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Chapter 5
Lumber Manufacture
Contents 1− Introduction
1 Introduction Lumber is the most widely used form of
Hardwood Lumber manufactured wood products. In fact, the very word
Softwood Lumber “wood” is synonymous with lumber in most people
minds. Lumber has been defined as a product sawn
2 Lumber Size and Measurement from a log, usually cut to standard thickness. It is the
Log Scaling primary construction materials for homes and other
Log Rules low-rise buildings. Sawmilling is the process of
manufacturing lumber from logs. The basic process in
3 The Sawmilling Process lumber manufacture is basically the same as it was
several centuries ago. It was only recently that
4 Basic Steps in Lumber Manufacture developments in automation and computer control
Common Types of Headsaws have made the process highly technical.
Mill Layout
Hardwood Lumber
5 Sawing Patterns and Methods
Hardwood lumber is primarily used for general
6 Measures of Mill Recovery Efficiency construction purposes, decorative paneling, door and
furniture manufacture, high-grade flooring,
7 Hardwood Lumber Grading millworks and cabinets. Lower grades are used for
common pallets, container and miscellaneous
8 Prospects of the Philippine Sawmill Industry industrial applications.

Hardwood lumber are generally produced rough

and of random width. Grades for hardwood lumber
were developed with the assumption that the lumber
will be cut into smaller pieces (cuttings), free of
defects mainly for millwork and furniture
manufacture. In the Philippines, the dipterocarps and
the mahogany groups are the most important species
cut for lumber.

Softwood Lumber

Softwood lumber is used mainly for building

construction material. They are used as structural
members and for decorative and finishing purposes
such as paneling, siding, decking, window and door
manufacture. Douglas fir, southern yellow pine,
western hemlock are some important US softwoods
cut for lumber.

Softwood lumber is typically produced surfaced

and cut to specific sizes (2”x4”, 1”x 6”). Hence, there
are significant differences in manufacturing process
between hardwood and softwood lumber. Softwood
lumber is graded as an entire piece assuring a
combination of strength and reasonably good
appearance.

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2− Lumber Size and Measurement Log Scaling

Log scaling is the measurement of weight or

Traditionally, lumber is sold on the basis of a
volume of logs while allowing for features that
unit measure of volume called board feet. A board
reduce product recovery (rot and lack of
foot (BF) of lumber is a volume 1 square foot by 1
straightness). Volume scaling can be done manually
inch thick of rough dry lumber at about 14 - 20%
or by the use of electronic scanners. Log volume
MC. Alternatively, the cubic foot is sometimes
may be reported on either gross or net scale. Gross
used instead of the board foot. A cubic foot of
scale is the volume based on the actual log
lumber is obtained by multiplying the actual sizes.
dimensions. Net scale is the volume adjusted for
Another measure used by countries adapting the SI
defects (voids, decay, etc.) that affect recovery of
system is the cubic meter. A cubic meter is a
chips for pulping or form defects (sweep, cracks,
volume 1 square meter by one meter thick of rough-
taper, etc.) that affect yield of solid wood products
dry lumber. The board feet system is presently
such as lumber and veneer. Weight scaling involves
being used in North America while most countries
weighing the logs and converting the weight to
in Asia and Europe are using the cubic meter.
equivalent volume. For discussion purposes, only
gross scaling method will be considered here.
The volume of a piece of lumber is determined by
multiplying the nominal thickness by the nominal
width. Nominal size is the actual size of lumber plus
shrinkage or surfacing allowances. For example, a dry
surfaced 2”x 4” (nominal size) only measures 1.5”x
3.5” (actual size). The board footage of softwood and
hardwood lumber is based upon nominal size rather
than actual size. In practice, pieces thinner than one
inch is considered one inch thick for purposes of
calculating the board footage. The volume in cubic
meters is based on actual volume of the material when
dry.

Douglas fir, southern yellow pine, western hemlock

are some important US softwoods cut for lumber.

Board foot (BF) measurement: A = thickness, inches;

B = width, feet; C = length, feet

Conversion:
1 BF = 144 in3 = 0.083 ft3
12 BF = ft3 Softwood lumber is typically produced surfaced and
1 m3 = 424 BF cut to specific sizes (2”x4”, 1”x 6”).
1,000 BF = 83.33 ft3 = 2.36 m3

Determine the volume measurements of the

following nominal sized lumber:

a. S2S-Dry 4/4” x 2” x 10’

b. R-Dry 8/4” x 4” x 6’
c. R-Grn 3/4” x 6” x 4’
d. S4S 2.5cm x 5cm x 4m
e. R-Dry 2.5cm x 10cm x 6m

Furniture made from Mahogany, a hardwood lumber,

rates among the top furniture woods in the world.
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There are many log rules currently being used Excepted Sections from the International ¼ Scale
today. Variation exists in the results of each method. Log Rules
In the Philippines and other Asian countries, the Dia. Log Length (Feet)
formula used to obtain gross log volume is given by (in) 6 8 10 12 14 16
the South Sea Log (SSL) Scale or Brererton: Lumber Volume (Board Feet)
6 5 10 10 15 15 20
V = 0.7854 D2L/10,000 7 10 10 15 20 25 30
8 10 15 20 25 35 40
where D = (dS + dL)/2 (cm) 9 15 20 30 35 45 50
L = log length (m) 10 20 30 35 45 55 65
V = gross log volume (m3) 11 25 35 45 55 70 80
dS + dL = small and large end diameter 12 30 45 55 70 85 95
(cm) 13 40 55 70 85 100 115
14 45 65 80 100 115 135
Log Rules 15 55 75 95 115 135 160
16 60 85 100 130 155 180
Log rules provides estimate of lumber yield 17 70 95 125 150 180 205
(volume) that can be obtained from a log. Many log 18 80 110 140 170 200 230
rules have been developed. The most widely used 19 90 125 155 190 225 260
today is the International ¼ rule. This rule assumes 20 100 135 175 210 250 290
sawing 1-in thick lumber with ¼-inch kerf allowing 22 125 170 215 260 305 355
½-inch taper for each 4 feet of length and 1/16-inch of 24 150 205 255 310 370 425
shrinkage in board thickness. It is given by the 26 180 240 305 370 435 500
formula: 28 210 280 355 430 510 585
30 245 325 410 495 585 675
Volume (BF) = 0.20d2 – 0.71d
Nominal and Surfaced Thicknesses of Hardwood
In practice, the small end diameter (d) is rounded Lumber
to the nearest inch and the volume rounded to the
Nominal Rough-dry Surfaced-dry Tolerance
nearest 5 BF.
(in) (quarters) (S2S) (in) (in)
3/8 4/4 3/16 1/8
3− The Sawmilling Process ½ 4/4 5/16 1/8
5/8 4/4 7/16 3/16
The log to be sawn is mounted on a log ¾ 4/4 9/16 3/16
carriage, a low heavy trolley mounted on tracks. A 1 4/4 13/16 ¼
1-1/4 5/4 1-1/16 ¼
mechanism at the log deck loads the log onto the
1½ 6/4 1-5/16 ¼
carriage and turns it to the desired position. “Dogs”
1¾ 7/4 1-1/2 ¼
on the carriage firmly clasp the log in place. By
2 8/4 1-3/4 3/8
moving the position of the dogging system, the side 10/4 2-1/4 3/8
2½
of the log can overhang the edge of the carriage so 3 12/4 2-3/4 3/8
that as the edge of the carriage passes the headsaw (a 3½ 14/4 2-1/4 3/8
circular or band saw), a slab is cut off. By advancing 4 16/4 2-3/4 5/8
the log on successive passes of the carriage, boards
are removed from the log. Standard Nominal and Dressed Sizes of Softwood
Lumber
After the boards are separated, they are usually Nominal Rough-dry Dry-Dressed Remark
passed through an edger, a machine having twin (in) (quarters) (in)
saws of adjustable spacing that removes bark edges 1 4/4 ¾ S4S
or edge defects and leaves parallel edges on the 1-1/4 5/4 1-5/32 S2S
board. The board then may be cross cut to length, 1-1/2 6/4 1-13/32 S2S
and defects cut out in the trimmer. The board then 1-3/4 7/4 1-19/32 S2S
moves out of the mill along the green chain, to be 2 8/4 1-13/16 S2S
sorted out by size and species. 2-1/4 9/4 2-3/32 S2S
2-1/2 10/4 2-3/8 S2S
2-3/4 11/4 2-9/16 S2S
3 12/4 2-3/4 S2S
4 16/4 3-3/4 S2S

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Important Philippine Commercial Lumber of logs during transit, marine borers, and corrosion of
equipment may be a consideration with this method of
1. Philippine mahogany group log storage.
a. Almon (Shorea almon)
b. Bagtikan (Parashorea plicata) 2. Debarking
c. Mayapis (Shorea squamata)
d. Red lauan (S. negronensis) Debarking is the removal of the bark prior to
e. Tanguile (S. polysperma) sawing. Bark along with sands and grits could
f. Tiaong (S. agsaboiensis) potentially dull the saw. In addition, bark free chips
g. White lauan (Pentacme contorta) from slabs and trimmings are more valuable and
marketable to pulp mills than barky chips. Barks are
2. Dipterocarp group also used as a source of fuel for energy generation.
a. Kalunti (Shorea kalunti)
b. Malaanonang (S. polita)
c. Manggasinoro (S. philippinensis)
d. Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus)
e. Panau (D. gracilis)
f. Hagakhak (D. warbungii)
g. Yakal (Shorea astylosa)
h. Guijo (S. guiso)
i. Malaguijo (S. plagata)
j. Narek (Hopea cagayanensis)
k. Narig (Vatica mangachapoi)

3. Other
a. Narra (Pterocarpus indicus)
b. Dao (Dracomelon dao)
c. Ipil (Intsia bijuga)
d. Kamagong (Diospyros philippinensis)
e. Mahogany (Swietenia mahogani)
f. Molave (Vitex parviflora)

4− Basic Steps in Lumber

Manufacture
The basic process in lumber manufacture is
basically the same as it was several centuries ago. It Logs are either stored in a log yard near the mill or in
was only recently that developments in automation a log pond (section of lake, river or salt water
and computer control have made the process highly shoreline) prior to use.
technical.

1. Log Storage

Logs are stored to provide enough supply of logs

and assure a reserve stock when incoming logs cannot
keep up with mill demands. Logs are either stored in a
log yard near the mill or in a log pond (section of
lake, river or salt water shoreline) prior to use.
Storage in log yards is common in small mills where
the source of log supply is continuous and reliable.
Often, logs are sorted by size or species. Water
spraying or sprinkling is usually employed to prevent
logs from checking and drying out. Water storage in
log ponds is the method used by large mills. It
provides a flat and uniform surface for easy, low cost
When a log is selected for sawing, an endless
conveying, transporting and sorting of logs. It also
conveyor (bull chain or jack ladder) carries it from
washes away sands and grits that could potentially dull
the water to the upper levels of the sawmill. The log
the saw. However, problems with water pollution, lost

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may be washed clean on the jack ladder, or the bark
may be entirely removed before sawing.
The most widely used debarkers are the ring debarker
and cambio debarker for small diameter logs while
hydraulic debarkers are suited for large, old growth
logs with thick, heavy bark.
Log coming out of a ring debarker with rotating rings
(shown blurred) that breaks the bark as the log is
passed through.
3. Bucking
Cutting of logs into predetermined lengths as to
produce the highest yield or quality of lumber.
Usually accomplished by a log-cut-off saw mounted
across the line of travel of a log conveyor and operated
to manually or automatically trim logs to the desired
length.
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42
Log-Cut-off Saw used to trim logs to predetermined
lengths to maximize grade and lumber recovery.
4. Headsawing
The first basic operation in sawmilling is termed
headsawing. It is the breakdown of the log into
boards, flitches and cants. Cants are large pieces of
intended to be resawn later into lumber. The primary
goal of headsawing is to maximize recovery of high
quality lumber from the log with the minimum of
labor and machine costs.
The primary breakdown of the log is
accomplished by placing the log in a carriage. The
carriage holds the log and carries it past the headsaw
(also called headrig) which cuts it into boards. The
carriage travels on tracks past the headsaw and has
devices not only for holding (‘dogs”), but also for
positioning (“setworks”) the log so that one board of
the correct thickness is cut from the log each time its
passes the headsaw.
Headsawing is the breakdown of the log into boards,
flitches, timbers or chips.
The carriage holds the log and carries it past the
headsaw (also called headrig) which cuts it into
boards.
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Common Types of Headsaws Band headsaw can be single, twin or quad band
mills. A single cut bandsaw has teeth on one edge,
a. Circular Saw and usually equipped with sliver teeth that break off
slivers when the carriage is returned for the next cut.
A circular headsaw is a large diameter (1-1.5m) Twin band mill has two separate single cut band saws
circular saw, usually with inserted teeth. The saw on the same base being one right and one left hand.
rotates on an arbor (spindle) and is self-supporting. It Quad mills are similar to twins, except it has four
can handle logs up to about 36 inches in diameter. separate single cut band saws on the same base.
The accuracy of the cut depends on the width of the
cut (kerf) and the thickness (gauge) of the blade.
Since most circular saws require thick gauge metal,
the cutting of large diameter logs or thick timber
results in excessive amount of sawdust (waste).
Thus, circular saws are primarily used to cut small or
medium sized logs.

Circular Saw vs. Band Saw

Variables Circular saw
Bandsaw
Initial cost Low High
Maintenance cost Low High
Power requirement High Low
A circular headsaw is a large diameter (1-1.5m) Cost of Production High Low
circular saw primarily used to cut small or medium Cutting speed Low High
sized logs. Kerf size Wide Narrow
Personnel requirement Not skilled Skilled
b. Bandsaw
c. Chipper Canter
A band headsaw consists of an endless steel band
with teeth on one or both edges mounted between two Best suited for small logs of uniform size, this
wheels. The lower wheel is powered and pulls the machine first removes chips or flakes from the sides
blade down through the log as it is fed into the saw. of the logs with knives mounted on rotating
The main advantage of bandsaw over circular saw is cutterheads producing a squared or shaped cant. No
its narrower kerf resulting in lesser waste. The sawdust is produced and the chips or flakes that
bandsaw also operates at faster sawing speeds and can would normally be removed as slabs, edgings and
cut almost any diameter log that can be delivered to sawdust can be use for pulp or composite
the saw. However, they are much more expensive to manufacture.
maintain and the initial cost is higher.

Bandsaws can cut almost any diameter of log that can

be delivered to the saw. They are used primarily Chipping headrigs incorporate a sawing section that
where large logs are to be sawn. cuts the cant into lumber immediately after it has

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been chipped to shape. In chipping headrigs that do 6. Edging

not contain a sawing section, the shaped log then
proceeds through a gang saw where the specific Edging involves cutting the boards lengthwise
lumber sizes are produced. along the grain (ripping) to remove bark, reduce
wide boards into narrower commercial widths,
5. Resawing remove defects or produce boards with parallel sides.
Commonly used edgers consist of two circular saws
Resawing involves breaking down of large cants (one stationary, one adjustable) mounted on a
and flitches into boards and lumber. It is also used to common horizontal arbor to accommodate a variety
recover usable lumber from heavy slabs. The goal is of cutting patterns.
to reduce the cost of producing boards from large
cants or timber with saws having lower power
requirement and thinner saw gauge than the main
headrig. Resawing is usually limited to large mills
cutting large diameter logs. Commonly used
equipments include sash-gang saw, circular gang saw
(scragg mills), or multiple bandsaws. Sash-gang
saws consist of several reciprocating blade saws
mounted on a frame (sash). Sawing is accomplished
in one passing of the log by the up or down stroke of
the saw blade. Scragg mills consist of two or four
circular saws mounted on a common arbor (shaft).
Distance between blades can be adjusted to produce
various board widths.

Commonly used edgers consist of two circular saws

(one stationary, one adjustable) mounted of a
common horizontal shaft.

7. Trimming

Trimming involves cutting across the grain of

the boards to produce boards of commercial length,
remove defects, and make ends square. Commonly
used trimmers consist of multiple cut-off saws
arranged on two-foot increments.

Bandsaws are commonly used for resawing large

cants and timbers into boards and lumber.

Scragg mills consist of two or four circular saws

mounted on a common arbor (shaft).

Commonly used trimmers consist of single or multiple

cut-off saws arranged on two foot increments.

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8. Sorting and Grading
Lumber is sorted by grade, size and species at the
green chain as it comes out of the trim saws. It can
already be sold as green lumber. However most mills
dry lumber to increase its market value. It is then
stacked according to thickness, width and species for
air-drying or kiln drying. After drying, softwoods are
surfaced while hardwoods are shipped rough.
Green chain is where the sort of unseasoned lumber
takes place after lumber comes out of the trim saws.
Sorting can be done manually or automatically based
on grade, species, size or further manufacture.
A stacked of lumber sorted by size, species or grade
ready for the market.
Mill Layout
Mill layout is the machine and equipment
arrangement in the mill. Efficient mill operation
requires placing the right equipment, coupled with the
right method, in the right place, to permit the
processing in the most effective manner, through the
shortest possible distance in the shortest possible time.
5− Sawing Patterns and Methods
Logs vary considerably in form, size, shape and
included defects; hence no single sawing method can
be used for all logs. The four basic sawing patterns
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are live sawing, sawing around, cant and quarter
sawing.
Logs
Log Storage
Debarking
Headsawing Resawing
Edging
Trimming
Sorting and
Stacking
Drying Surfacing
Sorting and
Grading
Stacking
Basic steps in lumber manufacture
Live sawing or sawing logs “through and
through” involves cutting parallel to a central axis. It
could be either split-taper sawing where cuts are
made parallel to the pith or full taper sawing where
cuts are made the parallel to the cambium. In
general, live sawing is used for small diameter logs
with numerous defects. Since the log is small, the
live sawing pattern will generate mostly quarter-
sawn lumber, i.e. with rings forming an angle of
more than 45° with its wide surface. The annual
rings of quartersawn wood form stripelike patterns
that run along the length of the piece.
Sawing “around the log” or sawing for grade
is the traditional method used with large diameter
logs, usually with considerable internal decay. Logs
are sawn by first opening the best looking face. After
taking a slab cut, successive boards are removed as
long as they are clear. When defects are encountered,
the log is turned to the next clearest face and sawn
until more defects appear. This removes the
maximum amount of material in clearer grades and
leaves the knot defects mostly boxed into the central
portion. This process of sawing produces mostly flat
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(plain) sawn lumber, i.e. with rings forming an angle use of scanners and computer controls are the trend in
of less than 45° with its wide surface. The annual most modern mills.
rings in flatsawn wood usually form parabolic
patterns on the surface of the piece.

Quarter sawing is cutting tangent to the annual

rings and perpendicular to the wood rays. This type
of sawing produce boards whose rings form an angle
between 45-90° with its surface. In many
applications, quarter sawn lumber is preferred
because the radial surfaces resist abrasion and have
more uniform wearing and finishing properties, and
they have uniform dimensional stability across the
width. Quartersawn boards are the preferred
materials for floorings and in high quality millworks.
One disadvantage is that it is more expensive than
flatsawn lumber. However, this is overcome by the Various types of lumber produced by different cutting
higher price quartersawn boards bring to the market. methods
In practice, available saws, the log size and
quality, the market demand and the sawyer determine 6− Measures Mill Recovery
the sawing patterns. The interactions are complicated
and not apparent from casual observation. Hence, the To compare the total log volume input with
lumber volume output, measures of recovery
Pith Cambium efficiency are usually used:

1. % Recovery Ratio
Saw
Cuts
% Recovery is the fraction of log cubic volume
recovered as lumber (ft3 or m3) to the tallied log net
volume:

% Recovery = (volume of lumber recovered/ net log

volume) x 100

It is an accurate and consistent measure of

conversion efficiency. The average recovery for
Split Taper Full Taper various types of mills processing mix log sizes in the
Sawing Sawing U.S. is about 49%. About 9% become sawdust, 36%
become chips and 6% account for shrinkage, surfacing
and trimming. In the Philippines, accurate data on
recovery is unknown, however, it is estimated at about
30-40%.

2. Lumber Recovery Factor (LRF)

LRF is the ratio of the volume of lumber

Live sawing Sawing around recovered (BF) and the net volume scaled. (ft3)

LRF = volume of lumber recovered (BF)/net volume

scaled (ft3)

If there were no losses from kerf and assuming

logs were square, LRF would be 12. In the U.S., mills
average from 5.7 to 8.3 depending on log size and
Cant sawing Quarter sawing
sophistication of the mill. LRF is sensitive can be
improve by reducing kerf size, variability of thickness,
Common Sawing Methods
and improving sawing patterns and cutting techniques.

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7− Hardwood Lumber Grading

Most hardwoods are sold rough to manufacturers
who cut it to size and surface the boards to meet their
own needs. In the Philippines, the current grading
rules is based on the system established by the
National Hardwood Lumber Association (NHLA).
The standard grades of hardwood lumber are Firsts,
Seconds, Selects, Number 1 Common, Number 2
Common, Number 1 Common, and Number 3
Common, and Sound Wormy. Firsts and seconds are
commonly combined and referred to as FAS.

The NHLA rules is based on the number and size

of clear cuttings that can be taken from a board. The
exact requirements for each grade are stipulated in
the rules. Grading is accomplished by visual
inspection, i.e., the grader mentally estimates the
placement and size of clear cuttings.

Prospect of the Sawmilling Industry in the

Philippines

At the present time, the Philippine sawmill

industry is in a slump. The lack of technical know-
how and efficient sawing techniques coupled with the
short supply of logs and obsolete equipment rendered
most mills unprofitable. Most mills are old and
originally designed for large diameter logs. But since
the log supply is mostly small diameter species from
second growth forest or from plantation grown
species, these mills are grossly unprofitable to
operate.

8− References
Briggs, D. 1994. Forest Products Measurement and
Conversion Factors. Univ. of Washington. WA.

Haygreen, J. G. and J. L. Bowyer. 1982. Forest

Products and Wood Science: An Introduction.
The Iowa State Univ. Press.

Tsoumis, G. 1991. Science and Technology of Wood:

Structure, Properties, Utilization. Van Nostrand
Reinhold.

USDA Forest Service. 1987. Wood Handbook:

Wood as an Engineering Material. Forest
Products Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Williston, E.M. 1976. Lumber Manufacturing: The

Design and Operations of sawmills and Planer
Mills> Miller Freeman. San Francisco.

Williston, E.M. 1979. State of the Art in Lumber

Manufacturing. Forest Products Journal. 29
(10):45-49.

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