GENERAL
UNIT 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Psychology
 Derived from the Greek word psyche and logos,
meaning soul and study, to the Greeks,
psychology is simply a study of soul.
 Is defined as the scientific study of the human
behavior of living organism, with special attention
to human behavior.
 The science seeking to describe, understand and
predict the behavior of an organism.
 A science that deals with the study of mind and
behavior.
Science is defined as a branch of knowledge or study dealing
with a body of facts and truths systematically arranged.
Psychology is a science that gathers facts systematically,
organizes them into general principles and formulates
theories out of these factual data.
Psychology is a science because it employs scientific
methodologies. The characteristics of a scientific method
are the ff.
a) Objectivity – means freedom from bias and
prejudices. The findings or result gathered by the
researcher is not influenced by his subjective ideas.
b) Explicit Procedures – Procedures of the researcher
are clear and thus can be verified, tested, and
duplicated by future researchers.
c) Recording – worthy research works are for future
researchers to evaluate, verify, disseminate, and
even to refute findings.
Behavior
 As defined psychologically, refers to actions or
activities of the individual.
Classification of Behavior
Obviously manifested action, activities and
Overt
behavior
Hidden or those actions, activities
Covert
and behavior not visible to the naked eye.
Conscious Acts within the level of one’s awareness.
Acts that deeply embedded in
Unconscious
one’s subconscious, unaware actions.
Behavior that involves only few neurons.
Simple
Complicated and involves more number of
Complex
neurons.
Rational Exercised with sanity or reason.
Committed for no apparent reason
Irrational
or explanation.
Voluntary Done with full volition, will and control
Processes within our body that go
Involuntary even while we asleep or awake without our
control and manipulation.
Fundamental Characteristics of Human Behavior
1. Human behavior follows an orderly pattern. Change
in a person’s life has a degree of order and regularity in
its nature.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.
2. Human behavior can be known. Human behavior can
be observed.
3. Knowledge of human behavior is tentative but
superior to ignorance. We must pursue knowledge to
be able to improve human conditions.
4. Natural phenomena have natural causes. Science
rejects the beliefs in supernatural forces to cause
events.
5. Nothing is self-evident. Truth must only be claimed
and established when they are demonstrated
objectively.
6. Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of
experiences. Knowledge is a product of experiences.
Goals of Psychology
1. To explain or understand why organism
behave in certain ways.
2. To predict how organism will behave in the
future.
3. To control behavior.
Historical Background of Psychology
A. Pre Historic / Traditionally
 Gods and spirits were attributed the power to
direct or cause such events, activities and
behavior of men.
B. Greek Influence
 Democritus
Believed that the human mind and body is
composed of atoms which could circulate
freely and which enabled it to penetrate the
whole body.
According to him, atoms from our
environment enter through our sense organ
enabling us to perceive the world around us.
 Plato
The mind or soul has a distinct power and is
God-given.
The soul is composed of three parts:
1. Head – exerts reason
2. Heart – noble impulses
3. Diaphragm – own passions and desires
 Aristotle
He believed that at birth, the mind is a
tabula rasa, a blank sheet and that the
experiences one encounters during one’s
lifetime are impressed on the mind.
Distinguished three functions of the soul:
1. Vegetative - concerned with basic
maintenance of life.
2. Appetitive - concerned with motives
and desires.
3. Rational - governing function.
Introduces common sense, one of the
mental functions which ties perception and
sensation together.
1
 GENERAL
UNIT 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY
 Galen
Believes that differences in behavior is
attributed to the vital fluids / juices of the
body:
1. Blood : Sanguine – cheerful
2. Phlegm: Phlegmatic – sluggish / flat
affect
3. Black Bile: Melancholic – sad
4. Yellow Bile: Choleric – bad temper
C. Medieval Period
 St. Agustine
He introduced and used the method
of Introspection (the description of one’s
own conscious process).
D. Pre – Modern Period
 Rene Descartes
Formulated a theory of mind-body
interaction.
 John Locke
Introduce the Idea as the unit into which all
experiences may be analyzed.
E. Scientific Psychology
 Wilhelm Wundt
A German psychologist, founded his
Psychological Laboratory at Leizpeg,
Germany which earned for the titled of
“Father of Scientific Psychology”
He first undertook through the
experimental approach, a systematic,
scientific body of knowledge about man’s
interaction with his environment.
 Two Theories of Mind
Faculty Psychology
 The mind had a few principal
faculties such as thinking, feeling and
willing that accounted for its
activities.
Association Psychology
 They denied the inborn faculties of
the mind. Instead, they limited the
mind’s contents to ideas coming by
way of the senses, which then become
associated through principles such as
similarity, contrast and contiguity.
PREVIOUS APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY/
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
STRUCTURALISM (1875-1930)
 Was developed in Germany in the 19th century.
 Its main leaders were Wilhelm Wundt and later,
Edward Bradford Titchener
 The structuralist, were primarily concerned with
discovering the structure of the mind.
 They believed that the mind is made up building
blocks in the various types of sensation and
perception and that these building blocks that these
building blocks could be discovered through
introspection or looking into one’s own mind.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.
 Introspection, which required subjects to look
inward and observe and report on the working of
their mind.
FUNCTIONALISM (1890-1930)
 John Dewey, William James, James Rowland and
Harvey Carr were the chief exponents of this
school of thought.
 They held the view that is not the “structure” that
should be of prime importance but the “function”.
 Functionalism was the study of the function, use
and adaptability of the mind in changing
environment.
 To understand human behavior processes, the
functional psychologist developed the technique of
longitudinal research, which consists of
interviewing, testing and observing one person
over a long period of time.
GESTALT (1912-1940)
 Kurt Koffka, Wolgang Kohler and Max
Wertheimer founder the Gestalt school which
maintained that psychology should study the whole
pattern of behavior or experience or the perception
of organized configuration.
 Emphasized that perception is more than the sum
of its parts and studied how sensations are
assembled into meaning perceptual experiences.
PSYCHOANALYSIS (1900-present)
 Sigmund Freud, a famous physician and
psychiatrist attempted to find the cause and cure of
personality disorder.
 Psychoanalyst theory stressed the role of motives
and cravings, often hidden and repressed in the
subconscious mind, which result in abnormal
behavior.
 Freud asserted that the sex urges in the
unconscious constitute the main human drive, this
is known as the libido theory.
BEHAVIORISM (1913-present)
 Was founded by John B. Watson
 He rejected introspection as psychological
technique because its results could not be
scientifically verified by other psychologist.
 Held the concept that the subject matter of
psychology should be the “objective observable
actions of the organism”.
HUMANISTIC (1950-present)
 Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasized the
unique qualities of humans, especially their
freedom of choice and decision making, as well as
their potential for personal growth.
COGNITIVE (1950-present)
 Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky and Herbert Simon
focused on thought and mental processes.
 Human behavior cannot be fully understood
without analyzing how people acquire, store and
processes information.
2
 GENERAL
UNIT 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL (1950-present)
 James Old and Rogers Sperry theorized that much
of human and animal behavior can be explained in
terms of bodily structure and biochemical
processes.
PURPOSIVISM
 William McDougall is the proponent of this
approach.
 He believed that objects, movements and behavior
have a definite purpose and that the ductless glands
in people produce hormones which give them
purpose.
 Purposivism placed an importance on hormones in
life.
MODERN APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY
Focuses on how our genes, hormones
and nervous system interact with our
Psychobiological
environments to influence learning,
Approach
personality, memory, motivation,
emotions and coping techniques.
Examines how we process, store and
Cognitive use information and this information
Approach influences what we notice, perceive
and remember.
Studies how organisms learn new
behavior or modify existing one
Behavioral
depending on whether events in their
Approach
environments rewards or punish these
behaviors.
Stresses the influence of unconscious
fears, desires and motivation on
Psychoanalytic
thoughts, behaviors and the
Approach
development of later personality traits
and psychological problems.
Emphasizes that each individual has
great freedom in directing his or her
Humanistic future, a large capacity for personal
Approach growth, a considerable amount of
intrinsic worth and enormous potential
for self-fulfillment.
Examines the influence of cultural and
Cross-Cultural
ethnic similarities and differences on
Approach
psychological and social functioning.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Presents the basic and fundamental
principles of human behavior. It
General
Psychology explains How and Why of person’s
behavior from a scientific viewpoint.
Comparative Deals with the behavior and mental
Psychology processes of the different species.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.
Genetic or This is a field of study regarding human
Development development and the inheritance and
Psychology development of traits and abilities.
Mental phenomena are studied in terms
Dynamic
of internal drives and motives as causes
Psychology
of behavior.
Studies the functions of the nervous
Physiological
system and other bodily structures in
Psychology
the behavior of organism.
This deals with the behavioral disorders
Abnormal like physical handicaps, nervous
Psychology disorders, speech impairments, mental
aberrations and others.
This concerned with the application of
psychological principles to the problem
Educational
of education like teacher preparation,
Psychology
motivation and teaching process,
evaluation of teaching.
Deals with psychological principles
applied to human problems of industry
Industrial or
and business, government and military
Personnel
service, occupational selection and job
Psychology
training, morale and placement, forms
of test and management.
The object of investigation of this area
is “the interaction of human beings and
Social
man’s relation with family and the
Psychology
larger social institutions with reference
to leadership and attitude formation.
This study includes the use of principles
Therapy and
to the task of alleviating and preventing
Counseling
mental illness.
This field adapts machines and
processes to the capabilities and
Human
limitations of human beings – the
Engineering
reverse of fitting men to work
conditions.
This study uses concepts and methods
in the diagnosis and treatment of
Clinical maladjustment and mental disorders in
Psychology clinical setting – like behavior
abnormalities ranging from reading or
spelling to major mental disorders.
3
1
 GENERAL
UNIT 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY

Concerned with the application of

Psychometric
mathematical procedures to the Biographical Method – is the analysis of the
Psychology
problems of psychology like testing, the records of people’s lives as written by themselves
use of norms, central tendencies and the or others.
like.
4. Survey Method or Group Method – uses data
obtained from respondents through written
Deals with the application of questionnaires or interviews. The respondents are
Legal psychological knowledge in the field of chosen so as to constitute a representative sample. This
Psychology law relating to the study of human method is used in obtaining norms, surveys or opinion
behavior. polls.

5. Experimental Method – is the study of behavior

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
1. Introspection – is a method of mental self-analysis
wherein the psychologist studies himself, records his
feelings and experiences, analyzes these and later
interprets them. This method was introduced by St.
Augustine.
Certain problems in psychology, particularly those
concerned with the intrapersonal phenomena, can
be studied only by introspection. Because the study is
based on personal experience, the results may
not be very objective and reliable.
2. Observation - is the most widely used method in the
study of behavior.
Uncontrolled or Informal Observation – does not
follow any particular scope of behavior to be
observed. It is casual, and the psychologist is free
to observe any activity that arises without formally
recording such behavior.
Naturalistic Observation – is the observation of
things as they naturally happen. Other
investigators call this field-study method, wherein
critical observation are made of nature “in the raw”
Controlled or Formal Observation – follows
certain rules, factors or controls in gathering
materials, in order to draw the best conclusion.
Certain requirements or specifications limit the
activity of the observer.
inside the laboratory under controlled conditions. It
involves variables which can be measured
quantitatively. Variables may be either independent or
dependent.
Independent Variable – is a condition which is set
or selected by the experimenter.
Dependent Variable – is the subject’s behavior
whose value depends upon the values or changes
in the independent variable
The experimental method also has a limitation that is
why it can’t be used in every case. It is artificially
arranged by the scientist that it can sometimes
interfere with the very thing it attempts to examine.
6. Statistical Method – statistics is the science that
deals with the collecting and handling of numerical
data and making inferences from such data. It is
needed for understanding the tests utilized to
appraise individuality, as in intelligence tests,
personality tests and other kinds of appraisal
devices.
Statistical analysis enables psychologist to study the
various processes involved in performing complex
tasks, which is done by a procedure known as factor
analysis.

3. Life-History Method – is the extensive study of

individuals by tracing the development of a particular
form of behavior. Life-history method are of three
basic forms:

Daybook Method – sometimes called diary of

development, is a careful recording of day to day
activities. This is particularly used in child study
and development.

Clinical Method – contains information

concerning the emotional and personality
adjustment of a person. This is also called case
history method. All possible data are gathered
from the individual, the parents and other who
know the person. These are studied by the clinical
psychologist, psychoanalyst, psychiatrist, or social
worker to discover the cause of some social
adjustment problem and how to solve it.

PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR. 4

 GENERAL
UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOR
PSYCHOLOGY
BRIEF HISTORY
A. Ancient era
 Hippocrates (460 BC-370 BC)
Believed that the brain controlled joy, pain and
grief.
 Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC)
Considered the brain to be the cooling unit to
lower the temperature of the body.
 Galen (AD 129-199/217)
Contributed to the Hippocratic understanding
of pathology through his topology of human
temperaments.
B. 1860s
 Paul Broca (1824-1880)
French surgeon, proved that the destruction of
the region within the frontal side of the brain
has an effect on language
C. 19th century
Scientist accepted that the brain is an important
mechanism that coordinates and controls behavior.
Phrenology –study that stemmed from this; assumed
that the cerebral cortex had separate function areas in
specific brain regions.
 Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German psychologist, measured learning and
memory.
 Karl s. Lashley (1890-1958)
American psychologist and behaviorist,
researched on the location of memory and
functions in the brain.
 Donald O. Hebb (1904-1985)
Student of Lashley, showed how complex
cognitive behaviors are performed by a
network of active neurons.
 Santiago Ramon Y. Cajal (1852-1934)
Proposed a new perspective which he called
Neuron Doctrine: The brain is composed of
separate neurons and other cells; Information
is transmitted from cell to cell through
synapse.
NERVE CELLS/NEURONS
Neuron
 The basic structural unit or building block of
nervous system
 When grouped together form a nerve.
Basic Part of a Neuron
1. Cell body
 Filled up with “cytoplasm” – the living material
forming the body of the cell.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.
 Contains the “nucleus” – responsible for protein
synthesis or manufacturing chemical substances
for neuron nourishment.
2. Dendrites
 Conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body.
3. Axon
 Carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.
 Neurotransmitters - chemical substances
produced by axons that transmit messages across
the synapse.
Some of major neurotransmitters:
 Acetylcholine dopamine
 Neurophin ephedrine
 Serotonin
 Epinephrine glutamate
 Gamma-aminobutyric acid
 Endorphins
4. Myelin Sheath
 Increase the speed at which impulses propagate
along the myelinated fiber.
5. Axon Terminal
 Contains “synapses” – specialized structures
where neurotransmitter chemicals are release to
communicate with target.
Types of Neurons according to basic functions:
1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neuron): conduct
impulses towards the brain/nervous system.
2. Association Neurons (Interneuron): connecting
conduct impulses within the nervous system.
3. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neuron): conduct impulses
away from the brain/nervous system.
Two Common Features of Neurons:
1. Irritability – ability to respond to stimulation.
In response to proper stimulation, all neurons
will fire.
 Firing – a process wherein chemicals which are
normally kept out of the neuron are allowed inside
the cell boundaries, while chemicals normally kept
within are allowed to escape; this brings about a
change in electrical charge of the neuron.
 All or none principle – when neuron is stimulated
it may either fire of not at all.
2. Conductivity – ability of the nerves to relay impulses
or stimulation from one point in the body to another.
The firing process in the neuron completely exhaust its
resources and before it can fire again, the neuron must
restore, even partially, its resting potential, its resting
potential or normal electric charge.
 Absolute refractory – the period during which the cell
cannot fire again, regardless how strongly it is
stimulated
 Relative refractory – the period wherein the cell will
fire again only after it is given more than the usual
level of stimulation to fire it.
5
 GENERAL
UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOR
PSYCHOLOGY
NEURAL FUNCTIONING

1. A stimulus strikes a receptor.

2. The receptor stimulates the dendrites of a sensory Nervous System
neuron, making a nerve impulse travel to the afferent  Is a complex combination of billions of neurons.
or incoming fiber to the endbrush.
3. The impulse crosses the synaptic connection or Main Divisions
junction and stimulates the dendrites of a connector
neuron (interneuron) in the spinal cord. I. Central Nervous System
4. The impulse passes another synapse from the  Includes the brain and spinal cord.
connector neuron to the dendrites of an efferent or
outgoing neuron (Motor neuron).
5. The impulse passes along the efferent fiber to its
endbrush.
6. An effector – a muscle or gland – responds.

Processes of neural circuits and networks:

1. Synaptic Summation – the impulses reaching a
synapse from a single fiber may not bridge the synapse,
but two or more impulses arriving within a very brief
period may cause a response.
2. Alternative Nerve Pathways – a chain of one or more
afferent neuron, one connector neuron, and one
efferent neuron functions to carry a neural message.
3. Reverberation – the nervous system does not only
transmit a message then lie idly until the next stimulus.
4. Temporal Summation – summation occurs if the
second stimulus is applied within 15 milliseconds after
the first.
5. Inhibition
 Direct inhibition – when two stimuli are applied
simultaneously with only one of the two leading to
a response.
 Successive inhibition – when the first stimulus
will not generate a response and second stimulus is
applied soon after.
6. Reciprocal innervation – the automatic process
wherein there is simultaneous excitation of one set of
motor neurons and inhibition of another.
7. Irradiation – as the strength of a stimulus is increased,
even in a stimulus to a reflex act, more sensory, 1. Brain
connecting, and effector fibers are involved; and Contains at least 15 billion nerve cells called
therefore, a more extensive response is generated. neurons.
8. Timing – neural impulses takes time to travel along a Has two parts: the larger part – “cerebrum”
fiber and more time for a synaptic connection. and the smaller one – “cerebellum”.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Cerebellum – balance, equilibrium, gait and

AND ITS DIVISIONS posture.
Nervous
System Cerebrum – divided into two hemispheres, the
left and right and is bridged by the corpus
Central Peripheral callosum.
Nervous Nervous  Contains the ‘gray matter” (outside part)
System System – cerebral cortex (folded brain) which
is divided into lobes and “white matter”
Brain Autonomic (inside part) – nerve fibers connecting
Somatic System the cerebral cortex to other parts of the
System brain.
 Motor, sensory, integrative function.
Spinal Cord Parasympathetic
System  Lobes:
 Frontal – controls higher critical
thinking, personality dev’t., motor
activity, contains the motor speech
Sympathetic System
center.
 Occipital – vision

PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.

6
GENERAL
UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOR
PSYCHOLOGY
 Parietal – appreciation and
discrimination of sensory impulses
(pain, touch, pressure, heat and
cold)
 Temporal – hearing, short term
memory, contains the general
interpretative area.
 Insula – visceral function (internal
area)
 Limbic System – sense of smell,
libido or sexual urge control, long
term memory.
Three principal Sections of the Brain:
 Hindbrain – closest to the spinal cord
 Brainstem – lower part of the
hindbrain; relays afferent
messages from sensory organs
to highest levels in the brain;
relays efferent messages to the
effectors.
 Pons – controls rate,
rhythm and depth
respiration
 Medulla Oblongata –
lowest part; damage: most
life threatening; controls
respiration, heart rate,
swallowing, vomiting,
hiccups, vasomotor center.
 Midbrain – located above the hind
brain, forming the upper part of the
brain stem; relay station for sight and
hearing particularly helps in size and
reaction of pupils and hearing acuity.
 Forebrain – the most complex and
biggest part of the human brain;
composed of three parts: the thalamus,
the limbic system, and the cortex.
 Thalamus – relay station for
sensation; contains
hypothalamus – controls a variety
of complex human processes, like
temperature, BP, sleep
wakefulness, thirst, appetite
(satiety), some emotional responses
like fear, anxiety, and excitement,
pituitary functions.
 Cortex – (cerebral cortex) the
folded brain
 Limbic System (see definition and
function at Lobes of cerebrum)
2. Spinal Cord
An extension of the brain; extends from the
base of the brain through the center of the
spinal column.
Sends messages from sensory neurons in
various parts of the body to the brain and
relays motor commands back to the muscles
and organs.
Contains 31 spinal nerves that carry
impulses to and from the brain.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.
II. Peripheral Nervous System
 All the parts that lie outside the central system.
 Composed of two parts:
1. Autonomic System
A motor system supplying impulses to
most of the internal organs and smooth
muscles of the body.
An involuntary system
Composed of two principal divisions:
a. Sympathetic System
 (aggression response) becomes
active when one is in danger or is
about to engage in something like
an athletic contest.
 Focused on using body resources,
particularly in times of need.
b. Parasympathetic System
 (withdrawal response)
restores the body resources.
2. Somatic System
Controls skeletal muscles
Techniques in Measuring Brain Function
1. The Electroencephalograph (EEG) – an imaging
technique used to measure the electric fields in the
brain via electrodes place on the scalp of the human
2. Position Emission tomography (PET) - an imaging
technique that reveals the functions of the human brain.
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – also known as
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), measures
oxygen by groups of neurons. It present a three
dimensional image of the living brain.
4. Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) – uses a series
of X-rays of the head taken from different directions
for quick assessment of brain injuries.
5. Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI) - uses infrared light to
generate images of the body; measures the absorption
spectrum of hemoglobin.
6. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMR) -
uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by
the
measuring changes in the brain blood supply during
various mental activities.
and
EFFECTORS – MUSCLES AND GLANDS
A. Muscles – the most conspicuous effectors
 Major Kinds of Muscles
1. Voluntary Muscles : stripes, skeletal
2. Involuntary Muscles: visceral, smooth
3. Cardiac Muscles
7
 GENERAL
UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOR
PSYCHOLOGY

 Characteristics of Muscles Glands Hormones Functions

Anterior Pituitary
1. Contractility: power to shorten  Growth hormones Stimulates growth
2. Tonicity: power to be in partial contraction
3. Extensibility: power of muscle to stretch  Thyroid Stimulating H
Stimulates thyroid
: power to resume to its original shape. gland

 Functions of Muscles  Adrecocoticotropic H

Stimulates adrenal
gland
1. To lend shape to the body.
2. To propel food and waste product along the Ripening of
Pituitary  Follicle Stimulating H
intestinal tract. follicles (female)
3. For movement. (master
gland) Sperm production
4. To control blood flow.  Luteinizing H
(male)
5. To convert mechanical energy into chemical work.
6. To generate heat. Stimulates
 Prolactin ovulation; milk
production
B. ENDOCTRINE GLANDS – secretes chemical
Posterior Pituitary
substances called hormones or autacoids – that controls  Oxytocin
Stimulates
contraction
the rates of certain bodily processes associated with Regulates volume
maturation; Composed of following glands:  Antidiuteric H of urine
Regulates
 Thyroxin
metabolism
Thyroid Regulates calcium
 Calcitonin by bone re-
absorption
Regulates calcium
Parathyroids  Parathormone by bone
demineralization
Stimulates the
Thymus  Thymosin development of T
lymphocytes
Adrenal Cortex Regulates mineral
 Mineralocoticoids composition of
(Aldosterone/Renin) body fluids
Promotes
 Glucocorticoids
conversion of
(Cortisol/Cortisone)
protein into sugar
Promotes dev’t. of
 Sex Hormones
secondary sex
Adrenal (Estrogen/Adrogen)
characteristics
Adrenal Medulla Stimulates
 Adrenaline/Epinephrin heartbeat, increase
e blood flow
 Noradrenalin/ Acts to constrict
Norepinephrine blood vessel
throughout the
body.
Alpha Cell Raise the blood
 Glucagon sugar level
Beta Cell Lowers the blood
Pancreas  Insulin sugar level
Delta Cell Inhibits growth
 Somatostatin hormone
Male Testicles Influences the dev’t.
 Testosterone of secondary sexual
characteristics
Sperms production
Female Ovaries
Gonads Influences the dev’t.
 Estrogen
of secondary sexual
characteristics
 Progesterone Maintenance of
Pregnancy

PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR. 8

 GENERAL
UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOR
PSYCHOLOGY
GENETICS c. Sickle-cell anemia - carried by recessive
 Focuses on the study of the genetic blueprints genes. It is an abnormal shaped red blood
(genotypes) and the observed qualities cell, which multiply with lack of oxygen.
(phenotypes). 3. Tay Sachs disease (TSD) - an enzyme disorder
Gene - Unit of hereditary transmission. that results in the brain’s inability to breakdown
- Encoded in the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) certain fats. Patients usually die before the age
contained within the nucleus of every cell body. of three.
4. Spina bifida – a neural tube defect in which the
Degree of Relatedness or Biological Inheritance – the spine remains open at the bottom or a portion
probability of sharing characteristics among relatives. of the skull and brain are absent.
5. Diabetes Mellitus – insulin deficiency due to
 children and parents – 0.50
recessive genes.
 grandchildren and grandparents – 0.25
6. Chromosomal disorders not associated with
genes but with errors in chromosomes that are
Main Determinants of Development
caused by improper divisions and
1. Heredity
recombination during meiosis or cell division.
2. Environment
a. Cri-du chat syndrome – also known as
Heredity – determines the level of development that
chromosome 5p deletion syndrome.
can be reached in a given environmental condition at a
Manifested by catlike cries, facial
given period of time.
anomalies,
severe
Environment – determines how effectively a hereditary
mental
factor can influence development over a given period of
time.
Heredity x Environment x Time = Development Level

retardation, gastrointestinal malformation,

- formula used to express the relationship
and abnormal throat structure.
between heredity and environment in
b. Prader Willi syndrome – deletion in the
producing the level of individual’s biological,
long arm of the long arm chromosome 15
psychological, and social development at any
between band of (Q 11 and 13). Manifested
given time.
by poor suckling reflex, compulsive eating,
The interactions of heredity and environment emerges a poor sexual
new important factor – the individual or the self. development,
and mental
retardation.
Genetic Disorder/Chromosomal Defects
1. Huntington Chorea
 A fatal disease characterized by the
degeneration of the nervous system
caused by dominant chromosomes.
 This disorder produces muscle spasm,
c. Down syndrome - caused by the presence
depression, and significant changes in
of all or part of an
personality. It appears during early
extra 21st
adulthood.
chromosome
2. Other types of genetic disorder due to recessive
(Trisomy, 21); known
chromosomes:
as Mongolism.
a. Phenylketonuria (PKU) – the presence of
Characterized by
two recessive genes. The liver enzyme
wide skull that is flat
responsible for breaking down
in the back, narrow
phenylalanine produces poisons that harm
and slated eyes, fissured tongue, mental
the nervous system resulting in mental
retardation, and some congenital heart
retardation. Easily detected at birth and can
defects.
be prevented through proper diet.
b. Muscular Dystrophy (MD) – degenerative
disorder linked to recessive genes,
characterized by inability to walk.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR.
9
 GENERAL
UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF BEHAVIOR
PSYCHOLOGY
4. Radiography – diagnosis imaging through X-ray
d. Turner syndrome – a female disorder used during pregnancy to evaluate maternal or
characterized by the absence of X fetal disease.
chromosomes (45 X); manifested by short
and wide chest, underdeveloped secondary
traits, and narrowing aorta.

e. Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY or XXY

syndrome) – a condition with the affected
individuals having extra XX chromosomes,
manifested by poor sexual development,
very low fertility, presence of both male
and female secondary traits, small
underdeveloped testicles, and some breast
development.

f. Fragile female X
chromosomes –
abnormal or broken
chromosomes more
common among males
than females. Mental
retardation usually
manifested during
adolescence.

g. XYY syndrome (previously considered the

super-male syndrome) – a disorder that
affects the males. Males with this disorder
have an extra Y chromosome; they are likely
to be very tall and usually manifest
abnormal behavior linked to criminality.

Procedures to detect genetic disorders:

1. Amniocentesis – used to diagnose fetal defects
in the early second trimester of pregnancy. Can
determine the absence or presence of extra
chromosomes.
2. Chorionic Villus Biopsy – can be used as early as
7 weeks after fertilization; tissue from the
chorionic villi is examined.
3. Ultrasound exam or Sonogram – an imaging
technique used to detect the position of the
fetus and detect multiple pregnancy or any
skeletal abnormalities.
PREPARED BY: RAMON M. MONTESOR JR. 10