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10 June, 2017
Main Responsibilities 1.1
• Review of requirements
• Technical review
• Sub contractor
• Welding Personnel
• Welding Consumables
• Materials
10 June, 2017
• Quality records
Standard for Visual Inspection 1.1
Basic Requirements
BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion
welds - Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications
applicable to the fabrication work to be undertaken
• be informed about the welding procedures to be used
• have good vision (which should be checked every 12
months)
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspection 1.2
30°
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspection 1.3
Other aids:
welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld
profile, fillet sizing, undercut depth)
dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges
straight edges and measuring tapes
magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it
should have magnification between X2 to X5)
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Measuring devices:
• flexible tape, steel rule
• Temperature indicating crayons
• Welding gauges
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Magnifying glass
• Torch / flash light
• Gas flow-meter
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspectors Gauges 1.3
10mm 10mm 1
G.A.L. G.A.L. 3
S.T.D. L S.T.D.
16mm 5
16mm
6
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Voltmeter Ammeter
Tong Tester
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspection 1.3
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Preparation:
Familiarisation with relevant ‘documents’…
• Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance
requirements
• Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
• Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material
handling, documentation control, storage & issue of
welding consumables
• Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Welding Procedures:
• are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
• are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications:
• list of available qualified welders related to WPS’s
• certificates are valid and ‘in-date’
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Equipment:
all inspection equipment is in good condition &
calibrated as necessary
all safety requirements are understood & necessary
equipment available
Materials:
can be identified & related to test certificates,
traceability !
are of correct dimensions
are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Consumables:
in accordance with WPS’s
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
During Welding
Weather conditions
• suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process(es)
• in accordance with WPS
Welder
• is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
• minimum temperature as specified by WPS
• maximum interpass temperature as WPS
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6
During Welding
Welding consumables
in accordance with WPS
in suitable condition
controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
current, voltage & travel speed – as WPS
Root runs
if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6
During Welding
Inter-run cleaning
in accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Distortion control
welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6
After Welding
Weld Identification
• identified/numbered as required
• is marked with welder’s identity
Visual Inspection
• ensure weld is suitable for all NDT
• visually inspect & ‘sentence’ to Code requirements
Dimensional Survey
• ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT
• ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6
After Welding
Repairs
monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure,
ensure NDT after repairs is completed
PWHT
monitor for compliance with Procedure
check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test
ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
ensure all records are available
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6
After Welding
Documentation
ensure any modifications are on ‘as-built’ drawings
ensure all required documents are available
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC
department.
10 June, 2017
Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures.
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality
throughout production.
Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to
quality, including a final report showing all identified
imperfections
Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance
criteria and any other relevant clauses in the applied
application standard
10 June, 2017
Terms & Definitions
10 June, 2017
Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Weld?
• A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced
either by heating the materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone (AWS)
• An Autogenous weld:
A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG or Oxy-Gas Welding
10 June, 2017
Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Joint?
10 June, 2017
Joint Terminology 2.2
Tee Butt
Cruciform
10 June, 2017
Welded Butt Joints 2.2
Butt
A_________Welded butt joint
Fillet
A_________Welded butt joint
Compound
A____________Welded butt joint
10 June, 2017
Welded Tee Joints 2.2
Fillet
A_________Welded T joint
Butt
A_________Welded T joint
Compound
A____________Welded T joint
10 June, 2017
Weld Terminology 2.3
10 June, 2017
Butt Preparations – Sizes 2.4
Actual Throat
Design Throat
Thickness
Thickness
Thickness Thickness
10 June, 2017
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Face
A B
Weld
metal
Heat Weld
Affected Boundary
Zone
C D
Root
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
10 June, 2017
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Excess
Cap height Actual Throat Design
or Weld Thickness Throat
Reinforcement Thickness
Excess Root
Penetration
10 June, 2017
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 2.5
10 June, 2017
Joint Preparation Terminology 2.7
Included angle Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root
Radius
10 June, 2017
Joint Preparation Terminology 2.8 & 2.9
Root
Radius
10 June, 2017
Single Sided Butt Preparations 2.10
Single-J Single-U
10 June, 2017
Double Sided Butt Preparations 2.11
Double - J Double - U
10 June, 2017
Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions: V-Joints
bevel angle
included angle
root face
root gap
Typical Dimensions
bevel angle 30 to 35°
root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
root gap ~2 to ~4mm
10 June, 2017
Butt Weld - Toe Blend
6 mm •Most codes quote the weld
toes shall blend smoothly
80° •This statement is not
quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle interpretation
3 mm •The higher the toe blend
angle the greater the
20° amount of stress
concentration
•The toe blend angle ideally
Improved Weld Toe Blend
Angle should be between 20o-30o
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Features 2.13
Excess
Weld
Metal
Vertical
Leg
Length Design
Throat
Horizontal leg
Length
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness 2.13
a
b
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness
10 June, 2017
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features 2.13
a
a = Design Throat Thickness b
b = Actual Throat Thickness
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14
(a) (b)
8mm
4mm
4mm 2mm
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14
4mm 6mm
(a) (b)
4mm 6mm
Area = 4 x 4 = Area = 6 x 6 =
8mm2 18mm2
2 2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Profiles 2.15
A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
Concave Fillet fatigue loading
10 June, 2017
Fillet Features to Consider 2.15
a s
PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE 4G Overhead
PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up
PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down
10 June, 2017
Welding Positions 2.17
ISO
10 June, 2017
Welding position designation 2.17
Flat - PA Overhead - PE
Vertical
up - PF
Vertical Horizontal - PC
down - PG
10 June, 2017
Welding position designation 2.17
PA / 1G
PA / 1F
PF / 3G
PB / 2F
PC / 2G
PE / 4G PG / 3G
PD / 4F
10 June, 2017
Pipe Welding Positions 2.17
PA / 1G PF / 5G PG / 5G
45o 45o
PC / 2G
H-LO 45 / 6G J-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Horizontal Weld: Upwards Weld: Downwards
Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Vertical Axis: Inclined Axis: Inclined
10 June, 2017
Travel Speed Measurement 2.18
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections 3.1
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections 3.1
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections 3.1
10 June, 2017
Welding imperfections 3.1
classification
Cracks
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.1
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.1
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.2
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.2
Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.3
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing 3.5
10 June, 2017
Gas Cavities 3.7
Porosity
Root piping
10 June, 2017
Gas Cavities 3.8
10 June, 2017
Crater Pipe 3.9
Weld crater
Crater pipe
10 June, 2017
Crater Pipe 3.9
10 June, 2017
Solid Inclusions 3.10
10 June, 2017
Solid Inclusions 3.11
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections 3.13
10 June, 2017
Lack of Fusion 3.13
Causes:
•Poor welder skill
• Incorrect electrode
Incomplete filled groove +
manipulation
Lack of sidewall fusion
• Arc blow
• Incorrect welding
1 current/voltage
2 • Incorrect travel speed
10 June, 2017
Lack of Fusion 3.13
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.15
10 June, 2017
Cap Undercut 3.18
10 June, 2017
Undercut 3.18
10 June, 2017
Surface and Profile 3.19
10 June, 2017
Surface and Profile 3.19
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.20
Excessive root
penetration
10 June, 2017
Overlap 3.21
Causes:
•Contamination
•Slow travel speed
•Incorrect welding
technique
•Current too low
10 June, 2017
Overlap 3.21
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
10 June, 2017
Set-Up Irregularities 3.22
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
10 June, 2017
Set-Up Irregularities 3.22
Linear Misalignment
10 June, 2017
Set-Up Irregularities 3.22
Linear Misalignment
10 June, 2017
Incomplete Groove 3.23
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.24
Causes:
• Excessive back purge
pressure during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
Concave Root
welding current too high for
2nd pass overhead welding
root gap too large - excessive
‘weaving’
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.24
Concave Root
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.24
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.25
Causes:
• High Amps/volts
• Small Root face
• Large Root Gap
• Slow Travel
Burn through Speed
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.25
Burn Through
10 June, 2017
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Causes:
• Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)
10 June, 2017
Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.26
Causes:
• Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
• Faulty electrode holder
• Poor cable insulation
• Poor return lead
clamping
Arc strike
10 June, 2017
Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.27
Causes:
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed
speed when welding
with the MAG welding
process
Spatter • Arc blow
10 June, 2017
Mechanical Damage 3.28
• Grinding
• Hammering
• Chiselling
• Chipping
• Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
• Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs
10 June, 2017
Mechanical Damage 3.28
Chipping Marks
10 June, 2017
Hardness Testing 4.10
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
10 June, 2017
Hardness Testing 4.10
Objectives:
• measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
• assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking
and corrosion sensitivity within a H2S (Hydrogen Sulphide)
environment.
10 June, 2017
Vickers Hardness Test 4.11
10 June, 2017
Welding Coordinator
WPS – Welder Qualifications
Section 5
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.3
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.3
(according to EN Standards)
welding conditions are called welding variables
welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
•Essential variables
•Non-essential variables
•Additional variables
Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential
variables*
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.3
(according to EN Standards)
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.3
(according to EN Standards)
SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
• Welding Process
• Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
• Material Type
• Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification)
• Material Thickness
• Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC-ve)
• Pre-Heat Temperature
• Heat Input
• Welding Position
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedures 5.3
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedures 5.3
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedures 5.3
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedures
Summary of designations:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification 5.4
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification 5.4 & 5.5
(according to EN Standards)
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?
Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification
(according to EN 9606 )
5.5
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welder’s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.7
(according to EN ISO 15614)
Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure
Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to be made
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.7
(according to EN ISO 15614)
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification 5.9
(according to EN 9606 )
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification 5.9
(according to EN 287 )
10 June, 2017
Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an
effective QA system trace them from specification and
purchase order to final documentation package handed over to
the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape
10 June, 2017
Pipe Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification LP5
Size
Welded
seam
10 June, 2017
Plate Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
10 June, 2017
Parent Material Imperfections
Mechanical damage Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
10 June, 2017
Lapping
10 June, 2017
Lamination
10 June, 2017
Laminations
Plate Lamination
10 June, 2017
Weld symbols on drawings
Joints in drawings may be indicated:
•by detailed sketches, showing every dimension
10 June, 2017
Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Single-v
butt weld
10 June, 2017
Elementary Welding Symbols
Single-V butt
weld with broad
root face
Single
bevel butt
weld
Single bevel
butt weld with
broad root
face
Backing run
10 June, 2017
Elementary Welding Symbols
Single-J
butt weld
Surfacing
Fillet weld
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
10 June, 2017
Reference Line
(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
10 June, 2017
Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Convention of the reference line:
• Shall touch the arrow line
• Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
• There shall be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!)
or
10 June, 2017
Double side weld symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from both sides of the joint
intersection, touched by the arrow head
Double V Double U
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Reference lines
Arrow line
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
MR
M
s10
10
15
a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Arrow side
Arrow side
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s6
Other side
s6
Other side
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
n = number of weld elements
l = length of each weld element
(e) = distance between each weld element
n x l (e)
Welds to be
staggered
2 x 40 (50)
111
3 x 40 (50)
Process
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z5 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
5
80 80 80
5
6 90 90 90
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
6
80 80 80
6
8 90 90
90
10 June, 2017
Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions
Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only)
Site Weld
Concave or Convex
10 June, 2017
Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
Ground flush
111
MR M
a b
c d
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Mitre Convex
Toes
Concave
shall be
blended
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Complimentary Symbols
NDT WPS
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
111: MMA welding with covered electrode
121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIG welding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding
72: Electro-slag welding
15: Plasma arc welding
10 June, 2017
AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Welding Process
GSFCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
GMAW
GTAW
SAW
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Welds to be
staggered
3 – 10
SMAW
3 – 10
Process
3 3
10
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
3rd Operation
Sequence of
Operations 2nd Operation
1st Operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
RT
Sequence of
Operations MT
MT
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Dimensions- Leg Length
6 leg on member A
6/8
Member A 6
Member B
10 June, 2017
AWS A 2.4 rules
Welds “on arrow side” of joint go underneath the
reference line while welds “the other side” of the joint, go
on top of the reference line
Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn
with the vertical line to the left side of the symbol
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the
symbol i.e. number of welds, length of welds, length of
any spaces
Included angle and root opening are shown on top of the
symbol
10 June, 2017
AWS A 2.4 rules-example
10 3 x 50 (70)
70
50
10
10 June, 2017
Fillet welds
Fillet weld dimensions according AWS A 2.4
8
8
5 leg on
5x8
vertical
member
5
8
10 June, 2017
Intermittent fillet welds
Chain intermittent fillet weld
pitch (e) length (l)
z
z l-e
z l-e
10 June, 2017
Intermittent fillet welds
Staggered intermittent fillet weld
e/2
pitch (e) length (l)
z l-e
z l-e
Symbol to AWS A2.4
10 June, 2017
Welding Process Comparison
Process Electrical characteristic Electrode current type
10 June, 2017
Monitoring Heat Input
Heat Input:
The amount of heat generated in the
welding arc per unit length of weld.
Expressed in kilo Joules per millimetre
length of weld (kJ/mm).
10 June, 2017
Monitoring Heat Input
10 June, 2017
Monitoring Heat Input
10 June, 2017
Monitoring Heat Input
Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004+A2:2012
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are
specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the highest
heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the
weld in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for all
positions
10 June, 2017
MMA welding parameters
Travel speed
Travel
Too low speed Too high
10 June, 2017
MMA welding parameters
Welding current
– approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
– governed by thickness, type of joint and welding
position
Welding
Too low current Too high
10 June, 2017
MMA welding parameters
Arc length = arc voltage
Arc
Too low voltage Too high
10 June, 2017
MMA - Troubleshooting
10 June, 2017
Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
• Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
10 June, 2017
TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
10 June, 2017
Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:
colour code - green
no alloy additions
low current carrying capacity
maintains a clean balled end
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
with other electrode types
used on less critical applications
low cost
10 June, 2017
Tungsten electrode types
Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - yellow/red/violet
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes
longer life - greater resistance to contamination
thermionic - easy arc initiation, more stable arc
maintain a sharpened tip
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
This slightly radioactive
10 June, 2017
Tungsten electrode types
Ceriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - grey (orange acc. AWS A-5.12)
operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive - replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - black/gold/blue
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode
10 June, 2017
Tungsten electrode types
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - brown/white
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
and thoriated electrodes
retains a balled end during welding - good for AC
welding
high resistance to contamination
preferred for radiographic quality welds
10 June, 2017
Electrode tip for DCEN
Penetration
increase
electrode diameter
Increase
2-2,5 times
Vertex
angle
Decrease
Bead width
increase
Electrode tip prepared for low Electrode tip prepared for high
current welding current welding
10 June, 2017
Electrode tip for AC
DC -ve AC
DC -ve AC
Vetex angle
Note: when welding
Note: too fine an angle will aluminium with AC
promote melting of the current, the tungsten end
electrodes tip is chamfered and forms a
ball end when welding
10 June, 2017
Choosing the proper electrode
Factors to be considered:
Unstable Tungsten
arc Penetration inclusions
10 June, 2017
Special shielding methods
Pipe root run shielding – Back Purging to prevent
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.
10 June, 2017
TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
10 June, 2017
TIG typical defects
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder
skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torch
manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc.
• Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)
• Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
• Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
• Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
• Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
• Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)
10 June, 2017
MAG Welding Variable Parameters
Shielding Gases:
The gasses used in MIG/MAG welding can be either 100% CO2
or Argon + CO2 mixes.
• 100% CO2: Can not sustain true spray transfer, but gives
very good penetration. The arc is unstable which produces
a lot of spatter and a coarse weld profile.
• Argon + CO2 mixes: Argon can sustain spray transfer above
24 volts, and gives a very stable arc with a reduction in
spatter. Argon being a cooler gas produces less penetration
than CO2. Argon in normally mixed with CO2 at a mixture of
between 5-25%
10 June, 2017
MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
10 June, 2017
Gas Metal Arc Welding
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER
The current and voltage settings determine the way molten
droplets of weld metal transfer from the tip of the wire to the
weld pool
There are 3 principle modes of droplet transfer, namely
•dip transfer (short-circuiting)
•spray transfer
•pulsed transfer
10 June, 2017
MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
Voltage
WFS = 8,3 m/min
Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V
Globular Spray
transfer transfer
Current
10 June, 2017
Current/voltage conditions
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
compounds
Flux core
wires
Molten
weld Metal droplets covered
Solidified weld pool
with thin slag coating
metal and slag
10 June, 2017
Submerged Arc Welding
Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Power
supply
- +
Slide rail
Wire electrode
Flux
10 June, 2017
BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
10 June, 2017
Welding Consumable Standards
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG
MMA (SMAW) (GTAW)
• BS EN 499: Steel electrodes BS 2901: Filler wires
• AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
electrodes AWS A5.9: Filler wires
• AWS A5.4 Chromium BS EN 439: Shielding gases
electrodes
SAW
• AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
electrodes
BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
10 June, 2017
Welding Consumable Gases
welding gases
• GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel
• Supplied in cylinders or storage
tanks for large quantities
• Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use
• Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning
of storage areas
• Moisture content is limited to avoid
cold cracking
• Dew point (the temperature at which
the vapour begins to condense)
must be checked
10 June, 2017
Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
• Size, (diameter and length)
• Classification / Supplier
• Condition
• Treatments e.g. baking / drying
10 June, 2017
Quality Assurance
Welding Consumables:
• filler material must be stored in an area with controlled
temperature and humidity
• poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage coatings,
rendering the electrodes unusable
• there should be an issue and return policy for welding
consumables (system procedure)
• control systems for electrode treatment must be checked and
calibrated; those operations must be recorded
• filler material suppliers must be approved before purchasing
any material
10 June, 2017
MMA Welding Consumables
Function of the Electrode Covering:
• To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
• To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination
• To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
• To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
cooling weld metal
• To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties
• To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal)
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
10 June, 2017
Covered electrode inspection
1: Electrode size (diameter and length)
3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
10 June, 2017
AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes
E 70 1 8 M G
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Alloy Content
10 June, 2017
MMA Welding Consumables
TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
• Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
• Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
• Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
• Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
10 June, 2017
Flux Core Wire Consumables
10 June, 2017
Types of cored wire
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water
• flux tends to be ‘glass-like’ (high in Silica)
• granules are hard and may appear shiny
• granules do not absorb moisture
• granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re-circulated
• are effectively a low hydrogen flux
• welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
•normally not hygroscopic easy storage and
handling
•readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
•difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
•high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux
• Granulated appearance
• High weld quality
• Addition of alloys
• Lower consumption
• Easy slag removal
• Smooth weld profile
Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
• easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• colour identification
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules
• granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
• granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect
the flux from moisture pick-up - usually by holding in a
heated silo
• granules tend to break down into powder when being re-
circulated
• are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled
• welds give good toughness at low temperatures
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
Mixed fluxes advantages:
•several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
•segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
•segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery
systems during welding
•inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
10 June, 2017
Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
10 June, 2017
Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
• Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing (RT)
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
• Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing
Source
Test specimen
Densitometer
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Sensitivity
7FE12
10 June, 2017
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
Film
Film
10 June, 2017
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
Film
10 June, 2017
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
10 June, 2017
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
• Identification
• Unique identification
EN W10
• IQI placing
Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
10 June, 2017
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
• Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10
• IQI placing
Shot A Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
4 3
1 2
Elliptical Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
•the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
•the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
10 June, 2017
Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope Typical Thickness Range
• Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used)
• Cobalt 60 > 50 mm
• Ytterbium < 10 mm
• Thulium < 10 mm
• Cesium < 10 mm
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Expensive consumables
• Permanent record
• Bulky equipment
• Little surface preparation
• Harmful radiation
• Defect identification
• Defect require significant
• No material type limitation
depth in relation to the
• Not so reliant upon operator radiation beam (not good
skill for planar defects)
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
not good for planar defects
X-ray sets not very portable
requires access to both sides of weld
frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
• Surface and sub-surface detection
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
• A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital
signals UT Set,
A scan
Display
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Material Thk
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set
A Scan
Display
Angle Probe
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
•good for planar defects
•good for thick sections
•instant results
•can use on complex joints
•can automate
•very portable
•no safety problems (‘parallel’ working is possible)
•low capital & running costs
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
no permanent record (with standard equipment)
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
reliant on operator interpretation
not good for sizing Porosity
good/smooth surface profile needed
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
green/yellow indication
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
This image cannot currently be display ed.
Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field
Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
A crack like
indication
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
• Clean area to be tested
• Apply contrast paint
• Apply magnetisism to the component
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising
• Iterpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
• much quicker than PT
• instant results
• can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
technique)
• less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
• only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
• electrical power for most techniques
• may need to de-magnetise (machine components)
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing (PT)
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
porous.
Penetrants are available in many different types:
• Water washable contrast
• Solvent removable contrast
• Water washable fluorescent
• Solvent removable fluorescent
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to use Surface breaking defect
only
Inexpensive
little indication of depths
Quick results
Penetrant may
Can be used on any non- contaminate component
porous material Surface preparation critical
Portability Post cleaning required
Low operator skill required Potentially hazardous
chemicals
Can not test unlimited
times
Temperature dependant
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
•easy to interpret results
•no power requirements
•relatively little training required
•can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
•good surface finish needed
•relatively slow
•chemicals - health & safety issue
10 June, 2017
Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the
defective areas are to be removed. The method of
removal may be:
• Grinding
• Chipping
• Machining
• Filing
• Oxy-Gas gouging
• Arc air gouging
10 June, 2017
Defect Excavation
Arc-air gouging
10 June, 2017
Arc-air gouging features
• Operate ONLY on DCEP
• Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal
• Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
10 June, 2017
Production Weld Repairs
Production Repairs
are usually identified during production
inspection
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out
by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator
10 June, 2017
Production Weld Repairs
10 June, 2017
Production Weld Repairs
Side View of defect excavation
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
Global Where? Local
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
after welding.
The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment
is given correctly in accordance with the specification or
as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
Preheat
Annealing
Normalising
Quench Hardening
Temper
Stress Relief
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding
10 June, 2017
Post Weld -Heat Treatments
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature
after completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatments
The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o Method of application
o Rate of heating and cooling
o Maximum temperature
o Soak time
o Temperature measurement (and calibration)
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled
Temperature
SoakingTemperature
and time at the
attained temperature
Time
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress
300
• Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
200 straining (typically < ~
0.5% strain)
100
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame
impingement!
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Advantages:
Easy to set up
Good portability
repeatability and
temperature uniformity
Disadvantages:
Gas furnace heat treatment Limited to size of parts
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Advantages:
High heating rates
Ability to heat a
narrow band
Disadvantages:
High equipment
cost
Large equipment,
HF (Induction) local heat treatment less portable
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Advantages:
Ability to vary
heat
Ability to
continuously
maintain heat
Disadvantages:
Elements may
burn out or arcing
Local heat treatment using during heating
electric heating blankets
10 June, 2017
Use of gas flame
Built- Built-in
in check Flashback
check valve flame
Flame
valve stops quenched
barrie reverse at the
r flow flashback
barrier
10 June, 2017
Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge
10 June, 2017
Air-arc gouging features
• Operate ONLY on DCEP
• Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal
• Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
10 June, 2017
Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated
10 June, 2017
Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
• Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and
contraction
• Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
plates being welded to each other
• Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
May occur: Also know as:
up to 48 hrs after completion Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal. HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
At weld toes
Delayed cracking, as it takes
Under weld beads time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
At stress raisers.
up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
and slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
arc length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Cellulosic electrodes Hydrogen absorbed
produce hydrogen as a in a long, or
shielding gas unstable arc
H2 H2
10 June, 2017
Transverse Weld
H2 HAZ Cracks Cracks in HSLA
in Alloy steels* Steels*
Low ductility weld metal
Longitudinal contractional
strain
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Scales
10 June, 2017
Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest
hydrogen content with regards to 100g of deposited weld
metal.
TIG < 3 ml
MIG < 5 ml
ESW < 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5 ml
SAW < 10ml
FCAW < 15 ml
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
• Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur,
phosphor and carbon)
• The amount of stress/restraint
• Joint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds)
• During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
of solidification, weld centerline.
• The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now be very
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
weld centerline.
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
•The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
• Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other sulphur containing product)
• Joint design selection depth to width ratios
10 June, 2017
Solidification Cracking
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
• Joint design, direction of stress
• The amount of stress acting across the joint during
welding
• Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.
Critical
area
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
• The use of buttering runs
• A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place
• Joint design selection
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• Hydrogen precautions
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
10 June, 2017
Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing
Through
Thickness
Ductility
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
Lamellar tear
High contractional
strains
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Gauges
10mm
G.A.L.
L S.T.D.
16mm
10mm
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
16mm
6
Root gap
dimension
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge
Internal
alignment
10 June, 2017
Plate / Pipe Inspection
10 June, 2017
Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately
before any welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
– is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
– normally expressed as a maximum
10 June, 2017
Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean;
Component cannot be moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local
overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation
possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours);
Large power supply; Expensive equipment
10 June, 2017
Measuring pre heat in Welding
The purposes
of measuring
Demonstration of Welding
conformance to process
specified requirements control
Parameters to be measured:
welding current preheat/interpass
arc voltage temperature
travel speed force/pressure
shielding gas flow rate humidity
10 June, 2017
Pre-heat Application
Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than
local if possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
10 June, 2017
Pre-Heat Application
10 June, 2017
Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t < 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
welder
10 June, 2017
Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
the temperature shall be
measured on the face
opposite to that being
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
equalisation
10 June, 2017
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
10 June, 2017
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
10 June, 2017
Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.
10 June, 2017
The Chill Effect of the Material
10 June, 2017
Heating Temperature Control
TEMPILSTICKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not
measure max temp.
Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp.
Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate,
measure actual temp.
10 June, 2017
Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive
materials:
•crayons, paints and
pills
•cheap
•convenient, easy to
use
•doesn’t measure the
actual temperature!
10 June, 2017
Calibration, validation and monitoring
Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined
point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
10 June, 2017
Calibration and validation
Frequency - When it is required?
once a year unless otherwise specified
whenever there are indications that the
instrument does not register properly
whenever the equipment has been
damaged, misused or subject to severe
stress
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
or repaired
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
10 June, 2017
Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
How accurate?
depends on the application
welding current - ±2,5%
arc voltage - ±5%
wire feed speed - ±2,5%
gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow rate)
temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
depends on the welding process
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
10 June, 2017