• Renewable sources of energy are
STEAM POWER PLANT
• Power is the basic necessity for the
economic development of a country.
• Development of heavy or large scale
industries as well as medium scale and
small scale industries, agriculture,
transportation, etc., depend on electric
power generation
• It is therefore necessary to utilise the
present resources of energy with utmost
care and with maximum efficiency.
• It is the duty of engineers and scientists
to find ways and means to supply the
required power at the cheapest rate.
Conventional and Non-conventional sources of
energy
• The basic energy sources for generating
electric power are thermal, hydel, and
nuclear.
• These sources are known as
"conventional sources of energy", as
these sources are used for the last two
hundred years for power generation.
• In the case of hydro-power, generation of
power is dependent at the mercy of the
nature.
• The other two resources, viz., thermal
and nuclear are exhaustible.
Renewable and Non-renewable sources of
energy
• Renewable sources of energy is neither
consumed nor converted into something
else. Examples: hydel, solar, wind, tidal,
geo-thermal.
• On the other hand, non-renewable
sources of energy are exhaustible.
Examples: fossil fuels (coal, petroleum
products), natural gas, nuclear fuel.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY SOURCES
• The various energy sources are grouped
under two main types.
• They are: Renewable energy sources and
non-renewable energy sources.
Renewable sources of energy
continuously produced in nature, and
they will not get exhausted eventually in
future.
• Examples: Hydel energy, solar energy,
wind energy, tidal energy, geo-thermal
energy and biomass.
• All the renewable energy sources have
their common origin in sun.
• Non-renewable sources of energy will get
exhausted eventually in future.
• Examples: Energy from fossil fuels.
Non-renewable sources of energy
• At the present rate of consumption,
unless new reserves are found, the
existing reserves of coal and oil will last
for another 150 and years respectively.
Commercial and Non-commercial energy
sources
• Energy sources like, coal, oil, gas, uranium
and hydel power are known as
commercial energy sources, because they
are directly used to produce electricity.
• Energy sources like, wood, dung, waste
etc. are known as non-commercial energy
sources. These are mainly used as fuel for
cooking and are also used in cottage
industries (e.g., smithy).
• In sugar mills also non-commercial energy
sources are utilised.
The energy sources available can also be classified
into three major types based on the yield of the
net energy. They are:
• Primary energy sources.
• Secondary energy sources.
• Supplementary energy sources.
Primary energy sources
• The energy source which provides a net
supply of energy is called primary energy
source.
• Examples: coal, natural gas, uranium, oil
etc. The energy to be expended to obtain
these fuels is very much less than the
energy that can be obtained from them
by combustion or nuclear reaction.
Secondary energy sources
 • From the secondary energy sources, the
yield of energy is less than the input.
• Examples: solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, water energy, etc.
Supplementary energy sources
• If the net energy yield provided by the
energy source is zero, it is called
supplementary energy source. Example:
thermal insulation.
LAYOUT OF STEAM POWER PLANT
• Steam is an important medium for
producing mechanical energy.
• Steam is used to drive steam engines and
steam turbines.
Steam has the following advantages.
1. Steam can be raised quickly from water
which is available in plenty.
2. It does not react much with materials of
the equipment used in power plants.
3. It is stable at temperatures required in
the plant.
Equipment of a Steam Power Plant
A steam power plant must have the following
equipment.
1. A furnace for burning the fuel.
2. A steam generator or boiler for steam
generation.
3. A power unit like an engine or turbine to
convert heat energy into mechanical
energy.
4. A generator to convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
5. Piping system to carry steam and water.
The working of a steam power plant can be
explained in four circuits.
Water and Steam circuit
1. Fuel (coal) and ash circuit.
2. Air and flue gas circuit.
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit.
4. Cooling water flow circuit.
Coal and Ash circuit
• This includes coal delivery, preparation,
coal handling, boiler furnace, ash
handling and ash storage.
• The coal from coal mines is delivered by
ships, rail or by trucks to the power
station.
• This coal is sized by crushers, breakers
etc.
• The sized coal is then stored in coal
storage (stock yard).
• From the stock yard, the coal is
transferred to the boiler furnace by
means of conveyors, elevators etc.
• The coal is burnt in the boiler furnace and
ash is formed by burning of coal.
• Ash coming out of the furnace will be too
hot, dusty and accompanied by some
poisonous gases.
• The ash is transferred to ash storage.
Usually, the ash is quenched to reduced
temperature, corrosion and dust content.
• There are different methods employed
for the disposal of ash.
• They are hydraulic system, water jetting,
ash sluice ways, pneumatic system etc.
• In large power plants hydraulic system is
used.
• In this system, ash falls from the furnace
grate into high velocity water stream.
• It is then carried to the slumps.
• It consists of feed pump, economiser,
boiler drum, superheater, turbine
condenser etc.
• Feed water is pumped to the economiser
from the hot well.
• This water is preheated by the flue gases
in the economiser.
 • This preheated water is then supplied to
the boiler drum.
• Heat is transferred to the water by the
burning of coal.
• Due to this, water is converted into
steam.
• The steam raised in boiler is passed
through a super heater.
• It is superheated by the flue gases.
• The superheated steam is then expanded
in a turbine to do work.
• The turbine drives a generator to produce
electric power.
• The expanded (exhaust) steam is then
passed through the condenser.
• In the condenser, the steam is condensed
into water and recirculated.
• A line diagram of water and steam circuit
is shown separately in figure 1.3.
Cooling water circuit
Air and Flue gas circuit
• It consists of forced draught fan, air pre-
heater, boiler furnace, superheaterer,
economiser, dust collector, induced
draught fan, chimney etc.
• Air is taken from the atmosphere.
• The action of a forced draught fan.
• It is passed through an air pre-heater.
• The air is preheated by the flue gases in
the pre-heater.
• This pre-heated air is supplied to the
furnace to lid the combustion of fuel.
• Due to combustion of fuel, hot gases (flue
gases) are formed.
• The flue gases from the furnace pass over
boiler tubes and superheater tubes.
• (In
• XJiler,wet steam is generated and in
superheater the wet steam is
superheated by the flue ;ashes.)
• Then the flue gases pass through
economiser to heat the feed water.
• After that, it passes through the air pre-
heater to pre-heat the incoming air.
• It is then passed through a dust catching
device (dust collector).
• Finally, it is exhausted to the atmosphere
through chimney.
• A line diagram of air and flue gas circuit is
shown separately in figure 104.
• This circuit includes a pump, condenser,
cooling tower etc.
• The exhaust steam from the turbine is
condensed in a condenser.
• In the condenser, cold water is circulated
to condense the steam into water.
• The steam is condensed by losing its
latent heat to the circulating cold water.
• Thus the circulating water is heated. This
hot water is then taken to a cooling
tower.
• In cooling tower, the water is sprayed in
the form of droplets through nozzles.
 • The atmospheric air enters the cooling Fuel transportation, handling and
8.
tower from the openings provided at the storage charges are more.
bottom of the tower. FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM
• This air removes heat from water. Cooled
water is collected in a pond (known as • Coal delivery equipment is one of the
cooling pond). major components of plant cost.
• This cold water is again circulated through • The various involved in coal handling are
the pump, condenser and cooling tower. as follows:
• Thus the cycle is repeated again and
again. Some amount of water may be lost
during the circulation due to vaporisation
etc.
• Hence, make up water is added to the
pond by means of a pump. This water is
obtained from a river or lake.
• A line diagram of cooling water circuit is
shown in figure 1.5 separately.

Merits (Advantages) of a Thermal Power Plant

1. The unit capacity of a thermal power

plant is more. The cost of unit
decreases with the increase in unit
capacity.
2. Life of the plant is more (25-30 years)
as compared to diesel plant (2-5
years).
3. Repair and maintenance cost is low
when compared with diesel plant.
4. Initial cost of the plant is less than
nuclear plants.
5. Suitable for varying load conditions.
6. No harmful radioactive wastes are i) Coal delivery
produced as in the case of nuclear
plant. • The coal from supply points is delivered
7. Unskilled operators can operate the by ships or boats to power stations
plant. situated near to sea or river whereas coal
8. The power generation does not is supplied by rail or trucks to the power
depend on water storage. stations which are situated away from sea
9. There are no transmission losses or river.
since they are located near load • The transportation of coal by trucks is
centres. used if railway facilities are not available.
ii) Unloading

De-merits (Disadvantages) of thermal power • The type of equipment to be used for

plants unloading the coal received at the
postation depends on how coal is
1. Thermal plants are Jess efficient than received at the power station.
diesel plants. • If coal is delivered trucks, there is no need
2. Starting up the plant and bringing of unloading device as the trucks may
into service takes more time. dump the coal to the outdoor storage.
3. Cooling water required is more. Coal is easily handled if the lift trucks with
4. Space required is more. scoop are used.
5. Storage required for the fuel is more. • In case the coal is brought by railway
6. Ash handling is a big problem. wagons, ships or boats, the unloading
7. Not economical in areas which are may be done by car shakes, rotary car
remote from coal fields.
 dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal
accelerators.
• Rotary car dumpers although costly are
quite efficient for unloading closed
wagons.
iii) Preparation
• When the coal delivered is in the form of
big lumps and it is not of proper size, the
preparation (sizing) of coal can be
achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers,
driers and magnetic separators.
iv) Transfer
• After preparation coal is transferred to
the dead storage by means of the
following ~'SteI11S:
Belt conveyor
• Figure 2.2 shows a belt conveyor.
• It consists of an endless belt moving over
a pair of end drums (rollers).
• At some distance a supporting roller is
provided at the centre.
• The belt is made up of rubber or canvas.
• Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer
of coal over long distances.
• It is used in medium and large power
plants.
• The initial cost of the system is not high
and power consumption is also low.
• The inclination at which coal can be
successfully elevated by belt conveyor is
about 200
• Average speed preferred than other
types.
Advantages of belt conveyor
1. Its operation is smooth and clean.
2. It requires less power as compared to
other types of systems.
3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged
quickly and continuously.
4. Material can be transported on moderate
inclines.
Screw conveyor
• It consists of an endless helicoids screw
fitted to a shaft (shown in figure).
• The screw while rotating in a trough
transfers the coal from feeding end to the
discharge end.
This system is suitable, where coal is to be
transferred over shorter distance and space
limitations exist.
The initial cost of the consumption is high and
there is considerable wear of screw.
Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m.
Bucket elevator
• It consists of buckets fixed to a chain ( as
shown figure).
• The chain moves over two wheels.
• The coal is carried by the buckets from
bottom and discharged at the top.
Grab bucket elevator
• It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or
track from one point to the other.
• The coal lifted by grab buckets is
transferred to overhead bunker or
storage.
• This system requires less power for
operation and requires minimum
maintenance.
• The grab bucket conveyor can be used
with crane or tower as shown in figure
below.
• Although the initial cost of this system is
high but operating cost is less.
Storage of Coal
• It is desirable that sufficient quantity of
coal should be stored.
• Storage of coal gives protection against
the interruption of coal supplies when
there is delay in transportation of coal or
due to strikes in coal mines.
• Also when the prices are low, the coal can
be purchased and stored for future use.
• The amount of coal to be stored depends
on the availability of space for storage,
transportation facilities, the amount of
coal that will whether away and nearness
to coal mines of the power station.
• Usually coal required for one month
operation of power plant is stored in case
of power stations are situated at longer
distance from the collieries whereas coal
need for about 15 days is stored in case of
power station situated near to collieries.
• Storage of coal for longer periods is not
advantageous because it blocks the
capital and results in deterioration of the
quality of coal.
Pulverised Coal Storage in Bunker
• Periodically a power plant may encounter
the situation where coal must be stored
for some time in a bunker, for instance
during a plant shut down.
• The bunker, fires can occur in dormant
pulverized coal from spontaneous heating
within 6 day of loading.
• This time can be extended to 13 days
when a blanket of CO2 is piped into the
top of the bunker.
• The perfect sealing of the bunker from air
leakage can extend the storage time as
two months or more.
• The coal in the bunker can be stored as
long as six months by expelling air from
above the coal with the use of Co2 and
then blanketting of all sources of air.
• A control system used for storing the
pulverised fuel in bunker is shown in
figure .
Pulverised Fuel Handling System
Two methods are in general use to feed the
pulverised fuel to the combustion chamber of the
power plant.
• First is ‘Unit System’ and
• second is ‘Central or Bin System’.
• In unit system, each burner of the plant is
fired by one or more unit pulverisers
connected to the burners, while in the
central system, the fuel is pulverised in
the central plant and then distributed to
each furnace with the help of high
pressure air current.
• Each type of fuel handling system consists
of crushers, magnetic separators, driers,
pulverising mills, storage bins, conveyors
and feeders.
 Ball and Race Mills

• The coal received by the plant from the

mine may vary widely in sizes.
• It is necessary to make the coal of
uniform size before passing the pulveriser
for efficient grinding.
• The coal received from the mine is passed
through a preliminary crusher to reduce
the size to allowable limit (30 mm).
• The crushed coal is further passed over
magnetic separator which removes
pyrites and tramp iron.

PULVERISING MILLS: Ball Mill

• A line diagram of ball mill using two
• In this mill the coal passes between the
classifiers is shown in figure.
rotating elements again and again until it
• It consists of a slowly rotating drum which
has been pulverised to desired degree of
is partly filled with steel balls.
fineness.
• Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the
• The coal is crushed between two moving
classifiers from where it moves to the
surfaces, namely, balls and races.
drum by means of a screw conveyor.
• The upper stationary race and lower
• As the drum rotates the coal gets
rotating race driven by a worm and gear
pulverised due to the combined impact
hold the balls between them.
between coal and steel balls.
• The raw coal supplied falls on the inner
• Hot air is introduced into the drum.
side of the races.
• The powdered coal is picked up by the air
• The moving balls and races catch coal
and the coal air mixture enters the
between them to crush it to a powder.
classifiers, where sharp changes in the
• The necessary force needed for crushing
direction of the mixture throw out the
is applied with the help of springs.
oversized coal particles.
• The over-sized particles are returned to
the drum.
• The coal air mixture from the classifier
moves to the exhauster fan and then it is • The hot air supplied picks up the coal dust
supplied to the burners. as it flows between the balls and races,
and then enters the classifier.
 • Where oversized coal particles are
returned for further grinding, whereas
the coal particles of required size are
discharged from the top of classifier.
PULVERISED COAL FIRING SYSTEM
Pulverised coal firing is done by two systems:
• Unit system or Direct system.
• Bin or Central system.
Unit System
• In this system (figure below) the raw coal
from the coal bunker drops on to the
feeder.
• Hot air is passed through coal in the
feeder to dry the coal.
• The coal is then transferred to the
pulverising mill where it is pulverised.
• Primary air is supplied to the mill, by the
fan.
• The mixture of pulverised coal and
primary air then flows to burner where
secondary air is added.
• The unit system is so called from the fact
that each burner or a burner group and
pulveriser constitute a unit.
Advantages
• 1. The system is simple and cheaper than
the central system.
• 2. There is direct control of combustion
from the pulverising mill.
• 3. Coal transportation system is simple.
Central or Bin System
• As shown in figure crushed coal from the
raw coal bunker is fed by gravity to a
dryer where hot air is passed through the
coal to dry it.
• The dryer may use waste flue gasses,
preheated air or bleeder steam as drying
agent.
• The dry coal is then transferred to the
pulverising mill.
• The pulverised coal obtained is
transferred to the pulverised coal bunker
(bin).
• The transporting air is separated from the
coal in the cyclone separator.
• The primary air is mixed with the coal at
the feeder and the mixture is supplied to
the burner.
Advantages
• I. The pulverising mill grinds the coal at a
steady rate irrespective of boiler feed.
• 2. There is always some coal in reserve.
Thus any occasional breakdown in the
coal supply will not affect the coal feed to
the burner.
• 3. For a given boiler capacity pulverising
mill of small capacity will be required as
compared to unit system.
Disadvantages
• 1. The initial cost of the system is high.
• 2. Coal transportation system is quite
complicated.
• 3. The system requires more space.
COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BURNING COAL
• Since the source of heat is the
combustion of a fuel, a working unit must
have whatever equipment is necessary to
receive the fuel and air, proportioned to
each other and to the boiler steam
demand, mix, ignite, and perform any
other special combustion duties, such as
distillation of volatile from coal prior to
ignition.
• Fluid fuels are handled by burners; solid
lump fuels, by stokers.
Classification of Combustion system
 • The hand firing system is the simplest
method of fuel firing but it cannot be
used in modern power plants as it gives
lower combustion efficiency, it does not
respond quickly to fluctuation loads.
Combustion equipment for steam boiler
Classification of mechanical stokers
• In small boilers, the grate is stationary
and coal is fed manually by shovels.
• But for more uniform operating
condition, higher burning rate and greater
efficiency, moving grates or stokers are
employed.
Stokers may be of the following types:
1. Travelling grate stoker
2. Chain grate stoker
3. Spreader stoker
4. Vibrating grate stoker
5. Underfeed stoker.
Travelling grate stokers
• The grate surface is made up of a series of
cast-iron bars joined together by links to
form an endless belt running over two
sets of sprocket wheels with a surface as
wide as needed (figure 2.12).
• A coal gate at the rear of the coal hopper
regulates the depth of the fuel bed.
• The gate can be raised or lowered as
needed.
• Simultaneous adjustment of grate speed,
fuel bed thickness, and air flow controls
the burning rate so that nothing but ash
remains on the grate by the time it
reaches the furnace rear.
• The ash falls into the ash pit as the grate
turns on the rear sprocket to make the
return trip.
• As the raw or green coal on the grate
enters the furnace, the surface coal gets
ignited from heat of the furnace flame
and from radiant heat rays reflected by
the ignition arch.
• The fuel bed becomes thinner toward the
furnace rear as the combustible matter
burns off.
• Under grate air pressures are varied by
dampers from front to rear of the stoker
to admit gradually reduced quantity of
primary air fed by the FD fan.
• The secondary air aids in mixing the gases
and supplies oxygen to complete
combustion.
Chain grate stokers
• A travelling type chain grate is shown in
figure 2. 13.
• The chain grate stoker consists of an
endless chain which forms a support for
the fuel bed.
 • The chain travels over two sprocket
wheels one at the front and other at the
rear of furnace as shown in figure.
• The front sprocket is connected to a
variable speed drive mechanism.
• The coal is fed by gravity from a hopper
located in front of the stoker.
• The depth of the fuel on the grate is
regulated by hand adjusted gate as shown
in figure.
• The speed of the grate varies at the rate
at which the coal is fed to the furnace.
• The combustion control automatically
regulates the speed of the grate to
maintain the required steam generation
rate.
• The ash containing a small amount of
combustible material is carried over the
rear end of the stoker and deposited in
the ash pit as shown in figure.
Advantages
• 1. It is simple in construction and its initial
cost is low.
• 2. It is more reliable in service therefore
maintenance charges are low.
• 3. It is self-cleaning stoker.
• 4. The heat release rates can be
controlled j ust by controlling the speed
of chain.
• 5. It gives high heat release rates per unit
volume of the furnace.
Disadvantages
• 1. The amount of coal carried on the grate
is small as the increase in grate size
creates additional problems.
• This cannot be used for high capacity
boilers (200 tons/hr. or more).
• 2. The temperature of preheated air is
limited to 180°C.
• 3. The clinker troubles are very common.
Spreader Stoker
• A spreader stoker is shown in figure .
• In this stoker the coal from the hopper is
fed on to a feeder which measures the
coal in accordance to the requirements.
• Feeder is a rotating drum fitted with
blades.
• Feeders can be reciprocating rams,
endless belts, spiral worm etc.
• From the feeder the coal drops on the
spreader distributor which spread the
coal over the furnace.
• The spreader system should distribute the
coal evenly over the entire grate area.
• The spreader speed depends on the size
of coal.
Advantages
• The various advantages of spreader
stoker are as follows:
• I. Its operation cost is low.
• 2. A wide variety of coal can be burnt
easily by this stoker.
• 3. A thin fuel bed on the grate is helpful in
meeting the fluctuating loads.
Method of Feeding Coal to Combustion Chamber
Overfeed supply of coal
• In case of overfeed stoker the coal is fed
on to the grate above the point of air
admission as shown in figure
The mechanics of combustion in overfeed stoker
is described below
• The pressurised air coming from F.D. fan
enters under the bottom of the grate.
• The air passing through the grate is
heated by absorbing the heat from the
ash and grate itself, whereas the ash and
grate are cooled.
 • The hot air then passes through a bed of
incandescent coke.
• As the hot air passes through
incandescent coke, the 02 reacts with C to
form CO2'
• The rate of carbonoxidation depends
entirely on the rate of air supply.
• The water vapour carried with air also
reacts with C in incandescent zone and
forms CO, CO2 and H2.
• Part of CO2 formed reacts with C passing
through incandescent zone and converts
into CO.
• The gases leaving the incandescent region
of fuel bed consist of N2' CO2' CO, H2 and
H2O·
• The raw coal is continuously supplied on
the surface of the bed.
• Here it loses its volatile matter by
distillation.
• The heat required for the distillation of
coal is given by incandescent coke below
the fresh fuel.
• The ignition zone lies directly below the
raw fuel undergoing distillation.
• The gases leaving the upper surface of the
fuel bed contain combustible volatile
matter formed from the raw fuel, N2,
CO2' CO, H2 and H2O.
• Additional secondary air is supplied at a
very high speed to create turbulence
which is required for complete
combustion of unburned gases.
• The combustion of the remaining
combustible gases is completed in the
combustion chamber.
• The burned gases entering the boiler
contain Nz, COz' 0z and HzO and some CO
if the burning is incomplete.
place and part of the broken volatile
matter reacts with the oxygen of air.
ASH HANDLING SYSTEM
• Boilers burning pulverized coal have dry
bottom furnaces.
• The large ash particles are collected
under the furnace in a water-filled ash
hopper.
• Fly ash is collected in dust collectors with
either an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
or a baghouse.
• Ash must be collected and transported
from various points of the plants.
• Pyrites, which are the rejects from the
pulverizers, are disposed of with the
bottom ash system.
Three major factors should be considered for ash
disposal systems.
1. Plant site.
2. Fuel source.
3. Environmental regulation.
• The sluice conveyor system is the most
widely used for bottom ash handling,
while the hydraulic vacuum conveyor is
the most frequently used for fly system.
Sluice Conveyor System
Hydraulic Vacuum Conveyor

Under-feed stoker
• In this type of stokers, the fuel and air
move in the same direction.

•
The reactions which take place in the
incandescent zone of under-feed stoker
are exactly the same as in the
incandescent zone of over-feed stoker
except some breaking of the molecular ASH HANDLING EQUIPMENT
structure of the volatile matter takes
 • Mechanical means are required for the
disposal of ash.
The handling equipment should perform the
following functions:
1. Capital investment, operating and
maintenance charges of the equipment
should be low.
2. It should be able to handle large
quantities of ash.
3. Clinkers, soot, dust etc. create troubles.
The equipment should be able to handle
them smoothly.
4. The equipment used should remove the
ash from the furnace, load it to the
conveying system to deliver the ash to a
dumping site or storage and finally it
should have means to dispose of the stored
ash.
5. The equipment should be corrosion and
wear resistant.
CLASSIFICATION OF ASH HANDLING SYSTEM
1. Hydraulic system.
2. Pneumatic system.
3. Mechanical system.
The commonly used ash discharge equipment is as
follows:
1. Rail road cars.
2. Motor truck. Etc.
Hydraulic System
• In this system, ash from the furnace grate
falls into a system of water possessing
high velocity and is carried to the sumps.
• It is generally used in large power plants.
• Hydraulic system is of two types, namely,
low pressure hydraulic system used for
intermittent ash disposal, second water
jetting system.
• Figure shows hydraulic system.
• In this method water at sufficient
pressure is used to take away the ash to
sump. Where water and ash are
separated.
• The ash is then transferred to the dump
site in wagons, rail cars or trucks.
• The loading of ash may be through a belt
conveyor, grab buckets.
• If there is an ash basement with ash
hopper the ash can fall, directly in ash car
or conveying system.
Water Jetting System
• Water jetting of ash is shown in figure.
• In this method a low pressure jet of water
coming out of the quenching nozzle is
used to cool the ash.
• The ash falls into a trough and is then
removed.
Pneumatic System
• In this system ash from the boiler furnace
outlet falls into a crusher where larger
ash particles are crushed to small sizes .
• The ash is then carried by a high velocity
air or steam to the point of delivery.
• Air leaving the ash separator is passed
through filter to remove dust etc. so that
the exhauster handles clean air which will
protect the blades of the exhauster.

Mechanical System
• Figure shows a mechanical ash handling
system.
• In this system ash cooled by water seal
falls on the belt conveyer and is carried
out continuously to the bunker.
• The ash is then removed to the dumping
site from the ash banker with the help of
trucks.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP)
• For power generation steam power plant
mainly depend on coal and other fossil
fuels to produce electricity.
• A natural result from the burning of fossil
fuels, particularly coal, is the emission of
fly ash.
• Ash is mineral matter present in the fuel.
• Two emission control devices for flyash
are the traditional fabric filters and the
more recent electrostatic precipitators.
• The fabric filters are large baghouse filters
having a high maintenance cost (the cloth
bags have a life of 18 to 36 months, but
can be temporarily cleaned by shaking or
back flushing with air).
DRAUGHT
• Draught is defined as the difference
between absolute gas pressure at any
point in a gas flow passage and the
ambient (same elevation) atmospheric
pressure.
• Draught is plus if P atm <P gas and it is
minus Patm> P gas.
• Draught is achieved by small pressure
difference which causes the flow of air or
gas to take place.
The purpose of draught is as follows:
• To supply required amount of air to the
furnace for the combustion of fuel.
• The amount of fuel that can be burnt per
square foot of grate area depends upon
the quantity of air circulated through fuel
bed.
• To remove the gaseous products of
combustion.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAUGHT
If only chimney is used to produce the draught, it
is called natural draught.
• Artificial draught
If the draught is produced by steam jet or fan it is
known as artificial draught.
• Steam jet draught
It employs steam to produce the draught.
• Mechanical draught
It employs fan or blowers to produce the draught.
• Induced draught
The flue is drawn (sucked) through the system by a
fan or steam jet.
• Forced draught
The air is forced into the system by a blower or
steam jet.
Natural Draught
• Natural draught system employs a tall
chimney as shown in figure below.
• The chimney is a vertical tubular masonry
structure or re-inforced concrete.
• It is constructed for enclosing a column of
exhaust gases to produce the draught.
• It discharges the gases high enough to
prevent air pollution.
• The draught is produced by this tall
chimney due to the temperature
difference of hot gases in the chimney
and cold external air outside the chimney.

• Due to this pressure difference (p), the
atmospheric air flows through the furnace
grate and the flue gases flow through the
chimney.
• The pressure difference can be increased
by increasing the height of the chimney or
reducing the density of hot gases.
Merits of Natural Draught
• 1. No external power is required for
creating the draught.
• 2. Air pollution is prevented since the flue
gases are discharged at a higher level.
• 3. Maintenance cost is practically nil since
there are no mechanical parts.
• 4. It has longer life.
• 5. Capital cost is less than that of an
artificial draught.
Demerits of natural draught
• 1. Maximum pressure available for
producing draught by the chimney is less.
• 2. Flue gases have to be discharged at
higher temperature since draught
increases with the increase in
temperature of flue gases.
• 3. Heat cannot be extracted from the flue
gases for economiser, superheater air
pre-heater, etc. since the effective
draught will be reduced if the
temperature the flue gases is decreased.
• 4. Overall efficiency of the plant is
decreased since the flue gases are
discharged higher temperatures.
Artificial Draught
• It has been seen that the draught
produced by chimney is affected by the
atmospheric conditions.
• It has no flexibility, poor efficiency and
tall chimney is required.
• In most of the modern power plants, the
draught used 'must be independent of
atmospheric condition, and it must have
greater flexibility (control) to take the
fluctuating loads on the plant.
• Today's large steam power plants
requiring 20 thousand tons of steam per
hour would be impossible to run without
the aid of draft fans.
• A chimney of any reasonable height
would be incapable of developing enough
draft to move the tremendous volume of
air and gases (400 x 103 m3 to 800 x 103
m3 per minute).
• The further advantage of fans is to reduce
the height of the chimney needed.
• The draught required in actual power
plant is sufficiently high (300 mm of
water) and to meet high draught
requirements, some other system must
be used, known as artifical draught.
• The artificial draught is produced by a fan
and it is known a fan (mechanical)
draught.
• Mechanical draught is preferred for
central power stations.
Forced Draught
• In a forced draught system, a blower is
installed near the base of the boiler and
air is forced to pass through the furnace,
flues, economiser, air-preheater and to
the stack.
• This draught system is known as positive
draught system or forced draught system
because the pressure and air is forced to
flow through the system.
• A stack or chimney is also used in this
system as shown in figure but its function
is to discharge gases high in the
atmosphere to prevent the
contamination.
• It is not much significant for producing
draught therefore height of the chimney
may not be very much.
Induced Draught
 will try to rush into the furnace as the
pressure inside the furnace is below
atmospheric pressure.
• This reduces the effective draught and
dilutes the combustion.

• In this system, the blower is located near

the base of the chimney instead of near
• To overcome both the difficulties
the grate.
mentioned above either using forced
• The air is sucked in the system by
draught or induced draught alone, a
reducing the pressure through the system
balanced draught is always preferred.
below atmosphere.
• The balanced draught is a combination of
• The induced draught fan sucks the burned
forced and induced draught. The forced
gases from the furnace and the pressure
draught overcomes the resistance of the
inside the furnace is reduced below
fuel bed therefore sufficient air is
atmosphere and induces the atmospheric
supplied to the fuel bed for proper and
air to flow through the furnace.
complete combustion.
• The action of the induced draught is
• The induced draught fan removes the
similar to the action of the chimney.
gases from the furnace maintaining the
• The draught produced is independent of
pressure in the furnace just below
the temperature of the hot gases
atmosphere.
therefore the gases may be discharged as
• Also the pressure inside the furnace is
cold as possible after recovering as much
near atmospheric therefore there is no
heat as possible in air-preheater and
danger of blowout or there is no danger
economiser.
of inrushing the air into the furnace when
• This draught is used generally when
the doors are opened for inspection.
economiser and air-preheater are
incorporated in the system.
COMPARISON OF FORCED AND INDUCED
• The fan should be located at such a place
DRAUGHT
that the temperature of the gas handled
by the fan is lowest.
• The chimney is also used in this system
and its function is similar as mentioned in
forced draught but total draught
produced in induced draught system is
the sum of the draughts produced by the
fan and chimeny.

Balanced Draught
• It is always preferable to use a
combination of forced draught and
induced draught instead of forced or MERITS AND DEMERITS OF MECHANICAL
induced draught alone. DRAUGHT OVER NATURAL DRAUGHT
• If the forced draught is used alone, then
the furnace cannot be opened either for
firing or inspection because the high
pressure air inside the furnace will try to
blowout suddenly and there is every
chance of blowing out the fire completely
and furnace stops.
• If the induced draught is used alone, then
also furnace cannot be opened either for
firing or inspection because the cold air

STEAM JET DRAUGHT
• The artificial draught produced by the
steam jet is known as steam jet draught.
• They may be induced or forced depending
upon the location of the steam jet.
Induced steam jet draught
Forced steam jet draught
• In this system, steam passes through a
throttle valve from the boiler.
• Then the steam passes through a nozzle
which is projecting into a diffuser pipe.
• The steam comes out of the nozzle with
high velocity and draws air along with it.
• The kinetic energy of the mixture of
steam and air is converted into pressure
energy when it passes through the
diffuser pipe.
• Thus air is forced through the fuel bed,
furnace and passed through the chimney.
Merits of steam jet draught
• 1. This system is very simple and low in
cost.
• 2. Low grade fuels can be used.
• 3. Space required is less.
Demerits of steam jet draught
• 1. It can be operated only when the
steam is raised.
• 2. The draught produced is very low.
CONDENSER
• A condenser is a device in which the
steam is condensed by cooling it with
water.
• The condensed steam is known as
condensate.
• The following are the advantages of
installing a condenser in a steam power
plant.
1. More work is done by the given amount of
steam than could be obtained without a
condenser. Thus, the efficiency of the power
plant is increased.
2. Steam consumption is reduced for the given
output.
3. The condensate is recovered for the boiler feed
water.
• The steam power plants using condenser
are shown in figure shows that the
cooling water used in condenser is not re-
circulated again and again but discharged
to the downstream side of the river.
•
Whereas figure shows that the cooling
water is re-circulated again and again by
passing through the cooling tower.

The essential elements of a steam condensing
plant is given below:
1. A closed vessel in which the steam is
condensed.
2. A pump to deliver condensed steam to the hot
well from the condenser.
Jet Condensers
3. A dry air-pump to remove air and other non-
condensable gases.
4. A feed pump to deliver water to the boiler from
hot well.
5. Another pump for circulating cooling water.
6. An arrangement for re-cooling the circulating
water from the condenser such as cooling
tower or spray pond.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSERS
Low level jet condenser
• In jet condensers, there is direct contact
between the cooling water and the steam
which is to be condensed.
• In surface condensers, there is no direct
contact between the cooling water and
the steam which is to be condensed.
• In parallel flow jet condensers, the flow of
steam and cooling water are in the same
direction.
• In counter flow jet condensers, the steam
and cooling water flow in opposite
directions.
• In low level jet condensers, the
condensate is pumped by means of a
condensate pump into the hot well.
• In high level jet condensers, the
condensate falls to the hot well by the
barometric leg provided in the condenser.
• In ejector condensers, a number of
convergent nozzles are used.
• In down flow surface condensers, the
condensed steam flows down from the
condenser.
• In central flow surface condensers, the
condensed steam moves towards the
centre of condenser tubes.
• In single pass surface condensers, the
cooling water flows in the condenser
tubes only once.
• In multi pass surface condensers, the
cooling water flows in the condenser
tubes number of times.
• In a jet condenser, the steam to be
condensed and the cooling water come in
direct contact and the temperature of the
condensate is the same as that of the
cooling water leaving the condenser.
• For jet condensers the recovery of the
condensate for reuse as boiler feed water
is not possible.
• Depending upon the arrangement of the
removal of condensate, the jet
condensers
• are sub-divided into the following
categories:
• 1. Low level counter flow jet condenser.
• 2. High level (or) barometric jet
condenser.
• 3. Ejector condenser.
• A low level counter flow jet condenser is
shown in figure 2.35. In this condenser,
the cooling water enters at the top and
sprayed through jets.
• The steam enters at the bottom and
mixes with the fine spray of cooling
water.
• The condensate is removed by a separate
pump. The air is removed by an air pump
separately from the top.

• In a parallel flow type of this condenser,
the cooling water and steam to be
condensed move in the same direction.
[i.e., from top to bottom].
High level jet condenser
• A high level jet condenser is shown in
figure 2.36. This is similar to a low level
condenser, except that the condenser
shell is placed at a height of I0.36 m
[barometric height] above the hot well.
• The column of water in the tail pipe
forces the condensate into the hot well
by gravity.
• Hence condensate extraction pump is not
required.
Ejector condenser
• An ejector condenser is shown in figure
2.37. In this condenser cooling water
under a head of5 to 6 m enters at the top
of the condenser.
• It is passed through a series of convergent
nozzles.
• There is a pressure drop at the throat of
the nozzle.
• The reduction in pressure draws exhaust
steam into the nozzle through a non-
return valve.
• Steam is mixed with water and
condensed.
• In the converging cones, pressure energy
is partly converted into kinetic energy.
• In diverging cones, the kinetic energy is
partly converted into pressure energy.
• The pressure obtained is higher than
atmospheric pressure and this forces the
condensate to the hot weII.
Merits and Demerits of jet condensers
Merits
1. Intimate mixing of steam and cooling water.
2. Quantity of cooling water required is less.
3. Simple equipment and cost is low.
4. Less space is required.
5. Cooling water pump is not needed in low level
jet condenser.
Condensate extraction pump is not required for
high level and ejector condensers.
Demerits
1. Condensate is wasted.
2. The cooling water should be clean and free from
harmful impurities.
3. In low level jet condensers, the engine may be
flooded, if condensate extraction pump fails.
Surface Condenser
• In surface condensers there is no direct
contact between the steam and cooling
 water and the condensate can be re-used
in the boiler.
• In such a condenser even impure water
can be used for cooling purpose whereas
the cooling water must be pure in jet
condensers.
• Although the capital cost and the space
needed is more in surface condensers but
it is justified by the saving in running cost
and increase in efficiency of plant
achieved by using this condenser.
• Depending upon the position of
condensate extraction pump, flow of
condensate and arrangement of tubes the • The exhaust steam from the prime mover
surface condensers may be classified as enters at the top of the condenser and
follows: surrounds the condenser tubes through
• 1. Down flow condenser which cooling water is circulated under
• 2. Central flow condenser force.
• 3. Evaporative condenser • The steam gets condensed as it comes in
contact with cold surface of the tubes.
Down flow condenser • The cooling water flows in one direction
through the first set of the tubes situated
in the lower half of condenser and returns
in the opposite direction through the
second set of the condeser is discharged
into the river or pond.
• The condensed steam is taken out from
the condenser by a separate extraction
pump and air is removed by an air pump.

Central flow condenser

• Steam enters at the top and flows
downward.
• The water flowing through the tubes in
one direction lower half comes out in the
opposite direction in the upper half In this
type of condenser, the cooling water and
exhaust steam do not come in direct
contact with each other as in case of jet
condensers.
• This is generally used where large
quantities of inferior water are available
and better quantity of feed water to the
boiler must be used most economically.
• It consists of cast iron air-tight cylindrical
shell closed at each end as shown in
figure.
• A number of water tubes are fixed in the
tube plates which are located between
each cover head and shell.
• Figure 2.40 shows a central flow
condenser. In this condenser the steam
passages are all around the periphery of
the shell.
• Air is pumped away from the centre of
the condenser.
• The condensate moves radially towards
the centre of tube next.
• Some of the exhaust steam while moving
towards the centre meets the
undercooled condensate and pre-heats it
thus reducing undercooling.
Evaporative condenser • The water flow rate higher than this will
• In this condenser steam to be condensed only increase the power requirement of
in passed through a series of tubes and water pump without materially increasing
the cooling water falls over these tubes in the condenser capacity.
the form of spray. A steam of air flows • This type of condenser works better in
over the tubes to increase evaporation of dry weather (low WBT) compared with
cooling water which further increases the wet weather as the water vapour carrying
condensation of steam. capacity of dry air is higher than wet air at
• These condensers are more preferable the same temperature.
where acute shortage of cooling water • The arrangement of this type of
exists. condenser is simple and cheap in first
• The arrangement of the condenser is cost.
shown in figure. • It does not require large quantity of water
• Water is sprayed through the nozzles over therefore needs a small capacity cooling
the pipe carrying exhaust steam and water pump.
forms a thin film over it. • The vacuum maintained in this condenser
• The air is drawn over the surface of the is not as high as in surface condensers
coil with the help of induced fan as shown therefore the work done per kg of steam
in figure. is less with this condenser compared with
• The air passing over the coil carries the surface condenser.
water from the surface of condenser coil • These condensers are generally preferred
in the form of vapour. for small power plants and where there is
• The latent heat required for the acute shortage of cooling water.
evaporation of water vapour is taken
from the water film formed on the
condenser coil and drops the
temperature of the water film and this
helps for heat transfer from the steam to
the water.
• This mode of heat transfer reduces the
cooling water requirement of the
condenser to 10% of the requirement of
surface condensers.
• The water particles carried with air due to
high velocity of air are removed with the
help of eliminator as shown in the figure.
• The make-up water (water vapour and
water particles carried with air) is
supplied from outside source.

• The quantity of water sprayed over the

condenser coil should be just sufficient to
keep the condenser coil thoroughly
wetted.