step 4: Try a double-click. This is done quite often on the left button. You have to click
twice, as quickly as possible. The first click tells the computer that you are in a particular
‘window’, and the second click tells it that you’re selecting a button or link or whatever
to do something in that window. If you click too slowly, the computer just thinks you’re
telling it where you are again and again, so do click quickly.
80
COMPUTER BASICS

Step 5: It’s time to practice. You’ll find some simple mouse exercises on the
SeniorNet.org website. To reach them from here, place the cursor over the highlighted
‘simple mouse exercises’ above – this is known as a ‘link’ – and click the left button. Did
you notice how the cursor turned into a little hand when it was over the link? That tells
you that you can click on that word or phrase to go somewhere else on that website or on
the internet as a whole.

Step 6: Now try a right-click. Just click the right button, paying no attention where the
cursor is on the screen. A menu will appear, giving you options. Whenever you right-
click, it opens a menu. If you move your cursor off the menu and left-click, the menu will
close.

In other Digital Unite guides, you’ll often be told to ‘click’ and sometimes to ‘double-
click’ or even ‘triple-click’. When it says this, it always means that you should use the
left button. If you need to ‘right-click’, you’ll always be told to ‘right-click’!

A guide to your computer desktop

Once you’ve turned on or logged on to your computer, what appears on your screen is
called the 'desktop'. This is like an entrance – you go through it to find anything that you
want to do on the computer.

Follow these step-by-step instructions to familiarize yourself with the basic parts of
your computer desktop
Step 1: The first, and most important, part is the 'work area', which occupies the majority
of the computer screen.
Step 2: If you use certain computer programs – now more commonly known as
‘applications’ or ‘apps’ – frequently, you can make it easier to reach them by placing a
shortcut to them anywhere on your desktop in the form of an ‘icon’, like those below
Step 3: At the bottom of the desktop is a darker narrow band. This is the ‘taskbar’.
Here’s where you’ll find small icons of various important programs and, on the right, a
‘Notifications’ area.
Step 4: If you press the ‘Windows’ icon in the far left-hand of your taskbar, you’ll get
access to frequently used programs, the search box for programs and files, your
documents, the ‘Shut down’ button and the control panel:
Step 5: When you click the Windows Explorer icon (see right) in the taskbar, you’ll
find the libraries where your documents, pictures, music and videos can be opened:

81
COMPUTER BASICS

Step 6: Go to the far right of the taskbar. Messages from Windows appear here, in the
‘Notifications’ area – for example, telling you that a piece of hardware that you’ve just
connected to is ready to use. You can also see the date and time, plus useful items such as
the volume control (which you click to open). Some of the icons may be hidden, but you
can see them by clicking the ‘up’ arrow on the left.
Step 7: Now learn more about how the icons in the taskbar work.
You can ‘pin’ programs that you regularly use to the taskbar and then open them even if
there’s another one already running in the work area.
When a program is running, its icon always appears in the taskbar, with a highlighted
outline. And if this one program is doing more than one thing, this will also be indicated
in the taskbar.
If you were to place your cursor over the Windows Photo Viewer icon now without
clicking, a small view of each file that’s open will appear:
You could now click on the view that you want to use to open that particular file.
This is how any program that you’ve opened more than once will work in the taskbar.

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be
considered as a computer network.
Computer Network Defined

A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are

called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most
commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers
can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A
network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to do more.

Types of Network Connections

Computer networks can be broken down historically into topologies, which is a

technique of connecting computers. The most common topology today is a collapsed
ring. This is due to the success of a network protocol called the Ethernet. This protocol,

82
COMPUTER BASICS

or a network language, supports the Internet, Local Area Networks, and Wide Area
Networks.

Star Topology

A star topology is a design of a network where a central node extends a cable to each
computer on the network. On a star network, computers are connected independently to
the center of the network. If a cable is broken, the other computers can operate without
problems. A star topology requires a lot of cabling.

Bus Topology

A bus topology is another type of design where a single cable connects all computers and
the information intended for the last node on the network must run through each
connected computer. If a cable is broken, all computers connected down the line cannot
reach the network. The benefit of a bus topology is a minimal use of cabling.

Collapsed Ring Topology

A similar topology is called a ring. In this design, computers are connected via a single
cable, but the end nodes also are connected to each other. In this design, the signal
circulates through the network until it finds the intended recipient. If a network node is
not configured properly, or it is down temporarily for another reason, the signal will
make a number of attempts to find its destination.

A collapsed ring is a topology where the central node is a network device called a hub, a
router, or a switch. This device runs a ring topology internally and features plugins for
cables. Next, each computer has an independent cable, which plugs into the device. Most
modern offices have a cabling closet, or a space containing a switch device that connects
the network. All computers in the office connect to the cabling closet and the switch.
Even if a network plug is near a desk, the plug is connected via a cable to the cabling
closet.

Characteristics of a computer network

 Share Resources from one computer to another

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network
and let other computers of the network use the machines available over network.

83
COMPUTER BASICS

Following is the list of hardware's required to setup a computer network.

 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards

Network Cables

Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is
Category 5 and 6 cable RJ-45.

Distributors

A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect
many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work. The solution
is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected
and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

84
COMPUTER BASICS

Router

A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other
devices that are part of a network. A router is equipped with holes called ports and
computers and other devices are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days
router comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connected without any
physical cable.

Network Card

Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot

be connected over a network. It is also known as network adapter or Network Interface
Card (NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are
of two types: Internal and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal
network cards are of two types in which first type uses Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) connection while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture
(ISA). Network cables are required to provide network access.

85
COMPUTER BASICS

External Network Cards

External network cards come in two flavours : Wireless and USB based. Wireless
network card need to be inserted into the motherboard but no network cable is required to
connect to network

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card are easy to use and connect via USB port. Computers automatically detect
USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card
automatically.

86
COMPUTER BASICS

Computer - Internet and Intranet

Internet

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer
networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have
permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to
users at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet. The
original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one
university to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A side benefit of
ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than
one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in
the event of a military attack or other disaster.

Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative and self-sustaining facility accessible to

hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the
total resources of the currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically,
what distinguishes the Internet is its use of a set of protocols called TCP/IP (for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Two recent adaptations of Internet
technology, the intranet and the extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP protocol.

For most Internet users, electronic mail (email) practically replaced the postal service for
short written transactions. People communicate over the Internet in a number of other
ways including Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Internet telephony, instant messaging, video
chat or social media.

The most widely used part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (often abbreviated
"WWW" or called "the Web"). Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instant
cross-referencing. In most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in text of a
different color than the rest; often this text is also underlined. When you select one of

87
COMPUTER BASICS

these words or phrases, you will be transferred to the site or page that is relevant to this
word or phrase. Sometimes there are buttons, images, or portions of images that are
"clickable." If you move the pointer over a spot on a Web site and the pointer changes
into a hand, this indicates that you can click and be transferred to another site.

Using the Web, you have access to billions of pages of information. Web browsing is
done with a Web browser, the most popular of which are Chrome, Firefox and Internet
Explorer. The appearance of a particular Web site may vary slightly depending on the
browser you use. Also, later versions of a particular browser are able to render more
"bells and whistles" such as animation, virtual reality, sound, and music files, than earlier
versions.

The Internet has continued to grow and evolve over the years of its existence. IPv6, for
example, was designed to anticipate enormous future expansion in the number of
available IP addresses. In a related development, the Internet of Things (IoT) is the
burgeoning environment in which almost any entity or object can be provided with a
unique identifier and the ability to transfer data automatically over the Internet.

Getting started with the Internet

The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices.
With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with
anyone else in the world, and much more. You can do all of this on your computer.

Connecting to the Internet

A device has to be connected to the Internet before you can access it. If you plan to use
the Internet at home, you'll usually need to purchase an Internet connection from an
Internet service provider, which will likely be a phone company, cable company, or the
government. Other devices usually connect through Wi-Fi or cellular Internet
connections. Sometimes libraries, cafes, and schools offer free Wi-Fi for their patrons,
customers, and students.

Browsing the web

Most information on the Internet is on websites. Once you are connected to the Internet,
you can access websites using a kind of application called a web browser.

A website is a collection of related text, images, and other resources. Websites can
resemble other forms of media—like newspaper articles or television programs—or they
can be interactive in a way that's unique to computers. The purpose of a website can be
almost anything: a news platform, an advertisement, an online library, a forum for
sharing images, or an educational site like us!

88
COMPUTER BASICS

A web browser allows you to connect to and view websites. The web browser itself is
not the Internet, but it displays pages on the Internet. Each website has a unique address.
By typing this address into your web browser, you can connect to that website and your
web browser will display it.

Navigating websites

Websites often have links to other sites, also called hyperlinks. These are often parts of
the text on the website. They are usually colored blue, and sometimes they are underlined
or bold. If you click the text, your browser will load a different page. Web authors use
hyperlinks to connect relevant pages. This web of links is one of the most unique features
of the Internet, lending to the old name World Wide Web.

Each website has a unique address, called a URL. You'll notice that when you click a
link, the URL changes as your browser loads a new page. If you type a URL in the
address bar in your browser, your browser will load the page associated with that URL.
It's like a street address, telling your browser where to go on the Internet.

When you're looking for specific information on the Internet, a search engine can help.
A search engine is a specialized website that's designed to help you find other websites. If
you type keywords or a phrase into a search engine, it will display a list of websites
relevant to your search terms.

Other things you can do on the Internet

One of the best features of the Internet is the ability to communicate almost instantly with
anyone in the world. Email is one of the oldest and most universal ways to communicate
and share information on the Internet, and billions of people use it. Social media allows
people to connect in a variety of ways and build communities online.

There are many other things you can do on the Internet too. There are thousands of ways
to keep up with news or shop for anything online. You can pay your bills, manage your
bank accounts, meet new people, watch TV, or learn new skills. You can learn or do
almost anything online.

Intranet

An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It may consist of

many interlinked local area networks and also use leased lines in the wide area network.
Typically, an intranet includes connections through one or more gateway computers to
the outside Internet. The main purpose of an intranet is to share company information and
computing resources among employees. An intranet can also be used to facilitate working
in groups and for teleconferences.

89
COMPUTER BASICS

An intranet uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other Internet protocols and in general looks like a
private version of the Internet. With tunneling, companies can send private messages
through the public network, using the public network with special encryption/decryption
and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another. Typically,
larger enterprises allow users within their intranet to access the public Internet through
firewall servers that have the ability to screen messages in both directions so that
company security is maintained. When part of an intranet is made accessible to
customers, partners, suppliers, or others outside the company, that part becomes part of
an extranet.

Similarities in Internet and Intranet

 Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

 Intranet sites are accessible via web browser in similar way as websites in internet.
But only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.
 In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/
gtalk over the internet.

Differences in Internet and Intranet

 Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few
PCs.
 Internet has wider access and provides a better access to websites to large
population whereas Intranet is restricted.
 Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the
need.

E-MAIL (ELECTRONIC MAIL OR EMAIL)

E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by

telecommunication. (Some publications spell it email; we prefer the currently more
established spelling of e-mail.) E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text.
However, you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images and sound files, as
attachments sent in binary streams. E-mail was one of the first uses of the Internet and is
still the most popular use. A large percentage of the total traffic over the Internet is e-
mail. E-mail can also be exchanged between online service provider users and in
networks other than the Internet, both public and private.

Whether it's a routine job, such as checking user permissions, or it's more complex like
creating thousands of new mailboxes after a merger, learn how Microsoft Office
Powershell can give administrators a familiar tool to manage their cloud-based services

90
COMPUTER BASICS

E-mail can be distributed to lists of people as well as to individuals. A shared distribution

list can be managed by using an e-mail reflector. Some mailing lists allow you to
subscribe by sending a request to the mailing list administrator. A mailing list that is
administered automatically is called a list server.

E-mail is one of the protocols included with the Transport Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols. A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol and a popular protocol for receiving it is POP3. Both Netscape
and Microsoft include an e-mail utility with their Web browsers.

What is the cloud?

You may have heard people using terms like the cloud, cloud computing, or cloud
storage. But what exactly is the cloud?

Simply put, the cloud is the Internet—more specifically, it's all of the things you
can access remotely over the Internet. When something is in the cloud, it means
it's stored on Internet servers instead of your computer's hard drive.

Why use the cloud?

Some of the main reasons to use the cloud are convenience and reliability. For
example, if you've ever used a web-based email service, such as Gmail or
Yahoo! Mail, you've already used the cloud. All of the emails in a web-based
service are stored on servers rather than on your computer's hard drive. This means
you can access your email from any computer with an Internet connection. It also
means you'll be able to recover your emails if something happens to your
computer.

Let's look at some of the most common reasons to use the cloud.

 File storage: You can store all types of information in the cloud, including files
and email. This means you can access these things from any computer or mobile
device with an Internet connection, not just your home computer. Dropbox and
Google Drive are some of the most popular cloud-based storage services.
 File sharing: The cloud makes it easy to share files with several people at the
same time. For example, you could upload several photos to a cloud-based photo
service like Flickr or iCloud Photos, then quickly share them with friends and
family.
 Backing up data: You can also use the cloud to protect your files. Apps like
Mozy and Carbonite automatically back up your data to the cloud. This way, if

91
COMPUTER BASICS

your computer ever is lost, stolen, or damaged, you'll still be able to recover these
files from the cloud.

What is a Computer virus?

“A Computer Virus is a malicious software program “Malware” that can infect a

computer by modifying or deleting data files, boot sector of a hard disk drive or
causes a software program to work in an unexpected manner”.

A computer virus resides on a host computer and can replicate itself when
executed. Virus can steal user data, delete or modify files & documents, records
keystrokes & web sessions of a user. It can also steal or damage hard disk space, it
can slowdown CPU processing.

Activation of Virus

When the computer virus starts working, it is called the activation of virus. A virus
normally runs all the time in the computer. Different viruses are activated in
different ways. Many viruses are activated on a certain data. For example, a
popular virus “Friday, the 13th” is activated only if the date is 13 and the day is
Friday.

According to Wikipedia “Computer viruses cause billions of dollars’ worth of

economic damage each year, due to causing systems failure, wasting computer
resources, corrupting data, increasing maintenance costs, etc”.

Damages caused by virus

Computer virus cannot damage computer hardware. It may cause many damages
to a computer system.

1. A computer virus can damage data or software on the computer.

2. It can delete some or all files on the computer system.
3. It can destroy all the data by formatting hard drive.
4. It may display a political or false message very few times.

Causes of Computer Virus

The following are the main causes of a Computer Virus.

Infected Flash Drives or Disks

Flash drives and disks are the main cause of spreading viruses. Flash drives and
disks are used to transfer data from one computer to other. A virus can also be
92
COMPUTER BASICS

copied from one computer to other when the user copies infected files using flash
drives and disks.

Email Attachments

Most of the viruses spread through emails. Email attachment is a file that is sent
along with an email. An email may contain an infected file attachment. Virus can
spread if the users opens and downloads an email attachment. It may harm the
computer when it is activated. It may destroy files on the hard disk or may send
the virus automatically to all email addresses saved in the address book.

Infected / Pornography websites

Thousands of insecure websites can infect computer with viruses. Most of the
websites with pornographic materials are infected, so by visiting these websites
the user’s computer also gets infected by virus. These websites are developed to
spread viruses or other unethical material. The virus is transferred to the user’s
computer when this material is downloaded. These websites may access the
computer automatically when the users visit them.

Networks

Virus can spread if an infected computer is connected to a network. The internet is

an example of such network. When a user downloads a file infected with virus
from the internet, the virus is copied to the computer. It may infect the files stored
on the computer.

Pirated Software

An illegal copy of software is called pirated software. Virus can spread if user
installs pirated software that contains a virus. A variety of pirated software is
available in CDs and from the internet. Some companies intentionally add virus in
the software. The virus is automatically activated if the user uses the software
without purchasing license.

Types of Computer Virus

1. Boot Sector Virus

From a user perspective, boot sector viruses are some of the most dangerous.
Because they infect the master boot record, they are notoriously difficult to
remove, often requiring a full system format. This is especially true if the virus has
encrypted the boot sector or excessively damaged the code. They typically spread
via removable media. They reached a peak in the 1990s when floppy disks were
93
COMPUTER BASICS

the norm, but you can still find them on USB drives and in email attachments.
Luckily, improvements in BIOS architecture have reduced their prevalence in the
last few years.

2. Direct Action Virus

A direct-action virus is one of the two main types of file infector viruses (the other
being a resident virus). The virus is considered “non-resident”; it doesn’t install
itself or remain hidden in your computer’s memory. It works by attaching itself to
a particular type of file (typically EXE or COM files). When someone executes the
file, it springs into life, looking for other similar files in the directory for it to
spread to. On a positive note, the virus does not typically delete files nor hinder
your system’s performance. Aside from some files becoming inaccessible, it has a
minimal impact on a user and can be easily removed with an anti-virus program.

3. Resident Virus

Resident viruses are the other primary type of file infectors. Unlike direct action
viruses, they install themselves on a computer. It allows them to work even when
the original source of the infection has been eradicated. As such, experts consider
them to be more dangerous than their direct-action cousin.

Depending on the programming of the virus, they can be tricky to spot and even
trickier to remove. You can split resident viruses into two areas; fast infectors and
slow infectors. Fast infectors cause as much damage as quickly as possible and are
thus easier to spot; slow infectors are harder to recognize because their symptoms
develop slowly.

In a worst-case scenario, they can even attach themselves to your anti-virus

software, infecting every file the software scans. You often need a unique tool –
such as an operating system patch – for their total removal.

4. Multipartite Virus

While some viruses are happy to spread via one method or deliver a single
payload, Multipartite viruses want it all. A virus of this type may spread in
multiple ways, and it may take different actions on an infected computer
depending on variables, such as the operating system installed or the existence of
certain files.

They can simultaneously infect both the boot sector and executable files, allowing
them to act quickly and spread rapidly.

94
COMPUTER BASICS

The two-pronged attack makes them tough to remove. Even if you clean a
machine’s program files, if the virus remains in the boot sector, it will
immediately reproduce once you turn on the computer again.

5. Polymorphic Virus

According to Symantec, polymorphic viruses are one of the most difficult to detect
for an anti-virus program. It claims anti-virus firms need to “spend days or months
creating the detection routines needed to catch a single polymorphic”.

But why are they so hard to protect against? The clue is in the name. Anti-virus
software can only blacklist one variant of a virus – but a polymorphic virus
changes its signature (binary pattern) every time it replicates. To an anti-virus
program, it looks like an entirely different piece of software, and can, therefore,
elude the blacklist.

6. Overwrite Virus

To an end-user, an overwrite virus is one of the most frustrating, even if it’s not
particularly dangerous for your system as a whole.

That’s because it will delete the contents of any file which it infects; the only way
to remove the virus is to delete the file, and consequently, lose its contents. It can
infect both standalone files and entire pieces of software.

Overwrite viruses typically have low visibility and are spread via email, making
them hard to identify for an average PC user. They enjoyed a heyday in the early
2000s with Windows 2000 and Windows NT, but you can still find them in the
wild.

7. Spacefiller Virus

Also known as “Cavity Viruses”, spacefiller viruses are more intelligent than most of
their counterparts. A typical modus operandi for a virus is to simply attach itself to a file,
but spacefillers try to get into the empty space which can sometimes be found within the
file itself. This method allows it to infect a program without damaging the code or
increasing its size, thus enabling it to bypass the need for the stealthy anti-detection
techniques other viruses rely on.

95
COMPUTER BASICS

Luckily, this type of virus is relatively rare, though the growth of Windows Portable
Executable files is giving them a new lease of life.

Protection from Computer Virus

Virus infects computer system if latest and updated version of an Antivirus

program is not installed. Latest Antivirus software should be installed on
Computer to protect it from viruses. A computer system can be protected from
virus by following these precautions.

1. The latest and updated version of Anti-Virus and firewall should be installed on
the computer.
2. The Anti-Virus software must be upgraded regularly.
3. USB drives should be scanned for viruses, and should not be used on infected
computers.
4. Junk or unknown emails should not be opened and must be deleted straightaway.
5. Unauthorized or pirated software should not be installed on the computer.
6. An important way of protection against virus is the use of back up of data. The
backup is used if the virus deletes data or modifies it. So, back-up your data on
regular basis. There are some great software’s that can back up your data
automatically.
7. Freeware and shareware software from the internet normally contain viruses. It is
important to check the software before using them.
8. Your best protection is your common sense. Never click on suspicious links, never
download songs, videos or files from suspicious websites. Never share your
personal data with people you don’t know over the internet.

Keeping Your Computer Clean

Cleaning your computer is essential to keeping it in good shape. Learn all about computer
clean up in this free lesson.

Keeping your computer physically clean

Dust isn't just unattractive—it can potentially damage or even destroy parts of your
computer. Cleaning your computer regularly will help you keep it working properly and
avoid expensive repairs.

96
COMPUTER BASICS

Cleaning the keyboard

Dust, food, liquid, and other particles can get stuck underneath the keys on your
keyboard, which can prevent it from working properly. The basic cleaning tips below
can help keep your keyboard clean.

1. Unplug the keyboard from the USB or PS/2 port. If the keyboard is plugged into
the PS/2 port, you will need to shut down the computer before unplugging it.
2. Turn the keyboard upside down and gently shake it to remove dirt and dust.
3. Use a can of compressed air to clean between the keys.
4. Moisten a cotton cloth or paper towel with rubbing alcohol and use it to clean the
tops of the keys. Do not pour alcohol or any other liquid directly onto the keys.
5. Reconnect the keyboard to the computer once it is dry. If you are connecting it to
a PS/2 port, you will need to connect it before turning on the computer.

Dealing with liquids

If you spill liquid on the keyboard, quickly shut down the computer and disconnect the
keyboard. Then turn the keyboard upside down and allow the liquid to drain.

If the liquid is sticky, you will need to hold the keyboard on its side under running water
to rinse away the sticky liquid. Then turn the keyboard upside down to drain for two days
before reconnecting it. Please note that keyboard may not be fixable at this point, but the
method above is probably the best option.

To prevent this situation altogether, we recommend keeping drinks away from the
computer area.

Cleaning the mouse

There are two main mouse types: optical and mechanical. Each is cleaned in basically
the same way, although the mechanical mouse requires a bit more work.

The basic cleaning tips below will help keep your mouse clean:

1. Unplug the mouse from the USB or PS/2 port. If the mouse is plugged into the
PS/2 port, you will need to shut down the computer before unplugging it.
2. Moisten a cotton cloth with rubbing alcohol, and use it to clean the top and
bottom of the mouse.
3. If you have a mechanical mouse, remove the tracking ball by turning the ball-
cover ring counter-clockwise. Then clean the tracking ball and the inside of the
mouse with a cotton cloth moistened with rubbing alcohol.

97
COMPUTER BASICS

4. Allow all of the parts to dry before reassembling and reconnecting the mouse. If
you are connecting it to a PS/2 port, you will need to connect it before turning on
the computer.

If you just want to give the mouse a quick cleaning, place it on a clean sheet of paper
and move the mouse back and forth. Some of the dust and particles should rub off onto
the paper.

Cleaning the monitor

Dirt, fingerprints, and dust can make your computer screen difficult to read; however, it's
easy to clean your screen when needed. There are monitor-cleaning kits you can buy,
but they may damage your monitor if they're designed for a different type of monitor. For
example, a monitor cleaner that is designed for glass screens may not work with some
non-glass LCD screens. The safest method is simply to use a soft clean cloth moistened
with water.

Do not use glass cleaner to clean a monitor. Many screens have anti-glare coatings that
can be damaged by glass cleaner.

1. Turn off the computer.

2. Unplug the monitor from the power. If you are using a laptop, unplug the laptop.
3. Use a soft clean cloth moistened with water to wipe the screen clean.

Do not spray any liquids directly onto the screen. The liquid could leak into the monitor
and damage the internal components.

Tips for cleaning other computer surfaces

From time to time, you should clean your computer case and the sides and back of the
monitor to avoid a buildup of dust and dirt. Here are a few tips you can use when
cleaning these surfaces.

Keep it cool

Don't restrict airflow around your computer. A computer can generate a lot of heat, so
the casing has fans that keep it from overheating. Avoid stacking papers, books, and
other items around your computer.

Many computer desks have an enclosed compartment for the computer case. If you have
this type of desk, you may want to position the case so it is not against the back side of
the desk. If the compartment has a door, you may want to leave it open to improve
airflow.

98
COMPUTER BASICS

Protecting your computer

Your computer faces many potential threats, including viruses, malware, and hard drive
failure. This is why it's important to do everything you can to protect your computer and
your files.

Safeguarding against malware

Malware is any type of software that is designed to damage your computer or gain
unauthorized access to your personal information. It includes viruses, worms, Trojan
horses, and spyware. Most malware is distributed over the Internet and is often bundled
with other software.

The best way to guard against malware is to install antivirus software, such as
Bitdefender, Norton, or Kaspersky. Antivirus software helps to prevent malware from
being installed, and it can also remove malware from your computer.

It's also important to stay smart when you're browsing the Web or using email. If a
website or email attachment looks suspicious, trust your instincts. Keep in mind that your
antivirus program may not catch everything, so it's best to avoid downloading anything
that might contain malware.

Backing up your computer

Imagine what would happen if your computer suddenly stopped working. Would you lose
any important documents, photos, or other files? It may be possible to repair your
computer, but your files may be lost forever. Luckily, you can prevent this by creating
backup copies of all of your files (or just the important ones) on an external hard drive
or an online backup service.

You can purchase an external hard drive and copy the contents of your computer to it.
The initial backup could take several hours, so you will need to select a period of time
when you do not need access to your computer. Running the backup overnight usually
works best. Follow-up backups should be conducted on a regular basis, but they should
not take as long.

One drawback is that an external hard drive can be lost, damaged, or stolen—just as your
computer might be. This is why it's important to keep your drive in a secure location
when not in use.

Online backup services

You can also back up your files to an online backup service like Mozy, Carbonite, or
Box. These services will back up your your files in the cloud, which means you'll be able
99
COMPUTER BASICS

to recover them from any computer with an Internet connection. The amount of storage
provided by these sites varies, and you will need probably need to pay a fee for adequate
storage space.

One drawback to online backup services is that the initial backup can be slow and may
even take days to upload if you have a lot of files. However, subsequent backups should
not take as long.

Other maintenance techniques

To keep your computer running smoothly, it's important to keep files and folders
uncluttered. Cluttered or unorganized folders make it more difficult to find the files you
need. Additionally, unwanted files can eventually fill up your hard drive, which will
make your computer slower and more difficult to use. Here are a few things you can do to
delete unwanted files and improve your computer's performance.

 Delete files: If you have any unwanted files, you can delete them manually. To do
this, drag them to the Recycle Bin or Trash, then empty it to permanently delete
the files.
 Run the Disk Defragmenter: Windows includes a Disk Defragmenter program
in the Control Panel. If your computer is running slowly, running Disk
Defragmenter can help to speed it up.
 Run a Disk Cleanup: Windows also includes a Disk Cleanup program in the
Control Panel. It scans your computer for temporary files and other files that can
be deleted. You can then delete the files to free up space on your hard drive.

Computer Abbreviations

 BIOS - This is the Basic Input Output System

BYTE - A byte is a storage unit for data.

 "K" is a Kilobyte which is 1024 bytes.

 "MB" is a Megabyte which is a million bytes.

 "GB" is a Gigabyte, which equals 1000 megabytes.

 CPU - This stands for the Central Processing Unit

 MAC - This is an abbreviation for Macintosh
 OS - Operating System
 PC - This is the abbreviation for personal computer.
 PDF - This represents the Portable Document Format
 RAM - This stands for Random Access

100
COMPUTER BASICS

 ROM - This is Read Only Memory

 VGA - The Video Graphics Array
 WYSIWYG - This initialism stands for What You See Is What You Get. It is
pronounced "wizziwig" and basically means that the printer will print what you
see on your monitor.

 FTP - This is a service called File Transport Protocol which moves a file between
computers using the Internet.

 HTML - HyperText Markup Language formats information so it can be

transported on the Internet.
 HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a set of instructions for the software that
controls the movement of files on the Internet.
 IP - This stands for Internet Protocol which is the set of rules that govern the
systems connected to the Internet. IP Address is a digital code specific to each
computer that is hooked up to the Internet.
 ISP - The Internet Service Provider is the company which provides Internet
service so you can connect your computer to the Internet.
 LAN - This stands for Local Area Network which is the servers that your
computer connects to in your geographic area.
 PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol is the set of rules that allow your computer to use
the Internet protocols using a phone line and modem.
 URL - This is the Uniform Resource Locator which is a path to a certain file on
the World Wide Web.
 USB - The Universal Serial
 VR - Virtual Reality simulates a three-dimensional scene on the computer and has
the capability of interaction. This is widely used in gaming.
 VRML - Virtual Reality Mark-up Language allows the display of 3D images.

Basic PC shortcut keys

Below is a list of some of the most commonly used basic shortcut keys that work with
almost all IBM compatible computers and software programs. It is highly recommended
that all users keep a good reference of these shortcut keys or try to memorize them.
Doing so will dramatically increase your productivity.

Tip: Besides the special character shortcuts listed here, some special characters are also
located on the number keys (below the F1 - F12 keys). You can enter these special
characters by pressing the Shift key and the number key that has the special character
listed on it.

101
COMPUTER BASICS

Shortcut Keys Description

Alt+F File menu options in current program.
Alt+E Edit options in current program
Alt+Tab Switch between open programs

F1 Universal Help in almost every Windows program.

F2 Rename a selected file
F5 Refresh the current program window
Ctrl+N Create a new, blank document in some software programs
Ctrl+O Open a file in current software program
Ctrl+A Select all text.
Ctrl+B Change selected text to be Bold
Ctrl+I Change selected text to be in Italics
Ctrl+U Change selected text to be Underlined
Ctrl+F Open find window for current document or window.
Ctrl+S Save current document file.
Ctrl+X Cut selected item.
Shift+Del Cut selected item.
Ctrl+C Copy selected item.
Ctrl+Ins Copy selected item
Ctrl+V Paste
Shift+Ins Paste
Ctrl+Y Redo last action
Ctrl+Z Undo last action
Ctrl+K Insert hyperlink for selected text
Ctrl+P Print the current page or document.
Home Goes to beginning of current line.
Ctrl+Home Goes to beginning of document.
End Goes to end of current line.
Ctrl+End Goes to end of document.
Shift+Home Highlights from current position to beginning of line.

102
COMPUTER BASICS

Shift+End Highlights from current position to end of line.

Ctrl+Left arrow Moves one word to the left at a time.
Ctrl+Right arrow Moves one word to the right at a time.
Ctrl+Esc Opens the START menu
Ctrl+Shift+Esc Opens Windows Task Manager
Alt+F4 Close the currently active program
Alt+Enter Open the Properties for the selected item (file, folder, shortcut, etc.)

QUESTIONS

1. What is internet?

2. What are the functions of Operating System

3. List four inputs and output devices

4.Write it in full

i. PDF
ii. HDMI
iii. DVI
iv. BIOS
v. FTP

5. Name five uses of a computer?

6. Explain Intranet

7.

Index number: ……………………………………………………………..

Signature…………………………………………………………………………..

103
COMPUTER BASICS

COMPUTER BASICS

HANDOUT

104