AASHTO

Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges

17th Edition - 2002
Adopted and Published by the

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249
Washington, D.C. 20001
© Copyright 2002 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All
Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be re-
produced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Code: HB-17 ISBN: 156051-171-Q

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE illGHWAY
AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
2001-2002
VOTING MEMBERS
Officers:
President: Brad Mallory, Pennsylvania

Vice President: James Codell, Kentucky
Secretary/Treasurer: Larry King, Pennsylvania
Regional Represematives:
Region /: Joseph Boardman, New York, One-Year Term

James Weinstein, New Jersey, Two-Year Term
Region II: Bruce Saltsman, Tennessee, One-Year Term

Fred Van Kirk, West Virginia, Two-Year Term
Region III: Kirk Brown, Illinois, One-Year Term

Henry Hungerbeeler, Missouri, Two-Year Term
Region IV: Joseph Perkins, Alaska, One-Year Term

Tom Stephens, Nevada, Two-Year Term
NON-VOTING MEMBERS
Immediate Past President: E. Dean Carlson, Kansas

Executive Director: John Horsley, Washington, D.C.
ii
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IDGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON
BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
2002
0 TOM LULAY, Oregon, Chairman

SANDRA LARSON, Vice Chairman
JAMES D. COOPER, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary
ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H. SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon, Jeff

Connor Sizemore
ALASKA, Richard A. Pratt SOUTH DAKOTA, John C. Cole
ARIZONA, F. Daniel Davis TENNESSEE, Edward P. Wasserman
ARKANSAS, Phil Brand TEXAS, Mary Lou Ralls
CALIFORNIA, Richard Land U.S. DOT, Nick E. Mpras
COLORADO, Mark A. Leonard UTAH, David Nazare
CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton VERMONT. James McCarthy
DELAWARE, Doug Finney, Dennis O'Shea VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley
D.C., Donald Cooney WASHINGTON, Jerry Weigel, Tony M. Allen
FLORIDA, William N. Nickas WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen
GEORGIA. Paul Liles, Brian Summers WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods
HAWAII. Paul Santo WYOMING, Gregg C. Fredrick, Keith R.
IDAHO, Matthew M. Farrar Fulton
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson
INDIANA, Mary Jo Hamman ALBERTA, Dilip K. Dasmohapatra
IOWA, Norman L. McDonald MANITOBA, Ismail Elkholy
KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst, Loren R. Risch NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS, John C.
KENTUCKY, Stephen E. Goodpaster Pangalinan
LOUISIANA, Hossein Ghara, Mark J. Morvant NEW BRUNSWICK, David Cogswell
MAINE, James E. Tukey NORTHAMPTON, R. T. Hughes
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MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, John Bowen
MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow NOVA SCOTIA, Alan MacRae, Mark Pertus
MICHIGAN, Steve Beck ONTARIO, Vacant
MINNESOTA, Dan Dorgan, Kevin Western SASKATCHEWAN, Herve Bachelu
MISSISSIPPI, Harry Lee James
MISSOURI, Shyam Gupta FHWA, Shoukry Elnahal
MONTANA, William S. Fullerton MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM., David
NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon Lenhardt
NEVADA, William C. Crawford, Jr. N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Richard
NEW HAMPSHIRE, Mark Richardson Raczynski
NEW JERSEY, Harry A. Capers, Jr., Richard NY STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William
W. Dunne Moreau
NEW MEXICO, Jimmy D. Camp PORT AUTH. OF NY AND NJ, Joseph J.
NEW YORK, James O'Connell, George Kelly, Joseph Zitelli
Christian BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, Wade Casey
NORTH CAROLINA, Gregory R. Perfettie MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
NORTH DAKOTA, Terry Udland COMMAND, Robert D. Franz
OHIO, Timothy Keller U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS-DEPT.
OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch, Veldo Goins OF THE ARMY, Paul Tan
OREGON, Mark E. Hirota U.S. COAST GUARD, Jacob Patnaik
PENNSYLVANIA, R. Scott Christie U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
PUERTO RICO, Jaime Cabre FOREST SERVICE, Nelson Hernandez
RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhoumand
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PREFACE
to
Seventeenth Edition
Major changes and revisions to this edition are as follows:

I. The Interim Specifications of 1997, 1998, 1999,2000,2001,2002 and 2003 have been
adopted and are included.
2. The commentaries from 1996 through 2000 are provided and have been cross-referenced
with each other. where appropriate.
3. In 1997. Section 15, ..TFE Bearing Surface," Division I, was replaced by Section 14,
"Bearings.''
4. In 1997, Section 19, "Pot Bearings," Division I, was replaced by Section 14...Bearings."
5. In 1997, Section 20, "Disc Bearings," Division I, was replaced by Section 14, "Bearings."
6. In 2002, Section 16, "Steel Tunnel Liner Plates," Division I, became Section 15.
7. In 2002, Section 17, "Soil-Reinforced Concrete Structure Interaction Systems," Division
I, became Section 16.
8. In 2002, Section 18, "Soil-Thermoplastic Pipe Interaction Systems," Division I, became
Section 17.
9. A new companion CD-ROM with advance search features is included with each book.
10. The Federal Highway Administration and the States have established a goal that the
LRFD standards be used on all new bridge designs after 2007; only edits related to technical
errors in the seventeenth edition will be made hereafter. These Standard Specifications are ap-
plicable to new structure designs prior to 2007 and for the maintenance and rehabilitation of
existing structures.
iv
INTRODUCTION
The compilation of these specifications began in 1921 with the organization of the
0 ' Committee on Bridges and Structures of the American Association of State Highway
Officials. During the period from 1921, until printed in 1931, the specifications were
gradually developed, and as the several divisions were approved from time to time,
they were made available in mimeographed form for use of the State Highway
Departments and other organizations. A complete specification was available in 1926
and it was revised in 1928. Though not in printed form, the specifications were valu-
able to the bridge engineering profession during the period of development.
The first edition of the Standard Specifications was published in 1931, and it was
followed by the 1935, 1941, 1944, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1973. 1977,
1983, 1989, 1992, and 1996 revised editions. The present seventeenth edition consti-
tutes a revision of the 1996 specifications, including those changes adopted since the
publication of the sixteenth edition and those through 2002.
In the past, Interim Specifications were usually published in the middle of the cal-
endar year, and a revised edition of this book was generally published every 4 years.
However, since the Federal Highway Administration and the States have established a
goal that the LRFD standards be used on all new bridge designs after 2007, only edits
related to technical errors in the seventeenth edition will be made hereafter. These
Standard Specifications are applicable to new structure designs prior to 2007 and for
the maintenance and rehabilitation of existing structures. Future revisions will have
the same status as standards of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and are approved by at least two-thirds of the
Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures. These revisions are voted on by the
Association Member Departments prior to the publication of a new edition of this book,
and if approved by at least two-thirds of the members, they are included in a new edition
as standards of the Association. Members of the Association are the 50 State Highway
0 or Transportation Departments. the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each mem-
ber has one vote. The U.S. Department of Transportation is a nonvoting member.
Future revisions will be displayed on AASHTO's website via a link from the
title's book code listing, HB-17, in the Bookstore of www.transportation.org. An e-mail
notification will also be sent to previous purchasers notifying them that a revision is
available for download. Please check the site periodically to ensure that you have the
most up-to-date and accurate information.
The Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges are intended to serve as a stan-
dard or guide for the preparation of State specifications and for reference by bridge
engineers.
Primarily, the specifications set forth minimum requirements which are consistent
with current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary to suit local condi-
tions. They apply to ordinary highway bridges and supplemental specifications may be
required for unusual types and for bridges with spans longer than 500 feet.
Specifications of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the
American Welding Society, the American Wood Preservers Association, and the
National Forest Products Association are referred to, or are recognized. Numerous re-
search bulletins are noted for references.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials wishes to
express its sincere appreciation to the above organizations, as well as to those univer-
sities and representatives of industry whose research efforts and consultations have
been most helpful in continual improvement of these specifications.
Extensive references have been made to the Standard Specifications for
Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing also published by
AASHTO, including equivalent ASTM specifications which have been reproduced in
the Association's Standard Specifications by permission of the American Society for
Testing and Materials.
v
Attention is also directed to the following publications prepared and published by
the Bridge Subcommittee:
AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements-I998
Edition
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway
Bridges witlz Design Examples for /-Girder and Box-Girder Bridges-2002
Edition
AASHTO Guide Specifications-Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Super-
structures- I 989 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications-1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. 2nd Edition. Sf- I 998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. 2nd Edition. US-1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications, 1st Edition-
200 I Edition
AASHTO/AWS-DJ.5MID1.5:2001 An American National Standard: Bridge
Welding Code and its Commentary-2002 Edition
Bridge Data Exchange (BDX) Technical Data Guide-1995 Edition
Construction Handbook/or Bridge Temporary Works-1995 Edition
Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works-1995 Edition
Guide for Painting Steel Structures-1991 Edition
Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges-1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Alternative Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel
Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections-1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Aluminum Highway Bridges-1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete
Bridges, 2nd Edition-1999 Edition
Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges, 1997 Edition
Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges-1994
Edition
Guide Specifications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges-1990
Edition
Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS070W Steel-
2000 Edition
Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design, 2nd Edition-1999 Edition
Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor
Design)-1985 Edition
Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete
Bridges-1989 Edition
Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers- I 989 Edition
Guide Specification for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks-1991
Edition
Guidelines for Bridge Management Systems-1993 Edition
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges-2000 Edition
vi
Movable Bridge Inspection, Evaluation and Maintenance Manual-1998 Edition
Standard Specifications for Movable Highway Bridges-1988 Edition
0 Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires

and Traffic Signals, 4th Edition-2001 Edition
Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other

AASHTO committees and task forces are as follows:
Guide Specifications for Cathodic Protection of Concrete Bridge Decks-1994
Edition
Guide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays-1995 Edition
Guide Specifications for Shot crete Repair of Highway Bridges-1998 Edition
Inspectors' Guide for Shotcrete Repair of Bridges-1999 Edition
Manual for Corrosion Protection of Concrete Components in Bridges-1992
Edition
1\vo Parts: Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlay Pavements and Bridge
Decks-1990 Edition
AASHTO Mailltenance Manual: The Maintenance and Management of
Roadways and Bridges-1999 Edition
The following have served as chairmen of the Committee since its inception in 1921:
Messrs, E.R Kelley, who pioneered the work of the Committee, Albin L. Gemeny, R. B.
McMinn, Raymond Archiband, G. S. Paxson, E. M. Johnson, Ward Goodman, Charles
Matlock, Joseph S. Jones, Sidney Poleynard, Jack Freidenrich, Henry W. Derthick,
Robert C. Cassano, Clellon Loveall. James E. Siebels, David Pope, and Tom Lulay. The
Committee expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those ac-
tive members of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the roll.
Suggestions for the improvement of the specifications are welcomed. They should
0 be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444
North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001. Inquiries as to the
intent or application of the specifications should be sent to the same address.
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO -American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI -American Concrete Institute
AISC -American Institute of Steel Construction
AITC -American Institute of Timber Construction
ASCE -American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME -American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM -American Society for Testing and Materials
ANSI -American National Standards Institute
AWS -American Welding Society
AWPA -American Wood Preservers Association
CRSI -Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
cs -Commercial Standards
NOS -National Design Specifications for Stress Grade Lumber and Its
Fastenings
NFPA -National Forest Products Association
RMA -Rubber Manufacturers Association
SAE -Society of Automotive Engineers
SSPC -Steel Structures Painting Council
WPA -Western Pine Association
WRI -Wire Reinforcement Institute
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WWPA -Western Wood Products Association
vii
1997 Interim Specifications
Table of Contents
The 1997 Interim Specifications include the following revisions and additions to articles of the 16th
edition of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1996.
DMSION I-DESIGN
ARTICLE PAGE
SECTION 5 ........................................................... 111

SECTION 7 ........................................................... 155
8.16.4.4 .............................................................. 177
8.16.8.3 .............................................................. 183
8.17.4 .............................................................. 184.2
8.32.2.2 and 8.32.2.5 ...... ·............................................. 193
9.16.1 ............................................................... 203
9.17.4.1 .............................................................. 207
10.2 ................................................................. 223
10.32 ....... ; ........................................................ 254
10.34.3.2.1, 10.34.3.2.2 and Figure 10.34.3.1A ...... ·.· ...................... 258
10.34.5.1 and 10.34.5.2 ................................................. 260
10.38.1.7 ............................................................. 265
10.48.4.1 ............................................................. 280
10.48.6.1 ........................................................... 281.1
10.49.3.1, 10.49.3.2 and 10.50 ........................................ 283-284
10.61 ................................................................ 295
12.4.1.4 .............................................................. 303
12.6.I.4 .............................................................. 307
12.7 ................................................................. 308
12.8 ................................................................. 313
SECTION 14 ......................................................... 343
17.I.2 ............................................................... 355
17.4.6 ............................................................... 363
17.4.7 .............................................................. 370.I
I 7.6.4.7 .............................................................. 372
I 8.4.3. I .............................................................. 38 I
DIVISION II-CONSTRUCTION
3.1.3 ................................................................ 433

SECTION 5 .......................................................... 449
SECTION 7 .......................................................... 463
SECTION 18 ......................................................... 563
COMMENTARIES:
DIVISION I: SECTIONS 8, 10, 12, 14, I7 AND 18 ....... : . ............C-11-C-30
DIVISION II: SECTIONS 3 AND I 8 ... ·............................. C-31-C-35
viii
AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 1-GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL

INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES ........................... 3
1.1.1 Design Analysis .............................................3
1.1.2 Structural Integrity .......................................... 3
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS ........................................ 3
1.3 WATERWAYS ................................................ 3
1.3.1 General .................................................... 3
1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies .......................................... .4
1.3.2.1 Site Data .................................................4
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis ....................................... .4
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis ........................................ .4
1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY OPENINGS . .4
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE .......................................4
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES ................................... .4
1.6.1 Clearances ................................................. 4
1.6.2 Blast Protection ............................................. 4
1.7 SUPERELEVATION .......................................... 5
1.8 FLOOR SURFACES ........................................... 5
1.9 UTILITIES ..................................................5
SECTION 2-GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL ...................................................7

2.1.1 Notations ..................................................7
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk ..............................7
2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES-GENERAL ............. 7
2.2.1 Navigational ................................................7
2.2.2 Roadway Width .............................................7
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance ...........................................7
2.2.4 Other ..................................................... 7
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks ........................................ 8
2.3 IDGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES ...................... 8
2.3.1 Width ..................................................... 8
2.3.2 Vertical Clearance ........................................... 8
2.4 IDGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES ................. 8
2.4.1 Width ..................................................... 8
2.4.2 Vertical Clearance ........................................... 8
2.4.3 Curbs ..................................................... 8
2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS ......................8
2.5.1 Roadway Width .............................................8
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls .................................... l 0
2.5.3 Vertical Clearance .......................................... I 0
2.5.4 Curbs .................................................... 10
2.6 IDGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS ....... I 0
ix
X CONTENTS Division I
2.6.1 Roadway Width ............................................ I 0

2.6.2 Clearance between Walls .................................... 10
2.6.3 Curbs .................................................... IO
2.7 RAILINGS ................................ · . · .. · · · .. · · · . · · · .1 0
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing ........................................... I 0
2.7.1.1 General ................................................. IO
2.7.1.2 Geometry ................................................ I 0
2.7.1.3 Loads ................................................... I I
2.7.2 Bicycle Railing ............................................. 11
2.7.2.1 General ................................................. I 1
2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads ....................................... I I
2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing .......................................... 12
2.7.3.1 General ................................................. I2
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads ....................................... 13
2.7.4 Structural Specifications and Guidelines ....................... 13
SECTION 3-LOADS
PART A-TYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS ................................................ 17

3.2 GENERAL .................................................. 19
3.3 DEAD LOAD ................................................ 19
3.4 LIVE LOAD ................................................ 20
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS ...................................20
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES ...........................................20
3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS .......................................... 20
3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads .............................. 20
3.7.2 Classes of Loading .......................................... 21
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings ..................................... 21
3.7.4 Minimum Loading ......................................... 21
3.7.5 H Loading ................................................ 21
3.7.6 HS Loading ............................................... 21
3.8 IMPACT .................................................... 21
3.8.1 Application ................................................ 21
3.8.1.1 Group A-Impact shall be included ........................... 2I
3.8.1.2 Group B-Impact shall not be included ........................2I
3.8.2 Impact Formula ...........................................21
3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES ...................................23
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES .................................... 25
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD ............................... 25
3.11. I 'I'raffic Lane Units .......................................... 25
3.11.2 Number and Position of'I'raffic Lane Units ..................... 25
3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans ............................. 25
3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress ................................ 25
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY ........................... 25
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS ................................26
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING .................. 26
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading ..........................................26
3.14.2 Curb Loading ............................................. 26
3.I4.3 Railing Loading ............................................ 26
3.15 WIND LOADS ............................................... 26
Division I CONTENTS xi
3.15.1 Superstructure Design ......................................26

3.15.1.1 Group II and Group V Loadings .............................. 26
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings ............................26
3.15.2 Substructure Design ........................................27
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure ..................................27
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure ..................... 27
3.15.3 Overturning Forces .........................................27
3.16 THERMAL FORCES ......................................... 28
3.17 UPLIFT ....................................................28
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND FLOATING ICE,
AND DRIFT CONDITIONS ...........................28
3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers .............................28
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure ...........................................28
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components ...................................... 28
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier ................................... 28
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers ........................................29
3.18.2.1 General ................................................. 29
3.18.2.2 Dynamic Ice Force ........................................ 29
3.18.2.3 Static Ice Pressure .........................................30
3.19 BUOYANCY ................................................ 30
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE ..........................................30
3.21 EARTHQUAKES ............................................30
PART B-COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS ................................. 30
PART C-DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL

BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS ........................32
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear .................................. 32
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams ......... .32
3.23.2.1 General ................................................. 32
3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams ................................ 32
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams ........................ 32
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams ............................ 32
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders .................................... 33
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams .......................33
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse) .................34
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks ............. 34
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE
SLABS .............................................35
3.24.1 Span Lengths .............................................. 35
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads ................................35
3.24.3 Bending Moment ........................................... 35
3.24.3.1 Case A-Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
(Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) ............................ 36
3.24.3.2 Case B-Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic .................36
3.24.4 Shear and Bond ............................................ 36
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs ........................................... 36
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads .............................................36
3.24.5.1.1 Case A-Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic .............. 36
3.24.5.1.2 Case B-Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic ................... 36
xii CONTENTS Division I
3.24.5.2 Railing Loads ............................................36

3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides ............................... 37
3.24.7 Median Slabs ..............................................37
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams ................................... 37
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges ...............................37
3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement ..................................37
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER FLOORING ...38
3.25.1 'Iransverse Flooring ........................................38
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal Flooring ...............39
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber Decks .................. 39
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment ......................................... 39
3.25.3.2 Shear ...................................................40
3.25.3.3 Deflections ..............................................40
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement ..................................... .40
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring ....................................... .40
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF
COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS ........ .40
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for Bending Moment
and Shear ...........................................40
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans .......... .40
3.26.3 Design ....................................................40
3.27 DISTRffiUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON STEEL
GRID FLOORS ...................................... 41
3.27.1 General ...................................................41
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete ................................. .41
3.27.3 Open Floors ...............................................41
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT
IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS ......................... .41
3.28.1 Interior Beams .............................................41
3.28.2 Exterior Beams ............................................41
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS ......................41
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA ..................................... .42
SECTION 4-FOUNDATIONS
PART A-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL ..................................................43

4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY ........................ .43
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type .................................43
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity ...................................... .43
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity ..........................................43
4.2.2.2 Settlement ...............................................43
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability ......................................... .43
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions .................... .43
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING
PROGRAMS ........................................43
4.3.1 General Requirements ..................................... .43
4.3.2 Minimum Depth ...........................................44
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage ........................................45
4.3.4 Laboratory Thsting .........................................45
4.3.5 Scour ....................................................45
Division I CONTENTS xiii
PART B-SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
0
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4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS .........................................45

4.4.1 General ...................................................45
4.4.1.1 Applicability .............................................45
4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columns or Piers ..........45
4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........45
4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments .................. .45
4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure ............................. .45
4.4.2 Notations .................................................45
4.4.3 Design Terminology ........................................ 48
4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection ............................ .48
4.4.5 Depth ....................................................48
4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width .......................48
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection ..........................................49
4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations .......................................49
4.4.5.4 Piping ..................................................49
4.4.6 Anchorage ................................................49
4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil ................................. .49
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity .........................50
4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading .....................................50
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape ........................................ 51
4.4.7 .1.1.3 Inclined Loading ...................................... 51
4.4.7 .1.1.4 Ground Surface Slope .................................. 51
4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth ....................................51
0 4.4.7.1.1.6
4.4.7.1.1.7
4.4. 7.1.1.8
Ground Water ........................................55
Layered Soils ........................................55
Inclined Base .........................................57
4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety ........................................ 57
4.4.7.2 Settlement ............................................... 57
4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution .......................................57
4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement .......................................58
4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement .................................58
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement ....................................61
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement .....................................61
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability .................................. 61
4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock .................................61
4.4.8.1.! Footings on Competent Rock ..............................62
4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointe~ Rock ........................62
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety ........................................63
4.4.8.2 Settlement ...............................................63
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock ..............................63
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock ........................63
4.4.8.2.3 Tolerable Movement .....................................64
4.4.9 Overall Stability ...........................................64
4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design .....................................66
4.4.11 Structural Design ..........................................66
4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions .......................................66
4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions .............................66
4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions .....................67
~
,·J
xiv CONTENTS Division I
4.4.11.2 Moments ................................................67

4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section .........................................67
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement .............................67
4.4.11.3 Shear ...................................................67
4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts ..........................67
4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement ..............................67
4.4.11.4.1 Development Length .....................................67
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column ..........................67
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force ........................................67
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces ..........................................67
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing ...............................................68
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement ..........................................68
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size ............................................68
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length .....................................68
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing ..................... ·..........................68
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings ..............................68
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress ...........................................68
4.4.1 1.6.2 Pedestals ..............................................68
4.5 DRIVEN PILES .............................................68
4.5.1 General ...................................................68
4.5.1.1 Application ..............................................68
4.5.1.2 Materials ................................................68
4.5.1.3 Penetration ..............................................68
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint .......................................69
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths .........................................69
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation ........................69
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill ..............................69
4.5.1.8 Test Piles ................................................69
4.5.2 Pile 'I'ypes .................................................69
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles .............................................69
4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles .........................................69
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles ....................69
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles . . ............................................69
4.5.3 Notations .................................................69
4.5.4 Design Terminology ........................................70
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties ..........................70
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity ............... 70 0 • 0 • 0 ••••• 0 • 0 0 0
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity ..... 0 •••• 0 70 •••••••••••••••••••
4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity .. 0 0 •••••• 70 0 0 •• 0 •••••••• 0 •• 0
4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils .. 0 •• 0 70

•••••••••••••••••••••
4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils ........................70

4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock .................................. 70
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 71
4.5.6.3 Settlement ............................................... 71
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading ........................................71
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles ............................. 72 0 ••••••••
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles .......... o o 0 ••••••• 72 0 •••••• 0 • 0 ••••••••
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile ...... o o ••••••••• o •••• 0 0 • 0 72••• 0 •• 0 0 0 •••• 0 0 ••••
4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group ............. 0 ••••••••••••••••• 72 0 •••••••••••••
4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement ..... o ••• 0 ••••• 720 •••• 0 •••••••••••••
4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction .......... 0 •••••••••••••••••••• 72 0 •••

Division I CONTENTS XV
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil .........................................72

4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design ...................................73
0 4.5.7
4.5.7.1
Structural Capacity of Pile Section ............................ 73
Load Capacity Requirements ................................73
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface ........................73
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stress in Piles ...................................73
4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion .......................73
4.5.7.5 Scour ................................................... 74
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion .....................74
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis .....................................74
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring ........................................ 74
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses .........................74
4.5.12 Tolerable Movement ........................................74
4.5.13 Buoyancy .................................................74
4.5.14 Protection Against Deterioration ..............................74
4.5.14.1 Steel Piles ............................................... 74
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles ............................................ 75
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles ............................................. 75
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment .........................75
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings .............................................75
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing ...........................................75
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap ............................. 75
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps ...............................................75
4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles ......................................75
4.5.16.1 Size and Shape ........................................... 75
4.5.16.2 Minimum Area ...........................................75
4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles ..........................75
4.5.16.4 Driving Points ............................................75
4.5.16.5 Vertical Reinforcement .....................................75
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement ......................................75
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover ......................................76
4.5.16.8 Splices ..................................................76
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses .........................................76
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles ................................. 76
4.5.17.1 Materials ................................................ 76
4.5.17.2 Shape ...................................................76
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area ...........................................76
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements .........................76
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure ............................76
4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements ........................................76
4.5.17.7 Splices ..................................................76
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover ...................................... 76
4.5.18 Steel H-Piles ............................................... 76
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness ..........................................76
4.5.18.2 Splices .................................................. 76
4.5.18.3 Caps ....................................................77
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers .............................. 77
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments .........................................77
4.5.19 Unfilled Thbular Steel Piles .................................. 77
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness ..........................................77
4.5.19.2 Splices ..................................................77
4.5.19.3 Driving ................................................. 77
4.5.19.4 Column Action ...........................................77
xvi CONTENTS Division I
4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles ...................................77

4.5.20.1 Size and Shape ...........................................77
4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement .......................................77
4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement .....................................77
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles ......................................78
4.5.20.5 Splices ..................................................78
4.5.21 Timber Piles ...............................................78
4.5.21.1 Materials ................................................78
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber Pile Use ......................78
4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use ........................78
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS ..........................................78
4.6.1 General ................................................... 78
4.6.1.1 Application ..............................................78
4.6.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 78
4.6.1.3 Construction ............................................. 78
4.6.1.4 Embedment ..............................................78
4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter ...........................................78
4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts .............................................78
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill .............................79
4.6.2 Notations .................................................79
4.6.3 Design Terminology ............ ·............................ 80
4.6.4 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties .......................... 80
4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values ........................................80
4.6.4.2 Measured Values .......................................... 80
4.6.5 Geotechnical Design ........................................80
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil ...................................... 80
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil ........................... 8 1
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil ........................81
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil ............................82
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil .........................83
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil ....................... 83
4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength with Depth ............83
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water .......................................... 83
4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases .........................................83
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action ........................................... 83
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil ........................................ 83
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil .....................................84
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil ................ 84
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement ................................84
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction ..................................84
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock .....................................84
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance .........................................85
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance .......................................... 85
4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock .................... 85
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification .................................... 85
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities ..............................86
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction ................................ 86
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety ............. :............................. 86
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts ......................... 86
4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil ........................................... 86
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil ........................................86
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil ..................................... 86
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Profile .....................................87
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock ................................87
Division I CONTENTS xvii
4.6.5.5.3 Tolerable Movement ..................................... 87

4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading ........................................... 88
0 4.6.5.6.1
4.6.5.6.1.1
Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts ....................88
Soil Layering ......................................... 88
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water ........................................ 88
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour ............................................... 88
4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action ......................................... 88
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading ....................................... 89
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading ...................... 89
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground ....................................... 89
4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements .............................. 89
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design ................................... 90
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions ................90
4.6.6.1 General .................................................90
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement ............................................90
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing .................................90
4.6.6.2.2 Splices ................................................90
4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement ................................90
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses .......................................90
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover ....................................90
4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure .......................... 90
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases ........................................... 90
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing .............................. 91
4.6.7 Load Testing .............................................. 91
4.6.7.1 General ................................................. 91
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures .................................... 91
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection ................................. 91
4.7 NOTE: Article Number Intentionally Not Used
PART C-STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
4.8 SCOPE .....................................................91

4.9 DEFINITIONS ..............................................92
4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS,
AND RESISTANCE FACTORS ........................92
4.10.1 General ...................................................92
4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States ...................................92
4.10.3 Strength Limit States .......................................92
4.10.4 Strength Requirement ......................................93
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors .........................93
4.10.6 Performance Factors ........................................93
4.11 SPREAD FOOfiNGS .........................................93
4.11.1 General Considerations .....................................93
4.11.1.1 General .................................................93
4.11.1.2 Depth ...................................................93
4.11.1.3 Scour Protection ..........................................93
4.11.1.4 Frost Action .............................................. 93
4.11.1.5 Anchorage ...............................................93
4.11.1.6 Groundwater .............................................94
4.11.1.7 Uplift ...................................................94
4.11.1.8 Deterioration .............................................94
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures .........................................95
4.11.2 Notations ..... : ....................................... · · · .95
xviii CONTENTS Division I
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States ...................97

4.11.3.1 General .................................................97
4.11.3.2 Loads ...................................................97
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria ........................................97
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses .......................................97
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on Cohesionless Soils .................97
4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils ....................97
4.11.3.4.3 Settlement of Footings on Rock ............................97
4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure ...................................97
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils .........................97
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation ...................................98
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures ................................98
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test .......................................98
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values ......................................98
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity ................................98
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table ...............................98
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock ......................98
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures ................................ 98
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method ....................................... 100
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test ............................................. 100
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values .............................. 100
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity ............................... I00
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding ........................................ 100
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... I 00
4.11.5 Structural Capacity ....................................... 100
4.11.6 Construction Considerations for Shallow Foundations ........... 100
4.11.6.1 General ................................................ 100
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring .................................... 100
4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring ................................... 100
4.12 DRIVEN PILES ............................................ 100
4.12.1 General .................................................. 100
4.12.2 Notations ................................................ 10 I
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity ............................. 102
4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity ............................ 102
4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... I02
4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy ......................... 102
4.12.3.1.3 Effect of Settling Ground and Downdrag Forces .............. I02
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift ................................................ 103
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State ................... 103
4.12.3.2.1 General .............................................. 103
4.12.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement .................................... 103
4.12.3.2.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... I03
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil ....................................... I03
4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil .................................... 103
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement ................................... I03
4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States ........................... I03
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles .................................. 103
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity ....................... .1 04
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based on In Situ Tests ............. 104
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock ................................... I04
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test ......................................... I04
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities ....................... 104
4.12.3.3.7 Uplift ................................................ 104
Division I CONTENTS xix
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity ............................. 104

4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity ............................. 104
0 4.12.3.3.8
4.12.3.3.9
Lateral Load .......................................... 104
Batter Pile ............................................ 104
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity ........................................ 104
4.12.3.3.1 Oa Cohesive Soil ......................... ~ ............. 104
4.12.3.3.1 Ob Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 105
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak
or Compressible Soil .................................. 105
4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design ................................ 105
4.12.4 Structural Design ......................................... 105
4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles ......................................... I 05
4.12.5 Construction Considerations ................................ 105
4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS ......................................... 105
4.13.1 General .................................................. 105
4.13.2 Notations ................................................ 105
4.13.3 Geotechnical Design ....................................... 106
4.13.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity ............................ 107
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads ....................................... 107
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift ................................................ 107
4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State ................... 107
4.13.3.2.1 General .............................................. I 07
4.13.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement .................................... I 07
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement ............................................ I 07
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts ....................... 107
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement .................................... 107
4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement ................................... 107
4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States ........................... 107
0 4.13.3.3.1
4.13.3.3.2
Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts ........................... 107
Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity
in Cohesive Soils ..................................... 107
4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless Soils ..... 107
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock .................................. 107
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test ............................................. 108
4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity ........................................ 108
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single Drilled Shaft .................. 108
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity ................................. 108
4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load .......................................... 108
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity ........................................ 108
4.13.3.3.8a Cohesive Soil ....................................... 108
4.13.3.3.8b Cohesion less Soil .................................... 108
4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Compressible Soil ... 108
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design ................................ 108
4.13.4 Structural Design ......................................... I08
4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts ................................. 109
SECTION 5-RETAINING WALLS
5.1 GENERAL ................................................. 111

5.2 WALLTYPEANDBEHAVIOR ............................... Ill
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type ...................................... Ill
5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls ........................ Ill
XX CONTENTS Division I
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls .............................. 112

5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls .......................................... 113
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ......................... 114
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls ................................ 115
5.2.2 Wall Capacity ........................................... . 115
5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity ......................................... 115
5.2.2.2 Settlement ............................................. . 115
5.2.2.3 Overall Stability ........................................ . 115
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Deformations .................................... 116
5.2.3 SoU, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions .................... 116
5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING PROGRAMS .... 116
5.3.1 General Requirements ..................................... 117
5.3.2 Minimum Depth .......................................... 117
5.3.3 Minimum Coverage ....................................... 117
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing ........................................ 117
5.3.5 Scour .................................................... 117
5.4 NOfATIONS ............................................... 117
PART B-SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN ........ 121
5.5.1 Design Terminology ....................................... 121
5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings ..................... .121
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage .· .............................. 126
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure .......................................... 126
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability ................... 126
5.5.6 Structure Design ...... ~ .................................. .126
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs ..................................... 126
5.5.6.2 Wall Stems ............................................. 126
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses ................................ 128
5.5.6.4 Reinforcement ........................................... 128
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints ............................ 129
5.5.7 Backfill .................................................. 129
5.5.8 Overall Stability .......................................... 129
5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALL DESIGN .............. 129
5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings ...................... 129
5.6.3 Water Pressure and Drainage ............................... 132
5.6.6 Structure Design .......................................... 132
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection ....................................... 133
5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN ................................ 133
5.7.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings ....................... 133
5. 7.4 Seismic Pressure .......................................... 136
5.7.6 Structure Design .......................................... 136
5.7 .6.1 General ................................................ 136
5.7 .6.2 Anchor Design .......................................... 136
5. 7.8 Corrosion Protection ...................................... .138
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing ........................... 138
Division I CONTENTS xxi
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN ....... 138

0 5.8.1
5.8.2
Structure Dimensions ...................................... 138
External Stability ......................................... 138
5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability .................... 143
5.8.4 Calculation of Loads for Internal Stability Design .............. 144
5.8.4.1 Calculation of Maximum Reinforcement Loads ................. 146
5.8.4.2 Determination of Reinforcement Tensile Load at the Connection
to the Wall Face ...................................... 147
5.8.5 Determination of Reinforcement Length Required for
Internal Stability .................................... 147
5.8.5.1 Location of Zone of Maximum Stress ....................... .147
5.8.5.2 Soil Reinforcement Pullout Design ......................... .148
5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design ............................. .149
5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements ................................. 152
5.8.6.1.1 Steel Reinforcement .................................... 152
5.8.6.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement .............................. 155
5.8.6.2 Al1owable Stresses ....................................... 157
5.8.6.2.1 Steel Reinforcements ................................... 157
5.8.6.2.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcements ............................. 157
5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection Strength Design ......... 158
5.8.7.1 Connection Strength for Steel Soil Reinforcements ............. 158
5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.8 Design of Facing Elements ................................. 160
5.8.8.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel, and Timber Facings ...... 160
5.8.8.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings ............................. 160
5.8.8.3 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing Design ...................... 161
5.8.9 Seismic Design ............................................ 161
5.8.9.1 External Stability ........................................ 161
5.8.9.2 Internal Stability ......................................... 163
5.8.9.3 Facing/Soil Reinforcement Connection Design for
Seismic Loads ....................................... 164
5.8.10 Determination of Lateral Wall Displacements .................. 164
5.8.11 Drainage ................................................. 164
5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions ................................. 165
5.8.12.1 Concentrated Dead Loads .................................. 165
5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers ................................. 169
5.8.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressures ..................................... 170
5.8.12.4 Design for Presence of Obstructions in the Reinforced
Soil Zone ........................................... 171
5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALL DESIGN ................ 171
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions ...................................... 171
5.9.2 External Stabllity ......................................... 171
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stabllity .................... 173
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses ......................................... 174
5.9.5 Drainage ................................................. 174

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
5.10 SCOPE .................................................... 174

5.11 DEFINITIONS ............................................. 174
5.12 NOTATIONS ........................................... ·.· .174
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS ............................ 175
xxii CONTENTS DiVision I
5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States .................................. 175

5.13.2 Strength Limit States ...................................... 175
5.13.3 Strength Requirement .................................... .175
5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors ........................ 175
5.13.5 Performance Factors ....................................... 175
5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN, AND
CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN ....................... 175
5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill .............................. 175
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge ........................... .176
5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States .................. 176
5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure ................................. .176
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure .................................. 177
5.14.6.2 Sliding ................................................. 177
5.14.6.3 Overturning ............................................. I 77
5.14.6.4 OveraU Stability (Revised Article 5.2.2.3) ..................... I 77
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure ............................ 179
5.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs ..................................... 179
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems ............................................. 179
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses ................................ I 79
5.14.7.4 Reinforcement ........................................... I 79
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints ........................... .179
5.14.8 Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 179
SECTION 6-CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY

OPENINGS ........................................ 18I
6.2 DEAD LOADS .............................................. 181
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on yielding foundation ... 181
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation .................. 181
6.3 FOOTINGS ................................................ 181
6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH
EARTH FILLS ..................................... 181
6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT ......................... 181
6.6 DESIGN ................................................... 181
SECTION 7-8UBSTRUCTURES
7.1 GENERAL ................................................. 183

7.1.1 Definition . . . . ............................................ 183
7.1.2 Loads ................................................... 183
7.1.3 Settlement ............................................... 183
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design ....................... 183
7.2 NO'I'ATIONS ............................................... 183
PART B-sERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

7.3 PmRS ..................................................... 183

7.3.1 Pier'JYpes ................................................ 183
Division I CONTENTS xxiii
7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers .......................................... 183

0 7.3.1.2
7.3.1.3
7.3.1.4
Double Wall Piers ........................................ 183
Bent Piers .............................................. 184
Single-Column Piers ...................................... 184
7.3.2 Pier Protection ............................................ 184
7.3.2.1 Collision ............................................... 184
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls .......................................... 184
7.3.2.3 Scour .................................................. 184
7.3.2.4 Facing ................................................. 184
7.4 TUBULAR PIERS ... 0....••..•.....••...... 0....... 00...•• o184
7.4.1 Materials ......... o...•..... 0......................... 0. 0184
7.4.2 Configuration ................. 0• 0..•....•..•• 0•. 000•.•.. 0.184
7.5 ABUTMENTS ........ o•.. o0.....•..••.....•.•••••..•....... 184
7.5.1 Abutment Types .......... 0...........•....... 0.... 0•.•... 184
7.5.1.1 Stub Abutment ................................ 0••.. 0. 0.. 184
7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment .... 00. 0... 0•• 0..•. 0.. 0.•.. 0... 0... 184
7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment ............. 0•. 0.••. 00o0•.. 00•• 0... 0184
7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment ..................... 0.••.•..••......... 185
7.5.2 Loading .. 0...... 0...•.......•........•.... 0.•.•. 00...... 185
7.5.2.1 Stability .............. 0..........•......••. 0.... 0•..•... 185
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature ............................. 185
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backfilling .................... 0......• 0....• 185
7.5.3 Integral Abutments ..... 0.....•. 0.. 0..•.. 00• 0•.... 000• 0.. 00185
7.5.4 Abutments on Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ............. 185
7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems ............................. 186
7.5.6 Wingwalls ...... 0.. 0..........•. 0•...... 00....•.•. 0. 0. 000.187
Length . 0...... 0........ 0.•......•..•..... 00•.. 0•• 0....• 187
0 7.5.6.1
7.5.6.2 Reinforcement . 0...•. 0••.......•...•...•....•.........•.. 187

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.6 GENERAL . 0. o.... 0..•.•• 0....•... 0•.••.••. 0•• 0•. 0.. 0•..••. 187
SECTION 8-REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.1 APPLICATION .......... 0••....• 0..••••..•.•••.•••. 0...• 0•• 189

8.1.1 General ................................................. 0189
8.1.2 Notations . 0• 0..•. 0. 0... 0. 00.....•••...... 0•. 0•• 0. 0•..•••. 189
801.3 Definitions . 0•..• 0.•.• 0. 0.....•..•.•..•.•.. 0.•.. 0......• 0.192
8.2 CONCRETE ...... 0.•...•. 0•...••• 0••...• oo•...•...••••..• 0192
8.3 REINFORCEMENT ........ o•.... 0. o• o•...•. 0o.•••.. 0.... 0. o193
PART B-ANALYSIS
8.4 GENERAL ... 0.......••• 0..•.•.. 0...•••..•.•••.•••.. 0. o. oo.193

8o5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION o. o..• ooo••• o. o••• o. o..• o.• 193
8.6 STIFFNESS 0000• 00• 0. 00.. o..• oo.• oo.•.•.••• o•••••• o0. 0.••.• 193
8.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND POISSON'S RATIO. oo•.... oo193
8.8 SPAN LENGTH . 0. 0...... 0•... 0. 0•.•..•...•. 0..•••••• 0.... 0193
8.9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS ..... 0...•. 0••... o... 0••... o•• 194
8.9.1 General ....... 0. 0.• 0...•• 0.. 0.••.....••.•... 0..•.••.• 0• 0.194
CONTENTS Division I
xxiv
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations ......................... · .194
8.9.3 SuperstrUcture Deftection Limitations ...................... · .194
8.10 COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH ........................... 194
8.10.1 T-Girder .............................. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .·. · · .194
8.10.2 Box Girders ................................. ·. · · · · · · · · · · .194
8.11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS ............................... 194
8.12 DIAPHRAGMS ........................ ···· .. ·············· .195
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS ...............•........ .195
PART C-DESIGN
8.14 GENERAL ........................................ · ..... · .. 195

8.14.1 Design Methods ........................................... 195
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members ............................... 196
8.14.3 Concrete Arches .......................................... 196
8.15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD (Allowable Stress Design) .... 197
8.15.1 General Requirements ...................................... 197
8.15.2 Allowable Stresses ......................................... 197
8.15.2.1 Concrete ............................................... 197
8.15.2.1.1 Flexure .............................................. 197
8.15.2.1.2 Shear ................................................ 197
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress ......................................... 197
8.15.2.2 Reinforcement ........................................... 197
8.15.3 Flexure .................................................. 197
8.15.4 Compression Members ..................................... 197
8.15.5 Shear .................................................... 198
8.15.5.1 Shear Stress ............................................. 198
8.15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete ............................ 198
8.15.5.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings ... : ......... 198
8.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members ........................... 198
8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members ............................... 198
8.15.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete ............................ 198
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement .................. 199
8.15.5.4 Shear Friction ........................................... 199
8.15.5.4.3 Shear-Friction Design Method ............................ 199
8.15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members ....................................200
8.15.5.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear ................................200
8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings ..................... 200
8.15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts ...................20 I
8.15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels ...................201
8.16 STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD (Load Factor Design) ...........202
8.16.1 Strength Requirements ..................................... 202
8.16.1.1 Required Strength ........................................202
8.16.1.2 Design Strength ..........................................202
8.16.2 Design Assumptions ....................................... 202
8.16.3 Flexure ..................................................203
8.16.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members ................203
8.16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only ..........203
8~ 16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only ............. 203
8.16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression Reinforcement ..........204
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections ......................................204
8.16.4 Compression Members .....................................204
Division I CONTENTS XXV
8.16.4.1 General Requirements ..................................... 204

0
'
8.16.4.2
8.16.4.2.1
Compression Member Strengths .............................204
Pure Compression ...................................... 204
8.16.4.2.2 Pure Flexure .......................................... 205
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions ............................... 205
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load .........................205
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading .......................................... 205
8.16.4.4 Hollow Rectangular Compression Members ...................205
8.16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members .................. 206
8.16.5.1 General Requirement.c; ..................................... 206
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects ................206
8.16.6 Shear ....................................................207
8.16.6.1 Shear Strength ........................................... 207
8.16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete ......................... 208
8.16.6.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings ............. 208
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members ........................... 208
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members ...............................208
8.16.6.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete ............................208
8.16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement ............... 208
8.16.6.4 Shear Friction ...........................................209
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-Friction Design Method ............................209
8.16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members ....................................210
8.16.6.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear ................................ 210
8.16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings ..................... 2 10
8.16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts ................... 211
0 8.16.6.8
8.16.7
8.16.8
Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels ................... 211
Bearing Strength ..........................................212
Serviceability Requirements ................................ 212
8.16.8.1 Application ............................................. 212
8.16.8.2 Service Load Stresses ..................................... 212
8.16.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limits ...................................... 212
8.16.8.4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement ....................... 212
PART D-REINFORCEMENT
8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS ............... 213

8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement ................................... 213
8.17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement ............................... 213
8.17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in Zones of Maximum Tension ... 213
8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in T-Girders
and Box Girders ..................................... 213
8.17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box Girders ................... 214
8.17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members ................... 214
8.17.4 Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular Compression Members ... 214
8.18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS ........... 215
8.18.1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement .......... 215
8.18.2 Lateral Reinforcement .....................................2 15
8.18.2.1 General ................................................ 215
8.18.2.2 Spirals ................................................. 215
8.18.2.3 Ties ...................................................215
8.18.2.4 Seismic Requirements ..................................... 216
8.19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT ..................... 216
xxvi CONTENTS Division I
8.19.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement .............................216

8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement ............................... 216
8.19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement .............................216
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT ....... 216
8.21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT ...................216
8.22 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION ....................... 217
8.23 HOOKS AND BENDS ....................................... 217
8.23.1 Standard Hooks ...........................................217
8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters .................................. 217
8.24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT .......... 218
8.24.1 General .................................................. 218
8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement .............................2 I 8
8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement ............................ 218
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED
WIRE IN TENSION .................................219
8.26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION ....219
8.27 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT .............. 220
8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS ........................ 220
8.29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION ........220
8.30 DEVEI~OPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION .... 221
8.30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric .....................................221
8.30.2 Smooth Wire Fabric .......................................222
8.31 MECHANICALANCHORAGE ............................... 222
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT ............................222
8.32.1 Lap Splices ...............................................222
~.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections ................... 222
8.32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension ........223
8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression ..............................223
8.32.4.1 Lap Splices in Compression ................................223
8.32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices ......................................223
8.32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical Connections .................... 223
8.32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension ............. 223
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension ............... 224
SECTION 9-PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
9.1 APPLICATION .............................................225

9 .1.1 General ..................................................225
9 .1.2 Notations ................................................225
9.1.3 Definitions ...............................................227
9.2 CONCRETE ............................................... 228
9.3 REINFORCEMENT .........................................228
9.3.1 Prestressing Steel .......................................... 228
9.3.2 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement .............................. 228
PART B-ANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL .................................................228

9.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION ........................... 228
9.6 SPAN LENGTH ............................................228
9. 7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION ............... 228
Division I CONTENTS xxvii
9.7.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges .........................228

9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast Prestressed Girders
Made Continuous ...................................229
9.7.2.1 General ................................. ·............... 229
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers ......................... 229
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments ....................................... 229
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders .....................................229
9.7.3.1 General ................................................229
9.7.3.2 Flexure ................................................ 229
9.7.3.3 Torsion ................................................ 229
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH ...............................229
9.8.1 T-Beams .................................................229
9.8.2 Box Girders ..............................................229
9.8.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges ...... 230
9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS ............ 230
9.9.1 Top Flange ............................................... 230
9.9.2 Bottom Flange ............................................ 230
9.9.3 Web ..................................................... 230
9.10 DIAPHRAGMS .............................................230
9.10.1 General ..................................................230
9.10.2 T-Beams ................................................. 230
9.10.3 Box Girders .............................................. 230
9.11 DEFLECTIONS ............................................230
9.11.1 General .................................................. 230
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders .....................................231
9.11.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations ........................231
0 9.12
9.12.1
9.12.2
DECK PANELS ............................................ 231
General ..................................................231
Bending Moment ..........................................231
PART C-DESIGN
9.13 GENERAL ................................................. 231

9.13.1 Design Theory and General Considerations ....................231
9.13.2 Basic Assumptions .........................................231
9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members ...............................231
9.14 LOAD FACTORS ...........................................232
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES ...................................232
9.15.2 Concrete .................................................232
9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep
and Shrinkage ....................................... 232
9.15.2.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses Have Occurred ............. 232
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress .......................................... 233
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress .................................. 233
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS ......................................233
9.16.1 Friction Losses ............................................ 233
9.16.2 Prestress Losses ...........................................233
9.16.2.1 General ................................................233
9.16.2.1.1 Shrinkage ............................................. 233
9.16.2.1.2 Elastic Shortening ......................................234
9.16.2.1.3 Creep of Concrete ......................................234
0 9.16.2.1.4
9.16.2.2
Relaxation of Prestressing Steel ........................... 234
Estimated Losses .........................................236
xxviii CONTENTS Division I
9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH ....................................236

9.17.1 General ..................................................236
9.17.2 Rectangular Sections ......................................236
9.17.3 Flanged Sections ..........................................236
9.17.4 Steel Stress ...............................................237
9.18 DUCTaiTY LIMITS .......................................237
9.18.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel ................................237
9.18.2 Minimum Steel ........................................... 237
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT .....................238
9.20 SHEAR ....................................................238
9.20.1 General .................................................. 238
9.20.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete .........................238
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement ............... 239
9.20.4 Horizontal Shear Design-Composite Flexural Members ........ 239
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear ..................................240
9.21 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES ....................240
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone ............................240
9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone ...............................240
9.21.2.1 General Zone ............................................240
9.21.2.2 Local Zone .............................................240
9.21.2.3 Responsibilities ..........................................240
9.21.3 Design of the General Zone ................................. 241
9.21.3.1 Design Methods .........................................241
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths ................................241
9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices ...........................241
9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements ...........241
9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages ..................................242
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms ............................................. 243
9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages ..................................243
9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design
of Anchorage Zones ..................................243
9.21.4.1 General ................................................243
9.21.4.2 Nodes .................................................244
9.21.4.3 Struts ..................................................244
9.21.4.4 Ties ...................................................244
9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis ......................................244
9.21.6 Approximate Methods .....................................244
9.21.6.1 Limitations .............................................244
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses ..................................... 245
9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces ..........................................245
9.21.6.4 Edge-Tension Forces ......................................245
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone ...................................246
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone ..............................246
9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength .........................................246
9.21.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices ................................. 247
9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES ......................247
9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER ............. 247
9.24 DECK PANELS ............................................247
PART D-DETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT ................................247

9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL ...........................247
Division I CONTENTS xxix
9.26.1 Minimum Cover ..........................................247
0 9.26.2
9.26.3
9.26.4
Minimum Spacing .........................................248
Bundling .................................................248
Size of Ducts ..............................................248
9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS ......... 248
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED STRAND ..................249
9.29 BEARIN'GS ................................................ 249
SECTIONl~TRUCTURALSTEEL
10.1 APPLICATION .............................................251

10.1.1 Notations ................................................251
10.2 MATERIALS ............................................... 257
10.2.1 General .................................................. 257
10.2.2 Structural Steels ..........................................257
10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers ................257
10.2.4 Fasteners-Rivets and Bolts ................................ 257
10.2.5 Weld Metal ...............................................257
10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings, Cast Iron,
and Bronze or Copper Alloy .......................... 257
10.2.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron .................................257
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings .......................................257
10.2.6.3 Cast Iron ............................................... 257
0 10.3
PART B-DESIGN DETAILS
REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS

CONSIDERATIONS ................................259
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress Ranges .............................259
10.3.2 Load Cycles ..............................................259
10.3.3 Charpy V-Notcb Impact Requirements .......................259
10.3.4 Shear ....................................................259
10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGm OF SPAN .............................259
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS ............................................260
10.6 DEFLECTION .............................................260
10.7 LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS ........................263
10.8 MINIMUM TIDCKNESS OF METAL .........................265
10.9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES AND TEE SECTIONS
IN TENSION .......................................265
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES .......................... 266
10.11 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION ...........................266
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS .....................................266
10.13 COVER PLATES ...........................................266
10.14 CAMBER .................................................. 267
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND WELDED
PLATE GIRDERS ..................................267
10.15.1 Scope .................................................... 267
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature ..............................267
10.15.3 Camber ..................................................267
10.16 TRUSSES ..................................................268
0
XXX CONTENTS Division I
10.16.1 General ..................................................268

10.16.2 'Ii'uss Members ........................................... 268
10.16.3 Secondary Stresses ........................................268
10.16.4 Diaphragms ..............................................268
10.16.5 Camber ..................................................269
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes ............................269
10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing ................................... 269
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates .................................... 269
10.16.9 Stay Plates ...............................................269
10.16.10 Lacing Bars ..............................................270
10.16.11 Gusset Plates .................................... ·.........270
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans ..................................270
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression Members ...............271
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength Bolted
Tension Members ................................... 271
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS ...................................... 271
10.17.1 General ..................................................271
10.17.2 Single Bents .............................................. 271
10.17.3 Batter ................................................... 271
10.17.4 Bracing .................................................. 271
10.17.5 Bottom Struts ............................................272
10.18 SPLICES .................................................. 272
10.18.1 General .................................................. 272
10.18.1.1 Design Strength .......................................... 272
10.18.1.2 Fillers ................................................. 272
10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates ........................ 272
10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns .................................272
10.18.2 Flexural Members ......... ·................................ 273
10.18.2.1 General ................................................273
10.18.2.2 Flange Splices ...........................................273
10.18.2.3 Web Splices .............................................275
10.18.3 Compression Members .....................................277
10.18.4 Tension Members .........................................277
10.18.5 Welded Splices ............................................ 277
10.19 STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS .............................278
10.19.1 General ..................................................278
10.19.2 End Connections of Floor Beams and Stringers ................279
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross Frames ............. 279
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES ........................ 279
10.20.1 General .................................................. 279
10.20.2 Stresses Due to Wind Loading When Top Flanges
Are Continuously Supported ..........................279
10.20.2.1 Flanges ................................................279
10.20.2.2 Diaphragms and Cross Frames ..............................279
10.20.3 Stresses Due to Wind Load When Top Flanges
Are Not Continuously Supported ...................... 280
10.21 LATERAL BRACING ....................................... 280
10.22 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS ......................... 280
10.23 WELDING ................................................. 280
10.23.1 General ..................................................280
10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds ................................280
10.23.2.1 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds .............................. 280
10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds ..............................280
10.23.3 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds ..................... 281
Division I CONTENTS xxxi
10.23.4 Fillet Weld End Returns .................................... 281

10.23.5 Seal Welds ............................................... 281
0 10.24
10.24.1
FASTENERS (RIVETS AND BOLTS) ..........................281
General .................................................. 281
10.24.2 Hole 'JYpes ............................................... 282
10.24.3 Washer Requirements ...................................... 282
10.24.4 Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High-Strength Bolts) ............... 283
10.24.5 Spacing of Fasteners ....................................... 283
10.24.5.1 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners ................................283
10.24.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners ............................. 283
10.24.5.3 Minimum Clear Distance Between Holes ...................... 283
10.24.5.4 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners .............................283
10.24.6 Maximum Spacing of Sealing and Stitch Fasteners .............. 283
10.24.6.1 Sealing Fasteners ........................................283
10.24.6.2 Stitch Fasteners .......................................... 283
10.24.7 Edge Distance of Fasteners .................................. 284
10.24.7.1 General ................................................ 284
10.24.8 Long Rivets .............................................. 284
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS ..................................... 284
10.25.1 Net Section ............................................... 284
10.25.2 Location of Pins ........................................... 284
10.25.3 Size of Pins ............................................... 284
10.25.4 Pin Plates ................................................ 284
10.25.5 Pins and Pin Nuts ......................................... 285
10.26 UPSET ENDS ..............................................285
10.27 EYEBARS .................................................285
10.27.1 Thickness and Net Section .................................. 285
0 10.27.2
10.28
10.29
Packing of Eyebars ........................................285
FORKED ENDS ............................................ 285
FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS ........................ 285
10.29.1 General ..................................................285
10.29.2 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearings ............ 285
10.29.3 Rollers ..................................................285
10.29.4 Sole Plates and Masonry Plates .............................. 286
10.29.5 Masonry Bearings ......................................... 286
10.29.6 Anchor Bolts ............................................. 286
10.29.7 Pedestals and Shoes ........................................ 286
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM ........................................... 286
10.30.1 Stringers .................................................286
10.30.2 Floor Beams .............................................. 286
10.30.3 Cross Frames ............................................. 286
10.30.4 Expansion Joints .......................................... 286
10.30.5 End Floor Beams .......................................... 287
10.30.6 End Panel of Skewed Bridges ............................... 287
10.30.7 Sidewalk Brackets ......................................... 287
10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms .................................. 287
10.30.8.1 Concrete Deck Panels ..................................... 287
10.30.8.2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms ................................. 287
PART C-SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

10.31 SCOPE ............................................ · .. ···· .287

10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES ................................... 287
xxxii CONTENTS Division I
10.32.1 Steel ....................................................287

10.32.2 Weld Metal ...............................................287
10.32.3 Fasteners (Rivets and Bolts) .................................290
10.32.3.1 General ................................................290
10.32.3.3 Applied Tension, Combined Tension, and Shear ................292
10.32.3.4 Fatigue .................................................292
10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers .........................292
10.32.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings,
and Cast Iron .......................................293
10.32.5.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron .................................293
10.32.5.2 Malleable Castings .......................................293
10.32.5.3 Cast Iron ...............................................293
10.32.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy ...................................293
10.32.6 Bearing on Masonry .......................................294
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS ...........................................294
10.33.1 General ..................................................294
10.33.2 Bearing Stiffeners .........................................294
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS ..........................................294
10.34.1 General ..................................................294
10.34.2 Flanges ..................................................294
10.34.2.1 Welded Girders ..........................................294
10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders ..................................295
10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates ....................................296
10.34.3.1 Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally .........................296
10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally ............................296
10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners ...........................297
10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners .....................................298
10.34.6.1 Welded Girders ..........................................299
10.34.6.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders ..................................299
10.35 TRUSSES ..................................................300
10.35.1 Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars .....................300
10.35.2 Compression Members-Thickness of Metal ..................300
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES .....................................301
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES ....................................... .302
10.37.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stress ................... 302
10.37.2 Web Plates ............................................... 303
10.37.3 Flange Plates .............................................303
10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS .....................................303
10.38.1 General ..................................................303
10.38.2 Shear Connectors .........................................304
10.38.3 Effective Flange Width .....................................304
10.38.4 Stresses .................................................. 304
10.38.5 Shear ...................................................305
10.38.5.1 Horizontal Shear ......................................... 305
10.38.5. I .1 Fatigue ...............................................305
10.38.5.1.2 Ultimate Strength ......................................306
I 0.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to Develop Slab Stresses .............. 307
10.38.5.2 Vertical Shear ...........................................307
10.38.6 Deflection ................................................307
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS ................................307
10.39.1 General ..................................................307
10.39.2 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending Moment .............307
Division I CONTENTS xxxiii
10.39.3 Design of Web Plates ....................................... 307
10.39.3.1 Vertical Shear ...........................................307
10.39.3.2 Secondary Bending Stresses ............................... .308
10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates ............................. .308
10.39.4.1 Tension Flanges .........................................308
10.39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened ...........................308
10.39.4.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally .................308
10.39.4.4 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely ... 311
10.39.4.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, General ..................... .312
10.39.5 Design of Flange to Web Welds ..............................312
10.39.6 Diaphragms .............................................. 312
10.39.7 Lateral Bracing ...........................................312
10.39.8 Access and Drainage .......................................312
10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS .........................................312
10.40.1 General ..................................................312
10.40.2 Allowable Stresses ........................................ .313
10.40.2.1 Bending ................................................313
10.40.2.2 Shear .................................................. 313
10.40.2.3 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.40.3 Plate Thickness Requirements .............................. .314
10.40.4 Bearing Stiffener Requirements .............................314
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK SUPERSTRUCTURES ................. 314
10.41.1 General ..................................................314
10.41.2 Wheel Load Contact Area ..................................314
10.41.3 Effective Width of Deck Plate .............................. .314
10.41.3.1 Ribs and Beams ..........................................314
10.41.3.2 Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 14
10.41.4 Allowable Stresses ........................................ .314
10.41.4.1 Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate ....................... .314
10.41.4.2 Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs ....................... .315
10.41.4.3 Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams ........................315
10.41.4.4 Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and Girders ..................... 315
10.41.4.5 Thickness of Plate Elements ................................ 315
I 0.41.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate ......................... 315
I 0.41.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams ............................315
10.41.4.6 Maximum Slenderness of Longitudinal Ribs .................. .315
10.41.4.7 Diaphragms .............................................315
10.41.4.8 Stiffness Requirements .................................... 315
10.41.4.8.1 Deflections ........................................... 315
10.41.4.8.2 Vibrations ............................................ 315
10.41.4.9 Wearing Surface .........................................316
10.41.4.10 Closed Ribs .............................................316
PART D-STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
I 0.42 SCOPE ........................................... · · · · · · · · .316

10.43 LOADS ..................................... ·············· .316
10.44 DESIGN THEORY ......................................... .316
10.45 ASSUMPTIONS ....................................... · ... .316
10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL .................316
10.47 MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS ................................317
10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS .............................. · · · ... .317
xxxiv CONTENTS Division I
10.48.1 Compact Sections ......................................... 317

10.48.2 Braced Noncompact Sections ................................318
10.48.3 'I'ransitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........318
10.48.4 Partially Braced Members ..................................319
10.48.5 'I'ransversely Stiffened Girders ..............................320
10.48.6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders ............................. 321
10.48.8 Shear ....................................................321
10.49 SINGLY SYMMETRIC SECTIONS ...........................322
10.49.1 General .................................................. 322
10.49.2 Singly Symmetric Sections with 'I'ransverse Stiffeners ...........322
10.49.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Singly Symmetric Sections .............322
10.49.4 Singly Symmetric Braced Noncompact Sections ................323
10.49.5 Partially Braced Members with Singly Symmetric Sections ......323
10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS ................................... .323
10.50.1 Positive Moment Sections ...................................324
10.50.1.1 Compact Sections ........................................324
10.50.1.2 Noncompact Sections .....................................325
10.50.2 Negative Moment Sections ..................................325
10.50.2.2 Noncompact Sections ..................................... 326
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS ................................326
10.51.1 Maximum Strength ........................................326
10.51.2 Lateral Distribution ...................................... .327
10.51.3 Web Plates ...............................................327
10.51.4 Thnsion Flanges ...........................................327
10.51.5 Compression Flanges ......................................327
10.51.6 Diaphragms .............................................. 328
10.51.7 Design of Flange to Web Welds .............................. 328
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS ..................................... 328
10.52.1 General .................................................. 328
10.52.2 Design of Connectors ....................... ·...............328
10.52.3 Maximum Spacing ........................................328
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS .........................................328
10.53.1 Noncomposite Hybrid Sections ..............................329
10.53.1.2 Braced Noncompact Sections ...............................329
10.53.1.3 PartiaiJy Braced Members ..................................329
10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Sections ................................. 329
10.53.3 Shear ....................................................329
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS .................................330
10.54.1 Axial Loading ............................................330
10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity .......................................330
10.54.1.2 Effective Length .........................................330
10.54.2 Combined Axial Load and Bending ..........................330
10.54.2.1 Maximum Capacity .......................................330
10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C ...............................331
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES ........................................331
10.55.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stresses ................ .331
10.55.2 Web Plates ...............................................331
10.55.3 Flange Plates .............................................331
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS ....................331
10.56.1 Connectors ...............................................331
Division I CONTENTS XXXV
10.56.1.1 General ................................................ 331
0 10.56.1.2
10.56.1.3
10.56.1.4
Welds .................................................. 331
Bolts and Rivets ......................................... 331
Slip-Critical Joints ....................................... 333
10.56.2 Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by Connected Parts ........... 333
10.56.3 Rigid Connections ......................................... 333
10.57 OVERLOAD ............................................... 333
10.57.1 Noncomposite Sections .....................................334
10.57.2 Composite Sections ........................................334
10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints ....................................... .334
10.58 FATIGUE ..................................................335
10.58.1 General .................................................. 335
10.58.2 Composite Construction .................................... 335
10.58.2.1 Slab Reinforcement ....................................... 335
10.58.2.2 Shear Connectors ........................................335
10.58.3 Hybrid Beams and Girders .................................335
10.59 DEFI.,ECTION ............................................. 335
10.60 ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES ...................... .335
10.61 CONSTRUCTffiiLITY ..................................... .336
10.61.1 Web Bend Buckling ....................................... .336
10.61.2 Web Shear Buckling ....................................... 336
10.61.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Cross Section ................ 336
10.61.4 Compression Flange Local Buckling ......................... .336
SECTION 11-ALUMINUM DESIGN
II. I GENERAL ................................................. 337
0 11.2
11.3
BRIDGES .................................................337
SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION SYSTEMS .............. 337
STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR mGHWAY SIGNS,
11.4
LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS ............. .337
11.5 BRIDGE RAILING .........................................337
SECTION 12-SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1 GENERAL .................................................339

12.1.1 Scope .................................................... 339
12.1.2 Notations ................................................339
12.1.3 Loads ............................. ; .....................339
12.1.4 Design ................................................... 340
12.1.5 Materials ................................................340
12.1.6 Soil Design ............................................... 340
12.1.6.1 Soil Parameters .......................................... 340
12.1.6.2 Pipe Arch Design ........................................ 340
12.1.6.3 Arch Design ............................................340
12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions ............................ 341
12.1.8 Minimum Spacing .........................................341
12.1.9 End 'freatment ............................................ 341
12.1.10 Construction and Installation ...............................341
12.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN ................................... 341
12.2.1 Wall Area ................................................ 341
xxxvi CONTENTS Division I
12.2.2 Buckling .................................................341

12.2.3 Seam Strength ............................................341
12.2.4 Handling and Installation Strength ........................... 34 I
12.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN ....................................342
12.3.1 Wall Area ................................................342
12.3.2 Buckling .................................................342
12.3.3 Seam Strength ............................................ 342
12.3.4 llandling and Installation Strength ........................... 342
12.4 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE ................................342
12.4.1 General ..................................................342
12.4.1.2 Service Load Design-safety factor, SF ....................... 342
12.4.1.3 Load Factor Design-capacity modification factor, ••••••••••• .342
12.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor ........................................ .343
12.4.1.5 Minimum Cover ......................................... 343
12.4.2 Seam Strength ............................................ 343
12.4.3 Section Properties ......................................... 344
12.4.3.1 Steel Conduits ...........................................344
12.4.3.2 Aluminum Conduits ......................................344
12.4.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements ...................... 345
12.4.5 Smooth-Lined Pipe ........................................345
12.5 SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE ................................. .345
12.5.1 General .................................................. 345
12.5.2 Soil Design ......... , ..................................... 345
12.5.2.3 Pipe-Arch Design ........................................ 345
12.5.2.4 Special Conditions .......................................345
12.5.2.5 Construction and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........345
12.5.3 Design ................................................... 345
12.5.3.2 Flexibility Factor ......................................... 346
12.5.3.3 Minimum Cover .........................................346
12.5.4 Section Properdes .........................................346
12.5.4.1 Steel Conduits ........................................... 346
12.5.5 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements ...................... 346
12.5.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements-
AASHTOM218 .....................................346
12.5.5.2 Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements-
AASHTO M 197 .....................................346
12.6 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES ...................347
12.6.1 General .................................................. 347
12.6.1.2 Service Load Design-safety factor, SF ....................... 347
12.6.1.3 Load Factor Design-capacity modification
factor, • • • . . • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • . • • • . . • • • . • • •••••..•...• 347
12.6.1.5 Minimum Cover .........................................347
12.6.2 Seam Strength ............................................ 347
12.6.3 Section Properties .........................................347
12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits ........................................... 347
12.6.4 Chemical and Mechanical Properties ......................... 348
12.6.4.1 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
Requirements-AASHTO M 219, Alloy 5052 ..............348
12.6.4.2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
Requirements-AASHTO M 167 ........................348
Division I CONTENTS xxxvii
12.6.5 Structural Plate Arches ...................... ·..............348
0 12.7
12.7.1
12.7.2
LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE STRUCTURES ............348
General .................................................. 348
Structure Design ..........................................348
12.7.2.1 General ................................................348
12.7.2.2 Acceptable Special Features ................................349
12.7.3 Foundation Design ........................................349
12.7.3.1 Settlement Limits ........................................ 349
12.7.3.2 Footing Reactions (Arch Structures) .........................350
12.7.3.3 Footing Design ..........................................350
12.7.4 Soil Envelope Design ...................................... .350
12.7.4.1 Soil Requirements ........................................ 350
12.7.4.2 Construction Requirements ................................ .350
12.7.4.3 Service Requirements ..................................... 350
12.7.5 End Treatment Design .................................... .351
12.7.5.1 Standard Shell End Types ................................. .351
12.7.5.2 Balanced Support ........................................ 352
12.7.5.3 Hydraulic Protection ..................................... .352
12.7.5.3.1 Backfill Protection .................................... .352
12.7.5.3.2 Cut-Off (Toe) Walls ....................................352
12.7.5.3.3 Hydraulic Uplift ....................................... 354
12.7.5.3.4 Scour ................................................ 354
12.7.6 Multiple Structures ........................................ 354
12.8 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS ..................... .354
12.8.1 General ..................................................354
12.8.1.1 Scope .................................................. 354
12.8.2 Structural Standards ...................................... 354
0 12.8.3
12.8.4
Structure Backfill ........................................ .354
Design ...................................................355
12.8.4.1 Analytical Basis for Design ................................ 355
12.8.4.2 Load Factor Method ......................................355
12.8.4.3 Plastic Moment Requirements ............................. .355
12.8.4.4 Footing Reactions ........................................356
12.8.5 Manufacturing and Installation .............................. 356
SECTION 13-WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS ................................ 357

13.1.1 General ..................................................357
13.1.2 Net Section ............................................... 357
13.1.3 Impact ..................................................357
13.1.4 Notations ................................................ 357
13.2 MATERIALS ...............................................358
13.2.1 Sawn Lumber ............................................ 358
13.2.1.1 General ................................................ 358
13.2.1.2 Dimensions ............................................. 358
13.2.2 Glued Laminated Timber ................................... 358
13.2.2.1 General ................................................ 358
13.2.2.2 Dimensions ............................................. 358
13.2.3 Structural Composite Lumber .............................. .359
13.2.3.1 General ................................................359
13.2.3.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber .................................359
13.2.3.3 Parallel Strand Lumber .................................... 359
xxxviii CONTENTS Division I
13.2.3.4 Dimensions .............................................359

13.2.4 Piles .....................................................359
13.3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT ................ ~ .............359
13.3.1 Requirement for Treatment .................................359
13.3.2 'I'reatment Chemicals ...................................... 359
13.3.3 Field 'I'reating ............................................ 359
13.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatments ..................................359
13.4 DEFLECTION .............................................359
13.5 DESIGN VALUES ........................................... 360
13.5.1 General .........................................._........360
13.5.2 Thbulated Values for Sawn Lumber ..........................360
13.5.2.2 Stress Grades in Flexure ................................... 360
13.5.3 Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated Timber .................360
13.5.4 Tabulated Values for Structural Composite Lumber ............360
13.5.5 Adjustments to Thbulated Design Values ......................360
13.5.5.1 Wet Service Factor, CM .................................... 360
13.5.5.2 Load Duration Factor, C0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .369
13.5.5.3 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment .......................369
13.6 BENDING MEMBERS ......................................369
13.6.1 General ......................... ·.........................369
13.6.2 Notching .................................................377
13.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity ...................................... 377
13.6.4 Bending .................................................377
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress ......................................... 377
13.6.4.2 Size Factor, CF ...........................................377
13.6.4.3 Volume Factor, Cv ........................................378
13.6.4.4 Beam Stability Factor, CL ..................................378
13.6.4.5 Form Factor, Cr ..........................................379
13.6.5 Shear Parallel to Grain .....................................379
13.6.5.1 General ................................................379
13.6.5.2 Actual Stress ............................................379 _
13.6.5.3 Allowable Stress ......................................... 379
13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain .........................380
13.6.6.1 General ................................................ 380
13.6.6.2 Allowable Stress .........................................380
13.6.6.3 Bearing Area Factor, Cb ....................................380
13.6.7 Bearing on IncUned Surfaces ................................380
13.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS .................................380
13.7.1 General ..................................................380
13.7.2 Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses ...................... 381
13.7.3 Compression .............................................381
13.7.3.1 Net Section ............................................. 381
13.7.3.2 Allowable Stress .........................................381
13.7.3.3 Column Stability Factor, Cp ................................ 381
13.7.3.4 Tapered Columns ........................................382
13.7.3.5 Round Columns .........................................382
13.7.4 Bearing Parallel to Grain ................................... 382
13.8 TENSION MEMBERS .......................................382
13.8.1 Tension Parallel to Grain ...................................382
13.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to Grain ............................. 383
13.9 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS .............................383
13.9.1 General ..................................................383
13.9.2 Corrosion Protection .......................................383
Division I CONTENTS xxxix
. 13.9.3 Fasteners ................................................383
0
.
....
13.9.4 Washers ................................................. 383
SECTION 14-BEARINGS
14.1 SCOPE ....................................................385

14.2 DEFINITIONS ............................................. 385
14.3 NOTATIONS ...............................................385
14.4 MOVEMENTS AND LOADS ................................. 386
14.4.1 Design Requirements ......................................387
14.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS ................ 387
14.5.1 Load and Movement Capabilities ........................... .387
14.5.2 Characteristics ............................................ 387
14.5.3 Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint of Movement
at the Bearing ......................................387
14.5.3.1 Horizontal Force ......................................... 387
14.5.3.2 Bending Moment ........................................390
14.6 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR BEARINGS ............. 390
14.6.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings ........................... 390
14.6.1.1 General Design Considerations ............................. .390
14.6.1.2 Materials ...............................................390
14.6.1.3 Geometric Requirements .................................. 390
14.6.1.4 Contact Stresses .........................................390
14.6.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces ..................................... 391
14.6.2.1 PTFE Surface ........................................... 391
14.6.2.2 Mating Surface ..........................................391
~ 14.6.2.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements .......................... 391
\.z/ 14.6.2.3.1 P'fFE ................................................ 391
14.6.2.3.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces ...........................391
14.6.2.4 Contact Pressure .........................................391
14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Friction ..................................... 391
14.6.2.6 Attachment ............................................. 392
14.6.2.6.1 PTFE ................................................392
14.6.2.6.2 Mating Surface ........................................392
14.6.3 Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces .......................392
14.6.3.1 Geometric Requirements .................................. 392
14.6.3.2 Resistance to Lateral Load .................................393
14.6.4 Pot Bearings ..............................................393
14.6.4.1 General ................................................ 393
14.6.4.2 Materials ...............................................394
14.6.4.3 Geometric Requirements ..................................394
14.6.4.4 Elastomeric Disc ......................................... 394
14.6.4.5 Sealing Rings ........................................... 394
14.6.4.5.1 Rings with rectangular cross-sections .......................394
14.6.4.5.2 Rings with circular cross-sections ......................... 394
14.6.4.6 Pot .................................................... 394
14.6.4.7 Piston .................................................394
14.6.4.8 Lateral Loads ...........................................395
14.6.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings-Method B ............. 395
14.6.5.1 General ................................................ 395
14.6.5.2 Material Properties ....................................... 395
14.6.5.3 Design Requirements .....................................396
14.6.5.3.1 Scope ................................................ 396
xi CONTENTS Division I
I4.6.5.3.2 Compressive Stress .....................................396

I4.6.5.3.3 Compressive Deflection .................................397
I4.6.5.3.4 Shear ................................................ 397
I4.6.5.3.5 Combined Compression and Rotation ...................... 397
14.6.5.3.6 Stability ..............................................398
I4.6.5.3.7 Reinforcement .........................................398
I4.6.6 Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings-
Method A ..........................................398
I4.6.6.I General ................................................398
I4.6.6.2 Material Properties .......................................398
14.6.6.3 Design Requirements .....................................398
14.6.6.3.I Scope ................................................398
14.6.6.3.2 Compressive Stress ..................................... 399
14.6.6.3.3 Compressive Deflection ................................. 399
14.6.6.3.4 Shear ................................................ 399
14.6.6.3.5 Rotation .............................................. 399
14.6.6.3.5a PEP and COP .........................................399
14.6.6.3.5b FOP and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings ..............399
14.6.6.3.6 Stability ..............................................400
14.6.6.3.7 Reinforcement .........................................400
14.6.6.4 Resistance to Deformation .................................400
14.6.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces .......................400
14.6.7.1 Materials ...............................................400
14.6.7.2 Coefficient of Friction .....................................400
14.6.7.3 Limits on Load and Geometry ............................. .400
14.6.7.4 Clearances and Mating Surface ............................ .400
14.6.8 Disc Bearings .............................................400
14.6.8.1 General ................................................400
14.6.8.2 Materials ...............................................400
14.6.8.3 Overall Geometric Requirements ..........................• .400
14.6.8.4 Elastomeric Disc ........................................ .40 I
14.6.8.5 Shear Resisting Mechanism ................................40 I
14.6.8.6 Steel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............40 I
14.6.9 Guides and Restraints ..................................... .40I
14.6.9.1 General ................................................40 I
14.6.9.2 Design Loads ...........................................401
14.6.9.3 Materials ...............................................401
14.6.9.4 Geometric Requirements ..................................40 I
14.6.9.5 Design Basis ............................................40 I
14.6.9.5.1 Load Location .........................................40 I
14.6.9.5.2 Contact Stress .........................................40 I
14.6.9.6 Attachment of Low-Friction Material ........................ .401
I4.6.IO Other Bearing Systems .................................... .402
I4.7 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR BEARINGS ...........402
14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution ................................. .402
14.7.2 Tapered Plates .............................................402
14.7.3 Anchorage ................................................402
I4.8 CORROSION PROTECTION ................................402
SECTION 15-STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
15.1 GENERALANDNOTATIONS ................................403

15.1.1 General ..................................................403
Division I CONTENTS xli
15.1.2 Notations ................................................403

15.2 LOADS ...................................................403
15.3 DESIGN ...................................................404
15.3.1 Criteria ..................................................404
15.3.2 Joint Strength ............................................404
15.3.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation .......................... .405
15.3.4 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall ........................ .405
15.3.5 Deflection or Flattening ................................... .405
15.4 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS ...........406
15.4.1 Chemical Composition .................................... .406
15.4.2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat Pipe
Before Cold Forming ............................... .406
15.4.3 Dimensions and Tolerances ................................ .406
15.5 SECTION PROPERTIES ................................... .406
15.6 COATINGS ................................................ 406
15.7 BOLTS ................................................... 406
15.8 SAFETY FACTORS ........................................ .406
SECTION 16--SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRJi~TE STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
16.1 GENERAL .................................................407

16.1.1 Scope ...................................................407
16.1.2 Notations ................................................407
16.1.3 Loads ...................................................409
16.1.4 Design ................................................... 409
16.1.5 Materials ................................................409
16.1.6 Soil .....................................................409
16.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions ........................... .409
16.1.8 End Structures ...........................................409
16.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN .................................. .409
16.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN .................................... 409
16.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE ........................... .409
16.4.1 Application ...............................................409
16.4.2 Materials ................................................409
16.4.2.1 Concrete ...............................................409
16.4.2.2 Reinforcement ...........................................409
16.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement ...........................410
16.4.3 Installations ..............................................41 0
16.4.3.1 Standard Installations .................................... .410
16.4.3.2 Soils .................................................. 410
16.4.4 Design ................................................... 410
16.4.4.1 General Requirements ..................................... 410
16.4.4.2 Loads ............................................. · .... 411
16.4.4.2.1 Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution ..................... .411
16.4.4.2.1.1 Standard Installations ................................ .411
16.4.4.2.1.2 Nonstandard Installations ..............................411
16.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight ..................................... .411
16.4.4.2.3 Live Loads ...........................................412
16.4.4.3 Minimum Fill ...........................................412
16.4.4.4 Design Methods .........................................412
16.4.5 Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe Strength
and Load-Carrying Capacity ......................... .412
xliv CONTENTS Division 1-A
17.1.4 Design ...................................................431 .~

17.1.5 Materials ......................... · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .431 1
17.1.6 Soil Design ...............................................431
17.1.6.1 Soil Parameters ..........................................431
17.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions ............................432
17.1.8 Minimum Spacing .........................................432
17.1.9 End 'I'reatment ............................................432
17.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN ...................................432
17.2.1 Wall Area ................................................432
17.2.2 Buckling .................................................432
17.2.3 Handling and Installation Strength .......................... .433
17.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN ....................................433
17.3.1 Wall Area ................................................433
17.3.2 Buckling .................................................433
17.3.3 Handling and Installation Strength .......................... .433
17.4 PLASTIC PIPE .............................................433
17.4.1 General ..................................................433
17.4.1.2 Service Load Design-safety factor, SF .......................434
17.4.1.3 Load Factor Design-capacity modification factor, •••••••••••• 434
17.4.1.5 Minimum Cover .........................................434
17.4.1.6 Maximum Strain .........................................434
17.4.1.7 Local Buckling ..........................................434
17.4.2 Section Properties ........................................ .434
17.4.2.1 PE Corrugated Pipes ......................................434
17.4.2.2 PE Ribbed Pipes ......................................... 434 ~
17.4.2.3 Profile Wa11 PVC Pipes ....................................434 J
17.4.3 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements ......................435
17.4.3.1 Polyethylene ............................................435
17.4.3.1.1 Smooth wall PE pipe requirements ........................ .435
17.4.3.1.2 Corrugated PE pipe requirements ......................... .435
17.4.3.1.3 Ribbed PE pipe requirements .............................435
17.4.3.2 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) .............................. .435
17.4.3.2.1 Smooth wall PVC pipe requirements .......................435
17.4.3.2.2 Ribbed PVC pipe requirements ...........................436
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION I-INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND PHILOSOPHY ...............................439

1.2 BACKGROUND ............................................439
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS .........................................440
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION .................................440
1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS ....................440
1.6 FLOW CHARTS ............................................441
SECTION 2-SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS ...............................................445

Division I-A CONTENTS xlv
SECTION 3-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
0 3.1
3.2
APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS ......................447
ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT ............................447
3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATJON ...........................449
3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES ....................449
3.5 SITE EFFECTS ............................................449
3.5.1 Site Coefficient ............................................449
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT ...............450
3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Single Mode Analysis ... .450
3.6.2 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Multimodal Analysis ... .450
3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS ......................450
3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES
AND DISPLACEMENTS .............................450
3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL SEISMIC FORCES ....... .450
3.10 MINIMUM SEAT·WIDTH REQUIREMENTS ..................451
3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE SPAN BRIDGES ..... .451
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY BRIDGES AND STAGED
CONSTRUCTION ................................. .452
SECTION 4-ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL .................................................453

4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOD ........................453
4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges
and Bridges in SPC A ................................453
4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges ~ ................... .453
4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges .....................454
4.3 UNIFORM LOAD MEmOD-PROCEDURE 1 ................ .454
4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHOD-
PROCEDURE 2 ....................................454
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSis METHOD-
PROCEDURE 3 ....................................455
4.5.1 General ..................................................455
4.5.2 Mathematical Model .......................................456
4.5.2(A) Superstructure ...........................................456
4.5.2(B) Substructure ............................................456
4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods ..................................456
4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis ............................... .456
4.5.5 Combination of Mode Forces and Displacements ...............456
4.6 TIME HISTORY METHOD-PROCEDURE 4 ................. .456
SECTION S-DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES

IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
5.1 GENERAL .................................................457

5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A .....................................457
5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A .....................................457
5.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A .......457
5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
xlvi CONTENTS Division 1-:'A
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

SECTION 6-DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES

IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL .................................................459

CATEGORY B ............................. ·........459
6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections ........ .459
6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations ...............................459
6.2.3 Design Forces for Abutments and Retaining Walls ............. .460
6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY B .....................................460
6.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic
Performance Category B .............................460
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B ...... .460
6.4.1 General ..................................................460
6.4.2 Foundations ..............................................460
6.4.2(A} Investigation ........................................... .460
6.4.2(B} Foundation Design ...................................... .461
6.4.2(C} Special Pile Requirements ................................ .461
6.4.3 Abutments ............................................... 461
6.4.3(A} Free-Standing Abutments ..................................461
6.4.3(B} Monolithic Abutments ....................................462
6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
6.5.1 General ..................................................462
6.5.2 P-delta Effects ............................................462
6.6.1 General ..................................................462
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement Requirements
for Seismic Performance Category B ...................462
6.6.2(A} Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement ................... .462
6.6.2(B} Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement .......... .463
SECTION 7-DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES

IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
7.1 GENERAL .......-..........................................465

CATEGORIES C AND D ............................ .465
7.2.1 Modified Design Forces ................................... .465
7.2.l(A} Modified Design Forces for Structural Members
and Connections .....................................465
7.2.l(B} Modified Design Forces for Foundations ..................... .465
7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic mnging in the Columns,
Piers, or Bents ......................................466
Division 1-A CONTENTS xlvii
7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers ................................. .466
0 7.2.2(B)
7.2.3
7.2.4
Bents with Two or More Columns .......................... .466
Column and Pile Bent Design Forces ........................ .467
Pier Design Forces .........................................467
7.2.5 Connection Design Forces ................................. .467
7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces .............................. .467
7.2.5(B) Hold-Down Devices ......................................467
7.2.5(C) Column and Pier Connections to Cap Beams and Footings ....... .467
7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces ................................. .467
7.2.7 Abutment and Retaining Wall Design Forces .................. .468
7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORIES C AND D ............................ .468
7 .3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic Performance
Categories C and D ................................. .468
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
CANDD ..........................................468
7.4.1 General ..................................................468
7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C .........................................469
7.4.2(A) Investigation ............................................469
7.4.2(B) Foundation Design ...................................... .469
7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements ................................ .469
7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C .........................................470
7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments ................................. .470
7.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments ................................... .470
0
'
7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations

for Seismic Performance Category D .................. .470
7.4.4(A) Investigation ............................................470
7.4.4(B) Foundation Design ...................................... .471
7.4.5 Additional Requirements for Abutments
for Seismic Performance Category D ...................471
7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D ........ : . ..471
7.5.1 General ..................................................471
7.5.2 P-delta Effects ............................................471
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
CANDD ..........................................471
7.6.1 General ..................................................471
7.6.2 Column Requirements .................................... .471
7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinforcement ....................................471
7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength ........................................ .471
7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement ................. .472
7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement at Plastic Hinges ......472
7.6.2(E) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement .......... .473
7.6.2(F) Splices .................................................473
7.6.3 Pier Requirements ........................................473
7.6.4 Column Connections .......................................474
7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns .................... .474
xlviii CONTENTS Division ll
DIVISIONU
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION .....................................................476
SECTION I-STRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL .................................................477

1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS .....................................477
1.3 MATERIALS ...............................................477
1.4 CONSTRUCTION ......................................... .477
1.4.1 Depth of Footings .........................................477
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control of Water ................ .478
1.4.2.1 General ................................................478
1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels ...............................478
1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock .....................................478
1.4.2.4 Other Foundations ....................................... .478
1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation ...................................478
1.4.3 Backfill ..................................................478
1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................479
1.5.1 Measurement .............................................479
1.5.2 Payment .................................................479
SECTION 2-REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................481

2.3 CONSTRUCTION ..........................................481
2.3.1 General ..................................................481
2.3.2 Salvage ..................................................481
2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures .............................. .481
2.3.4 Disposal .................................................482
SECTION 3-TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL .................................................483

3.1.1 Description ...............................................483
3.1.2 Working Drawings ....................................... .483
3.1.3 Design ...................................................483
3.1.4 Construction .............................................483
3.1.5 Removal .................................................483
3.2 FALSEWORK AND FORMS ................................ .484
3.2.1 General ..................................................484
3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction ..........................484
3.2.2.1 Loads ..................................................484
3.2.2.2 Foundations .............................................484
3.2.2.3 Deflections ............................. '................484
3.2.2.4 Clearances ..............................................484
3.2.2.5 Construction ............................................484
3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction ..........................485
3.2.3.1 General ................................................485
Division II CONTENTS xlix
3.2.3.2 Design .................................................485
0
.
3.2.3.3
3.2.3.4
3.2.3.5
Construction ............................................485
Thbe Forms .............................................485
Stay-in-Place Forms ......................................486
3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms ........................... .486
3.2.4.1 General ................................................486
3.2.4.2 Time of Removal ........................................486
3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal .......................................486
3.3 COFFERDAMS AND SHORING ..............................487
3.3.1 General ..................................................487
3.3.2 Protection of Concrete .................................... .487
3.3.3 Removal .................................................487
3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS ................. .487
3.4.1 General ..................................................487
3.4.2 Drawings ................................................ 487
3.4.3 Operations ...............................................487
3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES ................................... .488
3.5.1 General ..................................................488
3.5.2 Detour Bridges ...........................................488
3.5.3 Haul Bridges .............................................488
3.5.4 Maintenance .............................................488
3.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ........................... .488
SECTION 4-DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIP'fiON .............................................489
0 4.2 MATERIALS ...............................................489

4.2.1 Steel Piles ................................................489
4.2.1.1 Painting ................................................489
4.2.2 Timber Piles ..............................................489
4.2.3 Concrete Piles ............................................489
4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES .................................490
4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles .....................................490
4.3.1.1 Forms ..•..............................................490
4.3.1.2 Casting ................................................490
4.3.1.3 Finish .................................................490
4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection .................................... .490
4.3.1.5 Prestressing .............................................490
4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings .....................................490
4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling .....................................490
4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles ............................... .490
4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells ................................ .490
4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete .........................................490
4.4 DRIVING PILES ...........................................491
4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment ................................... .491
4.4.1.1 Hammers ...............................................491
4.4.1.1.1 General ..............................................491
4.4.1.1.2 Drop Hammers ........................................491
4.4.1.1.3 Air Steam Hammers ................................... .491
4.4.1.1.4 Diesel Hammers .......................................491
4.4.1.1.5 Vibratory Hammers .....................................492
4.4.1.1.6 Additional Equipment or Methods ........................ .492
CONTENTS Division ll
4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances ....................................492

4.4.1.2.1 Hammer Cushion ......................................492
4.4.1.2.2 Pile Drive Head ........................................492
4.4.1.2.3 Pile Cushion ..........................................492
4.4.1.2.4 Leads ................................................492
4.4.1.2.5 Followers .............................................492
4.4.1.2.6 Jets ..................................................493
4.4.2 Preparation for Driving ....................................493
4.4.2.1 Site Work ...............................................493
4.4.2.1.1 Excavation ............................................493
4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving ........................... .493
4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments .........................493
4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling ......................................493
4.4.2.2.1 Collars ...............................................493
4.4.2.2.2 Pointing .............................................. 493
4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Lugs ....................................493
4.4.3 Driving ..................................................493
4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles ..................................... .493
4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving ..................................... .494
4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity ..........................494
4.4.4.1 General ................................................494
4.4.4.2 Method A-Empirical Pile Formulas ........................ .494
4.4.4.3 Method B-Wave Equation Analysis .........................494
4.4.4.4 Method C-Dynamic Load Tests ........................... .495
4.4.4.5 Method D-Static Load Tests ...............................495
4.4.5 Splicing of Piles .......................................... .496
4.4.5.1 Steel Piles ..............................................496
4.4.5.2 Concrete Piles ...........................................496
4.4.5.3 Timber Piles ............................................496
4.4.6 Defective Piles ............................................496
4.4.7 Pile Cut-otT ...............................................496
4.4.7.1 General ................................................496
4.4.7.2 Timber Piles ............................................496
4.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ........................... .497
4.5.1 Method of Measurement .................................. .497
4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles ............................497
4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished ....................................... .497
4.5.1.1.2 Piles Driven ...........................................497
4.5.1.2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs ....................... .497
4.5.1.3 Load Tests ..............................................497
4.5.2 Basis of Payment ..........................................497
SECTION 5-DRILLED PILES AND SHAFfS
5.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................499

5.2 SUBMITTALS ..............................................499
5.2.1 Contractor Qualifications .................................. .499
5.2.2 Working Drawings ........................................499
5.3 MATERIALS ...............................................500
5.3.1 Concrete .................................................500
5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel ..........................................500
5.3.3 Casings .................................................. 500
5.4 CONSTRUCTION ..........................................500
Division ll CONTENTS 1i
5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures .............................500
0 5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
Construction Sequence .....................................500
General Methods and Equipment ............................ 500
Dry Construction Method ..................................500
5.4.5 Wet Construction Method ..................................500
5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method ......................501
5.4.7 Permanent Casing Construction Method ......................50 I
5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods ...........................50 I
5.4.9 Excavations ..............................................501
5.4.10 Casings ..................................................501
5.4.11 Slurry ...................................................502
5.4.12 Excavation Inspection ......................................502
5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and Placement ............502
5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing, and Protection ...................503
5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells .......................................503
5.4.16 Construction Tolerances ....................................503
5.4.17 Integrity Testing .......................................... 504
5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS .............................504
5.6.1 Measurement .............................................504
5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft ............................................ 504
5.6.1.2 Bell Footings ............................................504
5.6.1.3 Test Shafts ..............................................505
5.6.1.4 Test Bells ...............................................505
5.6.1.5 Exploration Holes ........................................505
5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing ........................................505
5.6.1.7 Load Tests ..............................................505
0 5.6.2
5.6.2.1
5.6.2.2
Payment ................................................. 505
Drilled Shaft ............................................505
Bell Footings ............................................505
5.6.2.3 Test Shafts ..............................................505
5.6.2.4 Test Bells ...............................................505
5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes ........................................505
5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing ........................................505
5.6.2.7 Load Tests ..............................................505
5.6.2.8 Unexpected Obstructions .................................. 505
SECTION 6-GROUND ANCHORS
6.1 DESCRIPTION ............................................. 507

6.3 MATERIALS ...............................................507
6.3.2 Grout ...................................................507
6.3.3 Steel Elements ............................................508
6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements ..............................508
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements ....................................508
6.4 FABRICATION .............................................508
6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length .......................508
6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon ......................508
6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor Tendon ................509
6.4.2 Unbonded Length .........................................509
6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet ...................................509
0 6.4.4
6.5
Tendon Storage and Handling ...............................509
INSTALLATION ............................................509
Iii CONTENTS Division II
6.5.1 Drilling ..................................................509

6.5.2 Tendon Insertion ..........................................510
6.5.3 Grouting .................................................510
6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage ....................................510
6.5.5 Testing and Stressing .......................................510
6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment .......................................510
6.5.5.2 Performance Test .........................................511
6.5.5.3 Proof Test ..............................................511
6.5.5.4 Creep Test .............................................. 512
6.5.5.5 Ground Anchor Load Test Acceptance Criteria .................512
6.5.5.6 Lock Off ............................................... 513
6.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................ 513
SECTION 7-EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIP'fiON .............................................515

7.3 MATERIALS ...............................................515
7.3.1 Concrete ................................................. 515
7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place ............................................515
7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar ..............................515
7.3.1.3 Precast Elements .........................................515
7.3.1.4 Segmental Concrete Facing Blocks ..........................515
7.3.3 Structural Steel ...........................................516
7.3.4 Timber ..................................................516
7.3.5 Drainage Elements ........................................516
7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe ...................................516
7.3.5.2 Geotextile .............................................. 516
7.3.5.3 Permeable Material .......................................516
7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems ............................516
7.3.6 Structure Backfill Material ; ................................516
7.3.6.1 General ................................................516
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls ....................................516
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls .........................516
7.4 EARTHWORK .............................................517
7.4.1 Structure Excavation ......................................517
7.4.2 Foundation Treatment .....................................517
7.4.3 Structure Backfill .........................................517
7.5 DRAINAGE ................................................517
7.5.1 Concrete Gutters ..........................................517
7.5.2 Weep Holes ..............................................517
7.5.3 Drainage Blankets .........................................518
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems .............................518
7.6 CONSTRUCTION ..........................................518
7.6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls,
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls ...................518
7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls .............................518
7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls .........................................518
7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls ........................................519
7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls ....................519
7.6.2.3.1 General ..............................................519
7.6.2.3.2 Wales ................................................520
Division ll CONTENTS Iiii
7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor Systems ................................520

7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods ..............................................520
7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors .......................................520
7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork ............................................520
7.6.3 Crib Walls and Cellular Walls ...............................520
7.6.3.1 Foundation .............................................520
7.6.3.2 Crib Members ...........................................520
7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members ..........................521
7.6.3.4 Member Placement ....................................... 521
7.6.3.5 Backfilling ..............................................521
7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls .........................521
7.6.4.1 Facing .................................................521
7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement ....................................... 522
7.6.4.3 Construction ............................................522
SECTION 8-CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8.1 GENERAL .................................................525

8.1.1 Description ...............................................525
8.1.2 Related Work .............................................525
8.1.3 Construction Methods .....................................525
8.2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE ..................................525
8.2.1 General ..................................................525
8.2.2 Normal Weight Concrete ...................................525
8.2.3 Lightweight Concrete ...................................... 525
8.3 MATERIALS ...............................................525
8.3.1 Cements .................................................525
8.3.2 Water ...................................................526
8.3.3 Fine Aggregate ............................................526
8.3.4 Coarse Aggregate .........................................526
8.3.5 Lightweight Aggregate .....................................526
8.3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures .....................526
8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures .......................................527
8.3.8 Steel .....................................................527
8.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE ..........................527
8.4.1 Mix Design ...............................................527
8.4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria .................................527
8.4.1.2 Trial Batch Tests ..........................................527
8.4.1.3 Approval ............................................... 527
8.4.2 Water Content ............................................527
8.4.3 Cement Content ..........................................528
8.4.4 Mineral Admixtures .......................................528
8.4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures ......... : ...........528
8.5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE ............................528
8.5.1 Storage of Aggregates ......................................528
8.5.2 Storage of Cement .........................................528
8.5.3 Measurement of Materials ..................................529
8.5.4 Hatching and Mixing Concrete ..............................529
8.5.4.1 Batching ............................................... 529
8.5.4.2 Mixing .................................................529
8.5.5 Delivery .................................................529
8.5.6 Sampling and Testing ...................................... 529
liv CONTENTS Division II
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength .............................530

8.5.7.1 Tests ..................................................530
8.5.7.2 For Controlling Construction Operations ......................530
8.5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete ................................530
8.5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design .................................530
8.5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured Concrete ......................530
8.6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS ......................................531
8.6.1 General ..................................................531
8.6.2 Rain Protection ........................................... 531
8.6.3 Hot Weather Protection ....................................531
8.6.4 Cold Weather Protection ................................... 531
8.6.4.1 Protection During Cure ....................................531
8.6.4.2 Mixing and Placing ....................................... 531
8.6.4.3 Heating of Mix ..........................................531
8.6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks .......................532
8.6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water .............................532
8.6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water ....................532
8.7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE .....................532
8.7.1 General ..................................................532
8.7.2 Sequence of Placement .....................................532
8.7.2.1 Vertical Members ........................................532
8.7.2.2 Superstructures ..........................................533
8.7.2.3 Arches .................................................533
8.7.2.4 Box Culverts ............................................533
8.7.2.5 Precast Elements .........................................533
8.7.3 Placing Methods ..........................................533
8.7.3.1 General ................................................533
8.7.3.2 Equipment ..............................................533
8.7.4 Consolidation .............................................534
8.7.5 Underwater Placement .....................................534
8.7.5.1 General ................................................534
8.7.5.2 Equipment ..............................................534
8.7.5.3 Cleanup ................................................535
8.8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS ...................................535
8.8.1 General ..................................................535
8.8.2 Bonding .................................................535
8.8.3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures ..................535
8.8.4 Forms at Construction Joints ................................535
8.9 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS ...................535
8.9.1 General ..................................................535
8.9.2 Materials ................................................536
8.9.2.1 Premo1ded Expansion Joint Fillers ...........................536
8.9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers ..................................536
8.9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material ................................. 536
8.9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants ....................................536
8.9.2.5 Metal Armor ............................................536
8.9.2.6 Waterstops ..............................................536
8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops .....................................536
8.9.2.6.2 Polyvinylchloride Waterstops .............................536
8.9.2.6.3 Copper Waterstops .....................................537
8.9.2.6.4 Testing of Waterstop Material .............................537
8.9.3 Installation ...............................................537
8.9.3.1 Open Joints .............................................537
Divisionll CONTENTS 1v
8.9.3.2 Filled Joints .............................................537

8.9.3.3 Sealed Joints ...................... ·......................537
8.9.3.4 Waterstops .............................................. 537
8.9.3.5 Expansion Joint Armor Assemblies ..........................537
8.10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE ........................... 537
8.10.1 General ..................................................537
8.10.2 Roadway Surface Finish ....................................538
8.10.2.1 Striking Off and Floating ..................................538
8.10.2.2 Straightedging ...........................................538
8.10.2.3 Texturing ...............................................538
8.10.2.3.1 Dragged .............................................. 539
8.10.2.3.2 Broomed .............................................539
8.10.2.3.3 Tined ................................................ 539
8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction .............................. 539
8.10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish .......................... 539
8.10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish ...............................539
8.10.5 Surface Under Bearings ....................................539
8.11 CURING CONCRETE .......................................539
8.11.1 General .................................................. 539
8.11.2 Materials ................................................540
8.11.2.1 Water ..................................................540
8.11.2.2 Liquid Membranes .......................................540
8.11.2.3 Waterproof Sheet Materials ................................540
8.11.3 Methods .................................................540
8.11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method ................................... 540
8.11.3.2 Water Method ...........................................540
8.11.3.3 Liquid Membrane Curing Compound Method ..................540
Waterproof Cover Method .................................540
0
'
8.11.3.4
8.11.3.5
8.11.4
Steam or Radiant Heat CuringMethod ........................541
Bridge Decks .............................................541
8.12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE SURFACES ................541
8.12.1 General ..................................................541
8.12.2 Class !-Ordinary Surface Finish ...........................541
8.12.3 Class 2-Rubbed Finish .................................... 542
8.12.4 Class 3-Tooled Finish .....................................542
8.12.5 Class 4-Sandblasted Finish ................................542
8.12.6 Class 5-Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish .................... 542
8.13 PRECAST CONCRETE MEMBERS ...........................543
8.13.1 General ..................................................543
8.13.2 Working Drawings ........................................ 543
8.13.3 Materials and Manufacture ..... ·............................543
8.13.4 Curing ..................................................543
8.13.5 Storage and Handling ......................................543
8.13.6 Erection .................................................544
8.13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast Segmental Box Girders .......544
8.13.7.1 Materials ...............................................544
8.13.7.1.1 Test 1-Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent ............544
8.13.7.1.2 Test 2-Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent ............ 544
8.13.7.1.3 Test 3-0pen Time of Bonding Agent ......................544
8.13.7.1.4 Test 4-Three-Point Tensile Bending Test ...................545
8.13.7.1.5 Test 5-Compression Strength of Cured Epoxy
Bonding Agent ...................................... 545
8.13.7.1.6 Test 6-Temperature Deflection of Epoxy Bonding Agent ...... 545
8.13.7.1.7 Test ?-Compression and Shear Strength of Cured Epoxy

CONTENTS Division ll
Ivi
Bonding Agent ............................ · · · .. · · · · .545
8.13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy ............................546
8.14 MORTAR AND GROUT .....................................546
8.14.1 General ...................................... · . · · · · · · · · · .546
8.14.2 Materials and Mixing ................................. · . · · .546
8.14.3 Placing and Ctlring ........................................547
8.15 APPLICATION OF LOADS ..................................547
8.15.1 General ..................................................547
8.15.2 Earth Loads ..............................................547
8.15.3 Construction Loads ........................................547
8.15.4 'Iraffic Loads .............................................547
8.16.1 Measurement .............................................547
8.16.2 Payment .................................................548
SECTION 9-REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................549

9.2 MATERIAL ................................................ 549
9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing Steel .................................549
9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel .............................549
9.2.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars .............................549
9.2.4 Mill'l'est Reports· ..........................................549
9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS ......................549
9.4 FABRICATION .............................................550
9.4.1 Bending .................................................550
9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions ................................550
9.4.3 Identification .............................................550
9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE CONDmON
OF REINFORCEMENT .............................550
9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING .................................550
9.6.1 General ..................................................550
9.6.2 Support Systems ..........................................550
9.6.3 Precast Concrete Blocks .................................... 550
9.6.4 Wire Bar Supports ........................................550
9.6.5 Adjusbnents ..............................................551
9.6.6 Repair of Damaged Epoxy Coating ...........................551
9.7 SPLICING OF BARS ........................................551
9.7.1 General ..................................................551
9.7.2 Lap Splices ............................................... 551
9.7.3 Welded Splices ............................................551
9.7.4 Mechanical Splices ........................................551
9.8 SPLICING OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC ......................552
9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS ..........................................552
9.10 MEASUREMENT ...........................................552
9.11 PAYMENT .................................................552
SECTION tO-PRESTRESSING
I 0.1 GENERAL .................................................553

10.1.'1 Description ...............................................553
10.1.2 Details of Design ...........................................553
10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS .............................553
Division ll CONTENTS I vii
10.2.2 Composite Placing Drawings ................................ 554
c
~ .
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.1.1
MATERIALS ............................................... 554
Prestressing Steel and Anchorages ........................... 554
Strand ................................................. 554
10.3.1.2 Wrre ................................................... 554
10.3.1.3 Bars ...................................................554
10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers ....................554
10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems .........................................554
10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems ....................................... 554
10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test ....................555
10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test ....................................555
10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Test .................................. 555
10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loading Test .................................555
10.4 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE
HARDWARE .......................................556
10.4.1 Placement of Ducts ........................................ 556
10.4.1.1 Vents and Drains .........................................556
10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel .............................. 556
10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning ................................ 556
10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning .............................. 557
10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation ........................557
10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware ...........................557
10.5 IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING ............................557
10.5.1 Pretensioning Method Tendons ..............................558
10.5.2 Post-Tensioning Method Tendons ............................558
10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers .........................558
0 10.6
10.7
10.8
PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL ...................558
CORROSION INHIBITOR .................................. .558
DUCTS ....................................................558
10.8.1 Metal Ducts ..............................................559
10.8.2 Polyethylene Duct ......................................... 559
10.8.3 Duct Area ................................................559
10.8.4 Duct Fittings ............................................. 559
10.9 GROUT ................................................... 559
10.9.1 Portland Cement .......................................... 559
10.9.2 Water ...................................................559
10.9.3 Admixtures .............................................. 560
10.10 TENSIONING ..............................................560
10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements ........................... 560
10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength ........................................560
10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment .................................... 560
10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing .....................................561
10.10.1.4 Measurement of Stress ....................................561
10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements .........................561
10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements .......................562
10.11 GROUTING ...............................................562
10.11.1 General .................................................. 562
10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts .......................................562
10.11.3 Equipment ............................................... 562
10.11.4 Mixing of Grout ..... : .....................................562
10.11.5 Injection of Grout .........................................563
10.11.6 Temperature Considerations ................................563
Iviii CONTENTS Division II
10.12.1 Measurement .............................................563

10.12.2 Payment ................................................. 563
SECTION II-STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL .................................................565

11.1.1 Description ...............................................565
11.1.2 Notice of Beginning of Work ................................565
11.1.3 Inspection ................................................565
11.1.4 Inspector's Authority ......................................565
11.2.1 Shop Drawings ...........................................566
11.2.2 Erection Drawings ........................................ 566
11.2.3 Camber Diagram .........................................566
1.1.3 MATERIALS ...............................................566
11.3.1 Structural Steel ...........................................566
I 1.3.1.1 General ................................................566
11.3.1.2 Carbon Steel ............................................566
11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel ..................... 566
I 1.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched and Tempered Structural
Steel Plate ..........................................566
11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate ... 566
11.3.1.6 Eyebars ................................................567
11.3.1.7 Structural Thbing ........................................567
11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners ....................................567
11.3.2.1 Material ................................................567
11.3.2.2 Identifying Marks ........................................567
11.3.2.3 Dimensions .............................................567
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners .........................568
11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners .....................................568
11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices ....................................568
11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors ..............................568
11.3.3.1 Materials ...............................................568
11.3.3.2 Test Methods ............................................568
11.3.3.3 Finish .................................................568
11.3.3.4 Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.3.5 Check Samples ..........................................569
11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting ............................569
11.3.4.1 Steel Forgings ...........................................569
11.3.4.2 Cold Finished Carbon Steel Shafting .........................569
11.3.5 Steel Castings .............................................569
11.3.5.1 Mild Steel Castings .......................................569
11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings .............................569
11.3.6 Iron Castings .............................................569
11.3.6.1 Materials ...............................................569
11.3.6.2 Workmanship and Finish ..................................569
11.3.6.3 Cleaning ............................................... 569
11.3.7 Galvanizing ..............................................569
11.4 FABRICATION .............................................570
11.4.1 Identification of Steels During Fabrication ....................570
11.4.2 Storage of Materials .......................................570
11.4.3 Plates ...................................................570
Division II CONTENTS lix
11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling ...................................... 570
0 11.4.3.2
11.4.3.2.1
11.4.3.2.2
Plate Cut Edges .......................................... 570
Edge Planing ..........................................570
Oxygen Cutting ........................................570
11.4.3.2.3 Visual Inspection and Repair of Plate Cut Edges .............. 570
11.4.3.3 Bent Plates .............................................570
11.4.3.3.1 General .............................................. 570
11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending ......................................... 570
11.4.3.3.3 Hot Bending .......................................... 571
11.4.4 Fit of Stiffeners ...........................................571
11.4.5 Abutting Joints ...........................................571
11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces .................................. 571
11.4.7 Straightening Material .....................................571
11.4.8 Bolt Holes ................................................ 571
11.4.8.1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and Unfinished
Bolts ..............................................571
11.4.8.1.1 General .............................................. 571
11.4.8.1.2 Punched Holes ........................................ 572
11.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes ................................572
11.4.8.1.4 Accuracy of Holes ......................................572
11.4.8.2 Accuracy of Hole Group ...................................572
11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Before Reaming ...............................572
11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming ................................. 572
11.4.8.3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field Connections ..............572
11.4.8.4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Turned Bolts,
or Other Approved Bearing Type Bolts ................... 572
11.4.8.5 Preparation of Field Connections ............................573
11.4.9 Pins and Rollers ........................................... 573
11.4.9.1 General ................................................ 573
11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes .........................................573
11.4.9.3 Threads for Bolts and Pins .................................573
11.4.10 Eyebars ..................................................573
11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving ..............................573
11.4.12 Curved Girders ...........................................574
11.4.12.1 General ................................................574
11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and Welded Girders ...............574
11.4.12.2.1 Materials .............................................574
11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating ........................................574
11.4.12.2.3 Temperature ..........................................57 4
11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating ....................................574
11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Operations .................................575
11.4.12.2.6 Camber ..............................................575
11.4.12.2. 7 Measurement of Curvature and Camber ..................... 575
11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures ...........................575
11.4.13.1 General ................................................57 5
11.4.13.2 Flatness of Panels ........................................575
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners Subject to Calculated
Compressive Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Ribs .......576
11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web Stiffeners and Other Stiffeners
Not Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress ..............576
11.4.14 Full-Sized 'I'ests ...........................................576
11.4.15 Marking and Shipping .....................................576
11.5 ASSEMBLY ................................................576
lx CONTENTS Division ll
11.5.1 Bolting ..................................................576

11.5.2 Welded Connections .......................................576
11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections ............................576
11.5.3.1 General ................................................576
11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections .......................................577
11.5.3.3 Check Assembly-Numerically Controlled Drilling .............577
11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections .................................577
11.5.4 Match Marking ...........................................577
11.5.5 Connections Using Unfinished, 'fumed, or Ribbed Bolts .........577
11.5.5.1 General ................................................577
I 1.5.5.2 Turned Bolts ............................................577
11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts ............................................577
11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts .......................578
11.5.6.1 General ................................................578
11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts ............................................. 578
11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions .......................................578
11.5.6.4 Installation ..............................................578
11.5.6.4.1 General ..............................................578
11.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests ................................579
11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers .................................580
11.5.6.4.4 Tum-of-Nut Installation Method ..........................580
11.5.6.4.5 Calibrated Wrench Installation Method ..................... 580
11.5.6.4.6 Alternative Design Bolts Installation Method ................581
11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Installation Method .................581
11.5.6.4.7a Verification .......................................... 581
11.5.6.4.7b Installation ...........................................582
11.5.6.4.8 Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners ............................ 582
11.5.6.4.9 Inspection ............................................582
11.5.7 Welding .................................................583
11.6 ERECTION ................................................583
11.6.1 General ..................................................583
11.6.2 Handling and Storing Materials .............................583
1I.6.3 Bearings and Anchorages ...................................583
11.6.4 Erection Procedure ........................................583
11.6.4. I Conformance to Drawings ................................. 583
11.6.4.2 Erection Stresses .........................................584
11.6.4.3 Maintaining Alignment and Camber ..........................584
11.6.5 Field Assembly ............................................584
I1.6.6 Pin Connections ...........................................584
11.6.7 Misfits ...................................................584
I 1.7.1 Method of Measurement ...................................584
11.7.2 Basis of Payment ..........................................585
SECTION 12-STEEL GRID FLOORING
12.1 GENERAL .................................................587

12.1.1 Description ...............................................587
12. I .2 Working Drawings ........................................587
12.2 MATERIA~ ...............................................587
12.2.1 Steel ....................................................587
12.2.2 Protective Theatment .......................................587
Division ll CONTENTS Ixi
12.2.3 Concrete ................................................. 587
0 12.2.4
12.3
12.4
Skid Resistance ...........................................587
ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS ............................. 587
PROVISION FOR CAMBER .................................588
12.5 FIELD ASSEMBLY .........................................588
12.6 CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS ...............................588
12.7 WELDING ................................................. 588
12.8 REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED COATINGS ............588
12.9 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER ....................... 588
12.9.1 Forms ................................................... 588
12.9.2 Placement ................................................ 589
12.10 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ........... ·................. 589
SECTION 13-PAINTING
13.1 GENERAL .................................................591

13.1.1 Description ...............................................591
13.1.2 Protection of Public and Property ............................ 591
13.1.3 Protection of the Work .....................................591
13.1.4 Color ....................................................591
13.2 PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES ...........................591
13.2.1 Coating Systems and Paints ................................. 591
13.2.2 Weather Conditions ....................................... 591
13.2.3 Surface Preparation .......................................592
13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning ...........................................592
13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning .......................................... 593
0 13.2.3.3
13.2.3.4
13.2.4
Solvent Cleaning ......................................... 593
Hand Cleaning .......................................... 593
Application of Paints ....................................... 593
13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers ............................594
13.2.5 Measurement and Payment ................................. 594
13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES ........................594
13.4 PAINTING TIMBER ........................................595
13.4.1 General .................................................. 595
13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces ....................................595
13.4.3 Paint .................................................... 595
13.4.4 Application .............................................. .595
13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber ...................................595
13.4.6 Payment ................................................. 595
13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE .....................................595
13.5.1 Surface Preparation .......................................595
13.5.2 Paint ....................................................595
13.5.3 Application ...............................................595
13.5.4 Measurement and Payment ................................. 596
SECTION 14-STONE MASONRY
14.1 DESCRIP'fiON ............................................. 597

14.1.1 Rubble Masonry ..........................................597
14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry ....................................... · ...597
MATERIALS ........................................ · · · · . · .597
0 14.2
lxii CONTENTS Division ll
14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone ............................................597

14.2.1.2 Ashlar Stone ............................................597
14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone .............................. 597
14.2.3 Mortar .................................................. 597
14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR MASONRY ................. 598
14.3.1 General .................................................. 598
14.3.2 Surface Finishes of Stone ...................................598
14.3.3 Rubble Masonry ..........................................598
14.3.3.1 Size ...................................................598
14.3.3.2 Shape ..................................................598
14.3.3.3 Dressing ...............................................598
14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry ........................ , ..................598
14.3.4.1 Size ...................................................598
14.3.4.2 Dressing ............................................... 598
14.3.4.3 Stretchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...599
14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones .......................................... 599
14.4 CONSTRUCTION .......................................... 599
14.4.1 Weather Conditions .......................................599
14.4.2 Mixing Mortar ............................................599
14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone ...............................599
14.4.3.1 General ................................................ 599
14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry ......................................... 599
14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry .......................................... 600
14.4.4 Beds and Joints ...........................................600
14.4.5 Headers .................................................600
14.4.6 Cores and Backing ........................................600
14.4.6.1 General ................................................600
14.4.6.2 Stone ..................................................600
14.4.6.3 Concrete ...............................................600
14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses ........................................600
14.4.7 Facing for Concrete ........................................601
14.4.8 Copings .................................................601
14.4.8.1 Stone ..................................................601
14.4.8.2 Concrete ...............................................601
14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps .......................................601
14.4.10 Weep Holes ..............................................601
14.4.11 Pointing ..................................................601
14.4.12 Arches ...................................................602
SECTION IS-CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................603

15.2 MATERIALS ...............................................603
15.2.1 Concrete Block ........................................... 603
15.2.2 Brick ....................................................603
15.2.4 Mortar ..................................................603
15.2.5 Grout ...................................................603
15.2.6 Sampling and Testing ......................................603
15.2.6.1 Mortar .................................................603
15.2.6.2 Grout ..................................................604
Division II CONTENTS lxiii
15.3 CONSTRUCTION ..........................................604
c
. . 15.3.1
15.3.2
15.3.3
15.3.4
Weather Conditions .......................................604
Laying Block and Brick ....................................604
Placement of Reinforcement ................................604
Grouting of Voids .........................................604
15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls ........................605
SECTION 16-TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL .................................................607

16.1.1 Related Work .............................................607
16.2 MATERIALS ............................................... 607
16.2.1 Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued Laminated) ..........607
16.2.2 Steel Components ......................................... 607
16.2.3 Castings .................................................608
16.2.4 Hardware ................................................608
16.2.5 Galvanizing .............................................. 608
16.2.6 Timber Connectors ........................................608
16.2.6.1 Dimensions .............................................608
16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors .....................................608
16.2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors ....................................608
16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors ....................................608
16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION ....................... 609
16.3.1 Workmanship ............................................609
16.3.2 Storage of Material ........................................609
0 16.3.3
16.3.3.1
16.3.3.2
1'reated Timber ........................................... 609
Handling ...............................................609
Framing and Boring ......................................609
16.3.3.3 Cuts and Abrasions .......................................610
16.3.3.4 Bored Holes ............................................610
16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment ....................................61 0
16.3.4 Installation of Connectors .................................. 610
16.3.5 Holes for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag Screws .................610
16.3.6 Bolts and Washers .........................................610
16.3.7 Countersinking ........................................... 611
16.3.8 Framing .................................................611
16.3.9 Framed Bents .............................................611
16.3.9.1 Mud Sills ...............................................611
16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......611
16.3.9.3 Sills ...................................................611
16.3.9.4 Posts ..................................................611
16.3.9.5 Caps ...................................................611
16.3.9.6 Bracing ................................................611
16.3.10 Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.11 Plank Floors ..............................................612
16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors ..............................612
16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks ................................ 612
16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks ............................612
16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing ..................................612
16.3.16 1'russes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 613
16.4 PAINTING .................................................613
lxiv CONTENTS Division ll
16.5 MEASUREMENT ...........................................613

16.6 PAYMENT .................................................613
SECTION 17-PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL .................................................615

17.2 MATERIALS ...............................................615
17.2.1 Wood ....................................................615
17.2.2 Preservatives and Treatments ...............................615
17.2.3 Coal-tar Roofing Cement ...................................615
17.3 IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION ........................615
17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection ............................615
17.3.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant ...............................616
17.3.3 Certificate of Compliance ...................................616
17.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................ 616
SECTION 18-BEARINGS
18.1 SCOPE ....................................................617

18.2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS ................................617
18.2.1 AASHTO Standards .......................................617
18.2.2 ASTM Standards .........................................617
18.2.3 Other Standards ..........................................618
18.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................618
18.4 MATERIALS ...............................................618
18.4.1 General ..................................................618
18.4.1. I Steel ................................................... 618
18.4.2 Special Material Requirements for Metal Rocker and
Roller Bearings .....................................618
18.4.3 Special Material Requirements for PTFE Sliding Surfaces .....•.619
18.4.3.1 PTFE .................................................•619
18.4.3.2 Adhesives ..............................................619
18.4.3.3 Lubricants .......................................... , ...619
18.4.3.4 Interlocked Bronze and Filled PTFE Structures .................619
18.4.4 Special Material Requirements for Pot Bearings ................619
18.4.5 Special Material Requirements for Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads .............620
18.4.5.1 Elastomer ..............................................620
18.4.5.2 Fabric Reinforcement .....................................620
18.4.5.3 Bond ..................................................620
18.4.6 Special Material Requirements for Bronze or
Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces .........................620
18.4.6.1 Bronze and Copper Alloys .................................620
18.4.6.1.1 Bronze ................................ ; ..............620
18.4.6.1.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy ....................................620
18.4.6.2 Oil Impregnated Metal Powder Sintered Material ...............620
18.4.7 Special Material Requirements for Disc Bearings ...............620
18.4.7.1 EJastomeric Rotational Element .............................620
18.4.8 Special Material Requirements for Guides ....................620
18.4.8.1 Low-friction Material .....................................620
18.4.8.2 Adhesive ...............................................623
18.4.9 Speclal Requirements for Bedding Materials ................... 623
Division II CONTENTS lxv
18.4.9.1 Fabric-Reinforced Elastomeric Bedding Pads ..................623

18.4.9.2 Sheet Lead ..............................................623
0 18.4.9.3
18.4.9.4
Caulk ..................................................623
Grout and Mortar ........................................623
18.5 FABRICATION .............................................623
18.5.1 General .................................................. 623
18.5.2 Special Fabrication Requirements for Metal Rocker and
Roller Bearings .....................................623
18.5.2.1 Steel ...................................................623
18.5.2.2 Lubricant ...............................................623
18.5.3 Special Fabrication Requirements for PI'FE Sliding Bearings ....625
18.5.3.1 Fabrication of PTFE ......................................625
18.5.3.2 Attachment of PTFE ......................................625
18.5.3.2.1 Flat Sheet PTFE .......................................625
18.5.3.2.2 Curved Sheet P'fFE .....................................625
18.5.3.2.3 Woven PTFE Fabric .................................... 625
18.5.3.3 Stainless Steel Mating Surface ..............................625
18.5.3.4 Lubrication .............................................625
18.5.4 Special Fabrication Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings ...625
18.5.5 Special Fabrication Requirements for Pot Bearings ............. 625
18.5.5.1 Pot ................................................... 625
18.5.5.2 Sealing Rings ...........................................625
18.5.5.3 Elastomeric Rotational Element .............................626
18.5.6 Special Fabrication Requirements for Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads ............. 626
18.5.6.1 Requirements for All Elastomeric Bearings .................... 626
18.5.6.2 Steel Laminated Elastomeric Bearings ........................626
18.5.6.3 Fabric Reinforced Elastomeric Pads ..........................626
18.5.6.4 Plain Ela~tomeric Pads ....................................626
18.5.7 Special Fabrication Requirements for Bronze and
Copper Alloy Bearings ...............................626
18.5.7.1 Bronze Sliding Surfaces ...................................626
18.5.7.2 Copper Alloy Plates ...................................... 626
18.5.8 Special Fabrication Requirements for Disc Bearings ............626
18.5.8.1 Steel Housing ...........................................626
18.5.8.2 Elastomeric Rotational Element .............................626
18.5.9 Special Fabrication Requirements for Guides ..................626
18.5.10 Special Requirements for Load Plates ........................627
18.5.11 Special Requirements for Anchor Bolts .......................627
18.6 CORROSION PROTECTION ................................627
18.7 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE ...............................627
18.7.1 General ..................................................627
18.7.1.1 Scope ..................................................627
18.7.1.2 Definitions ..............................................627
18.7.1.3 Test Pieces to be Supplied to the Engineer .....................627
18.7.1.4 Tapered Sole Plates .......................................627
18.7.2 Tests ...................................................627
18.7.2.1 Material Certification Tests ................................. 627
18.7.2.2 Material Friction Test (Sliding Surfaces Only) .................. 628
18.7.2.3 Dimensional Check .......................................628
18.7.2.4 Clearance Test ...........................................628
18.7.2.5 Short-term Compression Proof Load Test .....................628
18.7.2.6 Long-term Compression Proof Load Test ......................628
0
Ixvi CONTENTS Division ll
18.7.2.7 Bearing Friction Test {for sliding surfaces only) .... 0...........628
18.7.2.8 Long-term Deterioration Test . 0.... oo.. o.. o............ oo...629
18.7.2.9 Bearing Horizontal Force Capacity {Fixed or
Guided Bearings Only) .................. 0.............629
18.7.3 Performance Criteria .. o...................................629
18.7.4 Special Testing Requirements ................ o..............629
18.7.4.1 Special Test Requirements for Rocker and Roller Bearings .... 0...629
18.7.4.2 Special Test Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings ...... 0....629
18.7.4.3 Special Test Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings .. ooo.....630
18.7.4.4 Special Test Requirements for Pot Bearings ....................630
18.7.4.4.1 Material Certification Tests .. 0. o.... 0..... o.. 0.. 0.. 00.... o630
18.7.4.4.2 Testing by the Engineer . o. 00. ooooooooo. o..... 0.... o.. 00o630
18.7.4.4.3 Bearing Tests 0.... 0.... 00..................... 000......630
18.7.4.5 Test Requirements for Elastomeric Bearings ..... 0.............630
18.7.4.5.1 Scope. 0. 0. ooo00..... ooo000.... 0. 0. 00.... 00. 0. 000.. 0..630
18.7.4.5.2 Frequency of Testing .. 0.... 0. o.. 00. 0.. 0.. 0000... 0.... 00o630
18.7.4.5.3 Ambient Temperature Tests on the Elastomer .... 0.. 0. oo.... o631
18.7.4.5.4 Low Temperature Tests on the Elastomer 0... oo........ 0. 0. 0.631
18.7.4.5.5 Visual Inspection of the Finished Bearing . 0.... 000...... 0.. o631
18.7.4.5.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings . 0. 00.. 0. 0000. o631
18.7.4.5.7 Long~Duration Compression Tests on Bearings 000.... 0. 00. 00o631
18.7.4.5.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Materials from Bearings 000. 0... 0000.631
18.7.4.7 Test Requirements for Bronze and Copper Alloy Bearings ...... 0.631
18.7.4.8 Test Requirements for Disc Bearings .........................632
18.7.4.8.1 Material Certification Tests ..................... 0.........632
18.7.4.802 Testing by the Engineer ........ o. 0......................632
18.7.4.8.3 Bearing Tests ....... 0.... 0. 0o............ 0o0. 0.. o......632
18.7.5 Cost of Transporting ... o...... o............... o...... o.....632
18.7.6 Use of Tested Bearings in the Structure .......................632
1808 PACKING, SHIPPING AND STORING ............... o.... o...632
18o9 INSTALLATION .. o.... o.. o.. o............ o.... oo...... o.. o.632
18.9.1 General Installation Requirements . 0o... 0...... o.............632
18.9.2 Special Installation Requirements ............................633
18.9.2.1 Installation of Rocker and Roller Bearings .....................633
l8o9.2.2 Installation of Elastomeric Bearings ..........................633
18.9.2.3 Installation of Guideways and Restraints ......................633
18.9.2.4 Installation of Anchorages ..... 0...........•...............633
18.10 DOCUMENTATION ........................................633
18.10.2 Marking 0............................... o................633
18.1003 Certification .......... o...................................633
18.11 MEASUREMENT .............. o... o. oooo.. 0. oo.... o.... o...634
18.12 PAYMENT .. o.. ooo.. o. oo. o.... oo. oo. o.... o............ o... o634
SECTION 19-BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL .. oo....... o. o. oooo. o. o................. 0. o......635

19.2 WORKING DRAWINGS .. o.. oo. o..... o.... o........ 0...... 0.635
19o3 MATERIALS .. ooo... o. o0. o. oo. o.. 0o. 0. o...... 0... 0.... 0....635
19.4 MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION ..... o. ooo. o..... 0.. 00..635
19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints ...... 0.. 0. 00.... 0.. 0........... 00.. 635
19.4.2 Joint Seal Assemblies 0..•...... 0........ 0......... 0. 0......635
Division ll CONTENTS lxvii
19.5 INSTALLATION ............................................635

19.5.1 General ..................................................635
0 19.5.2
19.5.3
Compression Seal Joints .................................... 636
Joint Seal Assemblies ...................................... 636
SECTION 20-RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL ................................................. 637

20.1.1 Description ............................................... 637
20.1.2 Materials ................................................ 637
20.1.3 Construction ............................................. 637
20.1.4 Line and Grade ...........................................637
20.2 METAL RAILING ..........................................637
20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication ..................................637
20.2.1.1 Steel Railing ............................................ 637
20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing .......................................637
20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing ......................................637
20.2.1.4 Welding ................................................ 637
20.2.2 Installation ...............................................637
20.2.3 Finish ...................................................638
20.3 CONCRETE RAILING ......................................638
20.3.1 Materials and Construction ................................. 638
20.4 TIMBER RAILING .........................................638
20.5 STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS ..............................638
20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING ....................................638
0 20.7
20.7.1
20.7.2
MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT ............................ 638
Measurement .............................................638
Payment .................................................638
SECTION 21-WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL .................................................639

21.1.1 Waterproofing ............................................639
21.1.2 Dampproofing ............................................639
21.2 MATERIALS ..........................................· ..... 639
21.2.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing System ....................639
21.2.1.1 Asphalt ................................................639
21.2.1.2 Primer .................................................639
21.2.1.3 Fabric ................................................. 639
21.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems .................639
21.2.2.1 Primer .................................................639
21.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet ................................ 639
21.2.2.3 Mastic .................................................640
21.2.3 Protective Covers .........................................640
21.2.4 Dampproofing ............................................640
21.2.5 Inspection and Delivery ....................................640
21.3 SURFACE PREPARATION ...................................640
21.4 APPLICATION ....................... ~ .....................640
21.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing ...........................641
lxviii CONTENTS Division IT
21.4.1.1 General ................................................641

21.4.1.2 Installation ..............................................641
21.4.1.3 Special Details ..........................................641
21.4.1.4 Damage Patching ........................................641
21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems .................642
21.4.2.1 General ................................................642
21.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks ................................642
21.4.2.3 Installation on Other Surfaces ...............................642
21.4.3 Protective Cover ..........................................642
21.4.4 Dampproofing ............................................643
SECTION 22-SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL .................................................645

22.1.1 Description ...............................................645
22.1.2 'IYpes ....................................................645
22'.2 WORKING DRAWINGS ..................................... 645
22.3 MATERIALS ...............................................645
22.3.1 Aggregate ................................................645
22.3.2 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ............................645
22.3.3 Filter Fabric ..............................................645
22.3.4 Grout ....... ·............................................646
22.3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap ....................................646
22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete ..................................646
22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar ..............................646
22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks
and Shapes .........................................646
22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain .......................................646
22.4 CONSTRUCTION ..........................................646
22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes ......................................646
22.4.2 Bedding .................................................646
22.4.3 Filter Fabric ..............................................646
22.4.4 Geocomposite Drain .......................................647
22.4.5 Hand Placing Stones .......................................647
22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones .....................................647
22.4.6.1 Dry Placement ...........................................647
22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement ....................................647
22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ............................647
22.4.7.1 Fabrication .............................................647
22.4.7.2 Installation ....................................... ', ......648
22.4.8 Grouted Riprap ...........................................648
22.4.9 Sacked Concrete Riprap ....................................648
22.4.10 Concrete Slope Paving .....................................648
22.4.10.1 General ................................................648
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving .................................649
22.4.10.3 Precast Slope Paving ......................................649
22.5.1 Method of Measurement ...................................649
22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket .............. .' ..............649
22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap ...................................649
22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ............................649
Division II CONTENTS lxix
22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving .........................650
0 22.5.1.5
22.5.1.6
22.5.2
Precast Concrete Slope Paving ..............................650
Filter Fabric ............................................. 650
Payment .................................................650
22.5.2.1 General ................................................650
22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap ............................................650
22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap ...................................650
22.5.2.4 Wrre-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) ............................650
22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving ..........................650
22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving ..............................650
22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket ........................................... 650
22.5.2.8 Filter Fabric ............................................. 650
22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System ................................650
SECTION 23-MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................651

23.2 MATERIALS ...............................................651
23.3 FABRICATION ............................................. 651
23.4 GALVANIZING ............................................651
23.5 MEASUREMENT ...........................................651
23.6 PAYMENT ................................................. 651
SECTION 24-PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
0 24.1
24.2
DESCRIPTION .............................................653
MATERIALS ...............................................653
24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water, and Admixtures ...................653
24.2.2 Reinforcing Steel .......................................... 653
24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs ......................................653
24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING ............................653
24.3.1 Proportioning ............................................653
24.3.2 Mixing ..................................................653
24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION ...................................654
24.4.1 Earth ....................................................654
24.4.2 Fonns ...................................................654
24.4.3 Concrete or Rock .........................................654
24.5 INSTALLATION ............................................654
24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing ...................................654
24.5.2 Placement of Mortar .......................................654
24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations ......................................655
24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work ................................655
24.5.3 Finishing ................................................655
24.5.4 Curing and Protecting .....................................655
SECTION 25-STEEL AND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
0 25.1
25.2
SCOPE ....................................................657
DESCRIPTION ............................................. 657
lxx CONTENTS Division ll
25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION ............................657

25.3.1 General ..................................................657
25.3.2 Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates ...................657
25.4 INSTALLATION ............................................658
25.4.1 Steel Liner Plates ..........................................658
25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates ...............................658
25.4.3 Grouting .................................................658
25.5 MEASUREMENT ...........................................658
25.6 PAYMENT .............. ·...................................658
SECTION 26-METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL .................................................659

26.1.1 Description ...............................................659
26.3 MATERIALS ...............................................659
26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe .....................................659
26.3.2 Structural Plate ............................................659
26.3.3 Nuts and Bolts ............................................ 659
26.3.4 Mixing of Materials ........................................659
26.3.5 Fabrication ...............................................659
26.3.6 Welding .................................................660
26.3.7 Protective Coatings ........................................660
26.3.8 Bedding and Backfill Materials ................... ·...........660
26.3.8.1 General ................................................660
26.3.8.2 Long-Span Structures .....................................660
26.3.8.3 Box Culverts ............................................660
26.4 ASSEMBLY ................................................660
26.4.1 General ..................................................660
26.4.2 Joints ......... ·..........................................660
26.4.2.1 Field Joints .............................................661
26.4.2.2 Joint l'ypes .............................................661
26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions ..........................................661
26.4.2.4 Joint Properties ..........................................661
26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures ...........................662
26.5 INSTALLATION ................................. ·...........662
26.5.1 Placing Culverts-General .................................662
26.5.2 Foundation ............................................... 662
26.5.3 Bedding .................................................664
26.5.4 Structural Backfill .........................................665
26.5.4.1 General ................................................665
26.5.4.2 Arches .................................................665
26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures .....................................665
26.5.4.4 Box Culverts ............................................666
26.5.4.5 Bracing ................................................666
26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls ...........................666
26.5.6 Inspection Requirements for CMP ........................... 667
26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS ...........................667
26.7 MEASUREMENT ...........................................667
26.8 PAYMENT .................................................667
SECTION 27-CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL .................................................669

Division II CONTENTS bod

27.3 MATERIALS ...............................................669
27.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts ...............................669
27.3.2 Joint Sealants .............................................669
27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar ..........................................669
27.3.2.2 Aexible Watertight Gaskets ................................669
27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials ...............................670
27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill Material ... 670
27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular, Arch, and Elliptical Pipe ....670
27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections .....................670
27.4 ASSEMBLY ................................................670
27.4.1 General ..................................................670
27.4.2 Joints ...................................................670
27.5 INSTALLATION ............................................670
27.5.1 General ..................................................670
27.5.2 Bedding .................................................670
27.5.2.1 General ................................................670
27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe .....673
27.5.2.3 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections ..................... 673
27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections .................................... 673
27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill ...................674
27.5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe .....674
27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material ....................................... 674
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material .................................... 677
27.5.4.1.3 Overfill ..............................................677
27.5.4.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections .....................677
27.5.4.2.1 Backfill ..............................................677
27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill ..........677
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction ......................678
27.6 MEASUREMENT ...........................................678
27.7 PAYMENT .................................................678
SECTION 28-WEARING SURFACES
28.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................679

28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE WEARING SURFACE ...679
28.2.1 General ..................................................679
28.2.2 Materials ................................................679
28.2.2.1 Portland Cement .........................................679
28.2.2.2 Aggregate ..............................................679
28.2.2.3 Water ..................................................679
28.2.2.4 Latex Emulsion ..........................................679
28.2.2.5 Latex Modified Concrete ..................................680
28.2.3 Surface Preparation ....................................... 680
28.2.3.1 New Decks ............................................. 680
28.2.3.2 Existing Decks .......................................... 680
28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing .................................. 681
28.2.5 Installation ............................................... 681
28.2.5.1 Weather Restrictions ...................................... 681
28.2.5.2 Equipment ............................................ · .681
28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing .....................................682
28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints .....................................682
28.2.5.3.2 Placing ..................................... · ... · · · · · .682
lxxii CONTENTS Figures
28.2.5.3.3 Finishing .............................................682

28.2.6 Curing ..................................................682
28.2.7 Acceptance Testing ........................................682
28.2.8 Measurement and Payment .................................683
SECTION 29-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................685

29.2 PREQUALIFICATION ......................................685
29.3 MATERIALS ...............................................685
29.4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS ................................685
29.5 INSPECTION AND TESTING ................................685
29.6 MEASUREMENT ...........................................686
29.7 PAYMENT .................................................686
SECTION 30-THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
30.1 GENERAL ................................................. 687

30.1.1 Description ...............................................687
30.1.2 Workmanship and Inspection ...............................687
30.3 MATERIALS ...............................................687
30.3.1 Thermoplastic Pipe ........................................687
30.3.2 Bedding Material and Structural Backfill .....................687
30.4 ASSEMBLY ................................................688
30.4.1 General .................................................. 688
30.4.2 Joints ...................................................688
30.4.2.1 Field Joints .............................................688
30.5 INSTALLATION ............................................688
30.5.1 General Installation Requirements ...........................688
30.5.2 'I'rench Widths ............................................688
30.5.3 Foundation and Bedding ...................................689
30.5.4 Structural Backfill .........................................689
30.5.5 Minimum Cover ..........................................689
30.5.6 Installation Deftection ......................................689
30.6 MEASUREMENT ...........................................689
30.7 PAYMENT .................................................689
LIST OF FIGURES
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 2-GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
Figure 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges .........................8

Figure 2.4A Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses .....................9
Figure 2.5 Clearance Diagram for Thnnels-Two-Lane Highway Traffic ..9
Figure 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing ...................... 12
Figure 2.7.4B Traffic Railing ....................................... 13
SECTION 3-LOADS
Figure 3.7.6A Standard H 'I'rucks ...................................22

Figures CONTENTS lxxiii
Figure 3.7.6B Lane Loading .......................................23

Figure 3.7.7A Standard HS Trucks ..................................24
SECTION 4--FOUNDATIONS
Figure 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing Foundations .......48

Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions
for Footings Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads,
Modified after EPRI (1983) ..........................52
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1 B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically
About One Axis .................................... 52
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically
About Two Axes, Modified after AREA (1980) ..........53
Figure 4.4. 7 .1.1.4A Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footings
on Sloping Ground, Modified after Meyerhof (1957) .....54
Figure 4.4.7 .1.1.4B Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing Adjacent
Sloping Ground, Modified after Meyerhof (1957) .........54
Figure 4.4.7 .1.1.6A Definition Sketch for Influence of Ground Water Table
on Bearing Capacity ................................55
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A Typical Two-Layer Soil Profiles .........................56
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modified Bearing Capacity Factor for Two-Layer Cohesive
Soil with Softer Soil Overlying Stiffer Soil, EPRi (1983) .. 56
Figure 4.4. 7.1.1.8A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination ............57
Figure 4.4. 7.2.1 A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous
and Square Footings, Modified after Sowers (1979) ...... 58
Figure 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation Compression Curve
for Overconsolidated Soil-Void Ratio
~I Versus Vertical Effective Stress, EPRI (1983) ...........60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation Compression Curve
for Overconsolidated Soil-Void Strain
Versus Vertical Effective Stress .......................60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for Effects of Three-
Dimensional Consolidation Settlement, EPRI (1983) .....60
Figure 4.4.7.2.30 Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time
Factor, T, EPRI (1983) ..............................61
Figure 4.4.8.1.1 A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight
Discontinuities, Peck, et al. (1974) .....................62
Figure 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial
Compressive Strength for Intact Rock, Modified
after Deere (1968) ..................................66
Figure 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations ..........71
Figure 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations ......... 81
Figure 4.6.5.1.1 A Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance
in Cohesive Soil, Reese and O'Neill (1988) .............. 82
Figure 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth
Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts, Horvath et al. (1983) ........ 85
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1 A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled
Shafts in Cohesive Soil, after Reese and O'Neill (1988) ... 87
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1 B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesive Soil, after Reese and O'Neill (1988) .........87
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and O'Neill (1988) ......88
lxx.vi CONTENTS Figures
SECTION 8-REINFORCED CONCRETE
Figure 8.15.5.8 Untitled ...........................................202

Figure 8.16.4.4.1 Definition of Wall Slenderness Ratio ...................206
Figure 8.16.6.8 Untitled ........................................... 211
Figure 8.29 .1 Hooked-Bar Details for Development of Standard Hooks .. 221
Figure 8.29.4 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements ........................ 221
Figure 9.16.2.1.1 Mean Annual Relative Humidity ......................235
Figure 10.3.1C Ulustrative Examples ................................ 264

Figure CI0.18.2.3.4 Positive Flexure Case ..............................C-101
Figure CI0.18.2.3.4 Negative Flexure Curve ............................C-101
Figure I 0.18.5A Splice Details ....................................... 278
Figure I 0.34.3.1 A Web Thickness Versus Girder Depth for Noncomposite
Symmetrical Sections .............................. 296
Figure I0.39.4.3A Longitudinal Stiffeners-Box Girder Compression
Flange .......................................... 309
Figure 10.39.4.3B Spacing and Size of Transverse Stiffeners (for Flange
Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely) ............ 310
Figure 10.40.2.1 A Untitled ........................................... 3I3
Figure 10.40.2.I B Untitled ........................................... 313
Figure 10.50A Plastic Stress Distribution ............................323
Figure 1 Article ClO.S0.1.2.1 ...............................C-130
SECTION 12-SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.7.1A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Shapes

Including Long-Span Structures .....................349
Figure 12.7.4A 'l)'pical Structural Backfill Envelope and Zone
of Structure Influence .............................351
Figure 12.7.4B Assumed Pressure Distribution ........................352
Figure 12.7.5A Standard Structure End Types ........................353
Figure 12.8.2A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Box Culvert
Shapes ..........................................355
SECTION 13--WOOD STRUCTURES
Figure 13.7.1A Untitled ...........................................381
SECTION 14--BEARINGS
Figure 14.4 Untitled ........................................... 388

Figure 14.5.2-1 Typical Bearing Components ........................ .389
Figure 14.6.3.2-1 Untitled ...........................................393
Figure Cl4.6.4.3-l Pot Bearing-Critical Dimensions for Clearances .......C- J7
Figures CONTENTS lxxvii
Figure 14.6.5.2-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones .......................396

.
Figure 14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings ....... .396
G Figure CI4.6.5.3.3-1
Figure C14.6.5.3.6-1
Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings .......C-21
Elastomeric Bearing-Interaction Between Compressive
Stress and Rotation Angle .........................C-22
SECTION 15-STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
Figure 15.2.3A Diagram for Coefficient Cd for 'funnels in Soil

(cp =Friction Angle) ...............................404
SECTION 16-SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Figure 16.4A Heger Pressure Distribution and Arching Factors ........413

Figure 16.48 Standard Embankment Installations ...................414
Figure 16.4C Standard Trench Installations ........................ .414
Figure 16.40 Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes ................416
Figure 16.4E Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes ...........417
Figure 16.4F Suggested Design Pressure Distribution Around a Buried
Concrete Pipe for Analysis by Direct Design ...........420
Figure 16.40 Essential Features of Types of Installation ...............420
Figure 16.4H General Relationship of Vertical Earth Load
and Lateral Pressure ..............................421
Figure 16.6A Concrete Box Sections ...............................424
0 DIVISION 1-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION I-INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.6A Design Procedure Flow Chart .........................442

Figure 1.6B Sub Flow Chart for Seismic Performance Categories B,
C,and D .........................................443
Figure C3.2 Schematic Representation Showing How Effective

Peak Acceleration and Effective Peak Velocity
Are Obtained from a Response Spectrum ............C-42
Figure 3.2A Acceleration Coefficient-Continental United States ......447
Figure 3.2B Acceleration Coefficient-Alaska, Hawaii
and Puerto Rico ..................................448
Figure C3.5A Average Acceleration Spectra for Different Site Conditions
(after Seed, et al., 1976) ...........................C-44
Figure C3.5B Normalized Response Spectra ........................C-45
Figure C3.5C Ground Motion Spectra for A = 0.4 ...................C-46
Figure C3.5D Ground Motion Spectra for A = 0.4 ...................C-46
Figure C3.5E Comparison of Free Field Ground Motion Spectra and
Lateral Design Force Coefficients ...................C-47
Figure 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length
0 Requirements ....................................452
lxxviii CONTENTS Figures
Figure 4.4A Bridge Deck Subjected to Assumed Transverse

and Longitudinal Loading ......................... .455
Figure C4.4A Plan View of a Bridge Subjected to a Transverse
Earthquake Motion ..............................C-54
Figure 4.4B Bridge Deck Subjected to Equivalent Transverse
and Longitudinal Seismic Loading ...................455
Figure C4.4B Displacement Function Describing the Transverse
Position of the Bridge Deck ........................C-54
Figure C4.4C Deflected Shape Due to Uniform Static Loading .........C-55
Figure C4.4D Transverse Free Vibration of the Bridge in
Assumed Mode Shape ............................C-55
Figure C4.4E Characteristic Static Loading Applied to the
Bridge System ...................................C-56
Figure C4.5.2 Iterative Procedure for Including Abutment Soil
Effects in the Seismic Analysis of Bridges ............C-57
SECTION 7-DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC

PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
Figure C7.2.2A Development of Approximate Overstrength

Interaction Curves from Nominal Strength
Curves (after Gajer and Wagh) .....................C-65
Figure C7.6.2A Confining Pressure Provided by a Spirally
Reinforced Column ............................... C-69
Figure C7.6.2B Confining Pressure Provided by a Rectangular
Reinforced Column ...............................C-70
Figure C7.6.2C Tie Details in a Rectangular Column ..................C-71
Figure C7.6.2D Tie Details in a Square Column ......................C-71
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
SECTIONl&-~BERSTRUCTURES
Figure 16.3 Nail Placement Pattern ..............................613
SECTION 2&-METAL CULVERTS
Figure 26.5 Typical Cross-Section Showing Materials

Around the Pipe .................................. 663
Figure 26.5.2 A-D: Foundation Improvement Methods When Required ..664
Figure 26.5.3 "V" Shaped Bed (Foundation) for Larger Pipe Arch,
Horizontal Ellipse and Underpass Structures ..........665
Figure 26.5.4 End Treatment of Skewed Flexible Culvert ..............666
Figure 27.5A Standard Embankment Installations ...................671

Figure 27.58 Standard Trench Installations .........................672
Figure 27.5C Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes ................673
Tables CONTENTS lxxix
Figure 27.50 Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes ...........674

Figure 27 .5E Box Sections, Embankmentl'lnmch Bedding .............678
0 SECTION 30--THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
Figure 30.5.1 Untitled ........................................... 688
LIST OF TABLES
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 3-LOADS
Table 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients 'Y and p ...........................31

Table 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Longitudinal Beams ....... 33
Table 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Transverse Beams ......... 34
SECTION 4-FOUNDATIONS
Table 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration ..... 44

Table 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors ............................. 50
Table 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils, Modified after U.S.
Department of Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982) ..........59
Table 4.4.7.2.28 Elastic Shape and Rigidity Factor, EPRI (1983) ...........59
Table 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient Nms for Estimation of the Ultimate
Bearing Capacity of Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
0
.
Table 4.4.8.1.28
(Modified after Hoek (1983)) .........................63
Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (C0 ) as a
Function of Rock Category and Rock Type .............64
Table 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poisson's Ration for Intact Rock, Modified
after Kulhawy (1978) ...............................65
Table 4.4.8.2.28 Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock, Modified after
Kulhawy (1978) ....................................65
Table 4.5.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on Ultimate Geotechnical
Capacity Based on Specified Construction Control ......72
Table 4.5. 7.3A Allowable Working Stress for Round Timber Piles ......... 73
Table 4.6.5.1.1 A Recommended Values of a and f, 1 for Estimation of
Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil,
Reese and O'Neill (1988) ............................82
Table 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of qT* for Estimation of Drilled Shaft
Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and O'Neill
(1988) ............................................83
Table 4.10.6-1 Performance Factors for Strength Limit States for Shallow
Foundations .......................................94
Table 4.10.6-2 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States
in Axially Loaded Piles ..............................95
Table 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit
States in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts ................96
Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread
Footing Foundations, Modified after U.S. Department
of the Navy, 1982 ...................................99
Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsO for Foundations on
0 '
Rock (after Putnam, 1981) .......................... 101
lxxx CONTENTS Tables
SECTIONS-RETAINING WALLS
Table 5.5.2A Relationship Between Soil Backfill Type and Wall

Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth Pressures
Behind Rigid Retaining Walls . 122 0 •••••••••••••••••••••
Table 5.5.2B ffitimate Friction Factors and Friction Angles

for Dissimilar Materials, after U.S. Department
of the Navy (1982) ..................... o ol28 0 .........
Table 5.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplified Earth Pressure

Distributions for Permanent and Temporary Flexible
Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements . ol31
Table5.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer
for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Soil, Modified
after Cheney (1982) .. o.. oo o o. o.. o. o ooo.... 137 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 •
Table 5.7 .6.28 Presumptive ffitimate Values of Load Transfer

for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock, Modified
after Cheney (1982) .. 0 .137
.... 0 ........ 0 •• 0 0 ...... 0 0 0
Table5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Scale Effect Correction Factor,

(infinity sign*) o. o 0 •• 0 • 0 151
0 • 0 0 •••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••
Table 5.8.6.1.2A Minimum Requirements for Geosynthetic Products

to Allow Use of Defaulted Reduction Factor
for Long-Term Degradation . .156 0 ••••••••••• 0 ••••• 0 •••
Table 5.8.6.1.2B Default of Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic

Ultimate Limit State Strength Reduction Factor, RF .... 157
Table5o8o7o2A Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosyntbetic
Ultimate Limit State Strength Reduction Factor
at the Facing Connection, RFc o. o.... 158 0 •••••••••••• 0 ••
SECTION 8--REINFORCED CONCRETE
Table 8o9.2 Recommended Minimum Depths for Constant Depth

Members ..... 0 o.....
•• 0 ••••••• 194 0 ••••••• 0 •••••••••••
Table 8.14.3 Effective Length Factors, k ........................... 196

Table 8.23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend ............... 217 0 •••••••••
Table 8o32.3.2 Tension Lap Splices ...... 223 0 ••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••
Table 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses ................ 0 ••••••••• 236
Table 10.2A Untitled ... 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 0 •• 0 258

0 0 ••••••••• 0 ••••••••••• 0 ••••
Table 10.2B Untitled 0 •••••• 0 ••••••• 258

o ••••••••••••••• 0 • 0 •••••••••
Table 10.3.IA Allowable Fatigue Stress Range 260 0 ••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••
Table 10.3.IB Untitled . o ••• o ••••••••••••••••• 261 0 ••• 0 •••••••••••••••
Table 10.3.2A Stress Cycles .......... 265

o ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Table 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designations for Charpy V-Notch

Impact Requirements ........ 265 0 ••• 0 •••••••••••••• 0 ••
Table I 0.24.2 Nominal Hole Dimension .......... .282 0 •••••••••••••••• 0
Table l0.32.1A Allowable Stresses-Structural Steel (In pounds per

square inch) . o...... o....
0 288 0 •• 0 •••••••••••••••• 0 0 ••
Table 10.32.3A Allowable Stresses for Low-Carbon Steel Bolts and Power
Driven Rivets (in psi) .............................. 290
Tables CONTENTS lxxxi
Table 10.32.3B Allowable Stresses on High-Strength Bolts or Connected
0 Table 10.32.3C
Material (ksi) .....................................290
Nominal Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections
(Slip Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, F5 , ksi) .......... 291
Table 10.32.4.3A Allowable Stresses-Steel Bars and Steel Forgings ........ 293
Table 10.32.5.1A Allowable Stresses-Cast Steel and Ductile Iron ......... 294
Table 10.36A Bending-Compression Interaction Coefficients ...........302
Table 10.48.l.2A Limitations for Compact Sections ..................... .318
Table 10.48.2.1 A Limitations for Braced Noncompact Sections ............318
Table 10.56A Design Strength of Connectors ........................332
Table I0.57 A Design Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections (Slip
=
Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, <fJFs <fJTbf.L, ksi) .......334
SECTION 12--SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Table l2.7.2A Minimum Requirements for Long-Span Structures

with Acceptable Special Features .................... 348
Table l2.8.2A Geometric Requirements for Box Culverts .............. 354
Table 12.8.4A C2, Adjustment Coefficient Values for Number
of Wheels Per Axle ............................... .356
Table 12.8.4B P, Crown Moment Proportioning Values ................ 356
Table 12.8.4C Rh, Haunch Moment Reduction Values ................ .356
SECTION 13-WOOD STRUCTURES
0 Table 13.2.1A
Table l3.2.2A
Net Dry Dimensions for Dressed Lumber ...............358
Standard Net Finished Widths of Glue Laminated Timber
Manufactured from Western Species or Southern Pine ...359
Table 13.5.lA Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded
Lumber and Timbers ..............................361
Table 13.5.1 B Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded
Dimension Lumber ................................368
Table 13.5.2A Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain ....369
Table 13.5.3A Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood
Timber with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending ... 370
Table 13.5.38 Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood
Timber with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension
or Compression ................................... 373
Table 13.5.4A Representative Tabulated Design Values for Laminated
Veneer Lumber ...................................375
Table 13.5.48 Representative Tabulated Design Values for Parallel Strand
Lumber, Design Values in Pounds Per Square Inch (psi) ...376
Table 13.5.5A Load Duration Factor, C0 • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . • . . • 377
Table 13.6.1A Values of the Bearing Area Factor, Cb, for Small
Bearing Areas .................................... 380
Table 13.7.1A Support Condition Coefficients for Tapered Columns .....382
SECTION 14-BEARINGS
Table 14.5.2-1 Bearing Stability ....................................389

Table 14.6.2.4-1 Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE .....................392
0 Table 14.6.2.5-1 Design Coefficients of Friction ........................ 392
lxxxii CONTENTS Tables
Table 14.6.5.2-1 Elastomer Properties at Different Hardnesses ...........395

Table 14.6.5.2-2 Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades .......... 396
SECTION 15 -STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
Table 15.3.2.2 Untitled ...........................................405

Table 15.5A Section Properties for Four-Flange Liner Plate .......... .406
Table 15.5B Section Properties for Two-Flange Liner Plate ...........406
SECTION 16-SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Table 16.4A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum

Compaction Requirements .........................410
Table 16.4B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum
Compaction Requirements ........................ .411
Table 16.4C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications
for SIDD SoU Designations .........................412
Table 16.40 Design Values of Parameters in Bedding
Factor Equation ..................................418
Table l6.4E Bedding Factors for Circular Pipe .....................419
Table 16.4F Bedding Factors, BLL, for HS 20 Live Loadings .......... .419
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
Table 3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC) ..................449

Table 3.5.1 Site Coefficient (S) ..................................450
Table 3.7 Response Modification Factor (R) .................... .451
Table4.2A Minimum Analysis Requirements ......................453

Table4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements ........................ .453
SECTION 7-DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC

PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
Table C7.2.2A Recommended Increased Values of Materials Properties ...C-66
DIVISIOND
CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 8-CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 8.2 Untitled ...........................................526

Table 8.3 Untitled ........................................... 528
Tables CONTENTS lxxxiii
SECTION 11-STEEL STRUCTURES
Table 11.4.3.3.2 Minimum Cold-Bending Radii ........................571

Table 11.5A Required Fastener Tension Minimum Bolt Tension
in Pounds ........................................578
Table 11.5B Nut Rotation from the Snug-Tight Condition Geometry
of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts .......................579
Table 11.5C Untitled ...........................................582
SECTION 13-PAINTING
Table 13.2.1 Untitled ........................................... 592
SECTION IS-CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
Table 15.1 Grouting Limitations ................................605
SECTIONl~TIMBERSTRUCTURES
Table 16.1 Typical Dimensions of Timber Connectors

(dimensions in inches) .............................608
SECTION IS-BEARINGS
Table 18.4.3.1-1 Physical Properties ofPTFE .......................... 619

Table 18.4.5.1-1A Material Tests-polychloroprene ......................621
Table 18.4.5.1-IB Material Tests-polyisoprene .........................622
Table 18.4.7.1-1 Physical Properties of Polyether Urethane ...............623
Table 18.5.1.5-1 Fabrication Tolerances and Surface Finish Requirements ..624
SECTION 26-METAL CULVERTS
Table 26.4 Categories of Pipe Joints .............................661

Table 26.6 Minimum Cover for Construction Loads (Round,
Pipe-Arch, Ellipse and Underpass Shapes) ..............667
Table 27.5A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum

Compaction Requirements .........................675
Table 27.5B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum
Compaction Requirements ......................... 676
Table 27.5C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications
or SIDD Soil Designations ..........................677
APPENDICES:
A-Live Load Tables ................................................691
B-'I'ruck 'Ii'ain Loadings ............................................695
C-Columns .......................................................696
lxxxiv CONTENTS Commentary
D-Piastic Section Modulus ...........................................700

E-Metric Equivalents and Expressions ................................70 I
INDEX ..............................................................797
COMMENTARY-Interim Specifications-Bridges-1996 ..................C-I
COMMENTARY-Interim Specifications-Bridges-1997 .................C-11
COMMENTARY-Interim Specifications-Bridges-1998 .................C-39
COMMENTARY-Interim Specifications-Bridges-1999/2000 .............C-91
As referenced in Section 4.12.3.3. 7b and 4.13.2, the following figures have been reprinted
from the 1993 Commentary of the 1993 Interims to the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges:
Figure C4.12.3.7.2-I Uplift of Group of Closely-Spaced Piles in Cohesionless

Soils ............................................. 104.1
Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2 Uplift of Group of Piles in Cohesive Soils after Tomlinson
(1987) ........................................... 104.1
Figure C4.13.3.3.4-1 Elastic Settlement Influence Factor as a Function of Embed-
ment Ratio and Modulus Ratio after Donald, Sloan and
Chiu, 1980, as presented by Reese and O'Neill (1988) .... 104.1
Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4 Bearing Capacity Coefficient, K,p after Canadian
Geotechnical Society (1985) ......................... I 04.1
Division I
DESIGN
0
.
0
Section 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL 1.3 WATERWAYS

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES
1.3.1 General
The intent of these Specifications is to produce in-
tegrity of design in bridges. 1.3.1.1 Selecting favorable stream crossings should
be considered in the preliminary route determination to
minimize construction, maintenance, and replacement
costs. Natural stream meanders should be studied and, if
1.1.1 Design Analysis
necessary, channel changes, river training works, and
other construction that would reduce erosion problems
When these Specifications provide for empirical for-
and prevent possible loss of the structure should be con-
mulae, alternate rational analyses, based on theories or
sidered. The foundations of bridges constructed across
tests and accepted by the authority having jurisdiction,
channels that have been realigned should be designed for
will be considered as compliance with these Specifica-
possible deepening and widening of the relocated channel
tions.
due to natural causes. On wide flood plains, the lowering
of approach embankments to provide overflow sections
that would pass unusual floods over the highway is a
0 1.1.2 Structural Integrity
Designs and details for new bridges should address

means of preventing loss of structures. Where relief
bridges are needed to maintain the natural flow distribu-
tion and reduce backwater, caution must be exercised in
structural integrity by considering the following: proportioning the size and in locating such structures to
avoid undue scour or changes in the course of the main
(a) The use of continuity and redundancy to provide river channel.
one or more alternate load paths.
(b) Structural members and bearing seat widths that 1.3.1.2 Usually, bridge waterways are sized to pass
are resistant to damage or instability. a design flood of a magnitude and frequency consistent
(c) External protection systems to minimize the ef- with the type or class of highway. In the selection of the
fects of reasonably conceived severe loads. waterway opening, consideration should be given to the
amount of upstream ponding, the passage of ice and de-
bris and possible scour of the bridge foundations. Where
floods exceeding the design flood have occurred, or where
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS superftoods would cause extensive damage to adjoining
property or the loss of a costly structure, a larger water-
The general location of a bridge is governed by the way opening may be warranted. Due consideration should
route of the highway it carries, which, in the case of a new be given to any federal, state, and local requirements.
highway, could be one of several routes under considera-
tion. The bridge location should be selected to suit the par- 1.3.1.3 Relief openings, spur-dikes, debris deflectors
ticular obstacle being crossed. Stream crossings should be and channel training works should be used where needed
located with regard to initial capital cost of bridgeworks to minimize the effect of adverse flood flow conditions.
and the minimization of total cost including river channel Where scour is likely to occur, protection against damage
training works and the maintenance measures necessary from scour should be provided in the design of bridge
to reduce erosion. Highway and railroad crossings should piers and abutments. Embankment slopes adjacent to
provide for possible future works such as road widening. structures subject to erosion should be adequately pro-
3
4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1.3.1.3
tected by rip-rap, flexible mattresses, retards, spur dikes 1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND
or other appropriate construction. Clearing of brush and WATERWAY OPENINGS
trees along embankments in the vicinity of bridge open-
ings should be avoided to prevent high flow velocities and Culvert location, length. and waterway openings
possible scour. Borrow pits should not be located in areas should be in accordance with the AASHTO Guide on the
which would increase velocities and the possibility of Hydraulic Design of Culverts in Highway Drainage
scour at bridges. Guidelines.
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE

1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies
The transverse drainage of the roadway should be pro-
Hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part of vided by a suitable crown in the roadway surface and lon-
the preliminary design of a bridge and reports of such gitudinal drainage by camber or gradient. Water flowing
studies should include applicable parts of the following downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and
outline: not permitted to run onto the bridge. Short, continuous
span bridges, particularly overpasses, may be built with-
out inlets and the water from the bridge roadway carried
1.3.2.1 Site Data downslope by open or closed chutes near the end of the
bridge structure. Longitudinal drainage on long bridges
(a) Maps, stream cross sections, aerial photographs. should be provided by scuppers or inlets which should be
(b) Complete data on existing bridges, including dates of sufficient size and number to drain the gutters ade-
of construction and performance during past floods. quately. Downspouts, where required, should be made of
(c) Available high water marks with dates of occur- rigid corrosion-resistant material not less than 4 inches in
rence. least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.
(d) Information on ice, debris, and channel stability. The details of deck drains should be such as to prevent the
(e) Factors affecting water stages such as high water discharge of drainage water against any portion of the
from other streams, reservoirs, flood control projects, structure or on moving traffic below, and to prevent ero-
and tides. sion at the outlet of the downspout. Deck drains may be
(f) Geomorphic changes in channel flow. connected to conduits leading to storm water outfalls at
ground level. Overhanging portions of concrete decks
should be provided with a drip bead or notch.
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES
(a) Flood data applicable to estimating floods at site,
including both historical floods and maximum floods 1.6.1 Clearances
of record.
(b) Flood-frequency curve for site. Structures designed to overpass a railroad shall be in
(c) Distribution of flow and velocities at site for flood accordance with standards established and used by the af-
discharges to be considered in design of structure. fected railroad in its normal practice. These overpass
(d) Stage-discharge curve for site. structures shall comply with applicable Federal, State, and
local laws.
Regulations, codes, and standards should, as a mini-
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis mum, meet the specifications and design standards of the
American Railway Engineering Association, the Associa-
(a) Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening tion of American Railroads, and AASHTO.
for various trial bridge lengths and selected discharges.
(b) Estimated scour depth at piers and abutments of 1.6.2 Blast Protection
proposed structures. .
(c) Effect of natural geomorphic stream pattern On bridges over railroads with steam locomotives,
changes on the proposed structure. metal likely to be damaged by locomotive gases, and all
(d) Consideration of geomorphic changes on nearby concrete surfaces less than 20 feet above the tracks, shall
structures in the vicinity of the proposed structure. be protected by blast plates. The plates shall be placed to
1.6.2 DIVISION I-DESIGN 5
take account of the direction of blast when the locomotive the standard practice of the commission for the highway
G is on level or superelevated tracks by centering them on a

line normal to the plane of the two rails at the centerline
of the tracks. The plates shall be not less than 4 feet wide
construction, except that the superelevation shall not ex-
ceed 0.10 foot per foot width of roadway.
and shall be cast-iron, a corrosion and blast-resisting alloy,

or asbestos-board shields, so supported that they may be
readily replaced. The thickness of plates and other parts in 1.8 FLOOR SURFACES
direct contact with locomotive blast shall be not less than
3/4 inch for cast iron, 3/s inch for alloy, l/2 inch for plain as- All bridge floors shall have skid-resistant characteris-
bestos-board, and 7/16 inch for corrugated asbestos-board. tics.
Bolts shall be not less than S/s inch in diameter. Pockets
which may hold locomotive gases shall be avoided as far
as practical. All fastenings shall be galvanized or made of
corrosion-resistant material.
1.9 UTILITIES
1.7 SUPERELEVATION Where required, provisions shall be made for trolley

wire supports and poles, lighting pillars, electric conduits,
The superelevation of the floor surface of a bridge on telephone conduits, water pipes. gas pipes. sanitary sew-
a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with ers. and other utility appurtenances.
0
0
Section 2
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL 2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES-

GENERAL
2.1.1 Notations
2.2.1 Navigational
Ar =area of flanges (Article 2.7.4.3)
b = flange width (Article 2.7.4.3) Permits for the construction of crossings over naviga-
C = modification factor for concentrated load, P, used in ble streams must be obtained from the U.S. Coast Guard
the design of rail members (Article 2.7.1.3.1) and other appropriate agencies. Requests for such permits
D = clear unsupported distance between flange compo- from the U.S. Coast Guard should be addressed to the ap-
nents (Article 2.7.4.3) propriate District Commander. Permit exemptions are al-
d = depth of W or I section (Article 2. 7.4.3) lowed on nontidal waterways which are not used as a
Fa = allowable axial stress (Article 2.7.4.3) means to transport interstate or foreign commerce, and are
Fb = allowable bending stress (Article 2.7.4.2) not susceptible to such use in their natural condition or by
Fv =allowable shear stress (Article 2.7.4.2) reasonable improvement.
F>' =minimum yield stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
fo = axial compression stress (Article 2.7.4.3) 2.2.2 Roadway Width
h = height of top rail above reference surface (Figure
0 2.7.4B)
L =post spacing (Figure 2.7.4B)
P = railing design loading = l 0 kips (Article 2. 7 .1.3
For recommendations on roadway widths for various
volumes of traffic, see AASHTO A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, or A Policy on Design
and Figure 2.7.4B) Standards-Interstate System.
P' = railing design loading equal to P, P/2 or P/3 (Article
2.7.1'.3.5) 2.2.3 Vertical Clearance
t = flange or web thickness (Article 2.7.4.3)
w =pedestrian or bicycle loading (Articles 2.7.2.2 and Vertical clearance on state trunk highways and inter-
2.7.3.2) state systems in rural areas shall be at least 16 feet over
the entire roadway width with an allowance for resurfac-
ing. On state trunk highways and interstate routes through
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk urban areas, a 16-foot clearance shall be provided except
in highly developed areas. A 16-foot clearance should be
The width of roadway shall be the clear width mea- provided in both rural and urban areas where such clear-
sured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of the ance is not unreasonably costly and where needed for de-
bridge between the bottoms of curbs. If brush curbs or fense requirements. Vertical clearance on all other high-
curbs are not used, the clear width shall be the minimum ways shall be at least 14 feet over the entire roadway
width measured between the nearest faces of the bridge width with an allowance for resurfacing.
railing.
The width of the sidewalk shall be the clear width, 2.2.4 Other
measured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of
the bridge, from the extreme inside portion of the handrail The channel openings and clearances shall be accept-
to the bottom of the curb or guardtimber. If there is a truss, able to agencies having jurisdiction over such matters.
girder, or parapet wall adjacent to the roadway curb, the Channel openings and clearances shall conform in
width shall be measured to the extreme walk side of these width, height, and location to all federal, state, and local
requirements.
0 members.
7
8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.2.5
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks HORIZONTAl CLEARANCE I

The face of the curb is defined as the vertical or slop-
ing surface on the roadway side of the curb. Horizontal
measurements of roadway curbs are from the bottom of FACE OF CURB
the face, or, in the case of stepped back curbs, from the OR BARRIER. - - -
bottom of the lower face. Maximum width of brush curbs,
(OPTIONAL)
if used. shall be 9 inches. 9" (MAX.) BRUSH CURB
Where curb and gutter sections are used on the road- OR SIDEWALK IF WARRANTED.
way approach, at either or both ends of the bridge. the
curb height on the bridge may equal or exceed the curb
height on the roadway approach. Where no curbs are used
on the roadway approaches, the height of the bridge curb
ROADWAY WIDTH ~
above the roadway shall be not less than 8 inches, and
~------------------~- 51
preferably not more than 10 inches.
Where sidewalks are used for pedestrian traffic on
urban expressways. they shall be separated from the
FIGURE 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges
bridge roadway by the use of a combination railing as
shown in Figure 2.7.4B.
limits of structure costs. type of structure, volume and de-
In those cases where a New Jersey type parapet or a
sign speed of through traffic, span arrangement, skew, and
curb is constructed on a bridge. particularly in urban areas
terrain make the 30-foot offset impractical, the pier or
that have curbs and gutters leading to a bridge, the same
wall may be placed closer than 30 feet and protected by
widths between curbs on the approach roadways will be
the use of guardrail or other barrier devices. The guardrail
maintained across the bridge structure. A parapet or other
or other device shall be independently supported with the
railing installed at or near the curb line shall have its ends
roadway face at least 2 feet 0 inches from the face of pier
properly flared, sloped, or shielded.
or abutment.
The face of the guardrail or other device shall be at
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES
least 2 feet 0 inches outside the normal shoulder line.
2.3.1 Width
2.4.2 Vertical Clearance
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
A vertical clearance of not less than 14 feet shall be
the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
provided between curbs, or if curbs are not used, over the
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.3.1.
entire width that is available for traffic.
The roadway width shall generally equal the width of
the approach roadway section including shoulders. Where
curbed roadway sections approach a structure, the same 2.4.3 Curbs
section shall be carried across the structure.
Curbs, if used, shall match those of the approach road-
2.3.2 Vertical Clearance way section.
The provisions of Article 2.2.3 shall be used. 2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS
2.4 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES See Figure 2.5.

FOR UNDERPASSES
2.5.1 Roadway Width
See Figure 2.4A.
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
2.4.1 Width the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.5.
The pier columns or walls for grade separation struc- Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the
tures shall generally be located a minimum of 30 feet from structures shall be constructed to secure the following
the edges of the through-traffic lanes. Where the practical limiting dimensions or clearances for traffic.
I AT LEAST 60'-G"GREATER THAN APPROACH PAVEMENT I

0 '
V~ACE OF WALL FACE OF WALL--..

U)
0
OR PIER OR PIER z
9 a: c(
~ ~
t-
en 0
...
l5... ...
c(
0
t-
c( t=
a:
w
>
-
w-~ ~l
~
r:.-O"MIN. PAVEMENT a:
0
I -I
GENERAL CONDITION
FACE OF WALL FACE OF WALL w

0
OR PIER OR PIER : z
Oc(
-' a:
:!~
t- -1
cnO
i1i ...
_, c(
0
t- -
c( ~
w
SHOULDER
PAVEMENT
~1>
SHOULDER MIN.
LIMITED CONDITION
0
'
'
•The barrier to face of wall or pier distance should not be less than the dynamic deflection of the barrier for impact by a full-sized automobile at
impact conditions of approximately 25 degrees and 60 miles per hour. For information on dynamic deflection of various barriers. see AASHTO Road-
side Design Guide.
FIGURE 2.4A Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses (See Article 2.4 for General Requirements.)
NOT LESS THAN 30 FT. -""
I·
HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE .,
-
w
0
z
t: <
[[
CURB OR CURB OR ~ <
SIDEWALK SIDEWALK
y-
w
..J
1- 0
Cl)
18 INCHES 18 INCHES < ..J
MINIMUM MINIMUM w
..J 
ROADWAY WIDTH
l· AT LEAST 2 FT. GREATER THAN
APPROACH TRAVELLED WAY
.. f z
~
0
[[
BUT NOT LESS THAN 24 FT. 0
FIGURE 2.5 Clearance Diagram for Thnnels-Two-Lane Highway Traffic

The clearances and width of roadway for two-lane traf- railing or barrier with a pedestrian railing along the edge
fic shall be not less than those shown in Figure 2.5. The of the structure. On urban expressways, the separation
roadway width shall be increased at least 10 feet and shall be made by a combination railing.
preferably 12 feet for each additional traffic lane.
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls
2.7.1.1 General
The minimum width between walls of two-lane tunnels
shall be 30 feet. 2. 7.1.1.1 Although the primary purpose of traffic
railing is to contain the average vehicle using the struc-
2.5.3 Vertical Clearance ture, consideration should also be given to (a) protection
of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing,
The vertical clearance between curbs shall be not less (b) protection of other vehicles near the collision, (c) pro-
than 14 feet. tection of vehicles or pedestrians on roadways underneath
the structure, and (d) appearance and freedom of view
2.5.4 Curbs from passing vehicles.
The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The 2. 7.1.1.2 Materials for traffic railings shall be con-
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges. crete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof. Metal ma-
For heavy traffic roads, roadway widths greater than terials with less than l 0-percent tested elongation shall
the above minima are recommended. not be used.
If traffic lane widths exceed 12 feet the roadway width
may be reduced 2 feet 0 inches from that calculated from 2. 7.1 .1.3 Traffic railings should provide a smooth,
Figure 2.5. continuous face of rail on the traffic side with the posts set
back from the face of rail. Structural continuity in the rail
members, including anchorage of ends, is essential. The
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR
railing system shall be able to resist the applied loads at
DEPRESSED ROADWAYS
all locations.
2.6.1 Roadway Width
2. 7.1.1.4 Protrusions or depressions at rail joints
shall be acceptable provided their thickness or depth is no
The clear width between curbs shall be not less than
greater than the wall thickness of the rail member or 3/s
that specified for tunnels.
inch, whichever is less.
2.6.2 Clearance between Walls
2.7.1.1.5 Careful attention shall be given to the treat-
ment of railings at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends,
The minimum width between walls for depressed road-
posts, and sharp changes in the geometry of the railing
ways carrying two lanes of traffic shall be 30 feet.
shall be avoided. A smooth transition by means of a con-
tinuation of the bridge barrier, guardrail anchored to the
2.6.3 Curbs
bridge end, or other effective means shall be provided to
protect the traffic from direct collision with the bridge rail
The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The
ends.
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges.
2.7.1.2 Geometry
2.7 RAILINGS
2. 7.1.2.1 The heights of rails shall be measured rela-
Railings shall be provided along the edges of struc- tive to the reference surface which shall be the top of the
tures for protection of traffic and pedestrians. Other suit- roadway, the top of the future overlay if resurfacing is an-
able applications may be warranted on bridge-length cul- ticipated, or the top of curb when the curb projection is
verts as addressed in the AASHTO Roadside Design greater than 9 inches from the traffic face of the railing.
Guide.
Except on urban expressways, a pedestrian walkway 2.7.1.2.2 Traffic railings and traffic portions of
may be separated from an adjacent roadway by a traffic combination railings shall not be less than 2 feet 3 inches
2.7.1.2.2 DIVISION I-DESIGN 11
from the top of the reference surface. Parapets designed load of the rail. The vertical load shall be applied alter-
0
.
with sloping traffic faces intended to allow vehicles to
ride up them under low angle contacts shall be at least 2
feet 8 inches in height.
nately upward or downward. The attachment shall also be
designed to resist an inward transverse load equal to one-
fourth the transverse rail design load.
2.7.1.2.3 The lower element of a traffic or combina- 2. 7.1.3.5 Rail members shall be designed for a mo-
tion railing should consist of either a parapet projecting ment, due to concentrated loads, at the center of the panel
at least 18 inches above the reference surface or a rail and at the posts of P'U6 where L is the post spacing and
centered between 15 and 20 inches above the reference P' is equal to P, P/2, or P/3, as modified by the factor C
surface. where required. The handrail members of combination
railings shall be designed for a moment at the center of the
2.7.1.2.4 For traffic railings, the maximum clear panel and at the posts of 0.1 wL2•
opening below the bottom rail shall not exceed 17 inches
and the maximum opening between succeeding rails shall 2.7.1.3.6 The transverse force on concrete parapet
not exceed 15 inches. For combination railings, accom- and barrier walls shall be spread over a longitudinal length
modating pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the maximum of 5 feet.
opening between railing members shall be governed by
Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and 2.7.3.2.1, respectively. 2.7.1.3.7 Railings other than those shown in Figure
2.7.4B are permissible provided they meet the require-
2. 7.1.2.5 The traffic faces of all traffic rails must be ments of this Article. Railing configurations that have
within 1 inch of a vertical plane through the traffic face of been successfully tested by full-scale impact tests are ex-
the rail closest to traffic. empt from the provisions of this Article.
2.7.1.3 Loads 2.7.2 Bicycle RaJ ling
2. 7. 1.3. 1 When the height of the top of the top traffic 2.7.2.1 General
rail exceeds 2 feet 9 inches, the total transverse load dis-
0 tributed to the traffic rails and posts shall be increased by

the factor C. However, the maximum load applied to any
one element need not exceed P, the transverse design load.
2. 7.2.1.1 Bicycle railing shall be used on bridges
specifically designed to carry bicycle traffic, and on
bridges where specific protection of bicyclists is deemed
necessary.
2. 7.1 .3.2 Rails whose traffic face is more than I inch
behind a vertical plane through the face of the traffic rail 2.7.2.1.2 Railing components shall be designed
closest to traffic or centered less than 15 inches above the with consideration to safety, appearance, and when the
reference surface shall not be considered to be traffic rails bridge carries mixed traffic freedom of view from passing
for the purpose of distributing P or CP, but may be con- vehicles.
sidered in determining the maximum clear vertical open-
ing, provided they are designed for a transverse loading 2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads
equal to that applied to an adjacent traffic rail or P/2,
whichever is less. 2.7.2.2.1 The minimum height of a railing used to
protect a bicyclist shall be 54 inches, measured from the
2. 7. 1.3.3 Transverse loads on posts, equal toP, or CP, top of the surface on which the bicycle rides to the top of
shall be distributed as shown in Figure 2.7.4B. A load the top rail.
equal to one-half the transverse load on a post shall si-
multaneously be applied longitudinally, divided among 2. 7.2.2.2 Within a band bordered by the bikeway
not more than four posts in a continuous rail length. Each surface and a line 27 inches above it, all elements of the
traffic post shall also be designed to resist an indepen- railing assembly shall be spaced such that a 6-inch sphere
dently applied inward load equal to one-fourth the out- will not pass through any opening. Within a band bor-
ward transverse load. dered by lines 27 and 54 inches, elements shall be spaced
such that an 8-inch sphere will not pass through any
2. 7. 1.3.4 The attachment of each rail required in a opening. If a railing assembly employs both horizontal
traffic or combination railing shall be designed to resist a and vertical elements, the spacing requirements shall
0 vertical load equal to one-fourth of the transverse design apply to one or the other, but not to both. Chain link fence
12 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.7.2.2.2
is exempt from the rail spacing requirements listed ter of gravity of the upper rail, but at a height not greater
above. In general, rails should project beyond the face of than 54 inches.
posts and/or pickets.
2. 7.2.2.3 The minimum design loadings for bicycle 2.7.2.2.6 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.48 for
railing shall be w = 50 pounds per linear foot transversely more information concerning the application of loads.
and vertically, acting simultaneously on each rail.
2. 7.2.2.4 Design loads for rails located more than 54 2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing
inches above the riding surface shall be determined by the
designer. 2.7.3.1 General
2.7.2.2.5 Posts shall be designed for a transverse 2.7.3.1.1 Railing components shall be proportioned
load of wL (where Lis the post spacing) acting at the cen- commensurate with the type and volume of anticipated
(To be used adjacent to a sidewalk when highway traffic is separated from pedestrian
traffic by a traffic railing.)
PEDESTRIAN RAILING
BICYCLE RAJLING
NOTE:
If screening or solid face is presented, number of rails may be reduced; wind loads must be added if solid face is
utilized.
NOTES:
1. Loadings on left are applied to rails.
2. Loads on right are applied to posts.
3. The shapes of rail members are illustrative only. Any material or combination of materials listed in Article
2.7 may be used in any configuration.
4. The spacing illustrated are maximum values. Rail elements spacings shall conform to Articles 2. 7 .2.2.2 and
2.7.3.2.1.
NOMENCLATURE:
w = Pedestrian or bicycle loading per unit length of rail
L = Post spacing
FIGURE 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing

pedestrian traffic. Consideration should be given to ap- 2. 7.3.2.2 The minimum design loading for pedestrian
railing shall be w = 50 pounds per linear foot, transversely
0
'
'
'
pearance, safety and freedom of view from passing vehi-
cles. and vertically, acting simultaneously on each longitudinal
member. Rail members located more than 5 feet 0 inches
2.7.3.1.2 Materials for pedestrian railing may be above the walkway are excluded from these requirements.
concrete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof.
2. 7.3.2.3 Posts shall be designed for a transverse load
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads of wL (where Lis the post spacing) acting at the center of
gravity of the upper rail or, for high rails, at 5 feet 0 inches
2. 7.3.2.1 The minimum height of a pedestrian railing maximum above the walkway.
shall be 42 inches measured from the top of the walkway
to the top of the upper rail member. Within a band bor- 2.7.3.2.4 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
dered by the walkway surface and a line 27 inches above more information concerning the application of loads.
it, all elements of the railing assembly shall be spaced
such that a 6-inch sphere will not pass through any open- 2.7.4 Structural Specifications and Guidelines
ing. For elements between 27 and 42 inches above the
walking surface, elements shall be spaced such that an 2.7.4.1 Railings shall be designed by the ela()tic meth-
eight-inch sphere will not pass through any opening. od to the allowable stresses for the appropriate material.
e
::) E p E
:::s
e :::s
·c:
·e
e
·c: c
~~:;
·c:e c
~
c., ~
c:
·e ~;q
·e
~
·e t(~: ·e ·e c
; :
ap ·e
c., ~
0
,.·\_·.
N C') N I
~ N ~-: ... '1

'
;...
{·t ·····
.... ~\~
N
......
• # •
(1b be used when curb projects more than 9" from the traffic face of railing.)
COMBINATION TRAFFIC AND PEDESTRIAN RAIUNG
(To be used where there is no curb or curb projects 9" or less from traffic face of railing.)
TRAFFIC RAILING
FIGURE 2.7.48 Traffic Railing

0 "
~
e
·r:
·e
~ c
~~·:~ • e ' :·..~
:,
·'
.. .
...~
l
N
' '
·.)
•
COMBINATION TRAFFIC AND BICYCLE RAILING
NOTES:
1. Loadings on left are applied to raiJs.
2. Loadings on right are applied to posts.
3. The shapes of rail members are illustrative only. Any material or combination of materials listed in Article
2.7 may be used in any configuration.
4. The spacings illustrated are maximum values. Rail element spacings shall conform to Article 2. 7.1.2.4.
NOMENCLATURE:
P = Highway design loading = 10 kips.
h = Height of top of top rail above reference surface (in.).
L = Post spacing (ft).
w = Pedestrian loading per unit length of rail.
C = 1 + b- 33 i:!:: I
18
FIGURE 2.7.48 (Continued)
For aluminum alloys the design stresses given in the Square and rectangular steel tubes and steel W and
Specifications for Aluminum Structures Fifth Edition, De- I sections in bending with tension and compression
cember 1986, for Bridge and Similar 'JYpe Structures pub- on extreme fibers of laterally supported compact sec-
lished by the Aluminum Association, Inc. for alloys 6061- tions having an axis of symmetry in the plane of
T6 (Table A.6), 6351-T5 (Table A.6) and 6063-T6 (Table loading may be designed for an allowable stress Fb =
A.6) shall apply, and for cast aluminum alloys the design 0.60Fy.
stresses given for alloys A444.0-T4 (Table A.9), A356.0-
T61 (Table A.9) and A356.0-T6 (Table A.9) shall apply. 2.7.4.3 The requirements for a compact section are
For fabrication and welding of aluminum railing, see as follows:
Article 11.5. (a) The width to thickness ratio of projecting elements
of the compression flange of W and I sections shall not
2.7.4.2 The allowable unit stresses for steel shall be exceed
as given in Article I 0.32, except as modified below.
For steels not generally covered by these Specifica-
tions, but having a guaranteed yield strength, Fy. the al- (2-1)
lowable unit stress, shall be derived by applying the gen-
eral formulas as given in these Specifications under "Unit
Stresses" except as indicated below.
(b) The width to thickness ratio of the compression
The allowable unit stress for shear shall be Fv = flange of square or rectangular tubes shall not exceed
0.33Fy.
Round or oval steel tubes may be proportioned using
an allowable bending stress, Fb = 0.66Fy. provided the Rlt (2-2)
ratio (radius/thickness) is less than or equal to 40.
2.7.4.3 DIVISION I-DESIGN 15
(c) The D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed (e) the distance between lateral supports in inches of
0 .
(2- 3)
W or I sections shall not exceed
< 2,400b
(2 -6)
-~
(d) If subject to combined axial force and bending, the
D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed or
D 13,3~1-1.43
(;. )]
< 20,000,000Ar
- dFy
(2-7)
- < ---=--==-----= (2-4)
t ~
but need not be less than
D 7,000
-<-- (2-5)
t~
0
0
.
Section 3
LOADS
Part A
TYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS
A = maximum expected acceleration of bedrock at the site

a = length of short span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
B = buoyancy (Article 3.22)
b = width of pier or diameter of pile (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
b = length of long span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
C = combined response coefficient
C =stiffness parameter= K(WIL) (Article 3.23.4.3)
C = centrifugal force in percent of live load (Article 3.10.1)
CF =centrifugal force (Article 3.22)
Cn = coefficient for nose inclination (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
CM = steel bending stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
0 Ca
D
D
= steel shear stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
= parameter used in determination of load fraction of wheel load (Article 3.23.4.3)
= degree of curve (Article 3.1 0.1)
D = dead load (Article 3.22)
D.F.= fraction of wheel load applied to beam (Article 3.28.1)
DL = contributing dead load
E =width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed (Article 3.24.3)
E =earth pressure (Article 3.22)
EQ = equivalent static horizontal force applied at the center of gravity of the structure
Be: = modulus of elasticity of concrete (Article 3.26.3)
Es =modulus of elasticity of steel (Article 3.26.3)
Ew = modulus of elasticity of wood (Article 3.26.3)
F =horizontal ice force on pier (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
Fb = allowable bending stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
Fv = allowable shear stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
g = 32.2 ft./sec. 2
I = impact fraction (Article 3.8.2)
I = gross flexural moment of inertia of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
ICE = ice pressure (Article 3.22)
J = gross Saint-Venant torsional constant of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
K = stream flow force constant (Article 3.18.1)
K =stiffness constant (Article 3.23.4)
K = wheel load distribution constant for timber flooring (Article 3.25.1.3)
k = live load distribution constant for spread box girders (Article 3.28.1)
L = loaded length of span (Article 3.8.2)
L = loaded length of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
17
18 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.1
L = live load (Article 3.22)

L =span length (Article 3.23.4)
LF =longitudinal force from live load (Article 3.22)
M0 =moment capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
M" =primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3)
My = total transferred secondary moment (Article 3.25.1.4)
N8 = number of beams (Article 3.28.1)
NL = number of traffic lanes (Article 3.23.4)
n =number of dowels (Article 3.25.1.4)
P = live load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
P = stream flow pressure (Article 3.18.1)
P = total uniform force required to cause unit horizontal deflection of whole structure
P = load on one rear wheel of truck (Article 3.24.3)
P = wheel load (Article 3.24.5)
P = design wheel load (Article 3.25.1.3)
P 15 = 12,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
P20 = 16,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
p =effective ice strength (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
p =proportion of load carried by short span (Article 3.24.6.1)
R = radius of curve (Article 3.1 0.1)
R = normalized rock response
R =rib shortening (Article 3.22)
R0 = shear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
Rx =primary shear (Article 3.25.1.3)
Ry = total secondary shear transferred (Article 3.25.1.4)
S = design speed (Article 3.1 0.1)
S = soil amplification spectral ratio
S = shrinkage (Article 3.22)
S = average stringer spacing (Article 3.23.2.3.1)
S = spacing of beams (Article 3.23.3)
S = width of precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
S = effective span length (Article 3.24.1)
S = span length (Article 3.24.8.2)
S = beam spacing (Article 3.28.1)
s =effective deck span (Article 3.25.1.3)
SF =stream flow (Article 3.22)
T = period of vibration
T =temperature (Article 3.22)
=thickness of ice (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
t =deck thickness (Article 3.25.1.3)
V =variable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.7A)
V =velocity of water (Article 3.18.1)
W =combined weight on the first two axles of a standard HS Truck (Figure 3.7.7A)
W =width of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
W =wind load on structure (Article 3.22)
W = total dead weight of the structure
We =width of exterior girder (Article 3.23.2.3.2)
W =overall width of bridge (Article 3.23.4.3)
W = roadway width between curbs (Article 3.28.1)
WL =wind load on live load (Article 3.22)
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
X = distance from load to point of support (Article 3.24.5.1)
x = subscript denoting direction perpendicular to longitudinal stringers (Article 3.25.1.3)
3.1 DIVISION I-DESIGN 19
Z = reduction for ductility and risk assessment

0 . f3
'Y
= (with appropriate script) coefficient applied to actual loads for service load and load factor designs (Article 3.22)
=.load factor (Article 3.22)
O"pL = proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (Article 3.25.1.4)
(3 8 = load combination coefficient for buoyancy (Article 3.22.1)
f3c = load combination coefficient for centrifugal force (Article 3.22.1)
(3 0 = load combination coefficient for dead load (Article 3.22.1)
f3s = load combination coefficient for earth pressure (Article 3.22.1)
(3EQ = load combination coefficient for earthquake (Article 3.22.1)
f3rCE = load combination coefficient for ice (Article 3.22.1)
f3L = load combination coefficient for live load (Article 3.22.1)
f3R = load combination coefficient for rib shortening, shrinkage, and temperature (Article 3.22.1)
(35 = load combination coefficient for stream flow (Article 3.22.1)
f3w = load combination coefficient for wind (Article 3.22.1)
f3wL = load combination coefficient for wind on live load (Article 3.22.1)
f.1 = Poisson's ratio (Article 3.23.4.3)
3.2 GENERAL 3.2.5 The loading combinations shall be in accordance

with Article 3.22.
3.2.1 Structures shall be designed to carry the following
loads and forces: 3.2.6 When a bridge is skewed, the loads and forces car-
ried by the bridge through the deck system to pin connec-
Dead load. tions and hangers should be resolved into vertical,l~teral,
Live load. and longitudinal force components to be considered in the
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load. design.
Wind loads.
Other forces, when they exist, as follows:
Longitudinal forces; centrifugal force; thermal forces;
3.3 DEAD LOAD
earth pressure; buoyancy; shrinkage stresses; rib short-
3.3.1 The dead load shall consist of the weight of the
ening; erection stresses; ice and current pressure; and
entire structure, including the roadway, sidewalks, car
earthquake stresses.
tracks, pipes, conduits, cables, and other public utility
services.
Provision shall be made for the transfer of forces be-
tween the superstructure and substructure to reflect the ef-
fect of friction at expansion bearings or shear resistance at 3.3.2 The snow and ice load is considered to be offset
by an accompanying decrease in live load and impact and
elastomeric bearings.
shall not be included except under special conditions.
3.2.2 Members shall be proportioned either with refer- 3.3.2.1 If differential settlement is anticipated in a
ence to service loads and allowable stresses as provided structure, consideration should be given to stresses result-
in Service Load Design (Allowable Stress Design) or, al- ing from this settlement.
ternatively, with reference to load factors and factored
strength as provided in Strength Design (Load Factor De-
3.3.3 If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when
sign).
the bridge is constructed, or is expected to be placed in the
future, adequate allowance shall be made for its weight in
3.2.3 When stress sheets are required, a diagram or no- the design dead load. Otherwise, provision for a future
tation of the assumed loads shall be shown and the wearing surface is not required.
stresses due to the various loads shall be shown separately.
3.3.4 Special consideration shall be given to the neces-
3.2.4 Where required by design conditions, the concrete sity for a separate wearing surface for those regions where
placing sequence shall be indicated on the plans or in the the use of chains on tires or studded snow tires can be
special provisions. anticipated.
3.3.5 Where the abrasion of concrete is not expected, traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge roadway
the traffic may bear directly on the concrete slab. If con- width measured between curbs.
sidered desirable, Y4 inch or more may be added to the
slab for a wearing surface. 3.6.3 Fractional parts of design lanes shall not be used,
but roadway widths from 20 to 24 feet shall have two de-
3.3.6 The following weights are to be used in comput- sign lanes each equal to one-half the roadway width.
ing the dead load:
3.6.4 The traffic lanes shall be placed in such numbers
#/cu.ft. and positions on the roadway, and the loads shall be
Steel or cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 placed in such positions within their individual traffic
Cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the mem-
Aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 ber under consideration.
Timber (treated or untreated)............... 50
Concrete, plain or reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast . . . . . 120 3.7 IDGHWAY LOADS
Loose san~ earth, and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 00
Macadam or gravel, rolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads*
Cinder filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Pavement, other than wood block . . . . . . . . . . . ISO
Railway rails, guardrails, and fastenings 3.7.1.1 The highway live loadings on the roadways
(per linear foot of track) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 of bridges or incidental structures shall consist of standard
Stone masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 trucks or lane loads that are equivalent to truck trains. Two
Asphalt plank, 1 in. thick . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 lb. sq. ft. systems of loading are provided, the H loadings and the
HS loadings-the HS loadings being heavier than the cor-
responding H loadings.
3.4 LIVE LOAD
3.7.1.2 Each lane load shall consist of a uniform load
The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied per linear foot of traffic lane combined with a single con-
moving load of vehicles, cars, and pedestrians. centrated load (or two concentrated loads in the case of
continuous spans-see Article 3.11.3), so placed on the
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS span as to produce maximum stress. The concentrated
load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly
3.5.1 For all loadings less than H 20, provision shall be distributed over a 10-foot width on a line normal to the
made for an infrequent heavy load by applying Loading center line of the lane.
Combination lA (see Article 3.22), with the live load as-
sumed to be H or HS truck and to occupy a single lane 3.7.1.3 For the computation of moments and shears,
without concurrent loading in any other lane. The over- different concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in
load shall apply to all parts of the structure affected, ex- Figure 3.7.68. The lighter concentrated loads shall be
cept the roadway deck, or roadway deck plates and stiff- used when the stresses are primarily bending stresses, and
ening ribs in the case of orthotropic bridge super- the heavier concentrated loads shall be used when the
structures. stresses are primarily shearing stresses.
3.5.2 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is

selected by the operating agency in accordance with
Loading Combination Group IB in Article 3.22.
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES *Note: The system of lane loads defined here (and illustrated in Figure
3.7.6.B) was developed in order to give a simpler method of calculating
moments and shears than that based on wheel loads of the truck.
3.6.1 The lane loading or standard truck shall be as- Appendix B shows the truck train loadings of the 1935 Specifications
sumed to occupy a width of I 0 feet. of AASHO and the corresponding lane loadings.
In 1944, the HS series of trucks was developed. These approximate the
effect of the corresponding 1935 truck preceded and followed by a train
3.6.2 These loads shall be placed in 12-foot wide design of trucks weighing three-fourths as much as the basic truck.
3.7.2 Classes of Loading gross weight in tons of the tractor truck. The variable axle
0 There are four standard classes of highway loading:

H 20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15. Loading H 15 is 75% of
spacing has been introduced in order that the spacing of
axles may approximate more closely the tractor trailers
now in use. The variable spacing also provides a more sat-
Loading H 20. Loading HS 15 is 75% of Loading HS 20. isfactory .loading for continuous spans, in that heavy axle
If loadings other than those designated are desired, they loads may be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce
shall be obtained by proportionately changing the weights maximum negative moments.
shown for both the standard truck and the corresponding
lane loads.
3.8 IMPACT
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings
3.8.1 Application
The policy of affixing the year to loadings to identify
Highway Live Loads shall be increased for those struc-
them was instituted with the publication of the 1944 Edi-
tural elements in Group A, below, to allow for dynamic,
tion in the following manner:
vibratory and impact effects. Impact allowances shall not
be applied to items in Group B. It is intended that impact
H 15 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
be included as part of the loads trdDsferred from super-
designated................................................. H 15-44
H 20 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be structure to substructure, but shall not be included in loads
designated................................................. H 20-44 transferred to footings nor to those parts of piles or
H 15-S 12 Loading. 1944 Edition shall be columns that are below ground.
designated................................................. HS 15-44
H 20-S 16 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be 3.8.1.1 Group A-Impact shall be included.
designated................................................. HS 20-44
(I) Superstructure, including legs of rigid frames.
The affix shall remain unchanged until such time as the (2) Piers, (with or without bearings regardless of type)
loading specification is revised. The same policy for iden- excluding footings and those portions below the
tification shaH be applied, for future reference, to loadings ground line.
previously adopted by AASHTO. (3) The portions above the ground line of concrete or
steel piles that support the superstructure.
3.7.4 Minimum Loading
3.8.1.2 Group B-Impact shall not be included.
Bridges supporting Interstate highways or other high-
ways which carry, or which may carry, heavy truck traf- (1) Abutments, retaining walls, piles except as speci-
fic, shall be designed for HS 20-44 Loading or an Alter- fied in Article 3.8.1.1 (3).
nate Military Loading of two axles four feet apart with (2) Foundation pressures and footings.
each axle weighing 24,000 pounds, whichever produces (3) Timber structures.
the greatest stress. (4) Sidewalk loads.
(5) Culverts and structures having 3 feet or more
3.7.5 H Loading cover.
The H loadings consist of a two-axle truck or the cor- 3.8.2 Impact Formula
responding lane loading as illustrated in Figures 3.7.6A
and 3.7.68. The H loadings are designated H followed by 3.8.2.1 The amount of the impact allowance or in-
a number indicating the gross weight in tons of the stan- crement is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress,
dard truck. and shall be determined by the formula:
3.7.6 HS Loading
50
I= L + 125 ( 3 -I)
The HS loadings consist of a tractor truck with semi-
trailer or the corresponding lane load as illustrated in Fig- in which,
ures 3.7.7A and 3.7.68. The HS loadings are designated
0 by the letters HS followed by a number indicating the I = impact fraction (maximum 30 percent);
22 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.8.2. 1
H 20-44 8,000 LBS . 32,000 LBS.•

H 15-44 6,000 LBS. 24,000 LBS.
14'-0"
~ TRUCK AND LOAD ~

~- - -- 0.4W
•
I .
. I
*--- CLEARANCE AND
LOAD LANE WIDTH
$
10'-0"
rl .I .
i,II. . ,; cu5
2'-0"
.1• .t··
6'-0" 2'-0"
FIGURE 3.7.6A Standard H Trucks
*In the design of timber floors and onhotropic s teel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 Loading. one
axle load of24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each spaced 4 feet apan may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound ax le shown.
••For slab design, the center line of wheels s hall be assumed to be I foot from face of curb. (See Aniclc 3.24.2.)
CONCENTRATED LOAD- 18,000 LBS. FOR MOMENT*

0 '
26,000 LBS. FOR SHEAR
UNIFORM LOAD 640 LBS. PER LINEAR FOOT OF LOAD
H20-44 LOADING
HS20-44 LOADING
CONCENTRATED LOAD- 13,500 LBS. FOR MOMENT*

19,500 LBS. FOR SHEAR
UNIFORM LOAD 480 LBS. PER LINEAR FOOT OF LOAD
H15-44 LOADING
HS15-44 LOADING
FIGURE 3.7.68 Lane Loading

0 *For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to Article 3.11.3 which provides for an
additional concentrated load.
L = length in feet of the portion of the span that is 3.8.2.3 For culverts with cover
loaded to produce the maximum stress in the 0'0" to 1'-0" inc. I = 30%
member. 1'-1" to 2' -0" inc. I = 20%
2'-1" to 2'-11" inc. I= 10%
3.8.2.2 For uniformity of application, in this formula,
the loaded length, L, shall be as follows:
(a) For roadway floors: the design span length. 3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES
(b) For transverse members, such as floor beams: the
Provision shall be made for the effect of a longitudinal
span length of member center to center of supports.
(c) For computing truck load moments: the span force of 5% of the live load in all lanes carrying traffic
length, or for cantilever arms the length from the mo- headed in the same direction. All lanes shall be loaded for
bridges likely to become one directional in the future. The
ment center to the farthermost axle.
(d) For shear due to truck loads: the length of the load used, without impact, shall be the lane load plus the
loaded portion of span from the point under consider- concentrated load for moment specified in Article 3.7,
ation to the far reaction; except, for cantilever arms, with reduction for multiple-loaded lanes as specified in
Article 3.12. The center of gravity of the longitudinal
use a 30% impact factor.
(e) For continuous spans: the length of span under force shall be assumed to be located 6 feet above the floor
consideration for positive moment, and the average of slab and to be transmitted to the substructure through the
superstructure .
0
.
two adjacent loaded spans for negative moment.
HS20-44 8,000 LBS. 32,000 LBS;. 32,000 LBS:f'

HS15-44 6.000 LBS. 24,000 LBS. 24,000 LBS.
~I ~~ ~~
~· 14'-0" d!
-io.,::r----~-----4:4wl-
d v
W = COMBINED
+----$----·--{$-
WEIGHT ON THE FIRST TWO AXLES WHICH IS THE SAME
AS FOR THE CORRESPONDING H TRUCK.
V = VARIABLE SPACING - 14 FEET TO 30 FEET INCLUSIVE. SPACING TO BE
USED IS THAT WHICH PRODUCES MAXIMUM STRESSES.
CLEARANCE AND
LANE WI
10'-Q"
2'-0" 6'-Q" 2'-Q"

••
FIGURE3.7.7A Standard US Trucks
*In the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 Loading, one
axle load of 24.000 poundc; or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each, spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress. instead of the 32.000-pound axle shown.
**For slab design. the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be I foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2.)
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES 3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans
0 3.10.1 Structures on curves shall be designed for a hor-

izontal radial force equal to the following percentage of
For the determination of maximum negative moment
in the design of continuous spans, the lane load shown in
the live load, without impact, in all traffic lanes: Figure 3. 7.68 shall be modified by the addition of a sec-
ond, equal weight concentrated load placed in one other
span in the series in such position to produce the maxi-
mum effect. For maximum positive moment, only one
concentrated load shall be used per lane, combined with
where, as many spans loaded uniformly as are required to pro-
duce maximum moment.
C = the centrifugal force in percent of the live load,
without impact;
S = the design speed in miles per hour; 3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress
D = the degree of curve;
R =the radius of the curve in feet. 3.11.4.1 On both simple and continuous spans, the
type of loading, whether lane load or truck load, to be
3.10.2 The effects of superelevation shall be taken into used shall be the loading which produces the maximum
account. stress. The moment and shear tables given in Appendix
A show which types of loading controls for simple
3.10.3 The centrifugal force shall be applied 6 feet spans.
above the roadway surface, measured along the center line
of the roadway. The design speed shall be determined with
3.11.4.2 For continuous spans, the lane loading shall
regard to the amount of superelevation provided in the
be continuous or discontinuous; only one standard H or
roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded in accordance
with the provisions of Article 3.7 with one standard truck
HS truck per lane shall be considered on the structure.
on each design traffic lane placed in position for maxi-
0 mum loading.
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
3.10.4 Lane loads shall not be used in the computation
of centrifugal forces. 3.12.1 Where maximum stresses are produced in any
member by loading a number of traffic lanes simultane-
3.10.5 When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel ously, the following percentages of the live loads may be
grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting mem- used in view of the improbability of coincident maximum
bers, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its loading:
plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal forces act-
ing on the live load. Percent
One or two lanes .......................... 100
Three lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD
Four lanes or more ........................ 75
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units
3.12.2 The reduction in load intensity specified in Arti-
In computing stresses, each 10-foot lane load or single c1e 3.12.1 shall not be applicable when distribution factors
standard truck shall be considered as a unit, and fractions from Table 3.23.1 are used to determine moments in lon-
of load lane widths or trucks shall not be used. gitudinal beams.
3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units 3.12.3 The reduction in intensity of loads on transverse
members such as floor beams shaH be determined as
The number and position of the lane load or truck loads in the case of main trusses or girders, using the number
shall be as specified in Article 3. 7 and, whether Jane or of traffic lanes across the width of roadway that must
truck loads, shall be such as to produce maximum stress, be loaded to produce maximum stresses in the floor
0 subject to the reduction specified in Article 3.12. beam.

3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS 3.14.2.2 Where sidewalk, curb, and traffic rail form
an integral system, the traffic railing loading shall be ap-
If highway bridges carry electric railway traffic, the plied and stresses in curbs computed accordingly.
railway loads shall be determined from the class of traffic
which the bridge may be expected to carry. The possibil- 3.14.3 Railing Loading
ity that the bridge may be required to carry railroad freight
cars shall be given consideration. For Railing Loads, see Article 2.7.1.3.
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING 3.15 WIND LOADS

LOADING
The wind load shall consist of moving uniformly dis-
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading tributed loads applied to the exposed area of the structure.
The exposed area shall be the sum of the areas of all mem-
3.14.1.1 Sidewalk floors, stringers, and their imme- bers, including floor system and railing, as seen in eleva-
diate supports shall be designed for a live load of 85 tion at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the structure.
pounds per square foot of sidewalk area. Girders, trusses, The forces and loads given herein are for a base wind ve-
arches, and other members shall be designed for the fol- locity of 100 miles per hour. For Group II and Group V
lowing sidewalk live loads: loadings, but not for Group III and Group VI loadings,
they may be reduced or increased in the ratio of the square
Spans 0 to 25 feet in length ............. 85lb./ft. 2 of the design wind velocity to the square of the base wind
Spans 26 to 100 feet in length ...........60 lb./ft.2 velocity provided that the maximum probable wind ve-
Spans over 100 feet in length according to the formula locity can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy, or
provided that there are permanent features of the terrain
which make such changes safe and advisable. If a change
in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind ve-
locity shall be shown on the plans.
in which
3.15.1 Superstructure Design
P =live load per square foot, max. 60-lb. per sq. ft.
L = loaded length of sidewalk in feet. 3.15.1.1 Group D and Group V Loadings
W = width of sidewalk in feet.
3.15.1.1.1 A wind load of the following intensity
3.14.1.2 In calculating stresses in structures that sup- shall be applied horizontally at right angles to the longi-
port cantilevered sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be fully tudinal axis of the structure:
loaded on only one side of the structure if this condition
produces maximum stress. For trusses and arches ........75 pounds per square foot
For girders and beams ........ 50 pounds per square foot
3.14.1.3 Bridges for pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic
3.15.1.1.2 The total force shall not be less than 300
shall be designed for a live load of 85 PSF.
pounds per linear foot in the plane of the windward chord
and 150 pounds per linear foot in the plane of the leeward
3.14.1.4 Where bicycle or pedestrian bridges are ex- chord on truss spans, and not less than 300 pounds per lin-
pected to be used by maintenance vehicles, special design ear foot on girder spans.
consideration should be made for these loads.
3.15.1.2 Group m and Group VI Loadings
3.14.2 Curb Loading
Group III and Group VI loadings shall comprise the
3.14.2.1 Curbs shall be designed to resist a lateral loads used for Group II and Group V loadings reduced by
force of not less than 500 pounds per linear foot of curb, 70% and a load of l 00 pounds per linear foot applied at
applied at the top of the curb, or at an elevation 10 inches right angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure and
above the floor if the curb is higher than 10 inches. 6 feet above the deck as a wind load on a moving live load.
~
~~
3. 15.1.2 DIVISION I-DESIGN 27
When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel grid This load shall be applied at a point 6 feet above the
0 deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting members,

it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its plane,
the shear resulting from the wind load on the moving
deck.
3.15.2.1.3 For the usual girder and slab bridges hav-

live load. ing maximum span lengths of 125 feet, the following
wind loading may be used in lieu of the more precise load-
3.15.2 Substructure Design ing specified above:
Forces transmitted to the substructure by the super- W (wind load on structure)

structure and forces applied directly to the substructure by 50 pounds per square foot, transverse
wind loads shall be as follows: 12 pounds per square foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure
WL (wind load on live load)
3.15. 2.1.1 The transverse and longitudinal forces 100 pounds per linear foot, transverse
transmitted by the superstructure to the substructure for 40 pounds per linear foot, longitudinal
various angles of wind direction shall be as set forth in the Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
following table. The skew angle is measured from the per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis and the assumed wind
direction shall be that which produces the maximum 3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly
stress in the substructure. The transverse and longitudinal to the Substructure
forces shaH be applied simultaneously at the elevation of
the center of gravity of the exposed area of the super- The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied di-
structure. rectly to the substructure for a 100-mile per hour wind
shall be calculated from an assumed wind force of 40
'Ihlsses Girders
pounds per square foot. For wind directions assumed
0
'
Skew Angle
ofW'md
Degrees
Lateral
Load
PSF
Longitudinal
Load
PSF
Lateral
Load
PSF
Longitudinal
Load
PSF
skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resolved
into components perpendicular to the end and front ele-
vations of the substructure. The component perpendicular
0 75 0 50 0 to the end elevation shall act on the exposed substructure
15 70 12 44 6 area as seen in end elevation and the component perpen-
30 65 28 41 12 dicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas
45 47 41 33 16
60 24 so 17 19 and shall be applied simultaneously with the wind loads
from the superstructure. The above loads are for Group II
and Group V loadings and may be reduced by 70%
The loads listed above shall be used in Group II and for Group ill and Group VI loadings, as indicated in Arti-
Group V loadings as given in Article 3.22. cle 3.22.
3.15.2. 1.2 For Group III and Group VI loadings,

these loads may be reduced by 70% and a load per linear 3.15.3 Overturning Forces
foot added as a wind load on a moving live load, as given
in the following table: The effect of forces tending to overturn structures
shall be calculated under Groups II, III, V, and VI of
Article 3.22 assuming that the wind direction is at right .
Skew Angle
ofW'md Lateral Load Longitudinal Load angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure. In addition,
Degrees lbJft. lb./ft. an upward force shall be applied at the windward quarter
point of the transverse superstructure width. This force
0 100 0
88 12 shall be 20 pounds per square foot of deck and sidewalk
15
30 82 24 plan area for Group II and Group V combinations and
45 66 32 6 pounds per square foot for Group III and Group VI
60 34 38
combinations.
0
3.16 THERMAL FORCES ity distribution and thus a triangular pressure distribution,
shall be calculated by the formula:
Provision shall be made for stresses or movements re-:
suiting from variations in temperature. The rise and fall in Pavg = K(V Dvg} 2 (3-4)
temperature shall be fixed for the locality in which the
structure is to be constructed and shall be computed from where,
an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due con- Pavs =average stream pressure, in pounds per square
sideration shall be given to the lag between air tempera- foot,
ture and the interior temperature of massive concrete V11vs = average velocity of water in feet per second,
members or structures. computed by dividing the flow rate by the flow
The range of temperature shall generally be as follows: area,
Metal structures: K = a constant, being 1.4 for all piers subjected to
Moderate climate, from 0 to 120"R drift build-up and square-ended piers, 0.7 for
Cold climate, from -30 to 120"R circular piers, and 0.5 for angle-ended piers
Thmperature Thmperature where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
Rise Fall
Concrete structures: The maximum stream flow pressure, P~· shall be
Moderate climate ......... . equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavs• com-
Cold climate ........... .. puted by Equation 3-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a tri-
angular distribution with Pmax located at the top of water
3.17 UPLIFT elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
3.17.1 Provision shall be made for adequate attachment 3.18.1.1.2 The stream flow forces shall be computed
of the superstructure to the substructure by ensuring that by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into ac-
the calculated uplift at any support is resisted by tension count the pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area.
members engaging a mass of masonry equal to the largest In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is
force obtained under one of the following conditions: above the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the
superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flow pres-
(a) 100% of the calculated uplift caused by any load- sure acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pmax with
ing or combination of loadings in which the live plus a uniform distribution.
impact loading is increased by 100%.
(b) 150% of the calculated uplift at working load
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components
level.
3.17.2 Anchor bolts subject to tension or other elements When the direction of stream flow is other than normal
of the structure stressed under the above conditions shall to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
be designed at 150% of the allowable basic stress. change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects
of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND
FLOATING ICE, AND DRIFr CONDITIONS
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier
All piers and other portions of structures that are sub-
ject to the force of flowing water. floating ice, or drift shall Where a significant amount of drift lodged against a
be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift buildup shall be
thereby. considered in the design of the bridge opening and the
bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers buildup shall reflect the selected pier locations. site con-
ditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is an-
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure ticipated that the flow area will be significantly blocked
by drift buildup, increases in high water elevations,
3.18.1././ The effect of flowing water on piers and stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the potential
drift build-up, assuming a second-degree parabolic veloc- increases in scour depths shall be investigated ..
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers 3.18.2.2.3 The following values of effective ice
0 3.18.2.1 General
strength appropriate to various situations may be used as
a guide.
Ice forces on piers shall be selected, having regard (a) In the order of 100 psi where breakup occurs
to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be ex- at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
pected. Consideration shall be given to the following small "cakes" and is substantially disintegrated in its
modes: structure.
(b) In the order of 200 psi where breakup occurs at
(a) Dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice-sheets melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large pieces
and ice-floes carried by streamflow, wind, or currents. and is internally sound.
(b) Static ice pressure due to thermal movements of (c) In the order of 300 psi where at breakup there is an
continuous stationary ice-sheets on large bodies of initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or where
water. large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers.
(c) Static pressure resulting from ice-jams. (d) In the order of 400 psi where breakup or major ice
(d) Static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adher- movement may occur with ice temperatures signifi-
ing ice in waters of fluctuating level. cantly below the melting point.
3.18.2.2 Dynamic Ice Force 3.18.2.2.4 The preceding values for effective ice
strength are intended for use with piers of substantial mass
3.18.2.2.1 Horizontal forces resulting from the pres- and dimensions. The values shall be modified as neces-
sure of moving ice shall be calculated by the formula: sary for variations in pier width or pile diameter, and de-
sign ice thickness by multiplying by the appropriate coef-
F = Cnp · t • w (3-5) ficient obtained from the following table:
where, bit Coefficient

F = horizontal ice force on pier in pounds; 0.5 1.8
Cn = coefficient for nose inclination from table; 1.0 1.3
p = effective ice strength in pounds per square inch; 1.5 1.1
t = thickness of ice in contact with pier in inches; 2.0 1.0
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at 3.0 0.9
the level of ice action in inches. 4.0 or greater 0.8
Inclination of Nose to vertical where,

b = width of pier or diameter of pile;
0° to 15° 1.00 t = design ice thickness.
15° to 30° 0.75
30° to 45° 0.50
3.18.2.2.5 Piers should be placed with their longitu-
3.18.2.2.2 The effective ice strength p shall normally dinal axis parallel to the principal direction of ice action.
be taken in the range of 100 to 400 pounds per square inch The force calculated by the formula shall then be taken to
on the assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice act along the direction of the longitudinal axis. A force
takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall transverse to the longitudinal axis and amounting to not
be based on an assessment of the probable condition of the less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered
ice at time of movement, on previous local experience, to act simultaneously.
and on assessment of existing structure performance. Rel-
evant ice conditions include the expected temperature of 3.18.2.2.6 Where the longitudinal axis of a pier can-
the ice at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and not be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice ac-
floes, and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall tion, or where the direction of ice action may shift, the
be given to the probability of extreme rather than average total force on the pier shall be computed by the formula
conditions at the site in question. and resolved into vector components. In such conditions,
forces transverse to the longitudinal axis shall in no case holes and crushed rock, pipe drains or gravel drains, or by
be taken as less than 20% of the total force. perforated drains.
3.18.2.2. 7 In the case of slender and flexible piers, 3.21 EARmQUAKES

consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of
dynamic ice forces and to the possibility of high momen- In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated,
tary pressures and structural resonance. structures shall be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults,
3.18.2.3 Static Ice Pressure the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dy-
namic response characteristics of the total structure in ac-
Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large cordance with Division 1-A-Seismic Design.
bodies of water shall receive special consideration where
there is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to
PartB
significant thermal movements relative to the piers.
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.19 BUOYANCY
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
Buoyancy shall be considered where it affects the de-
sign of either substructure, including piling, or the super- 3.22.1 The following Groups represent various combi-
structure. nations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foun-
dation on which it rests, shall be proportioned to with-
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE stand safely all group combinations of these forces that
are applicable to the particular site or type. Group loading
combinations for Service Load Design and Load Factor
3.20.1 Structures which retain fills shall be proportioned Design are given by:
to withstand pressure as given by Coulomb's Equation or
by other expressions given in Section 5, "Retaining Group (N) = 'Y[J31> · D + f3t (L + I) + f3cCF + J3EE
Walls"; provided, however, that no structure shall be de- + f3sB + f3sSF + f3w W + f3wLWL
signed for less than an equivalent fluid weight (mass) of + J3L • LF + J3R (R + s + T)
30 pounds per cubic foot. + (3EQEQ + J3JcEICE] (3-10)
where,
3.20.2 For rigid frames a maximum of one-half of the
moment caused by earth pressure (lateral) may be used to N = group number;
reduce the positive moment in the beams, in the top slab, 'Y = load factor, see Table 3.22.1 A;
or in the top and bottom slab, as the case may be. J3 =coefficient, see Table 3.22.1A;
D = dead load;
L = live load;
3.20.3 When highway traffic can come within a hori- I = live load impact;
zontal distance from the top of the structure equal to one- E = earth pressure;
half its height, the pressure shall have added to it a live B = buoyancy;
load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of W = wind load on structure;
earth. WL = wind load on live load-I 00 pounds per linear
foot;
LF = longitudinal force from live load;
3.20.4 Where an adequately designed reinforced co~ CF = centrifugal force;
crete approach slab supported at one end by the bridge is R = rib shortening;
provided, no live load surcharge need be considered. S = shrinkage;
T = temperature;
EQ =earthquake;
3.20.5 All designs shall provide for the thorough SF = stream flow pressure;
drainage of the back-filling material by means of weep ICE = ice pressure.
TABLE 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients -y and p
0 Col. No. 1 2 8 8A 4· 5 6 7 8
fj FACTORS
9 10 11 12 18 14
GROUP D (L+I)n ~L+I)p CF E B SF w WL LF R+S+T EQ ICE 9fl

I "''
1.0 1 1 0 1 IJE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100
lA 1.0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 150
Q
IB 1.0 1 0 1 1 IJE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ••
~ II 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 125
0 III 1.0 1 1 0 1 IJE 1 1 0.8 1 1 0 0 0 126
.J
w IV 1.0 1 1 0 1 IJE 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 125
->
0
Cl:
fll
v 1.0
VI 1.0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
13E
1
1
1
1
1
0.8
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
140
140
fl) VII 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 188
VIII 1.0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 o· 0 0 1 140
IX 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 160
X 1.0 1 1 0 0 13E 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 Culvert
I 1.8 liD 1.67• 0 1.0 /SE 1 1 0 0 1) 0 0 0
lA 1.3 Jo 2.20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0
z
...
~ 18 1.8 /Jo 0 1 1.0 13E 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
.!
:1Q II 1.3 liD 0 0 0 IJE 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 .D
a:
0
111 1.3
IV 1.8
,Jo
_!!_o
1
1
0
0
1
1
/Jr,
IJE
1
1
1
1
0.3
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0 =3
Q,
Q,
foe
0
v 1.25 ;Jo 0 0 0 IJE 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 ~
...
~ VI 1.26 .Jo 1 0 1 II& 1 1 0.8 1 1 1 0 0 0
r. VII 1.8 .so 0 0 z
Q 0 IJ& 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
~ VIII 1.8 ifD 1 0 1 IJE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 IX 1.20
..:a /Jo 0 0 0 13E 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 X 1.30 1 1.67 0 0 IJE 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Culvert
(L + 1) 0 - Live load plus impact for AASHTO Highway H or HS loading

(L + l)p - Live load plus impact consistent with the overload criteria of the operation
agency.
• 1.25 may be used for design of outside roadway beam when com- For culvert loading specifications. see Article 6.2.
bination of sidewalk live load as well as traffic live load plus impact
governs the design, but the capacity of the section should not be less f3E : : : 1.0 and 0.5 for lateral loads on rigid frames (check both load-
than required for highway traffic live load only using a beta factor of ings to see which one governs). See Article 3.20.
1.67. 1.00 may be used for design of deck slab with combination of For Load Factor Design
loads as described in Article 3.24.2.2.
f3E = 1.3 for lateral earth pressure for retaining waDs and rigid
frames excluding rigid culverts. For lateral at-rest earth
pressures, PE = 1.15
*"' Pe ta _ Maximum Unit Stress (Operating Rating) PE = 0.5 for lateral earth pressure when checking positive
rcen ge - Allowable Basic Unit Stress x 100 moments in rigid frames. This complies with Article 3.20.
PE 1.0 for vertical earth pressure
Po 0. 75 when checking member for minimum axial load and
For Service Load Design maximum moment or maximum eccentricity ..... For
Po 1.0 when checking member for maximum axial Column
~(Column 14) Percentage of Basic Unit Stress load and minimum moment ................... Design
(3 0 1.0 for flexural and tension members
No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members f3E 1.0 for Rigid Culverts
or connections carrying wind loads only. PE 1.5 for Flexible Culverts
For Group X loading (culverts) the PE factor shall be applied to verti-
0 Pe = 1.00 for vertical and lateral loads on all other structures. cal and horizontal loads.
3.22.2 For service load design, the percentage of the culations of horizontal shear in rectangular timber beams
basic unit stress for the various groups is given in Table shall be in accordance with Article 13.3.
3.22.1A.
The loads and forces in each group shall be taken as ap- 3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and
propriate from Articles 3.3 to 3.21. The maximum section Longitudinal Beams**
required shall be used.
3.23.2.1 General
3.22.3 For load factor design, the gamma and beta fac-
tors given in Table 3.22.1A shall be used for designing In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams
structural members and foundations by the load factor or stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
concept. loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution shall be
determined as follows.
3.22.4 When long span structures are being designed by
load factor design, the gamma and beta factors specified 3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams
for Load Factor Design represent general conditions and
should be increased if, in the Engineer's judgment, The live load bending moment for each interior
expected loads, service conditions, or materials of stringer shall be determined by applying to the stringer the
construction are different from those anticipated by the fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined
specifications. in Table 3.23.1.
3.22.5 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that 3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams
is selected by the operating agency. Size and configuration
of the overload, loading combinations, and load distribu- 3.23.2.3. 1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams
tion will be consistent with procedures defined in permit
policy of that agency. The load shall be applied in Group 3.23.2.3.1.1 The dead load supported by the outside
IB as defined in Table 3.22.1 A. For all loadings less than roadway stringer or beam shall be that portion of the floor
H 20, Group lA loading combination shall be used (see slab carried by the stringer or beam. Curbs, railings, and
Article 3.5). wearing surface, if placed after the slab has cured, may be
distributed equally to all roadway stringers or beams.
Parte 3.23.2.3.1.2 The live load bending moment for out-

DISTRffiUTION OF LOADS side roadway stringers or beams shall be determined by
applying to the stringer or beam the reaction of the wheel
load obtained by assuming the flooring to act as a simple
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO span between stringers or beams.
STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS,
AND FLOOR BEAMS* 3.23.2.3.1.3 When the outside roadway beam or
stringer supports the sidewalk live load as well as traffic
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear live load and impact and the structure is to be designed by
the service load method, the allowable stress in the beam
3.23.1.1 In calculating end shears and end reactions or stringer may be increased by 25% for the combination
in transverse floor beams and longitudinal beams and of dead load, sidewalk live load, traffic live load, and im-
stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel load pact, providing the beam is of no less carrying capacity
shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent to the than would be required if there were no sidewalks. When
transverse floor beam or the end of the longitudinal beam the combination of sidewalk live load and traffic live load
or stringer at which the stress is being determined. plus impact governs the design and the structure is to be
designed by the load factor method, 1.25 may be used as
3.23.1.2 Lateral distribution of the wheel loads at
the beta factor in place of 1.67.
ends of the beams or stringers shall be that produced by
assuming the flooring to act as a simple span between
stringers or beams. For wheels or axles in other positions
3.23.2.3. 1.4 In no case shall an exterior stringer have
less carrying capacity than an interior stringer.
on the span, the distribution for shear shall be determined
by the method prescribed for moment, except that the cal-
**In view of the complexity of the theoretical analysis involved in the
distribution of wheel loads to stringers. the empirical method herein de-
*Provisions in this Article shall not apply to orthotropic deck bridges. scribed is authorized for the design of nonnal highway bridges.
3.23.2.3.1.4 DIVISION I-DESIGN 33
TABLE 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in members with the narrow edges of the laminations bearing on the sup-
Longitudinal Beams ports (see Article 16.3.13-Division II).
IJn this case the load on each stringer shall be the reaction of the
wheel loads, assuming the flooring between the stringers to act as a sim-
Bridge Designed plebeam.
Bridge Designed for for Two or more '"Design of 1-Beam Bridges" by N. M. Newmark-Proceedings.
Kind of Floor One Traffic Lane Traffic Lanes ASCE, March 1948.
liJbe sidewalk live load (see Article 3.14) shall be omitted for inte-
Timber:• rior and exterior box girders designed in accordance with the wheel load
Plankb S/4.0 S/3.75 distribution indicated herein.
Naillam.inatedc iDistribution factors for Steel Bridge Corrugated Plank set forth
4" thick or multiple above are based substantially on the following reference:
layer' floors over 5"
thick S/4.5 S/4.0 Journal of Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 67. No. 2, 1977
Naillaminatedc "Wheel Load Distribution of Steel Bridge Plank," by Conrad P. Heins,
6" or more thick S/5.0 S/4.25 Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland.
If S exceeds 5' If S exceeds 6.5' These distribution factors were developed bused on studi.es using
use footnote f. use footnote f. 6" X 2" steel corrugated plank. The factors should yield safe results for
Glued laminatedc other corrugated configurations provided primary bending stiffness is
Panels on glued the same as or greater than the 6" X 2" corrugated plank used in the stud-
laminated stringers ies.
4" thick S/4.5 S/4.0
6" or more thick S/6.0 S/5.0 3.23.2.3.1.5 In the case of a span with concrete floor
If S exceeds 6' If S exceeds 7.5' supported by 4 or more steel stringers. the fraction of the
use footnote f. use footnote f.
On steel stringers wheel load shall not be less than:
4" thick S/4.5 S/4.0
6" or more thick S/5.25 S/4.5
If S exceeds 5.5' If S exceeds 7' s
use footnote f. use footnote f. 5.5
Concrete:
On steeli-Beam
stringefS'l and where, S = 6 feet or less and is the distance in feet be-
prestressed tween outside and adjacent interior stringers, and
concrete girders sn.o S/5.5
If S exceeds 10' If S exceeds 14'
use footnote f. use footnote f. s
On concrete
T-Beams S/6.5 S/6.0 4.0+0.258
where, S is more than 6 feet and less than 14 feet. When
On timber
stringers S/6.0 S/5.0 S is 14 feet or more, use footnote f, Table 3.23.1.
Concrete box
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders
girders~' S/8.0 sn.o
IfS exceeds 12' If S exceeds 16'
use footnote f. use footnote f. 3.23.2.3.2. 1 The dead load supported by the exterior
On steel box girders See Article 10.39.2. girder shall be determined in the same manner as for steel,
On prestressed con- timber, or concrete T-beams, as given in Article
crete spread box
Beams See Article 3.28. 3.23.2.3.1.
Steel grid:
(Less than 4" thick) S/4.5 S/4.0 3.23.2.3.2.2 The factor for the wheel load distribu-
(4"ormore) S/6.0 S/5.0 tion to the exterior girder shall be WJ7, where W c is the
If S exceeds 6' If S exceeds 10.5' width of exterior girder which shall be taken as the top
Steel bridge slab width. measured from the midpoint between girders
Corrugated plank' to the outside edge of the slab. The cantilever dimension
(2" min. depth) S/5.5 S/4.5 of any slab extending beyond the exterior girder shall
S = average stringer spacing in feet. preferably not exceed half the girder spacing.
"limber dimensions shown are for nominal thickness.
bPlank floors consist of pieces of lumber laid edge to edge with the
wide faces bearing on the supports (see Article 16.3.11-Division II). 3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams
"Nail laminated floors consist of pieces of lumber laid face to face
with the narrow edges bearing on the supports. each piece being nailed
to the preceding piece (see Article 16.3.12-Division II). The combined design load capacity of all the beams
.SMultiple layer floors consist of two or more layers of planks, each and stringers in a span shall not be .less than required to
layer being laid at an angle to the other (see Article 16.3.11-Division II).
"Glued laminated panel floors consist of vertically glued laminated support the total live and dead load in the span.
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams TABLE 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads
(Transverse) in Transverse Beams
3.23.3.1In calculating bending moments in floor Fraction of

Wheel Load to
beams, no transverse distribution of the wheel loads shall Each Floor
be assumed. Kind of Floor Beam
3.23.3.2 If longitudinal stringers are omitted and the s

4
floor is supported directly on floor beams, the beams shall
be designed for loads determined in accordance with Nail laminatedc or glued laminatede, s
Table 3.23.3.1. 4 inches in thickness, or multiple laye.-d 4.5
floors more than 5 inches thick
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used sf
Nail laminatedc or glued laminatede,
in Multi-Beam Decks 6 inches or more in thickness 5
3.23.4.1 A multi-beam bridge is constructed with Concrete sr
precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are 6
placed side by side on the supports. The interaction be-
tween the beams is developed by continuous longitudinal
Steel grid (Jess than 4 inches thick) s
4.5
shear keys used in combination with transverse tie as-
semblies which may. or may not, be prestressed, such as Steel grid (4 inches or more) sr
bolts, rods, or prestressing strands, oa· other mechanical 6
means. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to en-
sure proper load distribution for channel, single- and Steel bridge corrugated plank (2 inches s
minimum depth) 5.5
multi-stemmed tee beams.
Note:
S = spacing of floor beams in feet.
3.23.4.2 In calculating bending moments in multi-
a-eFor footnotes a through e, see Thble 3.23.1.
beam precast concrete bridges, conventional or pre-
stressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load shall 'If S exceeds denominator, the load on the beam shall be the
be assumed. reaction of the wheels loads assuming the flooring between beams to
act as a simple beam.
3.23.4.3 The live load bending moment for each sec-

tion shall be determined by applying to the beam the frac-
L = span length measured parallel to longitudinal
tion of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined by
girders in feet; for girders with cast-in-place end
the following equation:
diaphragms, use the length between end dia-
phragms;
Load Fraction=~ (3 -II)
K ={(I + fl) 1/J)In
D
If the value of Vfii exceeds 5.0, or the skew exceeds
where, 45 degrees, the live load distribution should be deter-
mined using a more precise method, such as the Articulate
S = width of precast member; Plate Theory or GriJJage Analysis. The Load Fraction.
D = (5.75- 0.5NL) + 0.7Nt.(l - 0.2C) 2 (3-12)
SID. need not be greater than I.
NL = number of traffic lanes from Article 3.6;
where,
C = K(W/L) fow WIL < I
= K forWIL~ I (3-13) I = moment of inertia;
J = Saint-Venant torsion constant;
where, fl = Poisson's ratio for girders.
W = overall width of bridge measured perpendicular In lieu of more exact methods. "J" may be estimated using
to the longitudinal girders in feet; the following equations:
For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee 3.24.1.2 The following effective span lengths shall
0 1
'
Beams:
J = l:{ ( I/3)bt3(l - 0.630t/b)}

be used in calculating the distribution of loads and bend-
ing moments for slabs continuous over more than two
supports:
where, (a) Slabs monolithic with beams or slabs monolithic

b = the length of each rectangular component within with walls without haunches and rigid top flange pre-
the section, stressed beams with top flange width to minimum
=the thickness of each rectangular component thickness ratio less than 4.0. "S" shall be the clear span.
within the section. (b) Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs sup-
ported on thin top flange prestressed beams with top
flange width to minimum thickness ratio equal to or
The flanges and stems of stemmed or channel sections are
greater than 4.0. "S" shall be the distance between
considered as separate rectangular components whose
edges of top flange plus one-half of stringer top flange
values are summed together to calculate "J". Note that for
width.
"'Rectangular Beams with Circular Voids" the value of "J"
(c) Slabs supported on timber stringers. S shall be the
can usually be approximated by using the equation above
clear span plus one-half thickness of stringer.
for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids.
For Box-Section Beams: 3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads

., 2
J = 2ttr(b- t)"'(d- tr) 3.24.2.1 In designing slabs, the center line of the
? 2 wheel load shall be I foot from the face of the curb. If
bt + dtr - t- - tr
curbs or sidewalks are not used, the wheel load shall be 1
where foot from the face of the rail.
0 b = the overall width of the box,

d = the overall depth of the box,
t = the thickness of either web,
3.24.2.2 In designing sidewalks, slabs and support-
ing members, a wheel load located on the sidewalk shall
be 1 foot from the face of the rail. In service load design,
tr = the thickness of either flange.
the combined dead, live, and impact stresses for this load-
ing shall be not greater than 150% of the allowable
The formula assumes that both flanges are the same thick-
stresses. In load factor design, 1.0 may be used as the beta
ness and uses the thickness of only one flange. The same
factor in place of 1.67 for the design of deck slabs. Wheel
is true of the webs. loads shall not be applied on sidewalks protected by a
For preliminary design, the following values of K may
traffic barrier.
be used:
3.24.3 Bending Moment

Bridge 'JYpe Beam'fYpe K
Multi-beam Non-voided rectangular beams 0.7 The bending moment per foot width of slab shall be
Rectangular beams with circular voids 0.8 calculated according to methods given under Cases A and
Box section beams 1.0
Channel, single- and multi-stemmed tee beams 2.2
*The slab distribution set forth herein is based substantially on the

"Westergaard" theory. The following references are furnished concern-
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN ing the subject of slab design.
OF CONCRETE SLABS* Public Rom/.~. March 1930, "Computation of Stresses in Bridge Slabs
Due to Wheel Loads," by H. M. Westergaard.
University of Illinois, Bulletin No. 303, "Solutions for Certain Rec-
3.24.1 Span Lengths (See Article 8.8) tangular Slabs Continuous over Flexible Supports," by Vernon P. Jensen~
Bulletin 304, "A Distribution Procedure for the Analysis of Slabs Con-
tinuous over Aexible Beams," by Nathan M. Newmark; Bulletin 315,
3.24.1.1 For simple spans the span length shall be the "Moments in Simple Span Bridge Slabs with Stiffened Edges," by Ver-
distance center to center of supports but need not exceed non P. Jensen; and Bulletin 346, "Highway Slab Bridges with Curbs;
0
'
clear span plus thickness of slab. Laboratory Tests and Proposed Design Method:'
B, unless more exact methods are used considering tire HS 15 Loading:

contact area. The tire contact area needed for exact meth-
Use 3/4 of the values obtained from the fonnulas for
ods is given in Article 3.30.
HS 20 Loading
In Cases A and B:
S = effective span length, in feet, as defined under Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by
"Span Lengths" Articles 3.24.1 and 8.8; suitable analysis using the truck or appropriate lane
E = width of slab in feet over which a wheel load is loading.
distributed;
P =load on one rear wheel of truck (P 1s or P2o); 3.24.4 Shear and Bond
P 15 = 12,000 pounds for H 15loading;
P20 = 16,000 pounds for H 20 loading. Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance
with Article 3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in
3.24.3.1 Case A-Main Reinforcement bond and shear.
Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans 2 to 24
Feet Inclusive) 3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs
The live load moment for simple spans shall be deter- 3.24.5.1 Truck Loads
mined by the following formulas (impact not included):
Under the following formulas for distribution of loads
HS 20 Loading:
on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to support the load
( S+
2
)P
20 =Moment in foot-pounds (3-15) independently of the effects of any edge support along the
end of the cantilever. The distribution given includes the
32 per foot - width of slab
effect of wheels on parallel elements.
HS 15 Loading:
3.24.5.1.1 Case A-Reinforcement
2 Perpendicular to Traffic
( S + ) P15 =Moment in foot- pounds (3- 16)
32 per foot- width of slab Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic
shall be distributed over a width according to the follow-
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a conti- ing formula:
nuity factor of 0.8 shall be applied to the above formulas
E = 0.8X + 3.75 (3-17)
for both positive and negative moment.
The moment per foot of slab shall be (PIE) X foot-
3.24.3.2 Case B-Main Reinforcement Parallel pounds, in which X is the distance in feet from load to
to Traffic point of support.
For wheel loads, the distribution width, E, shall be 3.24.5.1.2 Case B-Reinforcement
(4 + 0.06S) but shall not exceed 7.0 feet. Lane loads are Parallel to Traffic
distributed over a width of 2E. Longitudinally reinforced The distribution width for each wheel load on the ele-
slabs shall be designed for the appropriate HS loading. ment parallel to traffic shall be as follows:
For simple spans, the maximum live load moment per
foot width of slab, without impact, is closely approxi- E = 0.35X + 3.2, but shall not exceed 7.0 feet (3-18)
mated by the following formulas:
The moment per foot of slab shall be (PIE) X foot-
HS 20 Loading: pounds.
Spans up to and including 50 feet: LLM = 900S 3.24.5.2 Railing Loads

foot-pounds
Spans 50 feet to 100 feet: LLM = 1,000 Railing loads shall be applied in accordance with Arti-
( 1.308-20.0) cle 2. 7. The effective length of slab resisting post loadings
foot-pounds shall be equal toE= 0.8X + 3.75 feet where no parapet
is used and equal to E = 0.8X + 5.0 feet where a parapet beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or an integral
0 is used, where X is the distance in feet from the center of

the post to the point under investigation. Railing and
wheel loads shall not be applied simultaneously.
reinforced section of slab and curb.
3.24.8.2 The edge beam of a simple span shall be de-

signed to resist a live load moment of 0.10 PS, where,
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides
P =wheel load in pounds P 15 or P20 ;
3.24.6.1 For slabs supported along four edges and re- S = span length in feet
inforced in both directions, the proportion of the load car-
ried by the short span of the slab shall be given by the fol- 3.24.8.3 For continuous spans, the moment may be
lowing equations: reduced by 20% unless a greater reduction results from a
4 more exact analysis.
For uniformly distributed load, p = 4
b (3- 19)
a +b 4
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges
b3
For concentrated load at center. p = - -- (3- 20) The design assumptions of this article do not provide for
a +b·3
3
the effect of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore. at the
where. ends of the bridge and at intermediate points where the con-
tinuity of the slab is broken, the edges shall be supported by
p = proportion of load carried by short span;
diaphragms or other suitable means. The diaphragms shall
a = length of short span of slab;
be designed to resist the full moment and shear produced
b = length of long span of slab.
by the wheel loads which can come on them.
3.24.6.2 Where the length of the slab exceeds 1Y:~ 3.24.1 0 Distribution Reinforcement
times its width, the entire load shalJ be carried by the
transverse reinforcement.
3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution of the
0 3.24.6.3 The distribution width, E. for the load taken
by either span shall be determined as provided for other
concentrated live loads. reinforcement shall be placed
transverse to the main steel reinforcement in the bottoms
of all slabs except culvert or bridge slabs where the depth
slabs. The moments obtained shalJ be used in designing of fill over the slab exceeds 2 feet.
the center half of the short and long slabs. The reinforce-
ment steel in the outer quarters of both short and long
3.24.10.2 The amount of distribution reinforcement
spans may be reduced by 50%. In the design of the sup-
shalJ be the percentage of the main reinforcement steel
porting beams, consideration shall be given to the fact that
required for positive moment as given by the following
the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not uni-
formulas:
formly distributed along the beams.
For main reinforcement parallel to traffic,
3.24.7 Median Slabs
Percentage = ~ Maximum 50% (3- 21)
Raised median slabs shalJ be designed in accordance
with the provisions of this article with truck loadings so For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic,
placed as to produce maximum stresses. Combined dead,
live, and impact stresses shall not be greater than 150% of Percentage=~ Maximum 67% (3- 22)
the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs shall be de-
signed without overstress. where, S = the effective span length in feet.
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams 3.24.10.3 For main reinforcement perpendicular to

traffic, the specified amount of distribution reinforcement
3.24.8.1 Edge beams shall be provided for alJ slabs shall be used in the middle half of the slab span, and not
having main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The beam less than 50% of the specified amount shall be used in the
may consist of a slab section additionally reinforced, a outer quarters of the slab span.
0
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.25
38
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON support. The maximum moment is for a wheel position as-
TIMBER FLOORING sumed to be centered between the supports.
For the calculation of bending moments in timber M.-c = P(.51 1og 10 s- K) (3-23)
flooring each wheel load shall be distributed as follows. (3- 24)
Rx =.034P
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring Thus, t=~6M, (3-25)

Fb
3.25.1.1 In the direction of flooring span, the wheel or,
load shall be distributed over the width of tire as given in
Article 3.30. t =--
3Rx wh'zcItever 1s
. greater (3-26)
Normal to the direction of flooring span, the wheel load 2Fv
shall be distributed as follows:
Plank floor: the width of plank, but not less than I0 where,
inches.
Mx = primary bending moment in inch-pounds per
Non-interconnected* nail laminated panel floor: 15
inch;
inches, but not to exceed panel width.
Rx = primary shear in pounds per inch;
Non-interconnected glued laminated panel floor: 15
x = denotes direction perpendicular to longitudinal
inches plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel
stringers;
width. Continuous nail laminated floor and interconnected
P = design wheel load in pounds;
nail laminated panel floor, with adequate shear transfer
s = effective deck span in inches;
between panels**: 15 inches plus thickness of floor, but
= deck thickness, in inches~ based on moment or
not to exceed panel width.
shear, whichever controls;
Interconnected* glued laminated panel floor, with ad-
K = design constant depending on design load as
equate shear transfer between panels**, not less than 6
follows:
inches thick: 15 inches plus twice thickness of floor, but
not to exceed panel width. H 15 K = 0.47
3.25.1.2 For transverse flooring the span shall be H20 K = 0.51
taken as the clear distance between stringers plus one-half Fb = allowable bending stress, in pounds per square
the width of one stringer, but shall not exceed the clear inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide
span plus the floor thickness. face of the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2Aand B);
Fv = allowable shear stress, in pounds per square inch,
3.25.1.3 One design method for interconnected based on load applied parallel to the wide face of
glued laminated panel floors is as follows: For glued lam- the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2A and B).
inated panel decks using vertically laminated lumber with
the panel placed in a transverse direction to the stringers 3.25.1.4 The determination of the minimum size and
and with panels interconnected using steel dowels, the de- spacing required of the steel dowels required to transfer
termination of the deck thickness shall be based on the fol- the load between panels shall be based on the following
lowing equations for maximum unit primary moment and equation:
shear. t The maximum shear is for a wheel position as-
sumed to be 15 inches or Jess from the center line of the _ 1,000
n---x - + -My]
[Ry - (3- 27)
O'pL Ro Mo
where.
*The terms interconnected and non-interconnected refer to the joints
between the individual nail laminated or glued laminated panels. n = number of steel dowels required for the given
spans;
"'*This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasten-
ers, splines, or dowels along the panel joint or other suitable means. uPL = proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain
tThe equations are developed for deck panel spans equal to or greater _ (for Douglas fir or Southern pine, use 1,000 psi);
than the width of the tire (as specified in Article 3.30), but not greater Ry = total secondary shear transferred, in pounds, de-
than 200 inches. termined by the relationship:
Ry = 6Ps/l,OOO for s ~50 inches (3- 28) 3.25.2.2 Normal to the direction of the span the
Q " or,
wheel load shall be distributed as follows:
Plank floor: 20 inches;

- p Non-interconnected nail laminated floor: width of tire
Ry = 2s (s- 20) for s >50 inches (3- 29)
plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel
width. Continuous nail laminated floor and inter-
My = total secondary moment transferred, in inch- connected nail laminated floor, with adequate shear
pound, determined by the relationship, transfer between panels*, not less than 6 inches
thick: width of tire plus twice thickness of floor.
- Ps
My = I, (s- 10) for s ~ 50 inches (3- 30) 3.25.2.3 For longitudinal flooring the span shall be
600
taken as the clear distance between floor beams plus one-
- Ps (s-30) . half the width of one beam but shall not exceed the clear
My= for s >50 mches (3- 31)
span plus the floor thickness.
20 (s-10)
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber

R0 and M0 = shear and moment capacities, respec-
Decks
tively, as given in the following table:
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment
Thtal
Shear Moment Steel Stress Dowel
Diameter Capacity Capacity Coefficients Length In calculating bending moments in glued laminated
of Dowel Ro Mo CR eM Required timber longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of
in. lb. in.-lb. Uin. 2 Uin. 3 in. wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
0.5 600 850 36.9 81.5 8.50 shaH be determined as follows.
.625 800 1,340 22.3 41.7 10.00 The live load bending moment for each panel shall be
.75 1,020 1,960 14.8 24.1 11.50 determined by applying to the panel the fraction of a
1,260 2,720 10.5 15.2 13.00
0
.875
.
1.0 1,520 3,630 7.75 10.2 14.50 wheel load determined from the fo11owing equations:
I
.
1.125 1,790 4,680 5.94 7.15 15.50
1.25 2,100 5,950 4.69 5.22 17.00
1.375 2,420 7,360 3.78 3.92 18.00
TWO OR MORE TRAFFIC LANES
1.5 2,770 8,990 3.11 3.02 19.50
w w
Load Fraction = L or _P_, whichever is
P
3.75+- 5.00
3.25.1.5 In addition, the dowels shall be checked to 2R
ensure that the allowable stress of the steel is not exceeded
using the following equation: greater.
ONE TRAFFIC LANE

(3-32)
Load Fraction =
wP L w
or _P_, whichever is
where, 4.25+- 5.50
28
= mtmmum yield point of steel pins in
pounds per square inch (see Table greater.
10.32.1A);
n, Ry. My = as previously defined; where, W r = Width of Panel; in feet (3.5 ~ WP ~ 4.5)
CR. eM = steel stress coefficients as given in pre-
ceding table. L = Length of span for simple span bridges and the
length of the shortest span for continuous brldges in
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal feet.
Flooring
*This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasteners,
3.25.2.1 In the direction of the span, the wheel load splines, or dowels along the panel joint or spreader beams located at in-
shall be distributed over 10 inches. tervals along the panels or other suitable means.
3.25.3.2 Shear shall be distributed over a transverse width of 5 feet for

bending moment and a width of 4 feet for shear.
When calculating the end shears and end reactions for
each panel. no longitudinal distribution of the wheel 3.26.1.2 For composite T-beams of wood and con-
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution of the crete, as described in Article 20.19.2, Division II, the ef-
wheel load at the supports shall be that detennined by the fective flange width shall not exceed that given in Article
equation: 10.38.3. Shear connectors shall be capable of resisting
Wheel Load Fraction per Panel both vertical and horizontal movement.
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in

wp Continuous Spans
= 4.00 but not less than 1.
3.26.2.1 Both positive and negative moments shall
For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the lateral be distributed in accordance with the following table:
distribution for shear shall be determined by the method
Maximum Bending Moments-Percent of Simple
prescribed for moment.
Span Moment
Maximum Uniform Maximum Live
3.25.3.3 Deflections Dead Load Moments Load Moments
Wood Composite Concentrated Uniform
The maximum deflection may be calculated by apply- Subdeck Slab Load Load
ing to the panel the wheel load fraction determined by the Span Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg.
method prescribed for moment.
Interior so so 55 45 75 25 75 55
End 70 60 70 60 85 30 85 65
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement 2-Span• 65 70 60 75 85 30 80 75
•Continuous beam of 2 equal spans.
The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached
to each panel, at points near the panel edges, with either
steel plates, thru-bolts, C-clips or aluminum brackets. The
stiffener spacing required will depend upon the spacing 3.26.2.2 Impact should be considered in computing
needed in order to prevent differential panel movement; stresses for concrete and steel, but neglected for wood.
however, a stiffener shall be placed at mid-span with ad-
ditional stiffeners placed at intervals not to exceed 10 feet. 3.26.3 Design
The stiffness factor EI of the stiffener shall not be less than
80,000 kip-in2. The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete
members shall be based on assumptions that account for
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring the different mechanical properties of the components. A
suitable procedure may be based on the elastic properties
If the flooring is continuous over more than two spans, of the materials as follows:
the maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being ~ = 1 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
80% of that obtained for a simple span. less than half the overall depth of the compos-
ite section
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND ~ = 2 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
DESIGN OF COMPOSITE WOOD- at least half the overall depth of the composite
CONCRETE MEMBERS section
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for ~ = 18.75 (for Douglas fir and Southern pine)
Bending Moment and Shear
in which,
3.26.1.1 For freely supported or continuous slab Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete;
spans of composite wood-concrete construction, as de- Ew = modulus of elasticity of wood;
scribed in Article 16.3.14, Division ll, the wheel loads Es =modulus of elasticity of steel.
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON 3.27.3.3 Edges of open grid steel floors shall be sup-
0 3.27.1
STEEL GRID FLOORS*
General
ported by suitable means as required. These supports may
be longitudinal or transverse, or both, as may be required
to support all edges properly.
3.27.1.1 The grid floor shall be designed as continu-

3.27.3.4 When investigating for fatigue, the mini-
ous, but simple span moments may be used and reduced
mum cycles of maximum stress shall be used.
as provided in Article 3.24.
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING

3.27.1.2 The following rules for distribution of loads
MOMENT IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS**
assume that the grid floor is composed of main elements
that span between girders, stringers, or cross beams, and 3.28.1 Interior Beams
secondary elements that are capable of transferring load
between the main elements. The live load bending moment for each interior beam in
a spread box beam superstructure shall be determined by
3.27.1.3 Reinforcement for secondary elements shall applying to the beam the fraction (D.F.) of the wheel load
consist of bars or shapes welded to the main steel. (both front and rear) determined by the following equation:
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete D.F.= 2NL +k! (3- 33)
N8 L
3.27.2.1 The distribution and bending moment shall where,
be as specified for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The fol- NL = number of design traffic lanes (Article 3.6);
lowing items specified in that article shall also apply to N8 =number of beams (4 s N8 s 10);
concrete filled steel grid floors: S =beam spacing in feet (6.57 s S s 11.00);
L = span length in feet;
0
Longitudinal edge beams k = 0.07 W- NL (O.lONL- 0.26)- 0.20Ns- 0.12;
Unsupported transverse edges (3-34)
Span lengths W = numeric value of the roadway width between
curbs expressed in feet (32 s W s 66).
3.27.2.2 The strength of the composite steel and con-
crete slab shall be determined by means of the "trans-
3.28.2 Exterior Beams
formed area" method. The allowable stresses shall be as
set forth in Articles 8.15 .2, 8.16.1, and I 0.32. The live load bending moment in the exterior beams
shall be determined by applying to the beams the reaction
3.27.3 Open Floors of the wheel loads obtained by assuming the flooring to
act as a simple span (of lengthS) between beams, but shall
3.27.3.1 A wheel load shall be distributed, normal to
not be less than 2NJNa.
the main elements, over a width equal to 1Y4 inches per
ton of axle load plus twice the distance center to center of
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS
main elements. The portion of the load assigned to each
main element shall be applied uniformly over a length
Maximum moments, shears, and reactions are given
equal to the rear tire width (20 inches for H 20, 15 inches in tables, Appendix A, for H 15, H 20, HS 15, and HS 20
for H 15). loadings. They are calculated for the standard truck or
the lane loading applied to a single lane on freely sup-
3.27.3.2 The strength of the section shall be deter- ported spans. It is indicated in the table whether the
mined by the moment of inertia method. The allowable standard truck or the lane loadings produces the maxi-
stresses shall be as set forth in Article 10.32. mum stress.
••The provisions of Article 3.12. Reduc~o~ in Load Inte~sity. ~ere

*Provisions in this article shall not apply to orthotropic bridge super- not applied in the development of the prov1s10ns presented m An1cles
structures. 3.28.1 and 3.28.2.
0
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The tire contact area for the Alternate Military Load-

ing or HS 20-44 shall be assumed as a rectangle with a
length in the direction of traffic of I 0 inches, and a width
of tire of 20 inches. For other design vehicles, the tire con-
tact should be determined by the engineer.
0
Section 4
FOUNDATIONS
Part A
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL 4.2.2.2 Settlement
Foundations shall be designed to support all live and The settlement of foundations may be determined
dead loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in ac- using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
cordance with the general principles specified in this sec- service load design and Articles 4. I 1, 4.12, or 4.13 for
tion. The design shall be made either with reference to ser- strength design, or other generally accepted methodolo-
vice loads and allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE gies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters
LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load mea'iured directly or inferred from the results of in situ
factors, and factored strength as provided in STRENGTH and/or laboratory tests.
DESIGN.
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of.
foundations shall be considered as part of the design of
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type foundations.
0 Selection of foundation type shaH be based on an

assessment of the magnitude and direction of loading,
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
depth to suitable bearing materials, evidence of previous Geologic and environmental conditions can influence
flooding, potential for liquefaction, undermining or the performance of foundations and may require special
scour, swelling potential, frost depth and ease and cost of consideration during design. To the extent possible, the
construction. presence and influence of such conditions shall be evalu-
ated as part of the subsurface exploration program. A rep-
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity resentative, but not exclusive, listing of problem condi-
tions requiring special consideration is presented in Table
Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate 4.2.3A for general guidance.
structural capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity
with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall sta- 4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
bility of slopes adjacent to the foundations. The tolerable TESTING PROGRAMS
level of structural deformation is controlled by the type
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
and span of the superstructure.
programs shall be the responsibility of the designer based
on the specific requirements of the project and his or her
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity
experience with local geologic conditions.
The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated
4.3.1 General Requirements
using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing
strength design, or other generally accepted theories. Such programs shall define the following, where applicable:
theories are based on soil and rock parameters measured
by in situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing capacity • Soil strata
may also be determined using load tests. -Depth, thickness, and variability
0 43
TABLE 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration
Problem
Type Description Comments
Organic soil; highly plastic clay Low strength and high compressibility
Sensitive clay Potentially large strength loss upon large straining
Micaceous soil Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic}
Soil Expansive clay/silt; expansive slag Potentially large expansion upon wetting
Liquefiable soiJ Complete strength loss and high deformations due to earthquake
loading
Collapsible soil Potentially large deformations upon wetting (Caliche; Loess)
Pyritic soil Potentially large expansion upon oxidation
Laminated rock Low strength when loaded parallel to bedding
Expansive shale PotentialJy large expansion upon wetting; degrades readily upon
exposure to air/water
Pyritic shale Expands upon exposure to air/water
Rock Soluble rock Soluble in flowing and standing water (Limestone, Limerock,
Gypsum)
Cretaceous shale Indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
Weak claystone (Red Beds} Low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to air/water
Gneissic and Schistose Rock Highly distorted with irregular weathering profiles and steep
discontinuities
Subsidence Typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water
extraction
Sinkholes/solutioning Karst topography; typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock
strata
Condition Negative skin friction/ Additional compressive/uplift load on deep foundations due to
expansion loading settlement/uplift of soil
Corrosive environments Acid mine drainage; degradation of certain soiVrock types
Permafrost/frost Typical in northern climates
Capillary water Rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to strength loss
-Identification and classification qc}, and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
-Relevant engineering properties (i.e., shear drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
strength, compressibility, stiffness, permeability, of SPT hammer (i.e. safety, donut, hydraulic} or cone pen-
expansion or collapse potential, and frost suscep- etrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any unusual
tibility} subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures, boulders
• Rock strata or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted on the
-Depth to rock exploration logs.
-Identification and classification
-Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and 4.3.2 Minimum Depth
presence of joint filling, resistance to weathering,
if exposed, and solutioning) Where substructure unit"l will be supported on spread
-Compressive strength (e.g.• uniaxial compres- footings. the minimum depth of the subsurface explo-
sion, point load index) ration shall extend below the anticipated bearing level a
-Expansion potential minimum of two footing widths for isolated, individual
• Ground water elevation footings where L s 2B, and four footing widths for foot-
• Ground surface elevation ings where L > 5B. For intermediate footing lengths, the
• Local conditions requiring special consideration minimum depth of exploration may be estimated by lin-
ear interpolation as a function of L between depths of 2B
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de- and 5B below the bearing level. Greater depths may be re-
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or quired where warranted by local conditions.
Where substructure units will be supported on deep 4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular
foundations, the depth of the subsurface exploration shall Columns or Piers
extend a minimum of 20 feet below the anticipated pile or
shaft tip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be Footings supporting circular or regular polygon-
used, the subsurface exploration shall extend at least two shaped concrete columns or piers may be designed as-
times the maximum pile group dimension below the an- suming that the columns or piers act as square members
ticipated tip elevation, unless the foundations will be end with the same area for location of critical sections for mo-
bearing on or in rock. For piles bearing on rock, a mini- ment, shear, and development of reinforcement.
mum of 10 feet of rock core shall be obtained at each ex-
ploration location to insure the exploration has not been 4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill
terminated on a boulder. For shafts supported on or ex-
tending into rock, a minimum of 10 feet of rock core, or a Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing
length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft capacity, settlement, and dynamic ground stability con-
diameter for isolated shafts or two times the maximum siderations as footings in natural soil in accordance with
shaft group dimension for a shaft group, whichever is Articles 4.4.7.1 through 4.4.7.3. The behavior of both the
greater, shall be obtained to insure the exploration has not fill and underlying natural soil shall be considered.
terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical
characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation in- 4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of
fluence for design. Embankments
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage The earth pressure against the back of footings and
columns within the sloped portion of an embankment
A minimum of one soil boring shaiJ be made for each
shall be equal to the at-rest earth pressure in accordance
substructure unit. (See Article 7 .1.1 for definition of sub- with Article 5.5.2. The resistance due to the passive earth
structure unit.) For substructure units over I 00 feet in pressure of the embankment in front of the footing shall
width, a minimum of two borings shall be required. be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of
4.3.4 Laboratory Testing 3 feet, the depth of anticipated scour, freeze thaw action,
and/or trench excavation in front of the footing,
Laboratory testing shalJ be performed as necessary to whichever is greater.
determine engineering properties including unit weight,
shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility. 4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure
In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering proper-
ties may be estimated based on published test results or Footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil
local experience. and rock pressures within safe bearing values. To prevent
unequal settlement, footings shall be designed to keep the
4.3.5 Scour bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For foot-
ings supported on piles or drilled shafts, the spacing be-
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by tween piles and drilled shafts shall be designed to ensure
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to nearly equal loads on deep foundation elements as may be
Article 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance practical.
regarding hydraulic studies and design. When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with
PartB properties of the foundation materials and the structure,
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD and with the principles of geotechnical engineering.
4.4.2 Notations
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS
The foJiowing notations shall apply for the design of
4.4.1 General spread footings on soil and rock:
4.4.1.1 Applicability
A = Contact area of footing (ft2)
Provisions of this Article shall apply for design of iso- A' =Effective footing area for computation of
lated footings, and to combined footings and mats (foot- bearing capacity of a footing subjected to
0 ings supporting more than one column, pier, or wall). eccentric load (ft2); (See Article 4.4. 7 .1.1.1)
be, b-y, bq =Base inclination factors (dim); (See Article ~ = Soil modulus (ksf)
4.4.7.1.1.8) F = Total force on footing subjected to an in-
B = Width of footing (ft); (Minimum plan di- clined load (k); (See Article 4.4. 7 .1.1.1)
mension of footing unless otherwise noted) f~ =Unconfined compressive strength of con-
B' =Effective width for load eccentric in direc- crete (ksf)
tion of short side, L unchanged (ft) FS = Factor of safety against bearing capacity,
c = Soil cohesion (ksf) overturning or sliding shear failure (dim)
c' =Effective stress soil cohesion (ksf) H = Depth from footing base to top of second
c* = Reduced effective stress soil cohesion for cohesive soil layer for two-layer cohesive
punching shear (ksf); (See Article 4.4. 7 .I) soil profile below footing (ft); (See Article
Ca = Adhesion between footing and foundation 4.4.7.1.1.7)
soil or rock (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3) He · = Height of compressible soil layer (ft)
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation (ft2/yr); (See Herit = Critical thickness of the upper layer of a
Article4.4.7.2.3) two-layer system beyond which the under-
c1 = Shear strength of upper cohesive soil lying layer will have little effect on the bear-
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article ing capacity of footings bearing in the upper
4.4.7.1.1.7) layer (ft); (See Article 4.4.7 .1.1.7)
c2 = Shear strength of lower cohesive soil Hd = Height of longest drainage path in com-
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article pressible soil layer (ft)
4.4.7.1.1.7) Hs = Height of slope (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
Ce =Compression index (dim); (See Article = Slope angle from horizontal of ground sur-
4.4.7.2.3) face below footing (deg)
Ccr =Recompression index (dim); (See Article ie, i..,, iq =Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3) 4.4.7.1.1.3)
Cee == Compression ratio (dim); (See Article IP = Influence coefficient to account for rigidity
4.4.7.2.3) and dimensions of footing (dim); (See Arti-
Co = Uniaxial compressive strength of intact cle4.4.8.2.2)
rock (ksf) t = Center-to-center spacing between adjacent
Crt =Recompression ratio (dim); (See Article footings (ft)
4.4.7.2.3) L = Length of footing (ft)
Cae = Coefficient of secondary compression de- L' =Effective footing length for load eccentric
fined as change in height per log cycle of in direction of long side, B unchanged (ft)
time (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4) Lt = Length (or width) of footing having positive
D = Influence depth for water below footing contact pressure (compression) for footing
(ft); (See Article 4.4. 7 .1.1.6) loaded eccentrically about one axis (ft)
Dr = Depth to base of footing (ft) n = Exponential factor relating BIL or UB ra-
e = Void ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4. 7.2.3) tios for inclined loading (dim); (See Article
er = Void ratio at final vertical effective stress 4.4.7.1.1.3)
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) N = Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
eo = Void ratio at initial vertical effective stress N1 = Standard penetration resistance corrected
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) for effects of overburden pressure (blows/
t;, = Void ratio at maximum pac;t vertical effec- ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
tive stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) Nc, Nl, Nq = Bearing capacity factors based on the value
e8 = Eccentricity of load in the B direction mea- of internal friction of the foundation soil
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See Ar- (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
ticle 4.4.7.1.1.1) Nm = Modified bearing capacity factor to account
eL = Eccentricity of load in the L direction mea- for layered cohesive soils below footing
sured from centroid of footing {ft); (See (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
Article4.4.7.1.1.1) Nms = Coefficient factor to estimate qu11 for rock
Eo = Modulus of intact rock (ksf) (dim); (See Article 4.4.8.1.2)
Em = Rock mass modulus (ksf); (See Article Ns =Stability number (dim); (See Article
4.4.8.2.2) 4.4.7.1.1.4)
Nc:q, N-,q =Modified bearing capacity factors for ef- =Time factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
0 P
fects of footing on or adjacent sloping
ground (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
= Tangential component of force on footing
= Depth from footing base down to the high-
est anticipated ground water level (ft); (See
Article4.4.7.1.1.6)
(k) a = Angle of inclination of the footing base
Pmax = Maximum resisting force between footing from the horizontal (radian)
base and foundation soil or rock for sliding =Reduction factor (dim); (See Article
failure (k) 4.4.8.2.2)
q = Effective overburden pressure at base of = Length to width ratio of footing (dim)
footing (kst) =Punching index = BU[2(B + L)H] (dim);
Q = Normal component of force on footing (k) (See Article 4.4. 7.1.1. 7)
qui = Allowable uniform bearing pressure or con- = Factor to account for footing shape and
tact stress (ksf) rigidity (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
qc = Cone penetration resistance (ksf) 'Y = Total unit weight of soil or rock (kct)
qmax = Maximum footing contact pressure (kst) -y' = Buoyant unit weight of soil or rock (kct)
Q11111x = Maximum normal component of load sup- 'Ym = Moist unit weight of soil (kef)
ported by foundation soil or rock at ultimate 8 = Angle of friction between footing and foun-
bearing capacity (k) dation soil or rock (deg); (See Article
qmin = Minimum magnitude of footing contact 4.4.7.1. J.3)
pressure (kst) 8' = Differential settlement between adjacent
qo =Vertical stress at base of loaded area (ksf); footings (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.5)
(See Article 4.4. 7 .2.1) = Vertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
qurt = Ultimate bearing capacity for uniform bear- = Vertical strain at final vertical effective
ing pressure (ksf) stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
q1 =Ultimate bearing capacity of footing sup- = Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article
ported in the upper layer of a two-layer sys- 4.4.7.2.3)
tem assuming the upper layer is infinitely = Vertical strain at maximum past vertical
thick (kst); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) effective stress (dim); (See Article
q2 = Ultimate bearing capacity of a fictitious 4.4.7.2.3)
footing of the same size and shape as the ac- e =Angle of load eccentricity (deg)
tual footing, but supported on surface of the K =Shear strength ratio (clc 1) for two layered
second (lower) layer of a two-layer system cohesive soil system below footing (dim);
(kst); (See Article 4.4. 7 .1.1. 7) (See Article 4.4.7 .1.1.7)
R = Resultant of pressure on base of footing (k) = Reduction factor to account for three-di-
r = Radius of circular footing or B/2 for square mensional effects in settlement analysis
footing (ft); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2) (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
RQD = Rock Quality Designation (dim) v = Poisson's ratio (dim)
Sc, s1 , Sq =Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article cr( = Final vertical effective stress in soil at depth
4.4.7.1.1.2) interval below footing (ksf); (See Article
Su = Undrained shear strength of soil (kst) 4.4.7.2.3)
Sc =Consolidation settlement (ft); (See Article = Initial vertical effective stress in soil at
4.4.7.2.3) depth interval below footing (kst); (See Ar-
Se =Elastic or immediate settlement (ft); (See ticle 4.4.7.2.3)
Article4.4.7.2.2) cr'p = Maximum past vertical effective stress in
S5 = Secondary settlement (ft); (See Article soil at depth interval below footing (ksO;
4.4.7.2.4) (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
S, =Total settlement (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2) =Angle of internal friction (deg)
t = Time to reach specified average degree = Effective stress angle of internal friction
of consolidation (yr); (See Article (deg)
4.4.7.2.3) <P* = Reduced effective stress soil friction angle
t., t2 = Arbitrary time intervals for determination for punching shear (ksf); (See Article
of S5 (yr); (See Article 4.4. 7 .2.4) 4.4.7.1)
The notations for dimension units include the follow- 4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection
ing: dim = Dimensionless; deg = degree; ft = foot; k =
kip; k/ft = kip/ft; ksf = kip/ft2; kef = kip/ft3; lb = pound; Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
in. = inch; and psi = pound per square inch. The dimen- pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
sional units provided with each notation are presented for required for footing design.·Foundation stability and set-
illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct tlement analyses for design shall be conducted using soil
combination of units for the footing capacity procedures and rock properties based on the results of field and/or
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional laboratory testing.
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed.
4.4.5 Depth
4.4.3 Design Terminology 4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width
Refer to Figure 4.4.3A for terminology used in the de- Footings not otherwise founded on sound, non-de-
sign of spread footing foundations. gradeable rock surfaces shall be embedded a sufficient
FIGURE 4.4.3A Design Tenninology for Spread Footing Foundations

depth to provide adequate bearing, scour and frost heave vented by properly designed, graded soil filters or geotex-
0 . ·
protection, or 2 feet to the bottom of footing, whichever is
greatest. For footings constructed on slopes, a minimum
horizontal distance of 4 feet, measured at the top of foot-
tile drainage systems .
4.4.6 Anchorage
ing, shall be provided between the near face of the foot-
ing and the face of the finished slope. Footings founded on inclined, smooth rock surfaces
and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant
material shall be effectively anchored by means of rock
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys, benching or other suit-
able means. Shallow keying or benching of large footing
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour removal.
depth or protected with a scour countermeasure. Footings
supported on massive. competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the 4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil
cleaned rock surface. Where required. additional lateral
resistance should be provided by drilling and grouting Spread footings on soil shall be designed to support the
steel dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to design loads with adequate bearing and structural capac-
embed the footing below the rock surface. ity, and with tolerable settlements in conformance with
Footings on piles may be located above the lowest an- Articles 4.4. 7 and 4.4.11. In addition, the capacity of
ticipated scour level provided the piles are designed for footings subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, shall
this condition. Assume that only one-half of the maximum be evaluated in conformance with Articles 4.4.7.3 and
anticipated scour has occurred when designing for earth- 4.4.10.
quake loading. Where footings on piles are subject to The location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the base
damage by boulders or debris during flood scour, ade- of the footings shall be maintained within B/6 of the cen-
quate protection shall be provided. Footings shall be con- ter of the footing.
structed so as to neither pose an obstacle to water traffic
0 '
nor be exposed to view during low flow. 4.4.7.1 Bearing Capacity
The ultimate bearing capacity (for general shear fail-

4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations
ure) may be estimated using the following relationship for
continuous footings (i.e., L > SB):
Footing excavations below the ground water table, par-
ticularly in granular soils having relatively high perme-
ability, shall be made such that the hydraulic gradient in
quit= cNc + 0.5'YBN'Y + qNq (4.4.7.1-1)
the excavation bottom is not increased to a magnitude that
The a11owable bearing capacity shall be determined
would cause the foundation soils to loosen or soften due
to the upward flow of water. Further, footing excavations as:
shall be made such that hydraulic gradients and material
(4.4.7.1-2)
removal do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seep-
age forces and gradients may be evaluated by flow net
Refer to Table 4.4. 7.1 A for values of Nc, N-y. and Nq.
procedures or other appropriate methods. Dewatering or
If local or punching shear failure is possible. the value
cutoff methods to control seepage shaH be used where
of qu 11 may be estimated using reduced shear strength pa-
necessary.
rameters c* and~* in Equation (4.4.7.1-1) as follows:
Footing excavations in nonresistant, easily weathered
moisture sensitive rocks shall be protected from weather-
ing immediately after excavation with a lean mix concrete
c* = 0.67c (4.4.7.1-3)
or other approved materials. (4.4.7.1-4)
~* = tan- 1 (0.67tan ~)
4.4.5.4 Piping Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear

strength parameters shall be used to determine bearing
Piping failures of fine materials through rip-rap or capacity factors for drained loading conditions in all soils.
0 through drainage backfills behind abutments shall be pre- Additiona11y, the bearing capacity of cohesive soils shall
TABLE 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors
~ Nc Nq N., ~ Nc Nq N"
0 5.14 1.00 0.00 26 22.25 11.85 12.54
1 5.38 1.09 0.07 27 23.94 13.20 14.47
2 5.63 1.20 0.15 28 25.80 14.72 16.72
3 5.90 1.31 0.24 29 27.86 16.44 19.34
4 6.19 1.43 0.34 30 30.14 18.40 22.40
5 6.49 1.57 0.45 31 32.67 20.63 25.99
6 6.81 1.72 0.57 32 35.49 23.18 30.22
7 7.16 1.88 0.71 33 38.64 26.09 35.19
8 7.53 2.06 0.86 34 42.16 29.44 41.06
9 7.92 2.25 1.03 35 46.12 33.30 48.03
10 8.35 2.47 1.22 36 50.59 37.75 56.31
11 8.80 2.71 1.44 37 55.63 42.92 66.19
12 9.28 2.97 1.69 38 61.35 48.93 78.03
13 9.81 3.26 1.97 39 67.87 55.96 92.25
14 10.37 3.59 2.29 40 75.31 64.20 109.41
15 10.98 3.94 2.65 41 83.86 73.90 130.22
16 11.63 4.34 3.06 42 93.71 85.38 155.55
17 12.34 4.77 3.53 43 105.11 99.02 186.54
18 13.10 5.26 4.07 44 118.37 115.31 224.64
19 13.93 5.80 4.68 45 133.88 134.88 271.76
20 14.83 6.40 5.39 46 152.10 158.51 330.35
21 15.82 7.07 6.20 47 173.64 187.21 403.67
22 16.88 7.82 7.13 48 199.26 222.31 496.01
23 18.05 8.66 8.20 49 229.93 265.51 613.16
24 19.32 9.60 9.44 50 266.89 319.07 762.89
25 20.72 10.66 10.88
be checked for undrained loading conditions using bear- calculate the ultimate load capacity of the footing. The re-
ing capacity factors based on undrained s.hear strength duced footing dimensions shall be determined as follows:
parameters.
4.4. 7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

B' = B- 2es (4.4.7.1.1.1-1)
A modified form of the general bearing capacity equa- L' = L- 2eL (4.4.7.1.1.1-2)
tion may be used to account for the effects of footing
shape, ground surface slope, base inclination, and inclined The effective footing area shall be determined as
loading as follows: follows:
qu11 = cNcscbcic + 0.5-yBN.ys..,b'Yi.v + qNqsqbqiq A'=B'L' (4.4.7.1.1.1-3)

(4.4.7.1.1-1) Refer to Figure 4.4.7. I .1. I A for loading definitions and
footing dimensions.
Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account
for the effects of eccentric loading. The value of qu11 obtained using the reduced footing di-
mensions represents an equivalent uniform bearing pres-
4.4. 7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading sure and not the actual contact pressure distribution be-
neath the footing. This equivalent pressure may be
For loads eccentric relative to the centroid of the foot- multiplied by the reduced area to determine the ultimate
ing, reduced footing dimensions (B' and L') shall be used load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bear-
to determine bearing capacity factors and modifiers (i.e., ing capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution (i.e.,
slope, footing shape, and load inclination factors), and to trapezoidal for the conventional assumption of a rigid
4.4.7 .1.1.1 DIVISION I-DESIGN 51
footing and a positive pressure along each footing edge) ic: =l - (nP/BLcNc:) (for <t> = 0) (4.4.7.1.1.3-2)
0 .
shall be used for structural design of the footing.
The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid
footing with eccentric loading about one axis is shown
iq = [I - P/(Q + BLc cot<1>)] 11
(4.4.7.1.1.3-3)
in Figure 4.4. 7.1.1.1 B. For an eccentricity (ed in the L iy = [1 - P/(Q + BLc cot<l>)]l" + H (4.4.7.1.1.3-4)
direction, the actual maximum and minimum contact
pressures may be determined as follows: n = [(2 + UB)/(1 + UB)]cos29
+ [(2 + B/L)/(1 + BIL)]sin28 (4.4.7.1.1.3-5)
foreL < U6:
Refer to Figure 4.4. 7 .1.1.1 A for loading definitions and
qllUL\ = Q[ I + (6eLIL)l/BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-4) footing dimensions. For cases in which the loading is ec-
centric, the terms L and B shall be replaced by L 1 and B1 ,
qmi11 = Q[I - (6etfL)]/BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-5) respectively, in the above equations.
Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing
for U6 < eL < U2: the tangential component of force on the footing (P) to the
maximum resisting force (Pmax) by the following:
q~ = 2Q/(3B[U2)- cd) (4.4.7.1.1.1-6)
Pmax = Qtan8 + BLcn (4.4.7.1.1.3-6)
(4.4.7.1.1.1-7)
FS = Pmn.,.IP;::: 1.5 (4.4.7.1.1.3-7)
L 1 = 3[(L/2) - ed (4.4.7.1.1.1-8)
In determining Pmnx• the effect of passive resistance
For an eccentricity (ep) in the B direction, the maxi- provided by footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL
mum and minimum contact pressures may be determined shall represent the actual footing area in compression as
using Equations 4.4. 7.1 .1.1-4 through 4.4. 7. 1.1.1-8 by re- shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.18 or Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C.
placing terms labeled L by B, and terms labeled B by L.
0
.
Footings on soil shall be designed so that the eccen-
tricity of loading is less than X, of the footing dimension
in any direction.
4.4. 7.1.1.4 Ground Suiface Slope
For footings located on slopes or within 3B of a slope
crest, quit may be determined using the following revised
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape version of Equation 4.4. 7.1.1-1 :
For footing shapes other than continuous footings (i.e.,

L < 5B ), the following shape factors shall be applied to
Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1: Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4A for values ofNc:q and N-yq
for footings on slopes and Figures 4.4. 7 .1.1.4B for values
Sc = 1 + (B/L) (Nc/Nc) {4.4.7.1.1.2-1) of Nc:q and Nyq for footings at the top of slopes. For foot-
ings in or above cohesive soil slopes, the stability number
Sq = 1 + (B/L) tan (4.4. 7.1.1.2-2) in the figures, N5 , is defined as follows:
Sy = 1 - 0.4 (BIL) (4.4.7.1.1.2-3) (4.4.7 .1.1.4-2)
For circular footings, B equals L. For cases in which Overall stability shall be evaluated for footings on or
the loading is eccentric, the terms L and B shall be re- adjacent to sloping ground surfaces as described in Arti-
placed by L' and B', respectively, in the above equations. cle 4.4.9.
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Loading 4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth

For inclined loads, the following inclination factors The shear strength of soil above the base of footings is
shall be applied in Equation 4.4. 7.1.1-1: neglected in determining qu11 using Equation 4.4.7.1.1-l.
If other procedures are used, the effect of embedment
ic: = iq- [(1 - iq)!Nc tan <1>1 (for > 0) shall be consistent with the requirements of the procedure
0 (4.4.7.1.1.3-1) followed.
52 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.7.1.1.5
F" _____ Q
I
I
I
I
I
I
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions for Footings
Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads
Modified after EPRI (1983)
<b~
B
-----· - ..
q7Q=R
~ l
.I L
PLAN
.A6IL
L 1- La
qmini
CONTACT PRESSOR£ ..aCONii ia:!Tii iAi:i Ci =T=liPR£.--~
(o) FOR eL S t-
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.18 Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About One Axis
05
~CD
CD
n
~
z
F=
0
0
IJ..
Ll-
0
FE
0
~
.........
~
0
~
z
L&J
0
0
L&J
L&J
(/')
0:::
~
(/)
z
<
~
0
'
.
ru ~ M
LONG111JOINAL ECCENTRICITY / LENGll-f OF FOOTING = eL/L
SOUO CURVES GIVE VALUES OF K.
M M
MAXIMUM PRESSURE Qmax = K x R/BL
CASE I
CASE J[
q_ = KR I BL
x AND y FROM CHART
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing IJOaded Eccentrically About Two Axes
Modified after AREA (1980)
54 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4. 7.1.1.5
8 600
Foumlatitm Uplh/wldlh *Pfll/wlt:lh
~
f.:: 1--
~ 0(19:0-
DfiB=-t - - -
.....
~
' .. ~
-,
'fiJIIJt:O-
U~r
---
lttterpolatloo fot
1.....
~, I l I I
....
·- ' 1'\. lflllertMdlol• dePHtl
Etttctfole
Ang,. of llltvnol -
6 Slo,. .,ability - _ ....
ftfcl/011 f'
' factor~ -r-

~,o
-- \.
\
~
I'..
~
!'..
'·
- 1' . .
_,
r\ ~"'-
~~
\ ..
N8 =0 (FOR B < H8 )
Ns =~(FOR B :!! Hs)
""' -...t'--. '
I"- ~~ .......
~0
~~ ' ~' ....
-~
I"'"'
I' I\.
'~
v
~ 1',
c r".
!'-- N ~ ......... f'. ~
.. 1-.. ·-..... t'-.. ....."' ' ' ' ' r. . . .
.,
...
-:--
r-.. .. f" ~ ~
"'
.....,_
- --~
~' ~ '
-
~
'"I~
' ~
-.......
....,
r-. ...J
5.53- I"-= ~
I"'
" ~
....... ...... ~ ,
!J
~ .......
- " ' -~
-.....
~·
..... ~
0 H7 oill ~ ED"
Inclination at slope ( "'
8(? 0 ~ C:C1"'
lndlnatlon of slope {
3()l' 4()"
(a ) GEOMETRY (b) COHESIVE SOIL (c) COHESIONLESS SOIL
FIGURE 4.4. 7.1.1.4A Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing on Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof(1957)
_
........
FOflltdGiion cflplltiWcfllt
~lfi:O-
~·--- ..,.,_
f« iflftnMifloft *Pills
r·- Etlecl~v•l I
IMIIniJIItm of Antle of in,.,nGI
r-
~=~-~ ftlciiOIJ ••
.. IS). .. - ..-- ~ ....

..---
Ql
II:
...
;1',~
~..~
-~ ~ ,.
·~
-· ·- *' - , .. ~-
14ll•
:...
i ·*- L~ ~
,......
Na •0 (FOR B < ...) 50 1/
1.10"
·-- ~-
N1 • Vctts(FOR 8 ~ fia)
--~ .,.riM
.. I
~
lCI ...
~,, j
55"
I
0
Dilrt~tta
I
"' toundGtlota 1tc1n , . 111 .,..
I 0 I .
b/Bitor N,•Diot biHIIGt N,•OI
Ca) GEOMETRY (b) COHESIVE SOIL (c) COHESIONLESS SOIL
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.48 Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing Adjacent Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof (1957)
r- 4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water 'Y = {20- Zw){Zw-yn/1)2) + (-y'/D2){D - Zw) 2
~ Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using

the highest anticipated ground water level at the footing
(4.4.7.1.1.6-4)
location. The effect of ground water level on the ultimate D = 0.5Btan(45° + 4>/2)
bearing capacity shall be considered by using a weighted (4.4.7.1.1.6-5)
average soil unit weight in Equation 4.4. 7 .1.1-1. If 4> <
37°, the following equations may be used to determine the
4.4.7.1.1. 7 Layered Soils
weighted average unit weight:
If the soil profile is layered, the general bearing capac-
for Zw 2: B: use -y = 'Ym (no effect) (4.4.7.1.1.6-1) ity equation shall be modified to account for differences
in failure modes between the layered case and the homo-
for Zw < B: use -y = -y' + (z"/B)('Ym - -y') geneous soil case assumed in Equation 4.4. 7 .1.1-1.
(4.4.7.1.1.6-2)
Undrained Loading
for Zw :s; 0: use -y = -y' (4.4.7.1.1.6-3) For undrained loading of a footing supported on the
upper layer of a two-layer cohesive soil system, q 1111 may
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A for definition of terms
be determined by the following:
used in these equations. If <t> ~ 37°, the following equa-
tions may be used to determine the weighted average unit
weight: (4.4.7.1.1.7-1)
0 .
'
y,
z.
+ W.T.
sz
- '-
~., •
Q
'
.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.6A Definition Sketch for Inftuence of Ground Water Table on Bearing Capacity
Refer to Figure4.4.7.1 .1.7A for the definition of c 1• For The subscripts l and 2 refer to the upper and lower
undrained loading, c 1 equals the undrained soil shear layers, respectively. K = (1 - sin2<J> 1')/( l + sin2<J> 1')
strength Suh and <!> 1 = 0. and q2 equals qu11 of a fictitious footing of the same size and
If the bearing stratum is a cohesive soil which overlies shape as the actual footing but supported on the
a stiffer cohesive soil, refer to Figure 4.4.7. 1.1.78 to de- second (or lower) layer. Reduced shear strength values shall
termine Nm. If the bearing stratum overlies a softer layer, be used to detennine q2 in accordance with Article 4.4.7.1.
punching shear should be assumed and Nmmay be calcu- lf the upper layer is a cohesion less soil and <!>' equals
lated by the following: 25° to 50°, Equation 4.4.7.1.1.7-3 reduces to
qull = q2exp(0.67[1 + (BIL))H/B } (4.4.7. 1. 1.7-4)

Drained Loading
The critical depth of the upper layer beyond which the
For drained loading of a footing supported on a strong bearing capacity will generally be unaffected by the pres-
layer overlying a weak layer in a two-layer system, qu11 ence of the lower layer is given by the following:
may be determined using the following:
Hen,= [3B 1n(ql/q2)1/[2(1 + BIL)l (4.4.7.1.1.7-5)
qull = lq2 + (I/K)c 1'cot<l> 1' l exp{2[1
+ (B/L)IKtan<!>I'(H/8 )} - ( I/K)c1' cot(l>1'
In the equation, q 1 equals the bearing capacity of the
(4.4.7. 1.1.7-3) upper layer assuming the upper layer is of infinite extent.
100
90
aob QuJI
70 t .~l~
60
HI -s- c: •0
C2
i 50 ·2·0
z .,.
.. 40 " "'
~
"'"'
,. " " "'
u
.!!
!: :50
u
,. ,. "
0
Q,
0 /
/ "
u
/ "CXI
(a)
0
."'
.~ 20
/
•
.0 - LI B • I (square or cir cle)
'Q
15
-
.!
'Q
0
2
10
9
2
3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10
(b)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modified Bearing Capacity Factor for

FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7A 1\vo-Layer Cohesive Soil with Softer Soil Overlying
Typical Two-Layer Soil Profiles Stiffer Soil EPRI (1983)
4.4.7.1.1.8 Inclined Base (4.4.7.2-1)

Footings with inclined bases are generally not recom-
Elastic settlement shall be determined using the unfac-
mended. Where footings with inclined bases are neces-
tored dead load, plus the unfactored component of live
sary, the following factors shall be applied in Equation
and impact loads assumed to extend to the footing level.
4.4.7.1.1-1:
Consolidation and secondary settlement may be deter-
mined using the full unfactored dead load only.
bq =by= (1 - atan<J>) 2 (4.4.7.1.1.8-1)
O.ther factors which can affect settlement (e.g., em-
bankment loading, lateral and/or eccentric loading, and
be= by- (1 - b'Y)/(Netan<P) (for 4> > 0)
for footings on granular soils. vibration loading from dy-
(4.4.7.1.1.8-2) namic live loads or earthquake loads) should also be con-
sidered, where appropriate. Refer to Gifford, et al., ( 1987)
be = I - [2al('lT + 2)] (for 4> = 0) for general guidance regarding static loading conditions
(4.4.7.1.1.8-3) and Lam and Martin (1986) for guidance regarding dy-
namic/seismic loading conditions.
Refer to Figure 4.4. 7 .1.1.8A for definition sketch.
Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces,
refer to Article 4.4.6 for anchorage requirements. 4.4. 7.2.1 Stress Distribution
4.4. 7.1.2 Factors of Safety Figure 4.4.7.2.1A may be used to estimate the distri-
Spread footings on soil shall be designed for Group 1 bution of vertical stress increase below circular (or
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 square) and long rectangular footings (i.e., where L >
against a bearing capacity failure. 5B). For other footing geometries, refer to Poulos and
Davis (1974).
4.4.7.2 Settlement Some methods used for estimating settlement of foot-
ings on sand include an integral method to account for the
The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation, effects of vertical stress increase variations. Refer to Gif-
0
.
.
and secondary components and may be determined using
the following:
ford, et al., ( 1987) for guidance regarding application of
these procedures.
GROUND SURFACE
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.8A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination

4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement termined at a depth of about Y2 to % of B below the foot-

ing. If the soil modulus varies significantly with depth, a
The elastic settlement of footings on cohesionless
weighted average value of Es may be used.
soils and stiff cohesive soils may be estimated using the
following: Refer to Gifford, et al., ( 1987) for general guidance re-
garding the estimation of elastic settlement of footings on
sand.
Refer to Table 4.4.7.2.2A for approximate values of Es

4.4. 7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement
and v for various soil types, and Table 4.4.7.2.2B for val-
ues of ~z for various shapes of flexible and rigid footings. The consolidation settlement of footings on saturated
Unless Es varies significantly with depth, Es should be de- or nearly saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using
48 :!8 28 a U11J! ~~,, ~--'- 211 31 48
~ ~ ~ ~~ fMI -
I ~.
,~
~
8 ' ... ' ,-
~~./
~~ ~~ '~o.l..-1
f/1 \~ ~,
I I ' ~ - ....
~
~1.t"" rt-
'\
~
_)_ "I If/ '

;
~\ I , Vi
,
.,.~· ..I 1/ • I'
' ,--
L j
z~~
·-
[/' 'lj
o-i# '_( - ....
I
I "' ...
~
~":":!·-- If
J ~
\ '\
1....
1!!1. ~ _)_
,.. lL
~-
1/ 1 ~ t.. " v L
0.~....
\, ~..
·-- ~ I••
j 'I
' ~ .ft!.. .. ~
\ J
-- j_ v II
lj
4 ...
' / ' ·- t..•
--- ........ v
/ 1-..
~
sa·- I I \ -·-- J f"-..
'l ·-
\ v : r--
...·- 1\ ~ v :: ··-
~ I ' v v I --
,,
~0.1 .....
~
118
- \
1\ "~
~ ...
,_ 1'-
·- 171
...........
t-- -~·
~ j
--...
.......
\ r--...... ......... -,., ~ _;_ ~I
Ia•
--
l'
\
98 \ ~,
lcaa
_,, ·'
~
oa
·- " ~
~~
r....
- ~-~
-- ~ ....
10I
....
·-
Ill Ill
48 !I za a o 0 a ZB !I 48
lnfinatelr Lane Foundation Sqawe F'aunattGn
(a) (/,J
--
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous and Square Footings
Modified after Sowers (1979)
~
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils
0 Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982)
'I}'pical Range of Values Estimating E,. From N< n

Poisson's
Young's Modulus, E,. Ratio,v Es
Soil1}tpe (ksf) (dim) Soil1}tpe {ksf)
Clay:
Soft sensitive 50-300 0.4-0.5 Silts, sandy silts, slightly 8Nt< 2>
Medium stiff 300-1,000 (undrained) cohesive mixtures
to stiff 1,000·2,000 Clean fine to medium sands 14N 1
Very stiff and slightly silty sands
Coarse sands and sands with 20Nt
little gravel
Loess 300-1 ,200 0.1-0.3 Sandy gravel and gravels 24Nt
Silt 40-400 0.3-0.35
Fine sand:
Estimating E8 From Su<3>
Loose 160-240
Medium dense 240-400 0.25
Soft sensitive clay 400Su·l ,OOOsu
Dense 400-600
Medium stiff to stiff clay 1,500Su·2,400su
Sand: Very stiff clay 3,CKMlsu--4,<M>Osu
Loose 200-600 0.2-0.35
Medium dense 600-1,000
Estimating E5 From qc<4>
Dense 1,000-1 ,600 0.3-0.4
Gravel:
0 Loose
Medium dense
Dense
60()..1,600
1,600-2,000
2,000-4,000
0.2-0.35
0.3-0.4
Sandy soils 4qc
(I>N = Standard Penetration 'lest (SPT) resistance.

C
2
= SPT corrected for depth.
"'N 1
(3>Su = Undrained shear strength (ksO.
<•>qc = Cone penetration resistance (ks0.
TABLE 4.4.7.2.28 Elastic Shape and Rigidity

Factors EPRI (1983)
Pz Pz
lJB Flexible (average) Rigid
Circular 1.04 1.13

1 1.06 1.08
2 1.09 1.10
3 1.13 1.15
5 1.22 1.24
10 1.41 1.41
the following when laboratory test results are expressed in

terms of void ratio (e):
• For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., up' > uo'):
Sc = [lic/(1 + eo)][(Ccr log{up'luo'}

+ Cc log{ar'/up'})] (4.4.7.2.3-1)
• For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., up' =

<To'):
(4.4.7 .2.3-2)
Vertical effective stress, rr' Uo9 scale)
If laboratory test results are expressed in terms of ver-
tical strain (Ev), consolidation settlement may be estimated
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation
using the following:
Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil-
Void Ratio Versus Vertical Effective Stress
• For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., up' > uo'): EPRI (1983)
Sc = Hc[Crelog(ap'/cr + Ccc log(ur'/up')]

0 ')
(4.4.7.2.3-3)
• For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., crp' =

<To'):
(4.4.7.2.3-4)
Refer to Figures 4.4.7.2.3A and 4.4.7.2.3B for the de-

finition of terms used in the equations.
To account for the decreasing stress with increased
depth below a footing, and variations in soil compress-
ibility with depth, the compressible layer should be di- Vertical effective stress, rr' Uog scale)
vided into vertical increments (i.e., typically 5 to 10 feet
for most normal width footings for highway applications),
and the consolidation settlement of each increment ana- FIGURE 4.4.7.2.38 Typical Consolldation
Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil-
lyzed separately. The total value of Sc is the summation of
Void Strain Versus Vertical Effective Stress
Sc for each increment.
If the footing width is small relative to the thickness Overconsolidation ratio, a-~ I tr0
1
of the compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional

(3-D) loading may be considered using the following:
(4.4.7.2.3-5) :t."
..:'
-a
0
-
u
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3C for values of J.lc.
0.5
The time (t) to achieve a given percentage of the total c: a
estimated 1-D consolidation settlement may be estimated
using the following:
-
,g
u
~
'a ~He
0
a: 0
t = THi/ev (4.4.7.2.3-6)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.30 for values ofT for constant

FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for
and linearly varying excess pressure distributions. See Effects of Three-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement
Winterkom and Fang (1975) for values ofT for other ex- EPRI(1983)
c
cess pressure distributions. Values of Cv may be estimated (8' /f) between adjacent footings. 8'It shall be limited to
' .; from the results of laboratory consolidation testing of 0.005 for simple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous
undisturbed soil samples or from in-situ measurements span bridges (Moulton, et al., 1985). These 8'/f. limits are
using devices such as a piezoprobe or piezocone. not applicable to rigid frame structures. Rigid frames shall
be designed for anticipated differential settlements based
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement on the results of special analysis.
Tolerable movement criteria for horizontal foundations
Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may
displacement shall be developed considering the potential
be estimated using the following:
effects of combined vertical and horizontal movement.
Where combined horizontal and vertical displacements
(4.4.7.2.4-1)
are possible, horizontal movements should be limited to I
inch or less. Where vertical displacements are small, hor-
t1 is the time when secondary settlement begins {typi- izontal displacements should be limited to 1Y2 inch or less
cally at a time equivalent to 90-percent average degree of (Moulton, et al. 1985). If estimated or actual movements
consolidation), and his an arbitrary time which could rep- exceed these levels, special analysis and/or measures to
resent the service life of the structure. Values of Cat may limit movements should be considered.
be estimated from the results of consolidation testing of
undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory. 4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement Refer to Division 1-A-Seismic Design and Lam and
Tolerable movement criteria (vertical and horizontal) Martin ( 1986a; 1986b) for guidance regarding the devel-
for footings shall be developed consistent with the func- opment of ground and seismic parameters and methods
tion and type of structure, anticipated service life, and used for evaluation of dynamic ground stability.
consequences of unacceptable movements on structure
performance. Foundation displacement analyses shall be 4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load-deformation behavior of the foun- Spread footings supported on rock shall be designed to
0 dation soils. Displacement analyses should be conducted

to determine the relationship between estimated settle-
ment and footing bearing pressure to optimize footing size
support the design loads with adequate bearing and struc-
tural capacity and with tolerable settlements in confor-
mance with Articles 4.4.8 and 4.4.11. In addition, the re-
with respect to supported loads. sponse of footings subjected to seismic and dynamic
Tolerable movement criteria for foundation settlement loading shall be evaluated in conformance with Article
shall be developed considering the angular distortion 4.4.1 0. For footings on rock, the location of the resultant
Time facTor, T
ti
0
a
'a
.,0 Initial ~u
c: 60
0
u
-
c:
G
...
u
Ql
80
Oa·U
Q,.
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time Factor, T

EPRI (1983)
0
of pressure (R) on the base of footings shall be maintained Figure 4.4.8.1.1A (Peck, et al. 1974). In no instance shall
within B/4 of the center of the footing. . the maximum allowable contact stress exceed the allow-
The bearing capacity and settlement of footings on able bearing stress in the concrete. The RQD used in Fig-
rock is influenced by the presence, orientation and condi- ure 4.4.8.1.1 A shall be the average RQD for the rock
tion of discontinuities, weathering profiles, and other sim- within a depth of B below the base of the footing, where
ilar features. The methods used for design of footings on the RQD values are relatively uniform within that inter-
rock should consider these factors as they apply at a par- val. If rock within a depth of 0.5B below the base of the
ticular site, and the degree to which they should be incor- footing is of poorer quality, the RQD of the poorer rock
porated in the design. shall be used to determine Qa11.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock 4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent rock is
The design of footings on broken or jointed rock must
defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that are tight
or open not wider than Ya inch. For footings on less com- account for the condition and spacing of joints and other
petent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses discontinuities. The ultimate bearing capacity of footings
should be used to account for the effects of weathering, on broken or jointed rock may be estimated using the fol-
lowing relationship:
the presence and condition of discontinuities, and other
geologic factors.
(4.4.8.1.2-1)
4.4.8.1 Bearing Capacity
Refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2A for values of Nms. Values of
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock Co should preferably be determined from the results of
laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within 28 of the
The allowable contact stress for footings supported on base of the footing. Where rock strata within this interval
level surfaces in competent rock may be determined using are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest capacity
.;
•.•.,.
--a
u
-c:
0
u
-a•
.0
If RQO is fairly uniform,
use average RQO within d • 8
s If RQO within d • 8/4 is lower,
-0
cC
use lower RQO
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
RQO (Y.)
Note:
qall sha II not exceed the unconfined compressive strength
of the rock or O.S9!5 f 'c of the concrete.
FIGURE 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight Discontinuities
Peck, et al. (1974)
should be used to determine qu11 • Alternatively, Table mass characteristics must be made. For rock masses which
4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate C 0 • For have time-dependent settlement characteristics, the proce-
rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of qu 11 should dure in Article 4.4. 7 .2.3 may be followed to determine the
be determined as the value of qu 11 for an equivalent soil time-dependent component of settlement.
mass.
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety Where the criteria for competent rock are not met, the
influence of rock type, condition of discontinuities and de-
Spread footings on rock shall be designed for Group 1
gree of weathering shall be considered in the settlement
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
analysis.
against a bearing capacity failure.
The elastic settlement of footings on broken or jointed
rock may be determined using the following:
4.4.8.2 Settlement
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock • Por circular (or square) footings;
For footings on competent rock, elastic settlements will p = q11 (I - v2)ri 1/Em, with 111 = (y;;;)/()l
generally be less than Y2 inch when footings are designed
in accordance with Article 4.4.8.1.1. When elastic settle- (4.4.8.2.2-1)
ments of this magnitude are unacceptable or when the rock
is not competent, an analysis of settlement based on rock • For rectangular footings;
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient Nms for Estimation of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings on
Broken or Jointed Rock (Modified after Hoek, (1983))
Rock Mass RMR< 1> NGJ<2> RQD< 3> N ms<4>
u
~ .
Quality
Excellent
General Description
Intact rock with joints spaced

> 10 feet apart
Rating Rating
100 500
(%)
95-100 3.8
A
4.3
B c
5.0
D
5.2
E
6.1
Very good Tightly interlocking, undis- 85 100 90-95 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.3
turbed rock with rough
unweathered joints spaced 3 to
10 feet apart
Good Fresh to slightly weathered 65 10 75-90 0.28 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.46
rock, slightly disturbed with
joints spaced 3 to 10 feet apart
Fair Rock with several sets of mod- 44 50-75 0.049 0.056 0.066 0.069 0.081
erately weathered joints spaced
1 to 3 feet apart
Poor Rock with numerous weathered 23 0.1 25-50 0.015 0.016 0.019 0.020 0.024
joints spaced 1 to 20 inches
apart with some gouge
Very poor Rock with numerous highly 3 0.01 <25 Use quu for an equivalent soil mass
weathered joints spaced < 2
inches apart
CI'Geomecbanics Rock Mass Rating (RMQ) System-Bieniawski, 1988.
<Z>Norwegian Geotedlllicallnstitute (NGI) Rock Mass ClassifiC81ion System, Barton, et al., 1974.
<3>Raoge of RQD values provided for general guidance only; actual determination of rock mass quality should be based on RMR or NG1 rating
systems.
<4 >value Of Nms as a function of rock type; refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2B for typical range of values of Co for different rock type in each category.
TABLE 4.4.8.1.28 'I)'pical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (C0 ) as a Function of

Rock Category and Rock Type
Co(l)
Rock
Category <Jeneral~ption Rock 'I)'pe (ksf) (psi)
A Carbonate rocks with well- Dolostone 700- 6,500 4,800-45,000
developed crystal cleavage Limestone 500- 6,000 3,500-42,000
Carbonatite 800- 1,500 5,500-10,000
Marble 800- 5,000 5,500-35,000
Tactite-Skarn 2, 700- 7,000 19,000-49,000
8 Lithified argillaceous rock Argillite 600- 3,000 4,200-21,000
Claystone 30- 170 200- 1,200
Marls tone 1,000- 4,000 7 ,600-2~,000
Phyllite 500- 5,000 3,500-35,000
Siltstone 200- 2,500 1,400-17,000
Shale<2> 150- 740 1,000- 5,100
Slate 3,000- 4,400 21,000-30,000
c Arenaceous rocks with strong Conglomerate 700- 4,600 4,800-32,000
crystals and poor cleavage Sandstone 1,400- 3,600 9, 700-25,000
Quartzite 1,300- 8,000 9,000-55,000
D Fine-grained igneous Andesite 2,100- 3,800 14,000-26,000
crystalline rock Diabase 450-12,000 3,100-83,000
E Coarse-grained igneous and Amphibolite 2,500- 5,800 17,000-40,000
metamorphic crystalline rock Gabbro 2,600- 6,500 18,000-45,000
Gneiss 500- 6,500 3,500-45,000
Granite 300- 7,000 2, 100-49,000
Quartzdiorite 200- 2,100 1,400-14,000
Quartzmonzonite 2,700- 3,300 19,000-23,000
Schist 200- 3,000 1,400-21,000
Syenite 3,800- 9,000 26,000-62,000
U'Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength values reponed by various investigations.
~t including oil shale.
p = qo (1 - v2)BI/Em. with IP = (UB) 112

/~z ae = 0.0231(RQD)- 1.32 ~ 0.15 (4.4.8.2.2-4)
(4.4.8.2.2-2)
For preliminary design or when site-specific test data can-
Values of Ip may be computed using the ~z values pre- not be obtained, guidelines for estimating values of Eo
sented in Table 4.4. 7.2.2B from Article 4.4. 7.2.2 for rigid (such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.28 or Figure
footings. Values of Poisson's ratio (u) for typical rock 4.4.8.2.2A) may be used. For preliminary analyses or for
types are presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2A. Determination of final design when in-situ test results are not available, a
the rock mass modulus (Em) should be based on the results value of ae = 0.15 should be used to estimate Em.
of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values of Em
may be estimated by multiplying the intact rock modulus 4.4.8.2.3 Tolerable Movement
(Eo) obtained from uniaxial compression tests by a reduc- Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3.
tion factor (ae) which accounts for frequency of disconti-
nuities by the rock quality designation (RQD), using the 4.4.9 Overall Stability
following relationships (Gardner, 1987):
The overall stability of footings, slopes, and founda-
(4.4.8.2.2-3) tion soil or rock shall be evaluated for footings located on
c .
'
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poisson's Ratio for Intact Rock
No. of
Modified after Kulhawy (1978)
No. of
Rock Poisson's Ratio, v Standard
Rock1)rpe Values 1)rpes Maximum Minimum Mean Deviation
Granite 22 22 0.39 0.09 0.20 0.08
Gabbro 3 3 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.02
Diabase 6 6 0.38 0.20 0.29 0.06
Basalt 11 11 0.32 0.16 0.23 0.05
Quartzite 6 6 0.22 0.08 0.14 0.05
Marble 5 5 0.40 0.17 0.28 0.08
Gneiss 11 11 0.40 0.09 0.22 0.09
Schist 12 11 0.31 0.02 0.12 0.08
Sandstone 12 9 0.46 0.08 0.20 0.11
Siltstone 3 3 0.23 0.09 0.18 0.06
Shale 3 3 0.18 0.03 0.09 0.06
Limestone 19 19 0.33 0.12 0.23 0.06
Dolostone 5 5 0.35 0.14 0.29 0.08
0 .
TABLE 4.4.8.2.28 Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock

Modified after Kulhawy (1978)
No. of Elastic Modulus, Eo

(psi x 1Q6)U>
No. of Rock Standard
Rock'JYpe Values '!Ypes Maximum Minimum Mean Deviation
Granite 26 26 14.5 0.93 7.64 3.55
Diorite 3 3 16.2 2.48 7.45 6.19
Gabbro 3 3 12.2 9.80 11.0 0.97
Diabase 7 7 15.1 10.0 12.8 1.78
Basalt 12 12 12.2 4.20 8.14 2.60
Quartzite 7 7 12.8 5.29 9.59 2.32
Marble 14 13 10.7 0.58 6.18 2.49
Gneiss 13 13 11.9 4.13 8.86 2.31
Slate 11 2 3.79 0.35 1.39 0.96
Schist 13 12 10.0 0.86 4.97 3.18
Phyllite 3 3 2.51 1.25 1.71 0.57
Sandstone 27 19 5.68 0.09 2.13 1.19
Siltstone 5 5 4.76 0.38 2.39 1.65
Shale 30 14 5.60 0.001 1.42 1.45
Limestone 30 30 13.0 0.65 5.70 3.73
Dolostone 17 16 11.4 0.83 4.22 3.44
Q
.
<1>1.0 X 1Q6 psi = 1.44 X 10' ksf.

_,.p ~~
.,.
~:$)
"'/"
UPPER AND
MIDDLE CHALK
(H088S) CONCRETE
,,
#
GHIISS OI!ERI!
LtMISIONI!,
DOLOMITE
• BASALT AND OTMIA
F\.OW ROCKS
0.01 1000
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH Co- Pli a lo'
FIGURE 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock
Modified after Deere (1968)
or near a slope by limiting equilibrium methods of analy- 4.4.11 Structural Design

sis which employ the Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu,
Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope sta- 4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions
bility analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and
ground water levels are based on in-situ and/or laboratory 4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions
tests, the minimum factor of safety shall be I .3 (or 1.5
where abutments are supported above a slope). Otherwise, Footings shall be considered as under the action of
the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.5 (or 1.8 where downward forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted
abutments are supported above a retaining wall). by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation materi-
als and distributed over the area of the footings as deter-
mined by the eccentricity of the resultant of the downward
4.4.1 0 Dynamic/Seismic Design forces. Where piles are used under footings, the upward
reaction of the foundation shall be considered as a series
Refer to Division 1-A and Lam and Martin ( 1986a; of concentrated loads applied at the pile centers, each pile
1986b) for guidance regarding the design of footings sub- being assumed to carry the computed portion of the total
jected to dynamic and seismic loads. footing load.
4.4.1 1.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions porting a column, pier, or wall. For footings supporting
0 When a single isolated footing supports a column, pier

or wall, the footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
a column or pier with metallic base plates, the critical
section shall be measured from the location defined in
Article 4.4.11.2.
wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the actual con-
ditions of continuity and restraint. 4.4.1 1.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts
Shear on the critical section shall be in accordance with
4.4.11.2 Moments the following:
4.4. 11.2.1 Critical Section • Entire reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose
center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical
External moment on any section of a footing shall be section shall be considered as producing shear on
determined by passing a vertical plane through the foot- that section.
ing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over • Reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center
the entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section
plane. The critical section for bending shall be taken at the shall be considered as producing no shear on that
face of the column, pier, or wall. In the case of columns section.
that are not square or rectangular, the section shall be • For the intermediate position of pile or drilled shaft
taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent centers, the portion of the pile or shaft reaction to be
area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical sec- considered as producing shear on the critical section
tion shall be taken halfway between the middle and edge shall be based on linear interpolation between full
of the wall. For footings under metallic column bases, the value at dp/2 outside the section and zero value at
critical section shall be taken halfway between the column dp/2 inside the section.
face and the edge of the metaJlic base.
4.4.1 1.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement 4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement
0 Reinforcement of one-way and two-way square foot-

ings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing.
4.4. 11 .4.1 Development Length
Computation of development of reinforcement in
Reinforcement of two-way rectangular footings shall footings shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24
be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing through 8.32.
in the long direction. In the short direction, the portion of
the total reinforcement given by Equation 4.4.11.2.2-1
4.4.1 1.4.2 Critical Section
shall be distributed uniformly over a band width (centered
on center line of column or pier) equal to the length of the Critical sections for development of reinforcement
short side of the footing. The remainder of reinforcement shall be assumed at the same locations as defined in Arti-
required in the short direction shall be distributed uni- cle 4.4.11.2 and at all other vertical planes where changes
formly outside the center band width of footing. in section or reinforcement occur. See also Article
8.24.1.5.
Reinforcement in band width 2
Total reinforcement in short direction (~ + 1)
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column
( 4.4.11.2.2 -1)
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force
~ is the ratio of the footing length to width.
All forces and moments applied at base of column or
pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
4.4.11.3 Shear
concrete and by reinforcement.
4.4. 11.3. 1 Critical Section
4.4.11.5.2 lAteral Forces
Computation of shear in footings, and location of crit-
ical section, shall be in accordance with Articles 8.15.5.6 Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting foot-
0 or 8.16.6.6. Location of critical section shall be measured

from the face of column, pier or wall, for footings sup-
ing in accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Arti-
cles 8.15.5 .4 or 8.16.6.4.
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing overall thickness minus 3 inches. Extreme fiber stress in

tension shall not exceed that specified in Article
Bearing on concrete at contact surface between sup-
8.15.2.1.1. Bending need not be considered unless pro-
porting and supported member shall not exceed concrete
jection of footing from face to support member exceeds
bearing strength for either surface as given in Articles
footing thickness.
8.15.2 or 8.16.7.
4.4.1 1.6.2 Pedestals
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement
The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral
Reinforcement shall be provided across interface be-
dimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not exceed 3.
tween supporting and supported member either by ex-
tending main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or
by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be suffi-
4.5 DRIVEN PILES
cient to satisfy all of the following:
• Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force 4.5.1 General

that exceeds concrete bearing strength in supporting
or supported member. The provisions of this article shall apply to the design
• If required loading conditions include upliftt total of axially and laterally loaded driven piles in soil or ex-
tensile force shall be resisted by reinforcement. tending through soil to rock.
• Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005
times gross area of supported membert with a mini- 4.5.1.1 Application
mum of four bars.
Piling may be considered when footings cannot be
4.4.1 1.5.5 Dowel Size
founded on rock, or on granular or stiff cohesive soils
Diameter of dowelst if used, shall not exceed diameter within a reasonable depth. At locations where soil condi-
of longitudinal reinforcement by more than 0.15 inch. tions would normally permit the use of spread footings but
the potential for scour exists, piles may be used as a pro-
4.4. 11 .5.6 Development Length tection against scour. Piles may also be used where an un-
acceptable amount of settlement of spread footings may
For transfer of force by reinforcement, development of occur.
reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall
be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32.
4.5.1.2 Materials
4.4.1 1.5.7 Splicing
Piles may be structural steel sections, steel pipe, pre-
At footings, No. 14 and 18 main longitudinal rein- cast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, prestressed con-
forcement, in compression only, may be lap spliced with crete, timber, or a combination of materials. In every case,
footing dowels to provide the required area, but not less materials shall be supplied in accordance with the provi-
than that required by Article 4.4.11.5.4. Dowels shall not sions of this article.
be larger than No. 11 and shall extend into the column a
distance of not less than the development length of the No.
14 or 18 bars or the splice length of the dowels, whichever 4.5.1.3 Penetration
is greater; and into the footing a distance of not less than
the development length of the dowels. Pile penetration shall be determined based on vertical
and lateral load capacities of both the pile and subsurface
materials. In generalt the design penetration for any pile
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings shall be not less than I 0 feet into hard cohesive or dense
granular material nor less than 20 feet into soft cohesive
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress or loose granular material. Where the depth to dense ma-
terial or rock is less than I 0 feet, spread footings should
Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals be considered. Piles for trestle or pile bents shall meet the
shall be computed assuming a linear stress distribution. above requirements and, additionally, unless refusal is en-
For footings and pedestals cast against soilt effective countered, shall penetrate not less than Yl the unsupported
thickness used in computing stresses shall be taken as the length of the pile.
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint 4.5.2 Pile Types
No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or loose Piles shall be classified as ••friction" or "end bearing"
upper stratum overlying a hard or firm stratum unless the or a combination of both according to the manner in
piles penetrate the hard or firm stratum by a sufficient dis- which load transfer is developed.
tance to fix the ends against lateral movement of the pile
tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to accom-
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles
plish this penetration.
A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths
major portion of support capacity is derived from soil re-
sistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be
shown on the plans and shall be based upon careful eval-
uation of available subsurface information, static and lat- 4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles
eral capacity calculations, and/or past experience.
A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation the major portion of support capacity is derived from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip
Estimated and minimum pile tip elevations for each rests.
substructure should be shown on the contract plans. Esti-
mated pile tip elevations shall reflect the elevation where
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing
the required ultimate pile capacity can be obtained. Min-
Piles
imum pile tip elevations shall reflect the penetration re-
quired to support lateral pile loads (including scour con-
Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile ma-
siderations where appropriate) and/or penetration of
terials, the bearing capacity of a pile may be considered as
overlying, unsuitable soil strata.
the sum of the resistance mobilized on the embeddea shaft
0
.
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill
and that developed at the pile tip. even though the forces
that are mobilized simultaneously are not necessarily
maximum values.
Piles to be driven through embankments shall pene-
trate a minimum of 10 feet through original ground unless
refusal on bedrock or competent bearing strata occurs at a 4.5.2.4 Batter Piles
lesser penetration. Fill used for embankment construction
shall be a select material which shall not obstruct pile pen- When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the
etration to the required depth. The maximum size of any piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces
rock particles in the fill shall not exceed 6 inches. Pre- transmitted to the foundation, or when increased rigidity
drilling or spudding pile locations may be required, par- of the entire structure is required, batter piles should be
ticularly for displacement piles. used in the foundation. Where negative skin friction loads
are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an alter-
4.5.1.8 Test Piles nate method of providing lateral restraint should be used.
Test piles shall be considered for each substructure unit 4.5.3 Notations
(See Article 7 .1.1 for definition of substructure unit) to de-
termine pile installation characteristics, evaluate pile ca- The following notations shall apply for the design of
pacity with depth and to establish contractor pile order driven pile foundations:
lengths. Piles may be tested by static loading, dynamic
testing, conducting driveability studies, or a combination As = Area of pile circumference (ft2)
thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface condi- A, = Area of pile tip (ft2)
tions. The number of test piles required may be increased B =Pile diameter or width (ft)
in non-uniform subsurface conditions. Test piles may not f: =Concrete compression strength (ksi)
be required where previous experience exists with the fpc = Concrete compression stress due to prestressing
same pile type and ultimate pile capacity in similar sub- after all losses (ksi)
surface conditions. FS =Factor of safety (dim)
Fy =Yield strength of steel (ksi) The allowable design axial capacity shall be deter-
L = Pile length (ft) mined from:
Q 1111 = Design capacity (k)
Qs = Ultimate shaft resistance (k) (4.5.6.1-2)
QT = Ultimate tip resistance (k)
Qu11 = Ultimate pile capacity (k) 4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
r5 = Unit side resistance (ksi)
In determining the design axial capacity, consideration
Rs = Side resistance (k)
shall be given to:
r1 =Unit tip resistance (ksi)
R. = Tip resistance (k)
• The difference between the supporting capacity of a
p = Percentage of reinforcement (dim)
single pile and that of a group of pi1es;
O"a =Allowable stress (ksi)
• The capacity of an underlying strata to support the
load of the pile group;
The notations for dimension units include the follow- • The effects of driving piles on adjacent structures or
ing: dim = Dimensionless; ft = foot; square feet = ft 2 ; slopes;
k = kip; ksi = kip/in. 2; and in. = inch. The dimensional • The possibility of scour and its effect on axial and
units provided with each notation are presented for illus- lateral capacity;
tration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct com- • The effects of negative skin friction or downdrag
bination of units for the footing capacity procedures pre- loads from consolidating soil and the effects of up-
sented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional lift loads from expansive or swelling soils;
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed. • The influence of construction techniques such as
angering or jetting on capacity; and
4.5.4 Design Terminology • The influence of fluctuations in the elevation of the
ground water table on capacity.
Refer to Figure 4.5.4A for terminology used in the de-
sign of driven pile foundations. 4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesive soils
may be calculated using a total stress method (e.g., Tom-
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com- linson, 1957) for undrained loading conditions, or an ef-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials, are fective stress method (e.g., Meyerhof, 1976) for drained
required for driven pile design. Refer to Article 4.3 for loading conditions. The axial capacity may also be calcu-
guidelines for subsurface exploration to obtain soil and lated from in-situ testing methods such as the cone pene-
rock properties. tration (e.g., Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests
(e.g., Baguelin, I 978).
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity

4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils
The design pile capacity is the maximum load the The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless
pile shall support with tolerable movement. In determin- soils may be calculated using an empirical effective stress
ing the design pile capacity, the following items shall be method (e.g., Nordlund, 1963) or from in-situ testing
considered: methods and analysis such as the cone penetration (e.g.,
Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests (e.g.,
• Ultimate geotechnical capacity; and Baguelin, 1978).
• Structural capacity of the pile section.
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity For piles driven to competent rock, the structural ca-
p~city in Article 4.5.7 will generally govern the design
The ultimate axial capacity of a driven pile shall be de- axial capacity. For piles driven to weak rock such as shale
termined from: and muc;lstone or poor quality weathered rock, a static load
test is recommended. Pile relaxation should be considered
(4.5.6.1-1) in certain kinds of rock when performing load tests.
c
-
c
.
r-....-.~o-- HEAD
R9 = SHAFT RESISTANCE
Rr = TIP RESISTANCE
t L
0
=
=
PILE LENGTH
EMBEDMENT DEPTH
~rs 8 = PILE DIAMETER
L D As ::a CIRCUMFERENTIAL AREA
t At = TIP CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
t
SHAFT t
t
0 t
TIP
t
rt-j!l
tRr = At rt
FIGURE 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection 4.5.6.3 Settlement
The selection of the factor of safety to be applied to The settlement of axially loaded piles and pile groups
the ultimate axial geotechnical capacity shall consider at the allowable loads shall be estimated. Elastic analysis,
the reliability of the ultimate soil capacity determination load transfer and/or finite element techniques (e.g., Vesic,
and pile instalJation control. Recommended values for 1977 or Poulos and Davis, 1980) may be used. The set-
the factor of safety depending upon the degree of con- tlement of the pile or pile group shall not exceed the tol-
struction control specified on the plans are presented in erable movement limits of the structure.
Table 4.5.6.2A. All factors of safety are based on full-
time observation of pile installation. The design pile ca- 4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading
pacity shall be specified on the plans so the factor of
safety can be adjusted if the specified construction con- Group pile capacity should be determined as the prod-
trol is altered. uct of the group efficiency, number of piles in the group,
IDGHWAY BRIDGES 4.5.6.4
72
TABLE 4.S.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on 4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group

Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity Based on Specified The uplift design capacity for a pile group shaH be the
Construction Control
lesser of: (I) The single pile uplift design capacity multi-
Increasing Construction plied by the number of piles in the group, or (2} two-thirds
Control of the effective weight of the pile group and the soils con-
tained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
Subsurface exploration II>X X X X X group and the embedded length of the piles, or (3) one-
Static calculation X X X X X
Dynamic formula X half the effective weight of the pile group and the soil con-
Wave equation X X X X tained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
Dynamic measurement X X group and the embedded pile length plus one-half the total
and analysis
Static load test X X soil shear on the peripheral surface of the group.
Factor of safety 3.50 2.75 2.25 C2J2.0Q 1.90
•IIX = Construction Control Specified on Contract Plans. 4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement
tllfor any combination of construction control that includes an
approved static load test, a factor of safety of 2.0 may be used. The potential for external loading on a pile by vertical
ground movements shall be considered as part of the de-
sign. Vertical ground movements may result in negative
skin friction or downdrag loads due to settlement of com-
and the capacity of a single pile. In general, a group efii-
pressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to heave of
ciency value of 1.0 should be used except for friction piles
expansive soils. For design purposes, the full magnitude
in cohesive soils. The efficiency factor for friction piles in
of maximum vertical ground movement shall be assumed.
cohesive soils with a center-to-center pile spacing less
than 3.08 should be 0.7. Center-to-center pile spacings
less than 2.58 are not recommended. 4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction
The potential for external loading on a pile by negative
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible
soil shall be considered as a part of the design. Evaluation
The design of laterally loaded piles is usually governed of negative skin friction shall include a load-transfer
by lateral movement criteria. The design of laterally method of analysis to determine the neutrdl point (i.e.,
loaded piles shall account for the effects of soiVrock- point of zero relative displacement} and load distribution
structure interaction between the pile and ground (e.g., along shaft (e.g., Fellenius, 1984, Reese and O'Neill,
Reese, 1984). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate 1988). Due to the possible time dependence associated
capacity or deflection of laterally loaded piles (e.g., with vertical ground movement, the analysis shall con-
8roms, 1964a and 1964b; Singh,et al.,l971) may be used sider the effect of time on load transfer between the
for preliminary design only as a means to evaluate appro- ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed for
priate pile sections. the time period relating to the maximum axial load trans-
fer to the pile. If necessary, negative skin friction loads
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles that cause excessive settlement may be reduced by appli-
cation of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile sur-
The uplift design capacity of single piles and pile faces before installation.
groups shall be determined in accordance with Articles
4.5.6.6.1 and 4.5.6.6.2, respectively. Proper provision 4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil
shall be made for anchorage of the pile into the pile cap.
Piles driven in swelling soils may be subjected to up-
lift forces in the zone of seasonal moisture change. Piles
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile
shall extend a sufficient distance into moisture-stable
The uplift design capacity for a single pile shall not ex- soils to provide adequate resistance to swelling uplift
ceed one-third of the ultimate frictional capacity deter- forces. In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided
mined by a static anruysis method. Alternatively, the uplift between the ground surface and the underside of pile caps
capacity of a single pile can be determined by uplift load or grade beams to preclude the application of uplift loads
tests in conformance with ASTM D 3689 (ASTM, 1988). at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be reduced by application
If determined by load tests, the allowable uplift design ca- of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile surface in
pacity shall not exceed 50% of the failure uplift load. the swelling zone.
c .
4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-A for guidance regarding the design

of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
TABLE 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working Stress for
Round Timber Piles
Allowable Unit Working

Stress Compression
Parallel to Grain for
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section
Normal Duration of
Species Loading a. (psi)
4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements
Ash, white 1,200
Piles shall be designed as structural members capable Beech 1,300
of safely supporting all loads imposed on them by the Birch 1,300
structure or surrounding soil. Chestnut 900
Cypress, Southern 1,200
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface Cypress, Tidewater red 1,200
Douglas Fir, coast type 1.200
Douglas Fir, inland 1,100
For portions of piles in air or water, or in soil not ca- Elm, rock 1,300
pable of providing adequate lateral support throughout the Elm, soft 850
pile length to prevent buckling, the structural design pro- Gum, black and red 850
visions for compression members of Sections 8, 9, 10, and Hemlock, Eastern 800
13 shall apply except: timber piles shall be designed in ac- Hemlock, West Coast 1,000
cordance with Article 13.5 using the allowable unit Hickory 1.650
stresses given in Article 13.2 for lumber and in Table Larch 1,200
4.5.7.3A. Maple, hard 1.300
Oak, red and white 1,100
Pecan 1,650
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stresses in Piles
Pine, Lodgepole 800
Pine, Norway 850
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not ex-
0
Pine, Southern 1,200
ceed the following limits in severe subsurface conditions. Pine, Southern, dense 1,400
Where pile damage or deterioration is possible, it may be Poplar. yellow 800
prudent to use a lower stress level than the maximum al- Redwood 1,100
lowable stress. Spruce, Eastern 850
Tupelo 850
• For steel H-piles, the maximum allowable stress
shall not exceed 0.25Fy over the cross-sectional area
of the pile, not including the area of any tip rein-
forcement. The maximum allowable stress may be • For precast concrete piles, the maximum allowable
increased to 0.33Fy in conditions where pile damage stress shall not exceed 0.33f~ on the gross cross-sec-
is unlikely. Static and/or dynamic load test and eval- tional area of the concrete.
uation confirming satisfactory results should be per- • For prestressed concrete piles fully embedded in
formed when using 0.33Fy. soils providing lateral support, the maximo~ allow-
• For unfilled steel pipe piles, the maximum allowable able stress shall not exceed 0.33f: - 0.27fpc on the
stress shall not exceed 0.25Fy over the minimum gross cross-sectional area of the concrete.
cross-sectional area of the pile. The maximum al- • For round timber piles, the maximum allowable
lowable stress may be increased to 0.33Fy in condi- stress shall not exceed the values in Table 4.5.7.3A
tions where pile damage is unlikely. Static and/or for the pile tip area. For sawn timber piles. the val-
dynamic load test and evaluation confirming satis- ues applicable to "wet condition" for allowable com-
factory results should be performed when using pression parallel to grain shall be used in accordance
0.33Fy. with Article 13.2.
• For concrete filled steel pipe piles, the maximum
allowable stress shall not exceed 0.25Fy + 0.40f: 4.5.7.4 Cross~Section Adjustment for Corrosion
applied over the cross-sectional area of the steel
pipe and on the cross-sectional area of the concrete, For concrete-filled pipe piles where corrosion may be
respectively. expected, y,6 inch shall be deducted from the shell thick-
ness to allow for reduction in section due to corrosion.

Steel piles 0.90Fy (Compression)
Area of shell shall be included in determining percentage
0.90Fy (Tension)
of reinforcement, p.
Concrete piles 0.85f~ (Compression)
0. 70Fy of Steel Reinforcement
4.5.7.5 Scour (Tension)
Prestressed concrete piles 0.85f; - fpc (Compression)
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by Normal environments 3 ....;f! + fpc (Tension)
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies as described (f: and fpc must be in psi.
in Article 4.3.5. If heavy scour is expected, consideration The resulting max stress
shall be given to designing the portion of the pile that is also in psi.)
would be exposed as a column. In all cases, the pile length Severe corrosive
shall be determined such that the design structural load environments fpc (Tension)
may be safely supported entirely below the probable scour Timber piles 3a11 (Compression)
depth. The pile shall be of adequate cross-section to with- 3a11 (Tension)
stand the driving necessary to penetrate through the an-
ticipated scour depth to the design embedment. Driving stresses may be estimated by performing wave
equation analyses or by dynamic monitoring of force and
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion acceleration at the pile head during pile driving.
Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete en-

4.5.12 Tolerable Movement
casement or other corrosion protection shall be used on
steel piles and steel shells. Exposed steel piles or steel
Tolerable axial and lateral displacement criteria for driv-
shells shall not be used in salt or brackish water, and only
en pile foundations shall be developed by the structural
with caution in fresh water. Where the piling is exposed to
engineer consistent with the function and type of struc-
the abrasive action of the bed load of materials, the sec-
ture, fixity of bearings, anticipated service life, and con-
tion shall be increased in thickness or positive protection
sequences of unacceptable displacements on the structural
shall be provided.
performance. Driven pile displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis characterize the load deformation behavior of the founda-
tion materials. Refer to Article 4.4. 7 .2.5 for additional
The constructability of the pile foundation design guidance regarding tolerable vertical and horizontal
should be evaluated using a wave equation computer pro- movement criteria.
gram. The wave equation should be used to confirm that
the design pile section can be installed to the desired
depth, ultimate capacity, and within the allowable driving 4.5.13 Buoyancy
stress levels specified in Article 4.5.11 using an appropri-
ately sized driving system. The effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered
in the design as provided in Article 3. I 9.
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring
4.5.14 Protection Against Deterioration
Dynamic monitoring may be specified for piles in-
stalled in difficult subsurface conditions such as soils with 4.5.14.1 Steel Piles
obstructions and boulders, or a steeply sloping bedrock
surface to evaluate compliance with structural pile capac- A steel pile foundation design shall consider that steel
ity. Dynamic monitoring may also be considered for ge- piles may be subject to corrosion, particularly in fill soils,
otechnical capacity verification where the size of the proj- low ph soils (acidic) and marine environments. A field
ect or other limitations deter static load testing. electric resistivity survey, or resistivity testing and ph test-
ing of soil and ground water samples should be used to
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting
steel piling in corrosive environments include use of pro-
Maximum allowable driving stresses in pile material tective coatings, cathodic protection, and increased pile
for top driven piles shall not exceed the following limits: steel area.
c
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles 4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles
.
.
A concrete pile foundation design shall consider that 4.5.16.1 Size and Shape
'
deterioration of concrete piles can occur due to sulfates in
soil, ground water, or sea water; chlorides in soils and Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and
chemical wastes; acidic ground water and organic acids. shape but may be either of uniform section or tapered. In
Laboratory testing of soil and ground water samples for general, tapered piling shall not be used for trestle con-
sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to assess pile deterio- struction except for the portion of the pile which lies
ration potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in
ground water samples is recommended when chemical any location where the piles are to act as columns.
wac;tes are suspected. Methods of protecting concrete pil-
ing can include dense impermeable concrete, sulfate re- 4.5.16.2 Minimum Area
sisting portland cement, minimum cover requirements for
reinforcing steel, and use of epoxies, resins. or other pro- In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional
tective coatings. area, measured above the taper, of not less than 98 square
inches. In saltwater a minimum cross-sectional area of
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles 140 square inches shall be used. If a square section is em-
ployed, the comers shall be chamfered at least 1 inch.
A timber pile foundation design shall consider that de-
terioration of timber piles can occur due to decay from 4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles
wetting and drying cycles or from insects or marine bor-
ers. Methods of protecting timber piling include pressure The diameter of tapered piles measured at the point
treating with creosote or other wood preservers. shall be not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter
shall be considered as the least dimension through the
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment center.
0 4.5.15.1 Pile Footings
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing

4.5.16.4 Driving Points
Piles preferably shall be cast with a driving point and,

for hard driving, preferably shall be shod with a. metal
Pile footings shall be proportioned such that the mini-
shoe of approved pattern.
mum center-to-center pile spacing shall exceed the greater
of 2 feet 6 inches or 2.5 pile diameters/widths. The dis-
tance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of the 4.5.16.5 Vertical Reinforcement
pile footing shall not be less than 9 inches.
Vertical reinforcement shall consist of not less than
four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection iiZio Cap
pile, except that if more than four bars are used, the num-
The tops of piles shall project not less than 12 inches ber may be reduced to four in the bottom 4 feet of the pile.
into concrete after all damaged pile material has been re- The amount of reinforcement shall be at least l Y2 percent
moved, but in special cases, it may be reduced to 6 of the total section measured above the taper.
inches.
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps
The full length of vertical steel shall be enclosed with
Where a reinforced concrete beam is cast-in-place spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops. The spiral rein-
and used as a bent cap supported by piles. the concrete forcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of 3
cover at the sides of the piles shall be a minimum of 6 inches and gage of not less than No. 5 (U.S. Steel Wire
inches. The piles shall project at least 6 inches and Gage). In addition, the top 6 inches of the pile shall have
preferably 9 inches into the cap, although concrete piles five turns of spiral winding at l-inch pitch. For the re-
may project a lesser distance into the cap if the projec- mainder of the pile, the lateral reinforcement shall be a
tion of the pile reinforcement is sufficient to provide ad- No. 5 gage spiral with not more than 6-inch pitch, or Y..-
equate bond. inch round hoops spaced on not more than 6-inch centers.
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover equate lateral restraint. Where the shell is smooth pipe and
more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it may be considered as
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance load carrying in the absence of corrosion. Where the shell
from the face of the pile of not less than 2 inches and, is corrugated and is at least 0.075 inch in thickness, it may
when piles are used in saltwater or alkali soils, this clear be considered as providing confinement in the absence of
distance shall not be less than 3 inches. corrosion.
4.5.16.8 Splices 4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure
Piles may be spliced provided that the splice develops Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junc-
the full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on tion of the pile with the superstructure to make a suitable
the contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing that connection. The embedment of the reinforcement into the
provides equal results may be considered for approval. cap shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses 4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements
In computing stresses due to handling, the static loads The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength
shall be increased by 50% as an allowance for impact and so that it will hold its original form and show no harmful
shock. distortion after it and adjacent shells have been driven and
the .driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The plans
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell must be
approved by the Engineer before any driving is done.
4.5.17.1 Materials
4.5.17.7 Splices
Cast-in-place concrete piles shall be, in general, cast in
metal shells that shall remain permanently in place. How- Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the
ever, other types of cac;t-in-place piles, plain or reinforced, full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the
cased or uncased, may be used if the soil condi_tions per- contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing pro-
mit their use and if their design and method of placing are viding equal results may be considered for approval.
satisfactory.
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover
4.5.17.2 Shape
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform cross- not less than 2 inches from the cased or uncased sides.
section or may be tapered over any portion. When piles are in corrosive· or marine environments, or
when concrete is placed by the water or slurry displace-
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area ment methods, the clear distance shall not be less than
3 inches for uncased piles and piles with shells not suffi-
The minimum area at the butt of the pile shall be 100 ciently corrosion resistant.
inches and the minimum diameter at the tip of the pile
shall be 8 inches. Above the butt or taper, the minimum 4.5.18 Steel H-Piles
size shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements
Steel piles shall have a minimum thickness of web of
Cast.:.in-place piles, carrying axial loads only where the 0.400 inch. Splice plates shall not be less than % in. thick.
possibility of lateral forces being applied to the piles is in-
significant, need not be reinforced where the soil provides 4.5.18.2 Splices
adequate lateral support. Those portions of cast-in-place
concrete piles that are not supported laterally shall be de- Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile.
signed as reinforced concrete columns in accordance with The flanges and web shall be either spliced by butt weld-
Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, and the reinforcing steel shall ing or with plates that are welded, riveted, or bolted.
extend 10 feet below the plane where the soil provides ad- Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans. Prefabri-
4.5.18.2 DMSION I-DESIGN 77
cated splicers may be used if the splice can develop the a portion of the pile, the pile will be investigated for col-
net section of the pile in compression, tension, shear, and umn action. The provisions of Article 4.5.8 shall apply to
bending. unfilled tubular steel piles.
4.5.18.3 Caps 4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles
In general, caps are not required for steel piles embed- 4.5.20.1 Size and Shape
ded in concrete.
Prestressed concrete piles that are generally octagonal,
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers square or circular shall be of approved size and shape. Air
entrained concrete shall be used in piles that are subject to
These devices may be used to increase the bearing ca- freezing and thawing or wetting and drying. Concrete in
pacity of the pile where necessary. They may consist of prestressed piles shall have a minimum compressive
structural shapes-welded, riveted, or bolted-of plates strength, f~, of 5,000 psi at 28 days. Prestressed concrete
welded between the flanges, or of timber or concrete piles may be solid or hollow. For hollow piles, precau-
blocks securely fastened. tionary measures should be taken to prevent breakage due
to internal water pressure during driving, ice pressure in
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments trestle piles, and gas pressure due to decomposition of ma-
terial used to form the void.
If pile penetration through cobbles, boulders, debris fill
or obstructions is anticipated, pile tips shall be reinforced 4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement
with structural shapes or with prefabricated cast steel
points. Cast steel points shall meet the requirements of Main reinforcement shall be spaced and stressed so as
ASTMA27. to provide a compressive stress on the pile after losses, fpe,
general not less than 700 psi to prevent cracking during
4.5.19 Unfilled 'fubular Steel Piles handling and installation. Piles shall be designed to resist
stresses developed during handling as well as under ser-
0 4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness
Piles shall have a minimum thickness not less than in-

vice load conditions. Bending stresses shall be investi-
gated for all conditions of handling, taking into account
the weight of the pile plus 50-percent allowance for im-
dicated in the following table: pact, with tensile stresses limited to sv'f[. .
Outside Diameter Less than 14 inches 4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement
14 inches and over
Wall Thickness 0.25 inch 0.375 inch The full length of vertical reinforcement shall be en-
closed within spiral reinforcement. For piles up to 24
4.5.19.2 Splices inches in diameter, spiral wire shall be No.5 (U.S. Steel
Wrre Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the ends of these piles
Piles shall be spliced to develop the full section of the shall have a pitch of 3 inches for approximately 16 turns.
pile. The piles shall be spliced either by butt welding or In addition, the top 6 inches of pile shall have five turns of
by the use of welded sleeves. Splices shall be detailed on spiral winding at l-inch pitch. For the remainder of the
the contract plans. pile, the vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral rein-
forcement with not more than 6-inch pitch. For piles hav-
4.5.19.3 Driving ing diameters greater than 24 inches, spiral wire shall be
No.4 (U.S. Steel Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the
Thbular steel piles may be driven either closed or open end of these piles shall have a pitch of 2 inches for ap-
ended. Closure plates should not extend beyond the proximately 16 turns. In addition, the top 6 inches,ofpile
perimeter of the pile. shall have four turns of spiral winding at 1Y2 inches. For
the remainder of the pile, the vertical steel shall· be en-
4.5.19.4 Column Action closed with spiral reinforcement with not more than 4-
inch pitch. The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear
Where the piles are to be used as part of a bent struc- distance from the face of the prestressed pile of not less
0 ture or where heavy scour is anticipated that would expose than 2 inches.
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles 4.6.1.1 Application
Large diameter hollow cylinder piles shall be of ap- Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings
proved size and shape. The wall thickness for cylinder cannot be founded on suitable soil or rock strata within a
piles shall not be less than 5 inches. The grouting of post- reasonable depth and when piles are not economically vi-
tensioning tendons shall be in accordance with Article able due to high loads or obstructions to driving. Drilled
4.33.9. Division II. shafts may be used in lieu of spread footings as a protec-
tion against scour. Drilled shafts may also be considered
4.5.20.5 Splices to resist high lateral or uplift loads when deformation tol-
erances are small.
When prestressed concrete piles are spliced, the .splice
shall be capable of developing the full section of the pile: 4.6.1.2 Materials
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.
Shafts shall be cast-in-place concrete and may include
4.5.21 Timber Piles deformed bar steel reinforcement, structural steel sections,
and/or permanent steel casing as required by design. In
4.5.21.1 Materials every case, materials shall be supplied in accordance with
the provisions of this Standard.
Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the
"Specifications for Wood Products," AASHTO M 168.
Timber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on 4.6.1.3 Construction
the contract plans. Preservative treatment shall conform to
the requirements of Section 16. "Preservative Treatments Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry, casing,
for Lumber.., or wet method of construction, or a combination of meth-
ods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete placement,
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber and all other aspects of shaft construction shall be
Pile Use performed in conformance with the provisions of this
Standard.
Untreated timber piles may be used for te~porary con-
struction, revetments, fenders, and similar work, and in 4.6.1.4 Embedment
permanent construction under the following conditions:
Shaft embedment shall be determined based on verti-
• For foundation piling when the cutoff is below per- cal and lateral load capacities of both the shaft and sub-
manent ground water level. surface materials.
• For trestle construction when it is economical to do
so, although treated piles are preferable.
• They shall not be used where they will, or may, be 4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter
exposed to marine borers.
• They shall not be used where seismic design con- For rock-socketed shafts which require casing through
siderations are critical. the overburden soils, the socket diameter should be at
least 6 inches less than the inside diameter of the casing
4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use to facilitate drill tool insertion and removal through the
casing. For rock-socketed shafts not requiring casing
Treated timber piles shall not be used where seismic through the overburden soils, the socket diameter can be
design considerations are critical. equal to the shaft diameter through the soil.
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS 4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts
4.6.1 General The use of battered shafts to increase the lateral capac-
ity of foundations is not recommended due to their diffi-
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design culty of construction and high cost. Instead, consideration
of axially and laterally loaded drilled shafts in soil or ex- should first be given to increasing the shaft diameter to ob-
tending through soil to or into rock. tain the required lateral capacity.
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill N = Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)

0 Shafts extending through embankments shall extend a
minimum of 10 feet into original ground unless bedrock
N'
Nc
=Standard penetration test blow count corrected
for effects of overburden (blows/ft)
= Bearing capacity factor (dim); (See Article
or competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration. 4.6.5.1.3)
Fill used for embankment construction shall be random Ni = Number of depth intervals into which shaft is di-
fill material having adequate capacity which shall not ob- vided for determination of side resistance (dim);
struct shaft construction to the required depth. Negative (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
skin friction loads due to settlement and consolidation of P =Lateral load on shaft (k)
embankment or underlying soils shall be evaluated for Q = Total axial compression load applied to shaft butt
shafts in embankments. (See Article 4.6.5.2.5.) (k)
QE = Ultimate unit tip capacity for an equivalent shaft
4.6.2 Notations for a group of shafts supported in strong layer
overlying weaker layer (ksf); (See ArticJe
The following notations shall apply for the design of 4.6.5.2.4.3)
drilled shaft foundations in soil and rock: qLo = Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in weaker underlying soil layer (ksf);
a =Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) Qu = Total axial uplift load applied to shaft butt (k)
A =Area of shaft (ft2) qup = Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
A, = Area of shaft tip (ft2) bearing in stronger upper soil layer (ksf); (See
b = Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter Article4.6.5.2.4.3)
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) Q5 = Ultimate side resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
B = Shaft diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.3) 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
Bb =Diameter of enlarged base (ft); (See Article qsR = Ultimate unit shear resistance along shaft/rock
4.6.3) interface (psi); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
B, = Least width of shaft group (ft); (See Article QsR =Ultimate side resistance of rock socket (k); (See
0 Br
B,
4.6.5.2.4.3)
= Diameter of rock socket (ft); (See ArticJe 4.6.3)
= Tip diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
qT
Article4.6.5.3.1)
= Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts (ksf); (See
Articles 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
Cm = Uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass qTR = Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts reduced for
(ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1) size effects (ksf); (See Equations 4.6.5.1.3-:3 and
Co = Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock 4.6.5.1.4-2)
(ksf) ~ =Ultimate tip resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
D = Shaft length (ft); (See ArticJe 4.6.3) 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
Dr = Length of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3) QTR = Ultimate tip resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Ec = Elastic modulus of concrete shaft or reinforced Article 4.6.5.3.2)
shaft (ksf) Qu11 = Ultimate axial load capacity (k); (See Article
= Elastic modulus of intact rock (ksf) 4.6.5.1)
Eo
= Elastic modulus of rock mass (ksf) RQD =Rock Quality Designation (dim)
Em
FS = Factor of safety (dim) Sui = Incremental undrained shear strength as a func-
fsi = Ultimate load transfer along shaft (ksf); (See Ar- tion over ith depth interval (ksf); (See Article
ticles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2) 4.6.5.1.1)
H = Distance from shaft tip to top of weak soil layer Su1 =Undrained shear strength within 2B below shaft
(ft); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3) tip (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
=Depth interval (dim); (SeeArtic1es4.6.5.1.1 and W = Weight of shaft (k)
4.6.5.1.2) Z; = Depth to midpoint of ith interval (ft); (See Arti-
Ips =Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed cle 4.6.5.1.2)
shafts loaded in compression (dim); (See Article a =Adhesion factor (dim)
4.6.5.5.2) ai = Adhesion factor as a function over ith depth in-
lpu =Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed terval (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.1)
shafts loaded in uplift (dim); (See Article ae = Reduction factor to estimate rock mass modulus
and uniaxial strength from the modulus and
0 4.6.5.5.2)
uniaxial strength of intact rock (dim); (See Article values used for design shall be confirmed by field and/or
4.6.5.3.1) laboratory testing.
~i = Load transfer factor in the ith interval (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.1.2) 4.6.4.2 Measured Values
-yj = Effective soil unit weight in ith interval (kef);
(See Article 4.6.5 .1.2) Foundation stability and settlement analyses for final
6Zi = ith increment of shaft length (ft) design shall be performed using soil and rock properties
t =Factor to account for reduced individual capac- based on the results of field and/or laboratory testing.
ity of closely spaced shafts in group (dim); (See
Article4.6.5.2.4.1)
4.6.5 Geotechnical Design
Pe = Elastic shortening of shaft (ft); (See Articles
4.6.5.5.1.1 and4.6.5.5.1.2)
Drilled shafts shall be designed to support the design
Ps = Total settlement displacement at butt for shaft
with rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2) loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity, and
Pu = Total uplift displacement at butt for shaft with with tolerable settlements in conformance with Articles
rock socket (ft); (See Equation 4.6.5.5.2) 4.6.5 and 4.6.6. In addition, the response of drilled shafts
1T = 3.1415 (dim) subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, materials and
u =Poisson's ratio (dim) shaft shall be evaluated in conformance with Articles
O'c =Unconfined compressive strength of rock mass 4.4.7.3 (dynamic ground stability) and 4.6.5.7, respec-
or concrete, whichever is weaker (psi); (See Ar- tively.
ticle 4.6.5.3.1) Shaft design shall be based on working stress princi-
cr:i =Effective vertical stress at midpoint of ith depth ples using maximum unfactored loads derived from cal-
interval (kst); (See Article 4.6.5.1.2) culations of dead and live loads from superstructures, sub-
structures, earth (i.e., sloping ground), wind and traffic.
The notations for dimension units include the follow- Allowable axial and lateral loads may be determined by
ing: dim = Dimensionless; deg = degree; ft = foot; k = separate methods of analysis.
kip; klft = kip/ft; ksf = kip/ft2; and kef= kip/ft3 • The di- The design methods presented herein for determining
mensional units provided with each notation are presented axial load capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform cross-
for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally cor- section, with vertical alignment, concentric axial loading,
rect combination of units for the shaft capacity and settle- and a relatively horizontal ground surface. The effects of
ment procedures presented below. If other units are used, an enlarged base, group action, and sloping ground are
the dimensional correctness of the equations should be treated separately.
confirmed.
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil
4.6.3 Design Terminology
The ultimate axial capacity (Qu1t) of drilled shafts shall
Refer to Figure 4.6.3A for terminology used in design be determined in accordance with the following for com-
of drilled shafts. pression and uplift loading, respectively:
Quit = Qs + Q,- - W (4.6.5.1-1)

4.6A Selection of Son and Rock Properties
QuitS 0.7Qs +W (4.6.5.1-2)
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
The allowable or working axial load shall be deter-
required for drilled shaft design.
mined as:
4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values (4.6.5.1-3)
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on Shafts in cohesive soils may be designed by total and
soil and rock may be used only for guidance, preliminary effective stress methods of analysis, for undrained and
design or design of temporary structures. The use of pre- drained loading conditions, respectively. Shafts in cohe-
sumptive values shall be based on the results of subsur- sionless soils shall be designed by effective stress meth-
face exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All ods of analysis for drained loading conditions.
eun
LAtERAL LOAD (P)
§
1
Q
1 ~ SUI£ RESISTANCE (Q1 )
8EU. USED AS NECESSARY;

SIZE VAlUES - NO LAROER soa<ET DIAUETER (B, )
1HAN 38
BEll DIAMElER (B,)
liP
1lP RESISTANCE (Q 1)
0 a. SHAFT IN SOIL b. SHAFT IN SOIL WllH ROCK SOCKET
FIGURE 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations
4.6.5.1. 1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil from a consolidating clay), effective stress methods (Ar-
ticle 4.6.5.1.2) should be used to compute Qs in the zone
For shafts in cohesive soil loaded under undrained
where such changes may occur.
loading conditions, the ultimate side resistance may bees-
timated using the following:
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
N
:t a.s
Qs = 1tB i=J .!J.z.I
I Ul
(4.6.5.1.1-1) For shafts in cohesionless soil or for effective stress
analysis of shafts in cohesive soils under drained loading
The ultimate unit load transfer in side resistance at any conditions, the ultimate side resistance of axially loaded
depth fsi is equal to the product of ai and Sui· Refer to Table drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
4.6.5.1.1 A for guidance regarding selection of ai and lim- N
iting values of fsi for shafts excavated dry in open or cased Qs =1tB i~t Yi zi (3i !J.zi (4.6.5.1.2- 1)
holes. Environmental, long-term loading or construction
factors may dictate that a depth greater than 5 feet should The value of ~i may be determined using the follow-
be ignored in estimating Q5 • Refer to Figure 4.6.5.1.1A ing:
for identification of portions of drilled shaft not consid-
ered in contributing to the computed value of Q8• For (3i = 1.5- 0.135~; 1.2 > (3i > 0.25 (4.6.5.1.2- 2)
shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading conditions,
Qs may be determined using the procedure in Article The value of 'Yi should be determined from measure-
4.6.5.1.2. ments from undisturbed samples along the length of the
Where time-dependent changes in soil shear strength shaft or from empirical correlations with SPT or other in-
0
'
may occur (e.g., swelling of expansive clay or downdrag situ test methods. The ultimate unit load transfer in side
TABLE 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of« and fs~ resistance at any depth, fsh is equal to the product of ~i and
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in a~. The limiting value of fsi for shafts in cohesionless soil
Cohesive Soil Reese and O'Neill (1988) is 4 ksf.
Limiting
Value of Load 4.6.5. 1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil
Value 'ftansfer, fsi For axially loaded shafts in cohesive soil subjected to
Location Along Drilled Shaft of a (ksO undrained loading conditions, the ultimate tip resistance
From ground surface to depth 0 of drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
along drilled shaft of S ft*
(4.6.5.1.3-1)
Bottom 1 diameter of the 0
drilled shaft or 1 stem diame- Values of the bearing capacity factor Nc: may be deter-
ter above the top of the bell (if mined using the following:
skin friction is being used)
All other points along the 0.55 5.5 (4.6.5.1.3-2)
sides of the drilled shaft
The limiting value of unit end bearing (qT = Nc:Su1) is
• The deplh of S ft may need adjustment if the drilled shaft is installed 80ksf.
in expansive clay, or if there is substantial groundline deflcc:tion
from lateral loading. The value of S01 should be determined from the results
of in-situ and/or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples
'+
Top Five Feet
Noncontributing
+
Bottom One Oiam11er *
of Stem
Noncontributing
f Periphery of Bell
*
Bottom One Diameter
Noncontributing Nonccmrtbuting
t ..._______ _1_
Straight Shalt Belled Shaft
• Two Diameters In Stiff Fisaured Cia,.
FIGURE 4.6.5.1.1A Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected for Estimation of

Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
Reese and O'Neill (1988)
obtained within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft. TABLE 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of qT•
0 If the soil within 2B of the tip is of soft consistency, the

value of Nc should be reduced by one-third.
If Bt > 6.25 feet (75 inches) and shaft settlements will
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Tip Resistance in
Cohesionless Soil after Reese and O'Neill (1988)
Standard
not be evaluated, the value of qT should be reduced to qTR Penetration Resistance
as follows: N
(Blows/Foot) ValueofqT
qTR =FAT= (2.5/[aBl12 + 2.5b])qT (4.6.5.1.3-3) (uncorrected) (kst)
a= 0.0071 + 0.0021(DIB 1); as 0.015 (4.6.5.1.3-4) Oto75 1.20N

Above 75 90
0
b = 0.45(Su .5; 0.5 S b S 1.5
1) (4.6.5.1.3-5) *Ultimate value or value at settlement of 5 percent of base diameter.
The limiting value of qTR is 80 ksf.

For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading con- given to the effects of negative skin friction (Article
ditions, QT may be estimated using the procedure de- 4.6.5.2.5) due to the consolidation settlement of soils sur-
scribed in Article 4.6.5.1.4. rounding the shaft. Where the shaft tip would bear on a
thin firm soil layer underlain by a softer soil unit, the shaft
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil shall be extended through the softer soil unit to eliminate
the potential for a punching shear failure into the softer
For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesionless soils
deposit.
or for effective stress analysis of axially loaded drilled
shafts in cohesive soil, the ultimate tip resistance may be
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water
estimated using the following:
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for
(4.6.5.1.4-1) design.
0 The value of qT may be determined from the results of

standard penetration testing using uncorrected blow count
readings within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases
An enlarged base (bell or underream) may be used at
the shaft tip in stiff cohesive soil to increase the tip bear-
Refer to Table 4.6.5.1.4A for recommended values of qT.
ing area and reduce the unit end bearing pressure, or to
If B1 > 4.2 feet (50 inches) and shaft settlements will
provide additional resistance to uplift loads.
not be evaluated, the value of qT should be reduced to qTR
The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be deter-
as follows:
mined assuming that the entire base area is effective in
transferring load. Allowance of full effectiveness of the
(4.6.5.1.4-2)
enlarged base shall be permitted only when cleaning of
the bottom of the drilled hole is specified and can be ac-
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil
ceptably completed before concrete placement.
4.6.5.2./ Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action
with Depth
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects
The design of shafts in layered soil deposits or soil de-
of negative skin friction (if any) are negligible.
posits having variable strength with depth requires evalu-
ation of soil parameters characteristic of the respective
4.6.5.2.4./ Cohesive Soil
layers or depths. Qs in such soil deposits may be estimated
by dividing the shaft into layers according to soil type and Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil
properties. determining Qs for each layer. and summing shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the
values for each layer to obtain the total Q 8 • If the soil ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
below the shaft tip is of variable consistency, Qr may be For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the
estimated using the predominant soil strata within 2B ground, Qu11 may be computed as the lesser of (I) the sum
below the shaft tip. of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group or
For shafts extending through soft compressible layers (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier defined in the
to tip bearing on firm soil or rock, consideration shall be perimeter area of the group. For the equivalent pier, the
shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed that the
(e.g., a 1) to determine the Qs component of Qu1tt the total full magnitude of maximum potential vertical ground
base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine movement occurs.
the Qr component of Qu~., and the additional capacity of Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a
the cap shall be ignored. load-transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load
the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual ca- distribution along shaft (e.g., Reese and O'Neill, 1988).
pacity of each shaft should be reduced to t times Qr for an Due to the possible time dependence associated with ver-
isolated shaft, where t = 0.67 for a center-to-center tical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the ef-
(CTC) spacing of 38 and t = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of fect of time on load transfer between the ground and shaft
68. For intermediate spacings, the value oft may be de- and the analysis shall be performed for the time period re-
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may lating to the maximum axial load transfer to the shaft.
then be computed as the lesser of ( 1) the sum of the mod- Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
ified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or (2) shall extend to a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils
the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above. to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift movement.
In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided between
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil the ground surface and underside of caps or beams con-
necting shafts to preclude the application of uplift loads at
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless the shaft/cap connection from swelling ground conditions.
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Uplift capacity shall rely only on side resistance in con-
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual formance with Article 4.6.5.1. If the shaft has an enlarged
capacity of each shaft should be reduced to t times Qr for base, Qs shall be determined in conformance with Article
an isolated shaft, where t = 0.67 for a center-to-center 4.6.5.2.3.
(CTC) spacing of 3B and t = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of
88. For intermediate spacings. the value oft may be de-
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Constntction
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may
be computed as the lesser of (I) the sum of the modified The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled
individual capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the shafts can be greatly affected by the quality and method(s)
capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group, of construction. The effects of construction methods are
including resistance over the entire perimeter and base incorporated in design by application of a factor of safety
areas. consistent with the expected construction method(s) and
level of field quality control measures (Article 4.6.5.4).
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Where the spacing between shafts in a group is re-
Weaker Soil stricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of
construction to minimize the effect of adjacent shaft con-
If a group of shafts is embedded in a strong soil deposit struction operations on recently constructed shafts.
which overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohe-
sive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for
a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata. For
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock
this case, the unit tip capacity of the equivalent shaft (qE)
may be determined using the following: Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit axial dis-
placements, increase load capacity and/or provide fixity
for resistance to lateral loading. In determining the axial
capacity of drilled shafts with rock sockets, the side resis-
If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil tance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored.
strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential '!Ypically, axial compression load is carried solely by
for large settlements in the weaker layer. the side resistance on a shaft socketed into rock until a
total shaft settlement (p5 ) on the order of 0.4 inches oc-
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement curs. At this displacement, the ultimate side resistance,
QsR, is mobilized and slip occurs between the concrete
The potential for external loading on a shaft by verti- and rock. As a result of this slip, any additional load is
cal ground movement (i.e., negative skin friction/down- transferred to the tip.
drag due to settlement of compressible soil or uplift due The design procedures assume the socket is con-
to heave of expansive soil) shall be considered as a part of structed in reasonably sound rock that is little affected by
c construction (i.e., does not rapidly degrade upon excava-

tion and/or exposure to air or water) and which is cleaned
prior to concrete placement (i.e., free of soil and other de-
bris). If the rock is degradable, consideration of special
construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re-
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance
Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (Qn) for rock-
socketed drilled shafts shall consider the influence of rock
discontinuities. QTR for rock-socketed drilled shafts may
be determined using the following:
duced socket capacities should be considered.
(4.6.5.3.2-1)
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance
The ultimate side resistance (QsR) for shafts socketed Preferably, values of Co should be determined from the
into rock may be determined using the following: results of laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within
2B of the base of the footing. Where rock strata within this
interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest
capacity should be used to determine QTR· Alternatively,
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3.1A for values of qsR- For uplift Table 4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate C 0 •
loading Qu11 of a rock socket shall be limited to 0.7QsR· For rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of Qn
The design of rock sockets shall be based on the un- cannot be less than the value of QT for an equivalent soil
confined compressive strength of the rock mass (Cm) or mass.
concrete, whichever is weaker (ac)- C 111 may be estimated
using the following relationship: 4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capaci~v in Rock
(4.6.5.3.1-2)
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification
Refer to Article 4.4.8.2.2 for the procedure to deter- Rock stratification shall be considered in the design of
mine aE as a function of RQD. rock sockets as follows:
'i' 400
-a.
r- _,_
-- --
~
~
,
y
/
v
v ,"'
LJ 200 ------ - - -- ./ ~
r--- --
/
vv
0
z
~ -- -f-- , /
II)
iii
~
v / 7
l&J
~
100 -· -- ·- - - ,. ··/ 1- --
l&J -· !.""' _/
...,.Iii"
-
0
iii
t-
~: ~---
-/ . ~~
~
z -----
...... v /
/
::::> 50
v __ -
ti
~
0
en
7-· -.-- - - ,
-f-- -
~
0
~ 20
200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000 20,000
UNCONnNED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK OR CONCRElE. WHia-tEVER IS WEAKER,ac(psi)
FIGURE 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts
0 Horvath, et al. (1983)

• Sockets embedded in alternating layers of weak and 4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts
strong rock shall be designed using the strength of
the weaker rock. The settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or
• The side resistance provided by soft or weathered allowable loads shall be estimated using elastic or load
rock should be neglected in determining the required transfer analysis methods. For most cases. elastic analysis
socket length where a socket extends into more com- will be applicable for design provided the stress levels in
petent underlying rock. Rock is defined as soft when the shaft are moderate relative to Qu11 • Where stress levels
the uniaxial compressive strength of the weaker rock are high, consideration should be given to methods of load
is less than 20% of that of the stronger rock, or transfer analysis.
weathered when the RQD is less than 20%.
• Where the tip of a shaft would bear on thin rigid rock 4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil
strata underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft shall be
extended into or through the weaker unit (depending Settlements should be estimated for the design or
on load capacity or deformation requirements) to working load.
eliminate the potential for failure due to flexural ten-
sion or punching failure of the thin rigid stratum. 4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil
• Shafts designed to bear on strata in which the rock
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil
surface is inclined should extend to a sufficient depth
may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.1 A and
to ensure that the shaft tip is fully bearing on the rock.
4.6.5.5.1.18. The curves presented indicate the propor-
• Shafts designed to bear on rock strata. in which bed-
tions of the ultimate side resistance (Qs) and ultimate tip
ding planes are not perpendicular to the shaft axis
resistance (Qr) mobilized at various magnitudes of settle-
shall extend a minimum depth of2B into the dipping
ment. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the
strata to minimize the potential for shear failure sum of the mobilized side resistance (Qs) and mobilized
along natural bedding planes and other slippage sur- tip resistance (Q1).
faces associated with stratification. The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.JA incorpomtes the
effects of elastic shortening of the shaft provided the shaft
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities is oftypicallength (i.e., D < 100ft). For longer shafts, the
The strength and compressibility of rock will be af- effects of elastic shortening may be estimated using the
fected by the presence of discontinuities (joints and frac- following:
tures). The influence of discontinuities on shaft behavior
will be dependent on their attitude, frequency and condi- Pe = PD/AEc (4.6.5.5.1.1-1)
tion, and shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as nec-
essary. For a shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the
diameter of the shaft at the base (8b) should be used in
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction Figure 4.6.5.5.1.18 to estimate shaft settlement at the tip.
Refer to Article 4.4. 7 .2.3 for procedures to estimate the
The effect of the method of construction on the engi- consolidation settlement component for shafts extending
neering properties of the rock and the contact between the into cohesive soil deposits.
rock and shaft shall be considered as a part of the design
process.
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesion-
less soil may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5. I .2A
Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be de- and 4.6.5.5. I .28. The curves presented indicate the
signed for a minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against bear- proportions of the ultimate side resistance (Qs) and
ing capacity f()ilure (end bearing, side resistance or com- ultimate tip resistance (Qr) mobilized at various magni-
bined) when the design is based on the results of a load test tudes of settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q)
conducted at. the site. Otherwise. shafts shall be designed is equal to the sum of the mobilized side resistance (Qs)
for a minimum factor of safety 2.5. The minimum recom- and mobilized tip resistance (Q1). Elastic shortening
mended factors of safety are based on an assumed normal of the shaft shall be estimated using the following rela-
level of field quality control during shaft construction. If a tionship:
normal level of field quality control cannot be assured,
higher minimum factors of safety shall be used. Pe = PD/AEc (4.6.5.5.1.2-1)
- Range of Res&llts
- - Trend Une - Range of Results
· - - - Trend Une
0.2
0.1
o.o ~~---_...._.......__,j..._......._"'----'--_,_--.1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8 1.8 2.0
Settlement
------,%
Diameter of Shaft
2 3 4 s a 1
Settlement of Base , %
a s ro
Diameter of Base
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in
Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.18 Load Transfer in
Cohesive Soil Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts in
After Reese and O'Neill (1988) Cohesive Soil
0 4.6.5.5./.3 Mixed Soil Profile

The short-term settlement of shafts in a mixed soil pro-
After Reese and O'Neill (1988)
Pu = Qu[(I.JB,Em> + (D/AEc)] (4.6.5.5.2-2)

file may be estimated by summing the proportional settle-
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine Ipu.
ment components from layers of cohesive and cohesion-
The rock mass modulus (Em) should be deter-
less soil comprising the subsurface profile.
mined based on the results of in-situ testing (e.g.,
pressure-meter) or estimated from the results of labora-
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock tory tests in which Em is the modulus of intact rock spec-
imens, and (E0 ) is estimated in accordance with Article
In estimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled 4.4.8.2.2.
shafts, the resistance to deformation provided by overly- For preliminary design or when site-specific test
ing soil deposits may be ignored. Otherwise, the load data cannot be obtained, guidelines for estimating
transfer to soil as a function of displacement may be esti- values of Eo. such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or
mated in accordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1. Figure 4.4.8.2.2A, may be used. For preliminary analyses
The butt settlement (p5 ) of drilled shafts fully sock- or for final design when in-situ test results are not
eted into rock may be determined using the following available, a value of aE = 0.15 should be used to esti-
which is modified to include elastic shortening of the mate Em.
shaft:
4.6.5.5.3 Tolerable Movemellt
p11 = Q[(lp!>IB,Em) + (D,/AE.J] (4.6.5.5.2-1)
Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2A to determine 1~. consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of
The uplift displacement (pu) at the butt of drilled shafts bearings, antiCipated service life, and consequences of un-
fully socketed into rock may be determined using the fol- acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
0 lowing which is modified to include elastic shortening of

the shaft:
Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be based on the
results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize
l8
tO
- Ran;• o1 ReiUita fer

C.flec1lon-Softlflfng ReiCIOf'lt
- Ran;e of Results
- - - Aln;t of RIIUita for
Defttcdon-Harc:ttmlg RIIPOftll · - - · Trend Une
- - - Trend Unt
0.00.0 o.2 0.4 0.6 o.8 lO 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 w " ~
Settlement , % Settlement of Base , "
Diameter of Shaft Diameter of ease
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.28 Load Transfer in

Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in Tip Bearing Versus SeUlement Drilled Shafts in
Cobesionless SoU Cohesionless Son
After Reese and O'Neill (1988) After Reese and O'Nelll (1988)
the load-deformation behavior of the foundation materials. 4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour

Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.5 for additional guidance regarding
tolerable vertical and horizontal movement criteria. The potential for loss of lateral capacity due to scour
shall be considered in the design. Refer to Article 1.3.2
4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hy-
draulic studies and design. If heavy scour is expected,
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall ac- consideration shall be given to designing the portion of
count for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction be- the shaft that would be exposed as a column. In all cases,
tween the shaft and ground (e.g., Reese, 1984; Borden and the shaft length shall be determined such that the design
Gabr, 1987). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate structural load can be safely supported entirely below the
capacity or deflection of laterally loaded shafts (e.g., probable scour depth.
Broms, 1964a,b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used for pre-
liminary design only as a means to determine approximate 4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action
shaft dimensions.
There is no reliable rational method for evaluating
4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts the group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded
shafts. Therefore, as a general guide, drilled shafts
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering in a group may be considered to act individually when
the center-to-center (CTC) spacing is greater than 2.5B
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered
in the direction normal to loading, and CTC > 8B in
soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters
the direction parallel to loading. For shaft layouts
characteristic of the respective layers.
not conforming to these criteria, the effects of shaft inter-
action shall be considered in the design. As a general
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water
guide, the effects of group action for in-line CTC < 8B
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for may be considered using the ratios (COS, 1985) appear-
design. ing on page 89.
4.6.5.6.1.4 DMSION I-DESIGN 89
0 '
-·
Ec
Em , ·0
0·2
0·5
0·6
l,os 0·~ 0·1 11
m•0·2~
0·4
0·01
0·08
0·07
0·3 O·Oe ~-~-~-~-~-~--+--:--:-~
0
0•2
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.28 Influence Coefficient for

Elastic Uplift Displacement of Rock-Socketed
Drilled Shafts
0 1
' 0 Modified after Pells and Thrner (1979)
4.6.5.6.1. 7 Sloping Ground

FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2A Influence Coefficient for For drilled shafts which extend through or below
Elastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts
0 Modified after Pells and Thmer (1979)

sloping ground, the potential for additional lateral
loading shall be considered in the design. The
general method of analysis developed by Borden
Ratio of Lateral and Gabr ( 1987) may be used for the analysis of shafts
CTC Shaft Spacing Resistance of Shaft in in stable slopes. For shafts in marginally stable slopes,
for In-line Loading Group to Single Shaft additional consideration should be given for ' low
8B 1.00 factors of safety against slope failure or slopes showing
6B 0.70 ground creep, or when shafts extend through fills over-
4B 0.40 lying soft foundation soils and bear into more competent
3B 0.25 underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable ground,
detailed explorations, testing and analysis are required to
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading evaluate potential additional lateral loads due to slope
movements.
The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic
cyclic loading on the load-deformation behavior of later-
ally loaded drilled shafts shall be considered during de- 4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements
sign. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic load- Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft
ing may be considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
1984). consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of
bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un-
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
The effects of lateral loading in combination with axial Drilled shaft lateral displacement analysis shall be based
loading shall be considered in the design. Analysis of on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to char-
drilled shafts subjected to combined loading may be con- acterize the load-deformation behavior of the foundation
sidered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, 1984). materials.
~
\~
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.6.5.6.7
90
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design not be less than 3 times the diameter of the bundled bars.
Where heavy reinforcement is required, consideration
Refer to Division 1-A and Lam and Martin (1986a; may be given to an inner and outer reinforcing cage.
J986b) for guidance regarding the design of drilled shafts
subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. 4.6.6.2.2 Splices
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in ten-
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft sion and compression. The location of splices shall be
staggered around the perimeter of the reinforcing cage so
Dimensions
as not to occur at the same horizontal plane. Splices may
be developed by lapping, welding, and special approved
4.6.6.1 General
connectors. Splices shall be in conformance with the re-
Drilled shafts shall be designed to insure that the shaft quirements of Article 8.32.
will not collapse or suffer loss of serviceability due to ex-
cessive stress and/or deformation. Shafts shall be de- 4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement
signed to resist failure following applicable procedures Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist
presented in Section 8. stresses caused by fresh concrete flowing from inside the
All shafts should be sized in 6-inch increments with a cage to the side of the excavated hole. Transverse rein-
minimum shaft diameter of I 8 inches. The diameter of forcement may be constructed of hoops or spiral steel.
shafts with rock sockets should be sized a minimum of 6
inches larger than the diameter of the socket. The diame-
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses
ter of columns supported by shafts shall be less than or
equal to B. Reinforcement cages shall be designed to resist han-
dling and placement stresses.
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement 4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover
Where the potential for lateral loading is insignificant, The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
driJied shafts need to be reinforced for axial loads only. not less than 2 inches from the permanently cased or 3
Those portions of drilled shafts that are not supported inches from the uncased sides. When shafts are con-
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete structed in corrosive or marine environments, or when
columns in accordance with Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement
and the reinforcing steel shall extend a minimum of 10 methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 4 inches
feet below the plane where the soil provides adequate for uncased shafts and shafts with permanent casings not
lateral restraint. sufficiently corrosion resistant.
Where permanent steel casing is used and the shell The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole
is smooth pipe and more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it using centering devices. All steel centering devices shall
may be considered as load carrying in the absence of be epoxy coated.
corrosion.
The design of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement 4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure
shaH be in conformance with the requirements of Articles
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the
8.18. I and 8.18.2.2, respectively. Development of de-
junction of the shaft with the superstructure to make a
formed reinforcement shall be in conformance with the
suitable connection. The embedment of the reinforcement
requirements of Articles 8.24. 8.26, and 8.27.
into the cap shall be in conformance with Articles 8.24
and 8.25.
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases
The minimum clear distance between longitudinal
reinforcement shall not be less than 3 times the bar diam- Enlarged bases shall be designed to insure that plain
eter nor 3 times the maximum aggregate size. If bars are concrete is not overstressed. The enlarged base shall slope
bundled in forming the reinforcing cage, the minimum at a side angle not less than 30 degrees from the vertical
clear distance between longitudinal reinforcement shall and have a bottom diameter not greater than 3 times the
c
diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the bottom edge of • Apparatus for measuring movements.
'
the enlarged base shall not be less than 6 inches. • Apparatus for measuring loads.
'
' • Procedures for loading including rates of load appli-

4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing cation, load cycling and maximum load.
• Procedures for measuring movements.
The center-to-center spacing of drilled shafts should be • Safety requirements.
38 or greater to avoid interference between adjacent • Data presentation requirements and methods of data
shafts during construction. If closer spacing is required, analysis.
the sequence of construction shall be specified and the in- • Drawings showing the procedures and materials to
teraction effects between adjacent shafts shall be evalu- be used to construct the load test apparatus.
ated by the designer.
As a minimum, the results of the load test(s) shall pro-
4.6. 7 Load Testing vide the load-deformation response at the butt of the shaft.
When appropriate, information concerning ultimate load
4.6.7.1 General capacity, load transfer, lateral load-displacement with
depth, the effects of shaft group interaction, the degree of
Where necessary. a full scale load test (or tests) should fixity provided by caps and footings, and other data perti-
be conducted on a drilled shaft foundation(s) to confirm nent to the anticipated loading conditions on the produc-
response to load. Load tests shaH be conducted using a test tion shafts shall be obtained.
shaft(s) constructed in a manner and of dimensions and
materials identical to those planned for the production
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection
shafts into the materials planned for support. Load testing
should be conducted whenever special site conditions or
Selection of an appropriate load test method shall be
combinations of load are encountered, or when structures
based on an evaluation of the anticipated types and dura-
of special design or sensitivity (e.g .• large bridges) are to
tion of loads during service, and shall include considera-
be supported on drilled shaft foundations.
tion of the following:
0 ~
'
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed

• The immediate goals of the load test (i.e., to proof
load the foundation and verify design capacity).
• The loads expected to act on the production founda-
written procedures which have been developed from ac-
tion (compressive and/or uplift, dead and/orlive),
cepted standards (e.g .• ASTM, 1989; Crowther, 1988) and
and the soil conditions predominant in the region of
modified, as appropriate, for the conditions at the site.
concern.
Standard pile load testing procedures developed by
• The local practice or traditional method used in sim-
ASTM which may be modified for testing drilled shafts
ilar soiVrock deposits.
include:
• Time and budget constraints.
• ASTM D 1143. Standard Method of Testing Piles
Under Static Axial Compressive Load;
• ASTM D 3689, Standard Method of Testing Indi-
vidual Piles Under Static Axial Tensile Load; and Parte
• ASTM D 3966, Standard Method for Testing Piles STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
Under Lateral Loads. LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
A simplified procedure for testing drilled shafts per- Note to User: Article Number 4. 7 has beell omitted ill-
mitting determination of the relative contribution of side temionally.
resistance and tip resistance to overall shaft capacity is
also available (Osterberg, 1984).
As a minimum, the written test procedures should in- 4.8 SCOPE
clude the following:
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design
• Apparatus for applying loads including reaction sys- of spread footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft
0 tem and loading system. foundations.

4.9 DEFINITIONS Nominal Resistance-The analytically estimated load-

carrying capacity of a foundation calculated using nomi-
Batter Pile-A pile driven at an angle inclined to the nal dimensions and material properties, and established
vertical to provide higher resistance to lateral loads. soil mechanics principles.
Combination End-Bearing and Friction Pile-Pile that Performance Factor-A factor used to modify a nom-
derives its capacity from the contributions of both end inal resistance, which accounts for the uncertainties asso-
bearing developed at the pile tip and resistance mobilized ciated with the determination of the nominal resistance
along the embedded shaft. and the variability of the actual capacity.
Deep Foundation-A foundation which derives its Pile-A relatively slender deep foundation unit,
support by transferring loads to soil or rock at some depth wholly or partly embedded in the ground, installed by driv-
below the structure by end bearing, by adhesion or fric- ing, drilling, augering, jetting, or otherwise, and which de-
tion or both. rives its capacity from the surrounding soil and/or from
Design Load-All applicable loads and forces or their the soil or rock strata below its tip.
related internal moments and forces used to proportion a Piping-Progressive erosion of soil by seeping water,
foundation. In load factor design, design load refers to producing an open pipe through the soil, through which
nominal loads multiplied by appropriate load factors. water flows in an uncontrolled and dangerous manner.
Design Strength-The maximum load-carrying capac- Shallow Foundation-A foundation which derives its
ity of the foundation, as defined by a particular limit state. support by transferring load directly to the soil or rock at
In load factor design, design strength is computed as the shallow depth. If a single slab covers the supporting stra-
product of the nominal resistance and the appropriate per- tum beneath the entire area of the superstructure, the foun-
formance factor. dation is known as a combined footing. If various parts of
Drilled Shaft-A deep foundation unit, wholly or the structure are supported individually, the individual
partly embedded in the ground, constructed by placing supports are known as spread footings, and the foundation
fresh concrete in a drilled hole with or without steel rein- is called a footing foundation.
forcement. Drilled shafts derive their capacities from the
surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock strata below 4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS, AND
their tips. Drilled shafts are also commonly referred to as RESISTANCE FACTORS
caissons, drilled caissons, bored piles or drilled piers.
End-Bearing Pile-A pile whose support capacity is 4.10.1 General
derived principally from the resistance of the foundation
material on which the pile tip rests. All relevant limit states shall be considered in the de-
Factored Load-Load, multiplied by appropriate load sign to ensure an adequate degree of safety and service-
factors, used to proportion a foundation in load factor ability.
design.
Friction Pile-A pile whose support capacity is de- 4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States
rived principally from soil resistance mobilized along the
side of the embedded pile. Service limit states for foundation design shall include:
Limit State-A limiting condition in which the foun-
dation and/or the structure it supports are deemed to be -settlements, and
unsafe (i.e., strength limit state), or to be no longer fully -lateral displacements.
useful for their intended function (i.e., serviceability limit
state). The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride-
Load Effect-The force in a foundation system (e.g., ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
axial force, sliding force, bending moment, etc.) due to the movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the
applied loads. superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or
Load Factor-A factor used to modify a nominal load of correcting the consequences of movement~ through
effect, which accounts for the uncertainties associated maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More
with the determination and variability of the load effect. stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
Load Factor Design-A design method in which safety
provisions are incorporated by separately accounting for 4.10.3 Strength Limit States
uncertainties relative to load and resistance.
Nominal Load-A typical value or a code-specified Strength Jimit states for foundation design shall
value for a load. include:
-bearing resistance failure, 4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS

-excessive loss of contact,
-sliding at the base of footing, 4.11.1 General Considerations
-loss of overall stability, and
-structural capacity. 4.11.1.1 General
Foundations shall be proportioned such that the fac- Provisions of this article shall apply to design of iso-
tored resistance is not less than the effects of factored lated footings, and where applicable, to combined foot-
loads specified in Section 3. ings. Special attention shall be given to footings on fill.
Footings shall be designed to keep the soil pressure
as nearly uniform as practicable. The distribution of soil
4.10.4 Strength Requirement pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil
and the structure, and with established principles of soil
Foundations shall be proportioned by the methods mechanics.
specified in Articles 4.11 through 4.13 so that their design
strengths are at least equal to the required strengths. 4.11.1.2 Depth
The required strength is the combined effect of the fac-
tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu- The depth of footings shall be determined with respect
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for to the character of the foundation materials and the possi-
each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, Rm bility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall
multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance) be founded at depth below the maximum anticipated
factor, <f>. Methods for calculating nominal resistance are depth of scour as specified in Article 4.11.1.3.
provided in Articles 4.11 through 4.13, and values of per- Footings not exposed to the action of stream current
formance factors are given in Article 4.1 0.6. shall be founded on a firm foundation and below frost
level.
Consideration shall be given to the use of either a
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors geotextile or graded granular filter layer to reduce sus-
0 .
Foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely

all load combinations stipulated in Article 3.22 which are
ceptibility to piping in rip rap or abutment backfill .
4.11.1.3 Scour Protection

applicable to the particular site or foundation type. With
the exception of the portions of concrete or steel piles that Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata
are above the ground line and are rigidly connected to the shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
superstructure as in rigid frame or continuous structures, depth or protected with a scour counter-measure. Footings
impact forces shall not be considered in foundation design. supported on massive, competent rock formations which
(See Article 3.8.1.) are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
Values of -y and ~ coefficients for load factor design, as cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state resistance shall be provided by drilling and grouting steel
considerations; while those for service load design (also dowels i1_1to the rock surface rather than blasting to embed
given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply to serviceability con- the footing below the rock surface.
siderations.
4.11.1.4 Frost Action
4.10.6 Performance Factors In regions where freezing of the ground occurs during
the winter months, footings shall be founded below the
Values of performance factors for different types of maximum depth of frost penetration in order to prevent
foundation systems at strength limit states shall be as damage from frost heave.
specified in Tables 4.1 0.6-1, 4.1 0.6-2, and 4.1 0.6-3, unless
regionally specific values are available. 4.11.1.5 Anchorage
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.1 0.6-1,
4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capac- Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid
ity, the performance factors chosen shall provide the same rock surfaces and which are not restrained by an overbur-
reliability as those given in these tables. den of resistant material shall be effectively anchored by
94 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4. I 1.1.5
TABLE 4.10.6-1 Perfonnance Factors for Strength Limit States for Shallow Foundations
Performance
1}rpe of Limit State Factor (~)
1. Bearing capacity
a. Sand
-Semi-empirical procedure using SPT data 0.45
-Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data 0.55
-Rational method-
using ~r estimated from SPT data 0.35
using ~' estimated from CPf data 0.45
b. Clay
-Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data 0.50
-Rational method
using shear strength measured in lab tests 0.60
using shear strength measured in field vane tests 0.60
using shear strength estimated from CPf data 0.50
c. Rock
-Semi-empirical procedure (Carter and Kulhawy) 0.60
2. Sliding
Sliding on clay is controlled by the strength of the clay when the clay shear
strength is less than 0.5 times the normal stress, and is controlled by the normal
stress when the clay shear strength is greater than 0.5 times the normal stress.
a. Precast concrete placed on sand
using 4»t estimated from SPT data 0.90
using 4»t estimated from CPT data 0.90
b. Concrete cast in place on sand
using 4»f estimated from SPT data 0.80
using 4»f estimated from CPT data 0.80
c. aay (where shear strength is less than 0.5 times normal pressure)
using shear strength measured in lab tests 0.85
using shear strength measured in field tests 0.85
using shear strength estimated from CPT data 0.80
d. aay (where the strength is greater than 0.5 times normal pressure) 0.85
where «1»1 = frictional angle of sand,
SPT = Standard Penetration Test,
CPT = Cone Penetration Test.
means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other 4.11.1.7 Uplift
suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas
shan be avoided where blasting is required for rock Where foundations may be subjected to uplift forces,
removal. they shall be investigated both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.11.1.6 Groundwater
4.11.1.8 Deterioration
Footings shan be designed for the highest anticipated
position of the groundwater table. Deterioration of the concrete in a foundation by
The influence of the groundwater table on bearing sulfate, chloride, and acid attack should be investi-
capacity of soils or rocks, and settlements of the struc- gated. Laboratory testing of soil and groundwater
ture shall be considered. In cases where seepage samples for sulfates, chloride and pH should be suffi-
forces are present, they should also be included in the cient to assess deterioration potential. When chemical
analyses. wastes are suspected, a more thorough chemical anal-
c TABLE 4.10.6-2
Ultimate bearing capacity

Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States in Axially Loaded Piles
Method/Soil/Condition
Skin friction a-method
Performance
Factor
0.70
of single piles P-method 0.50
A-method 0.55
End bearing Oay (Skempton, 1951) 0.70
Sand (Kulhawy, 1983)
ct»r from CPT 0.45
ct»r from SPT 0.35
Rock (Canadian 0.50
Geotech. Society,
1985)
Skin friction and end bearing SPT-method 0.45
CPf-method 0.55
Load test 0.80
Pile driving analyzer 0.70
Block failure Clay 0.65
Uplift capacity a-method 0.60
of single piles p-method 0.40
A-method 0.45
SPT-method 0.35
CPT-method 0.45
Load Test 0.80
0 Group uplift capacity Sand

Clay
0.55
0.55
ysis of soil and groundwater samples should be con- i = type of load

sidered. L' = reduced effective length (see Article
4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures Li = load type i
N = average value of standard penetration
In cases where foundations are placed adjacent to ex- test blow count (dimensionless)
isting structures, the inft uence of the existing structures on N111 , Ncnu Nqnl = modified bearing capacity factors used in
the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of the foun- analytic theory (dimensionless)
dation on the existing structures, shall be investigated. qc = cone resistance (in units of force/length 2)
qu11 = ultimate bearing capacity (in units of
4.11.2 Notations force/length 2 )
R1 = reduction factor due to the effect of load
B = footing width (in length units) inclination (dimensionless)
B' =reduced effective footing width (see Rn = nominal resistance
Article 4.11.4.1.5) (in length units) RQD = rock quality designation
= soil cohesion (in units of force/length 2) s = span length (in length units)
= correction factors for groundwater effect = undrained shear strength of soil (in units
(dimensionless) of force/length 2)
=depth to footing base (in length units) = load factor coefficient for load type i (see
= depth to groundwater table (in length Article 4.1 0.4)
units) 'Y = load factor (see Article 4.1 0.4)
= elastic modulus of rock masses (in units 'Y = total (moist) unit weight of soil (see Arti-
of force/length 2) cle 4.11.4.1.1)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.1 1.2
96
TABLE 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States

in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts
Performance
Method/Soil/Condition Factor
Side resistance in clay a-method (Reese & 0.65
Ultimate bearing capacity
of single drilled shafts O'Neill)
Base resistance in clay Total Stress 0.55
(Reese & O'Neill)
Side resistance in sand 1) Touma & Reese See
2) Meyerhof discussion
3) Quiros & Reese in article
4) Reese & Wright 4.13.3.3.3
5) Reese & O'Neill
Base resistance in sand 1) Touma & Reese See
3) Quiros & Reese in article
4) Reese & Wright 4.13.3.3.3
5) Reese & O'Neill
Side resistance in rock Carter & Kulhawy 0.55
Horvath and Kenney 0.65
Base resistance in rock Canadian Geotechnical 0.50
Society
Pressuremeter Method 0.50
(Canadian Geotech-
nical Society)
Side resistance and end bearing Load test 0.80
Block failure Cay 0.65
Uplift capacity of Clay a-method (Reese & 0.55
single drilled shafts O'Neill)
Belled Shafts 0.50
(Reese & O'Neill)
Sand 1) Touma & Reese See
3) Quiros & Reese in
4) Reese & Wright section
5) Reese & O'Neill 4.13.3.3.3
Rock Carter & Kulhawy 0.45
Horvath & Kenney 0.55
Load test 0.80
Group uplift capacity Sand 0.55
Cay 0.55
= differential settlement between adjacent 4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses

0 footings
= performance factor
= friction angle of soil
Foundation settlements shall be estimated using de-
formation analyses based on the results of laboratory or
in situ testing. The soil parameters used in the analyses
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability shall be chosen to reflect the loading history of the
Limit States ground, the construction sequence and the effect of soil
layering.
4.11.3.1 General Both total and differential settlements, including time
effects, shall be considered.
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement
and lateral displacement directions shall be investigated at
4.1 1.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on
service limit states.
Cohesionless Soils
Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated
when: Estimates of settlement of cohesionless soils shall
make allowance for the fact that settlements in these soils
-horizontal or inclined loads are present, can be highly erratic.
-the foundation is placed on an embankment slope, No method should be considered capable of predicting
-possibility of loss of foundation support through settlements of footings on sand with precision.
erosion or scour exists, or Settlement'i of footings on cohesionless soils may be
-bearing strata are significantly inclined. estimated using empirical procedures or elastic theory.
4.11.3.2 Loads 4.1 1.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils

Immediate settlement shall be determined using the For foundations on cohesive soils, both immediate and
service load combinations given in Table 3.22.1 A. Time- consolidation settlements shall be investigated. If the
0 dependent settlement shall be determined using only the

permanent loads.
Settlement and horizontal movements caused by em-
footing width is small relative to the thickness of a com-
pressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional loading
shall be considered. In highly plastic and organic clay,
bankment loadings behind bridge abutments should be in- secondary settlements are significant and shall be in-
vestigated. cluded in the analysis.
In seismically active areas, consideration shall be
given to the potential settlement of footings on sand re-
4.11.3.4.3 Settlements of Footings on Rock
sulting from ground motions induced by earthquake load-
ings. For guidance in design, refer to Division 1-A of these The magnitude of consolidation and secondary settle-
Specifications. ments in rock masses containing soft seams shall be esti-
mated by applying procedures discussed in Article
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria 4.11.3.4.2.
Vertical and horizontal movement criteria for footings

4.11.4 Safety Against Soll Fallure
shall be developed consistent with the function and type
of structure, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable movements on structure performance. The 4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Solls
tolerable movement criteria shall be established by em-
pirical procedures or structural analyses. Several methods may be used to calculate ultimate
The maximum angular distortion (8/s) between bearing capacity of foundation soils. The calculated value
adjacent foundations shall be limited to 0.008 for sim- of ultimate bearing capacity shall be multiplied by an ap-
ple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous span bridges. propriate performance factor, as given in Article 4.1 0.6, to
These 8/s limits shall not be applicable to rigid frame determine the factored bearing capacity.
structures. Rigid frames shall be designed for anticipated Footings are considered to be adequate against soil
differential settlements based on the results of special failure if the factored bearing capacity exceeds the effect
0 . analyses . of design loads.

4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation sure that: (l) the product of the bearing capacity and an
appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of ver-
The bearing capacity should be estimated using ac-
tical design loads, and (2) eccentricity of loading, evalu-
cepted soil mechanics theories based on measured soil pa-
ated based on factored loads, is less than ~ of the footing
rameters. The soil parameter used in the analysis shall be
dimension in any direction for footings on soils.
representative of the soil shear strength under the consid-
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foun-
ered loading and subsurface conditions.
dation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distri-
bution based on factored loads shall be used.
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures
The bearing capacity of foundation soils may be esti-
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table
mated from the results of in situ tests or by observing
foundations on similar soils. The use of a particular in situ Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined based
test and the interpretation of the results shall take local ex- on the highest anticipated position of groundwater level
perience into consideration. The following in situ tests at the footing location. In cases where the groundwater
may be used: table is at a depth less than 1.5 times the footing width
below the bottom of the footing, reduction of bearing
-Standard penetration test (SPT), capacity, as a result of submergence effects, shall be
-Cone penetration test (CPT), and considered.
-Pressuremeter test.
4. I 1.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test 4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of

Foundations on Rock
Bearing capacity may be determined by load tests pro-
viding that adequate subsurface explorations have been The bearing capacity of footings on rock shall consider
made to determine the soil profile below the foundation. the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities,
The bearing capacity determined from a load test may weathering profiles and other similar profiles as they
be extrapolated to adjacent footings where the subsurface apply at a particular site, and the degree to which they
profile is similar. shall be incorporated in the design.
Plate load test shall be performed in accordance with For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
the procedures specified in ASTM Standard D 1194-87 or direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
AASHTO Standard T 235. strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent
rock shall be defined as a rock mass with discontinuities
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values that are tight or open not wider than ~ inch. For footings
on less competent rock, more detailed investigations and
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on
analyses shall be performed to account for the effects
soil and rock, given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1, shall be used
of weathering, and the presence and condition of discon-
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
tinuities.
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify Footings on rocks are considered to be adequate
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall against bearing capacity failure if the product of the ulti-
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing. mate bearing capacity determined using procedures de-
The values given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-l are applicable scribed in Articles 4.11.4.2.1 through 4.11.4.2.3 and
directly for working stress procedures. When these values an appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
design loads.
are used for preliminary design, all load factors shall be
taken as unity.
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity
Bearing capacity of foundations on rock may be deter-
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a re- mined using empirical correlation with RQD, or other sys-
duced effective footing area (B' XL') shall be used in de- tems for evaluating rock mass quality, such as the Geo-
sign. The reduced effective area is always concentrically mechanic Rock Mass Rating (RMR) syste~ or
loaded, so that the design bearing pressure on the reduced Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass
effective area is always uniform. Classification System. The use of these semi-empirical
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to en- procedures shall. take local experience into consideration.
TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread Footing Foundations
0 Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy, 1982

Allowable Bearing Pressure (tst)
Recommended Value
Type of Bearing Material Consistency in Place Ordinary Range for Use
Massive crystalline igneous and Very hard, sound rock 60 to 100 80
metamorphic rock: graphite,
diorite, basalt, gneiss,
thoroughly cemented
conglomerate (sound
condition allows minor
cracks)
Foliated metamorphic rock: Hard sound rock 30 to 40 35
slate, schist (sound condition
allows minor cracks)
Sedimentary rock: hard cemented Hard sound rock 15 to 25 20
shales, siltstone, sandstone,
limestone without cavities
Weathered or broken bedrock of Medium hard rock 8 to 12 10
any kind except highly
argillacous rock (shale)
Compaction shale or other highly Medium hard rock 8 to 12 10
argillacous rock in sound
condition
Well-graded mixture of fine- and Very dense 8 to 12 10
0 coarse-grained soil: glacial till,

hardpan, boulder clay
(GW-GC, GC, SC)
Very dense 6 to 10 7
Gravel, gravel-sand mixtures,
boulder-gravel mixtures Medium dense to dense 4 to 7 5
(GW, GP, SW, SP) Loose 2 to 6 3
Very dense 4 to 6 4
Coarse to medium sand, sand
with little gravel (SW, SP) Medium dense to dense 2 to 4 3
Loose 1 to 3 1.5
Fine to medium sand, silty or Very dense 3 to 5 3
clayey medium to coarse sand Medium dense to dense 2 to 4 2.5
Loose 1 to 2 1.5
(SW, SM, SC)
Find sand, silty or clayey medium Very dense 3 to 5 3
Medium dense to dense 2 to 4 2.5
to fine sand (SP, SM, SC)
Loose 1 to 2 1.5
Very stiff to hard 3 to 6 4
Homogeneous inorganic clay,
Medium stiff to stiff 1 to 3 2
sandy or silty clay (CL, CH)
Soft 0.5 to 1 0.5
Very stiff to hard 2 to 4 3
Inorganic silt, sandy or clayey silt,
Medium stiff to stiff 1 to 3 1.5
varved silt-clay-fine sand
Soft 0.5 to 1 0.5
(ML, MH)
0 .
100
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method 4.11.5 Structural Capacity
The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on rock The structural design of footings shall comply to the
shall be determined using established rock mechanics provisions given in Articles 4.4.11 and 8.16.
principles based on the rock mass strength parameters.
The influence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall 4.11.6 Construction Considerations for
also be considered. Shallow Foundations
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test 4.11.6.1 General

Where appropriate, load tests may be performed to de-
termine the bearing capacity of foundations on rock. The ground conditions should be monitored closely
during construction to determine whether or not the
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values ground conditions are as foreseen and to enable prompt
intervention, if necessary. The control investigation
For simple structures on good quality rock masses, val- should be performed and interpreted by experienced and
ues of presumptive bearing pressure given in Table qualified engineers. Records of the control investigations
4.11.4.2.4-1 may be used for preliminary design. The use should be kept as part of the final project data, among
of presumptive values shall be based on the results of sub- other things, to permit a later assessment of the founda-
surface exploration to identify rock conditions. All values tion in connection with rehabilitation, change of neigh-
used in design shaH be confirmed by field and/or labora- boring structures, etc.
tory testing. The values given in Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 are di-
rectly applicable to working stress procedure, i.e., all the 4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring
load factors shall be taken as unity.
Prior to concreting footings or placing backfill, an ex-
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity cavation shall be free of debris and excessive water.
If the eccentricity of loading on a footing is less than Monitoring by an experienced and trained person
Y6 of the footing width, a trapezoidal bearing pressure should always include a thorough examination of the sides
shall be used in evaluating the bearing capacity. If the ec- and bottom of the excavation, with the possible addition
centricity is between Y6 and Y.a of the footing width, a of pits or borings to evaluate the geological conditions.
triangular bearing pressure shall be used. The maximum The assumptions made during the design of the foun-
bearing pressure shall not exceed the product of the ulti- dations regarding strength, density, and groundwater con-
mate bearing capacity multiplied by a suitable perfor- ditions should be verified during construction, by visual
mance factor. The eccentricity of loading evaluated using inspection.
factored loads shall not exceed Ys (37.5%) of the footing
dimensions in any direction. 4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding Compaction shall be carried out in a manner so that the
fill material within the section under inspection is as close
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that as practicable to uniform. The layering and compaction of
support inclined loads and/or are founded on slopes. the fill material should be systematic everywhere, with the
For foundations on clay soils, possible presence of a same thickness of layer and number of passes with the
shrinkage gap between the soil and the foundation shall be compaction equipment used as for the inspected fill. The
considered. If passive resistance is included as part of the control measurements should be undertaken in the form
shear resistance required for resisting sliding, considera- of random samples.
tion shall also be given to possible future removal of the
soil in front of the foundation. 4.12 DRIVEN PILES
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability 4.12.1 General
The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.5.1
soil or roc~ shall be evaluated for footings located on or through 4.5.21 with the exception of Article 4.5.6, shall
near a slope using applicable factored load combinations apply to strength design (load factor design) of driven
in Article 3.22 and a performance factor of0.75. piles. Article 4.5.6 covers the allowable stress design of
TABLE 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on Rock (After Putnam, 1981~
0 Code Year 1 Bedrock2

Sound
Foliated
Rock
Sound
Sedimentary
Rock
Soft
Roctl
Soft
Shale
Broken
Shale
Baltimore 1962 100 35 10 (4)
BOCA 1970 100 40 25 10 4 1.5
Boston 1970 100 50 10 10 (4)
Chicago 1970 100 100
Cleveland 1951/1969 25
Dallas 1968 .2qus .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu
Detroit 1956 100 100 9,600 12 12
Indiana 1967 .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu
Kansas City 1961/1969 .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu
Los Angeles 1970 10 4 3 1 1 1
New York City 1970 60 60 60 8
New York State 100 40 15
Ohio 1970 100 40 15 10 4
Philadelphia 1969 50 15 10-15 8
Pittsburgh 1959/1969 25 25 25 8 8
Richmond 1968 100 40 25 10 4 1.5
St. Louis 1960/1970 100 40 25 10 1.5 1.5
San Francisco 1969 3-5 3-5 3-5
Uniform Building 1970 .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu .2qu
Code
NBC Canada 1970 100
New South Wales, 1974 33 13 4.5
0 Australia
Note: 1-Year of code or original year and date of revision.
2-Massive crystalline bedrock.
3--Soft and broken rock, not including shale.
4-Allowable bearing pressure to be determined by appropriate city official.
5--qu = unconfined compressive strength.
piles and shall be replaced by the articles in this section Es = soil modulus
for load factor design of driven piles, unless otherwise f\ = sleeve friction measured from a CPT at point con-
stated. sidered
H =distance between pile tip and a weaker underly-
4.12.2 Notations ing soil layer
H5 = depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
as = pile perimeter I =influence factor for the effective group embed-
Ap = area of pile tip ment
As = surface area of shaft of pile Ip = moment of inertia of a pile
CPT = cone penetration test K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
d = dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip ca- Kc = correction factor for sleeve friction in clay
pacity of piles in rock Kr. = correction factor for sleeve friction in sand
D = pile width or diameter K~11 = dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
D' = effective depth of pile group Lr = depth to point considered when measuring sleeve
Db = depth of embedment of pile into a bearing stratum friction
D~ = diameter of socket nh = rate of increase of soil modulus with depth
ex =eccentricity of load in the x-direction N = Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count
ey = eccentricity of load in the y-direction N = average uncorrected SPT blow count along pile
0 Ep = Young's modulus of a pile shaft

NCOIT =average SPT-N value corrected for effect of a~ = vertical effective stress
overburden U8 v = average shear stress along side of pile
Npne = number of piles in a pile group ~ = performance factor
OCR = overconsolidation ratio ~8 = performance factor for the bearing capacity of a
P0 = unfactored dead load pile group failing as a unit consisting of the piles
P8 = factored total axial load acting on a pile group and the block of soil contained within the piles
Px.y = factored axial load acting on a pile in a pile group; ~q = performance factor for the total ultimate bearing
the pile has coordinates (X,Y) with respect to the capacity of a pile
centroidal origin in the pile group ~qs = performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacity
PI = plasticity index of a pile
q = net foundation pressure ~qp = performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity of
Qc = static cone resistance a pile
q1 = limiting tip resistance ~u = Performance factor for the uplift capacity of a sin-
qo = limiting tip resistance in lower stratum gle pile
qp = ultimate unit tip resistance fiSug = performance factor for the uplift capacity of pile
q!) = ultimate unit side resistance groups
qu = average uniaxial compressive strength of rock
cores 4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity
qu11 = ultimate bearing capacity
QP = ultimate load carried by tip of pile Piles shall be designed to have adequate bearing and
Q~ = ultimate load carried by shaft of pile structural capacity, under tolerable settlements and toler-
Qug = ultimate uplift resistance of a pile group or a able lateral displacements.
group of drilled shafts The supporting capacity of piles shall be determined by
Qu11 = ultimate bearing capacity static analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction.
R = characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe- Capacity may be verified with pile load test results, use of
sive soils wave equation analysis, use of the dynamic pile analyzer
sd = spacing of discontinuities or, less preferably, use of dynamic formulas.
S = average spacing of piles
Su = undrained shear strength 4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
SPT = Standard Penetration Test
Su = average undrained shear strength along pile shaft See ArticJe 4.5.6. I .1. The following sub-articles shall
ftt = width of discontinuities supplement Article 4.5.6.1.1.
T = characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe-
sionless soils 4.12.3. 1.1 Pile Penetration
W8 = weight of block of soil, piles and pile cap
x = distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen- Piling ~sed to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum
troid of the pile cap in the x-direction overlying a hard or firm stratum, shall penetrate the hard
X = width of smallest dimension of pile group or firm stratum by a sufficient distance to limit lateral and
y = distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen- vertical movement of the piles, as well as to attain suffi-
troid of the pile cap in the y-direction cient vertical bearing capacity.
Y = length of pile group or group of drilled shafts
Z = total embedded pile length 4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy
a = adhesion factor applied to Su
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using
~ =coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
the groundwater level consistent with that used to calcu-
and the unit skin friction of a pile or drilled shaft
late load effects. For drained loading, the effect of hydro-
-y' =effective unit weight of soil
static pressure shall be considered in the design.
8 = angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile
~ = empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral
earth pressure and the unit skin friction of a pile 4.12.3.1.3 Effect Of Settling Ground and
T) = pile group efficiency factor Downdrag Forces
p = settlement Possible development of downdrag loads on piles shall
Pcol = tolerable settlement be considered where sites are underlain by compressible
a~ = horizontal effective stress clays, silts or peats, especially where fill has recently been
placed on the earlier surface, or where the groundwater is veloped considering the potential effects of combined ver-
0 substantially lowered. Downdrag loads shall be consid-

ered as a load when the bearing capacity and settlement of
pile foundations are investigated. Downdrag loads shall
tical and horizontal movement. Where combined hori-
zontal and vertical displacements are possible, horizontal
movement shall be limited to 1.0 inch or less. Where ver-
not be combined with transient loads. tical displacements are small, horizontal displacements
The downdrag loads may be calculated, as specified in shall be limited to 2.0 inches or less (Moulton. et al.,
Article 4.12.3.3.2 with the direction of the skin friction 1985). If estimated or actual movements exceed these lev-
forces reversed. The factored downdrag loads shall be els, special analysis and/or measures shall be considered.
added to the factored vertical dead load applied to the
deep foundation in the assessment of bearing capacity. 4.12.3.2.3 Settlement
The effect of reduced overburden pressure caused by the The settlement of a pile foundation shall not exceed the
downdrag shall be considered in calculating the bearing tolerable settlement, as selected according to Article
capacity of the foundation. 4.12.3.2.2.
The downdrag loads shall be added to the vertical dead
load applied to the deep foundation in the assessment of 4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil
settlement at service limit states.
Procedures used for shallow foundations shaH be used
4.12.3.1.4 llplij1 to estimate the settlement of a pile group, using the equiv-
alent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift forces should
be checked both for resistance to pullout and for structural 4. 12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil
capacity to carry tensile stresses. Uplift forces can be
The settlement of pile groups in cohesion less soils can
caused by lateral loads, buoyancy effects, and expansive
be estimated using results of in situ tests, and the equiva-
soils.
lent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability 4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
Limit State
0
'
4.12.3.2.1 General
The lateral displacement of a pile foundation shall not
exceed the tolerable lateral displacement, as selected ac-
cording to Article 4.12.3.2.2.
For purposes of calculating the settlements of pile The lateral displacement of pile groups shall be esti-
groups, loads shall be assumed to act on an equivalent mated using procedures that consider soil-structure inter-
footing located at two-thirds of the depth of embedment action.
of the piles into the layer which provide support as shown
in Figure 4.12.3.2.1- 1. 4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
Service loads for evaluating foundation settlement
shall include both the unfactored dead and live loads for The strength limit states that shaU be considered in-
piles in cohesionless soils and only the unfactored dead clude:
load for piles in cohesive soils.
Service loads for evaluating lateral displacement of -bearing capacity of piles,
foundations shall include all lateral loads in each of the -uplift capacity of piles,
load combinations as given in Article 3.22. -punching of piles in strong soil into a weaker layer,
and
4.12.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement -structural capacity of the piles.
Tolerable axial and lateral movements for driven pile 4.1 2.3.3. 1 Axial Loading of Piles
foundations shall be developed consistent with the func-
tion and type of structure, fixity of bearings. anticipated Preference shall be given to a design process based
service life and consequences of unacceptable displace- upon static analyses in combination with either field mon-
ments on performance of the structure. itoring during driving or load tests. Load test results may
Tolerable settlement criteria for foundations shall be be extrapolated to adjacent substructures with similar sub-
developed considering the maximum angular distortion surface conditions. The ultimate bearing capacity of piles
according to Article 4.1 1.3.3. may be estimated using analytic methods or in situ test
0 Tolerable horizontal displacement criteria shall be de- methods.

4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity When piles are subjected to uplift, they should be in-
vestigated for both resistance to pullout and structural
Analytic methods may be used to estimate the ultimate
ability to resist tension.
bearing capacity of piles in cohesive and cohesionless
soils. Both total and effective stress methods may be used
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity
provided the appropriate soil strength parameters are eval-
uated. The performance factors for skin friction and tip re- The ultimate uplift capacity of a single pile shall be es-
sistance, estimated using three analytic methods, shall be timated in a manner similar to that for estimating the skin
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. If another analytic method friction resistance of piles in compression in Article
is used, application of performance factors presented in 4.12.3.3.2 for piles in cohesive soils and Article 4.12.3.3.3
Table 4.10.6-2 may not be appropriate. for piles in cohesionless soils. Performance factors for
the uplift capacity of single piles shall be as provided in
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based Table 4.10.6-2.
on In Situ Tests
4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity
In situ test methods may be used to estimate the ulti-
mate axial capacity of piles. The performance factors for The ultimate uplift capacity of a pile group shall be es-
the ultimate skin friction and ultimate tip resistance, esti- timated as the lesser of the sum of the individual pile up-
mated using in situ methods, shall be as provided in Table lift capacities, or the uplift capacity of the pile group con-
4.10.6-2. sidered as a block. The block mechanism for cohesionless
soil shall be taken as provided in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-1 and
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock for cohesive soils as given in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2. Buoy-
ant unit weights shall be used for soil below the ground-
For piles driven to weak rock such as shales and mud-
water level.
stones or poor quality weathered rock, the ultimate tip
The performance factor for the group uplift capacity
capacity shall be estimated using semi-empirical meth-
calculated as the sum of the individual pile capacities shall
ods. The performance factor for the ultimate tip resistance
be the same as those for the uplift capacity of single piles
of piles bearing on rock shall be as provided in Table
as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The performance factor for the
4.10.6-2.
uplift capacity of the pile group considered as a block
shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for pile groups in
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test
clay and in sand.
The load test method specified in ASTM D 1143-81
may be used to verify the pile capacity. Tensile load test- 4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load
ing of piles shall be done in accordance with ASTM D
3689-83 Lateral load testing of piles shall be done in ac- For piles subjected to lateral loads, the pile heads shall
cordance with ASTM D 3966-81. The performance factor be fixed into the pile cap. Any disturbed soil or voids cre-
for the axial compressive capacity, axial uplift capacity ated from the driving of the piles shall be replaced with
and lateral capacity obtained from pile load tests shall be compacted granular material.
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. The effects of soil-structure or rock-structure interac-
tion between the piles and ground, including the number
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities and spacing of the piles in the group, shall be accounted
for in the design of laterally loaded piles.
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures
given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 on soil and rock shall be used 4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify piles may be estimated by treating the batter piles as ver-
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall tical piles.
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity
4.12.3.3. 7 Uplift
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects cal- 4.12.3.3.10a Cohesive Soil
culated based on the appropriate strength limit state load If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, and if
combinations are tensile. the soil at the surface is soft, the individual capacity of
4.12.3.3.10a DIVISION I-DESIGN 104.1
0 JJ:(\\ 1/;(\\
Equivalent
footing
(a)
0.4
mw
Soft layer 0.3
)t.t
'a
•
0
.
"
/lA\
Firm layer
j
0.2
0.1
Equivalent
footing o--~------_. __________________________
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
(b) AatloiJD
FIGURE C4.12.3.2.1-l Location of Equivalent FIGURE C4.12.3.3.4-1 Bearing capacity coefficient, Ksp
Footing (After Duncan and Buchignani, 1976) (After Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual, 1985)
0
104.2 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.12.3.3.10a
As referenced in Section 4.12.3.3.7b and 4.13.2, the

following figures have been reprinted from the 1993
Commentary of the 1993 Interims to the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges.
XbyY
FIGURE C4.12.3.7.2-l UpUft of group of FIGURE C4.12.3.7.2-2 Uplift of group of piles in

closely-spaced piles in cohesionless soils cohesive soils (After Tomlinson, 1987)
,._
1.1 .,.
1.0
_. 0.4
..
0
uCD
0.9
0.8
ij
II. 0.7
G 0.3
u t
c: 0.6 X
CD
.a ~
Ha '8
:5 0.5
\"" ~ ~ o,
-·- ~!£-
e, __ j
c o.• 0.2
IJ
E 0.3
~~ r-'10-
! I" ~ ~ .......
'CD ~
Cl) 0.2 ........ r-- so-
. . r--... ~
0.1
..... 1- 100-
5000s:: 0.1
~
0 2 • 6 8 10 12 .... 20
Embedment Ratio HiD,
0~__.___.___~--~--~--._--~--~---L--~
FIGURE C4.13.3.3.4-l Elastic Settlement 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.1 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Influence Factor as a Function of
RatloiJD1
Embedment Ratio and Modulus Ratio
(After Donald, Sloan and Chiu, 1980, FIGURE C4.13.3.3.4-4 Bearing Capacity Coefficient, Ksp
as presented by Reese and 0 'Neill, 1988) (After Canadian Geotechnical Society, 1985)
4.12.3.3.1 OA DIVISION I-DESIGN 105
each pile shall be multiplied by an efficiency factor 1}. sign of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic
where 11 = 0.7 for a center-to-center spacing of three di- loads.
ameters and 11 = 1.0 for a center-to-center spacing of six
diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of 11 may 4.12.4 Structural Design
be determined by linear interpolation.
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground and The structural design of driven piles shall be in accor-
if the soil is stiff, then no reduction in efficiency shall be dance with the provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was de-
required. veloped for allowable stress design procedures. To use
If the cap is in firm contact with the ground, then no re- load factor design procedures for the structural design of
duction in efficiency shall be required. driven piles, the load factor design procedures for rein-
The group capacity shall be the lesser of: forced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections
8, 9, and 10, respectively, shall be used in place of the al-
-the sum of the modified individual capacities of each lowable stress design procedures.
pile in the group, or
-the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the 4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles
piles and a block of soil within the area bounded by
the piles. Stability of piles shall be considered when the piles ex-
tend through water or air for a portion of their lengths.
For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil
shall be used to determine the skin friction resistance, the 4.12.5 Construction Considerations
total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to de-
termine the end bearing resistance, and the additional ca- Foundation design shall not be uncoupled from con-
pacity of the cap shall be ignored. struction considerations. Factors such as pile driving, pile
The performance factor for the capacity of an equiva- splicing, and pile inspection shall be done in accordance
with the provisions of this specification and Division II.
lent pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2. The performance factors for the group capacity
calculated using the sum of the individual pile capacities, 4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS
0
.
are the same as those for the single pile capacity as given
in Table 4.1 0.6-2. 4.13.1 General
4. 12.3.3.1 Ob Cohesionless Soil The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.6.1

through 4.6.7, with the exception of Article 4.6.5, shall
The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohe- apply to the strength design (load factor design) of drilled
sionless soil shall be the sum of the capacities of all the shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable stress design of
piles in the group. The efficiency factor, 1}. shall be 1.0 drilled shafts, and shall be replaced by the articles in this
where the pile cap is, or is not, in contact with the ground. section for load factor design of drilled shafts, unless oth-
The performance factor is the same as those for single pile erwise stated.
capacities as given in Table 4.1 0.6-2. The provisions of Article 4.13 shall apply to the design
of drilled shafts, but not drilled piles installed with con-
4.1 2.3.3. 1Oc Pile Group in Strollg Soil tinuous flight augers that are concreted as the auger is
Overlyillg a Weak or being extracted.
Compressible Soil
4.13.2 Notations
If a pile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit over-
lying a weaker deposit, consideration shall be given to the
potential for a punching failure of the pile tips into the
a = parameter used for calculating F,
Ap = area of base of drilled shaft
weaker soil stratum. If the underlying soil stratum consists
A~ = surface area of a drilled pier
of a weaker compressible soil, consideration shall be given
As.oc = cross-sectional area of socket
to the potential for large settlements in that weaker layer.
Au = annular space between bell and shaft
b = perimeter used for calculating F,
4.12.3.3.1 1 Dynamic/Seismic: Design CPT = cone penetration test
Refer to Division I-A of these Specifications and Lam d = dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip
and Martin ( 1986a, 1986b) for guidance regarding the de- capacity of drilled shafts in rock
D = diattieter of drilled shaft Quit = total ultimate bearing capacity

Dt, = embedment of drilled shaft in layer that pro- R = characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
vides support tem in cohesive soils
= diameter of base of a drilled shaft RQD = Rock Quality Designation
= diameter of a drilled shaft socket in rock sd = spacing of discontinuities
=Young's modulus of concrete SPT = Standard Penetration Test
= intact rock modulus Su = undrained shear strength
= Young's modulus of a drilled shaft ~ = width of discontinuities
= modulus of the in situ rock mass T = characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
=soil modulus tem in cohesionless soils
= reduction factor for tip resistance of large z =depth below ground surface
diameter dri11ed shaft Z = total embedded length of drilled shaft
= depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed
Greek
into rock
a = adhesion factor applied to Su
= moment of inertia of a drilled shaft
jj = coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
= influence coefficient (see Figure
and the unit skin friction of a drilled shaft
C4.13.3.3.4-1)
-y' = effective unit weight of soil
I1r = influence coefficient for settlement of drilled
8 = angle of shearing resistance between soil and
shafts socketed in rock
drilled shaft
k = factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts
11 = drilled shaft group efficiency factor
with a base diameter larger than 20 inches so
Pba\C = settlement of the base of the drilled shaft
as to limit the shaft settlement to 1 inch
K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure or load
Pe = elastic shortening of drilled shaft
transfer factor Ptol = tolerable settlement
a~ = vertical effective stress
= dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient for
av = total vertical stress
drilled shafts socketed in rock using pres-
suremeter results
IPi = working load at top of socket
= modulus modification ratio <f> = performance factor
= dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
' or <l>r = angle of internal friction of soil
(see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4) <f>q = performance factor for the total ultimate bear-
LL = liquid limit of soil ing capacity of a drilled shaft
N = uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT) <l>qs = performance factor for the ultimate shaft ca-
blow count pacity of a dri11ed shaft
= bearing capacity factor <l>qp = performance factor for the ultimate tip capac-
=corrected SPT-N value ity of a dril1ed shaft
= uplift bearing capacity factor
= limit pressure determined from pressuremeter 4.13.3 Geotechnical Design
tests within 2D above and below base of shaft
= at rest horizontal stress measured at the base Drilled shafts shall be designed to have adequate bear-
of drilled shaft ing and structural capacities under tolerable settlements
= unfactored dead load and tolerable lateral movements.
= plastic limit of soil The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be esti-
= ultimate unit tip resistance mated by static analysis methods (analytical methods
= reduced ultimate unit tip resistance of drilled based on soil-structure interaction). Capacity may be ver-
shafts ified with load test results.
qs = ultimate unit side resistance The method of construction may affect the drilled shaft
qsbe11 = unit uplift capacity of a belled drilled shaft capacity and shall be considered as part of the design
qu = uniaxial compressive strength of rock core process. Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry,
quit = ultimate bearing capacity casing or wet method of construction, or a combination of
Qp = ultimate load carried by tip of drilled shaft methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete place-
Qs = ultimate load carried by side of drilled shaft ment, and all other aspects shall be performed in con-
Qsa = ultimate side resistance of drilled shafts sock- formance with the provisions of this specification and
eted in rock Division II.
c 4.13.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Arti-

cle 4.6.5.3.3 for drilled shafts in rock. The follow-
ing sub-articles shall supplement Articles 4.6.5.2 and
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts
The settlement of single drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated considering short-term settlement, consolidation
settlement (if constructed in cohesive soils), and axial
compression of the drilled shaft.
4.6.5.3.3.
4.1 3.3.2.3b Group Settlement
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads
The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be esti-
Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate, mated using the same procedures as described for pile
as indicated in Article 4.12.3.1.3. groups, Article 4.12.3.2.3.
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift -Cohesive Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3a

-Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3b
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply a~ ap-
plicable. 4.1 3.3.2.4 Ltzteral Displacement
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.4 shall apply as
soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift. Suffi- applicable.
cient clearance shall be provided between the ground sur-
face and underside of caps or beams connecting shafts to 4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
preclude the application of uplift loads at the shaft/cap
connection due to swelling ground conditions. Uplift ca- The strength limit states that must be considered in-
pacity of straight-sided drilled shafts shall rely only on clude: ( 1) bearing capacity of drilled shafts, (2) uplift ca-
side resistance in conformance with Article 4.13.3.3.2 for pacity of drilled shafts, and (3) punching of drilled shafts
drilled shafts in cohesive soils, and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for bearing in strong soil into a weaker layer below.
drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. If the shaft has an en-
larged base, Qs shall be determined in conformance with 4.13.3.3. I Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts
Article4.13.3.3.6. The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.1 shall apply as
applicable.
4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit State 4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft
Capacity ill Cohesive Soils
4.1 3.3.2. 1 General Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate
the ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesive
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.1 shall apply as
soils. The performance factors for side resistance and tip
applicable. resistance for three analytic methods shall be as provided
In estimating settlements of drilled shafts in clay, only
in Table 4.10.6-3. If another analytic method is used, ap-
unfactored permanent loads shall be considered. However
plication of the performance factors in Table 4.10.6-3 may
unfactored live loads must be added to the permanent
not be appropriate.
loads when estimating settlement of shafts in granular
soil. 4. I 3.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in
Cohesionless Soils
4.13.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement
The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in co-
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.2 shall apply as hesionless soils shall be estimated using applicable meth-
applicable. ods. and the factored capacity selected using judgment,
and any available experience with similar conditions.
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement
4. 13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock
The settlement of a drilled shaft foundation involving
either single drilled shafts or groups of drilled shafts shall In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with
not exceed the tolerable settlement as selected according rock sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil de-
posits shall be ignored.
0 to Article 4.13.3.2.2
If the rock is degradable, consideration of special con- or structural failure of the drilled shaft. The design oflat-
struction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re- erally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the effects of
duced socket capacities shall be considered. interaction between the shaft and ground, including the
The performance factors for drilled shafts socketed in number of piers in the group.
rock shall be as provided in Table 4.1 0.6-3.
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test
Possible reduction in capacity from group effects shall
Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests shall be
be considered.
conducted on a drilled shaft or shafts to confirm response
to load. Load tests shall be conducted using shafts con-
structed in a manner and of dimensions and materials 4.13.3.3.8a Cohesive Soil
identical to those planned for the production shafts. The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.1 Oa shall apply. The
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed performance factor for the group capacity of an equivalent
written procedures which have been developed from ac- pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-
cepted standards and modified, as appropriate, for the 2 for both cases of the cap being in contact, and not in con-
conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing proce- tact with the ground. The performance factors for the
dures developed by ASTM as specified in Article group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual
4.12.3.3.5 may be modified for testing drilled shafts. drilled shaft capacities are the same. as those for the single
The performance factor for axial compressive capac- drilled shaft capacities.
ity, axial uplift capacity, and lateral capacity obtained
from load tests shall be as provided in Table 4.1 0.6-3.
4.13.3.3.8b Cohesionless Soil
4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
Uplift shall be considered when (i} upward loads act on soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
the dri1led shafts and (ii) swelling or expansive soils act Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
on the drilled shafts. Drilled shafts subjected to uplift capacity of each shaft shall be reduced by a factor 11 for
forces shall be investigated, both for resistance to pullout an isolated shaft, where 11 = 0.67 for a center-to-center
and for their structural strength. (CTC) spacing of three diameters and 11 = 1.0 for a cen-
ter-to-center spacing of eight diameters. For intermediate
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single spacings, the value of 11 may be determined by linear
Drilled Shaft interpolation.
See Article 4.13.3.3.3 for a discussion on the selection
The uplift capacity of a single straight-sided drilled
of performance factors for drilled shaft capacities in co-
shaft shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for hesionless soils.
estimating the ultimate side resistance for drilled shafts
in compression (Articles 4.13.3.3.2, 4.13.3.3.3, and
4.13.3.3.4). 4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying
The uplift capacity of a belled shaft shall be estimated Weaker Compressible Soil
neglecting the side resistance above the bell, and assum-
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10c shall apply as
ing that the bell behaves as an anchor.
applicable.
The performance factor for the uplift capacity of
drilled shafts shall be as provided in Table 4.1 0.6-3.
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity
Refer to Division I-A for guidance regarding the design
See Article 4.12.3.3. 7b. The performance factors for of drilled shafts subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
uplift capacity of groups of drilled shafts shall be the same
as those for pile groups as given in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.4 Structural Design
4.13.3.3. 7 Lateral Load
The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts is usually accordance with the provisions of Article 4.6.6,
governed by lateml movement criteria (Article 4.13.3.2) which was developed for allowable stress design proce-
c
.
.
dures. In order to use load factor design procedures for
the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor
design procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete
shall be used in place of the allowable stress design
procedures.
4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts
Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the

shafts extend through water or air for a portion of their
length.
0
0
Section 5
RETAINING WALLS
Part A
5.1 GENERAL cept they rely more on structural resistance through can-
tilevering action, with this cantilevering action providing
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral the means to mobilize dead weight for resistance. Non-
earth and water pressures, including any live and dead gravity cantilever walls rely strictly on the structural resis-
load surcharge, the self weight of the wall, temperature tance of the wall and the passive resistance of the soiVrock,
and shrinkage effects, and earthquake loads in accordance in which vertical wall elements are partially embedded in
with the general principles specified in this section. the soiVrock to provide fixity. Anchored walls derive their
Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life capacity through cantilevering action of the vertical wall
based on consideration of the potential long-term effects elements (similar to a non-gravity cantilever wall) and ten-
of material deterioration, seepage, stray currents and other sile capacity of anchors embedded in stable soil or rock
potentially deleterious environmental factors on each of below or behind potential soiVrock failure surfaces.
the material components comprising the wall. For most
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type
0 applications, permanent retaining walls should be de-
signed for a minimum service life of 75 years. Retaining
walls for temporary applications are typically designed Selection of wall type is based on an assessment of
for a service life of 36 months or less. the magnitude and direction of loading, depth to suitable
A greater level of safety and/or longer service life (i.e., foundation support, potential for earthquake loading,
100 years) may be appropriate for walls which support presence of deleterious environmental factors, proximity
of physical constraints, wall site cross-sectional geometry,
bridge abutments, buildings, critical utilities, or other fa-
tolerable and differential settlement, facing appearance,
cilities for which the consequences of poor performance
and ease and cost of construction.
or failure would be severe.
The quality of in-service performance is an important
consideration in the design of permanent retaining walls. 5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls
Permanent walls shall be designed to retain an aestheti-
Rigid gravity walls use the dead weight of the structure
cally pleasing appearance, and be essentially maintenance
itself and may be constructed of stone masonry, unrein-
free throughout their design service life.
forced concrete, or reinforced concrete. Semi-gravity can-
tilever, counterfort, and buttress walls are constructed of
5.2 WALL TYPE AND BEHAVIOR reinforced concrete. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain-
ing walls may be used for bridge substructures or grade
Retaining walls are generally classified as gravity, semi- separation. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls are gen-
gravity, non-gravity cantilever, and anchored. Examples erally used for permanent wall applications. These types of
of various types of walls are provided in Figures 5.2A. walls can be effective for both cut and fill wall applications
5.2B, and 5.2C. Gravity walls derive their capacity to re- due to their relatively narrow base widths which allows ex-
sist lateral loads through a combination of dead weight and cavation laterally to be kept to a minimum.
lateral resistance. Gravity walls can be further subdivided Gravity and semi-gravity walls may be used without
by type into rigid gravity walls, mechanically stabilized deep foundation support only where the bearing soiVrock
earth (MSE) walls, and prefabricated modular gravity is not prone to excessive or differential settlement. Due to
0
'
walls. Semi-gravity walls are similar to gravity walls, ex-
Ill
their rigidity, excessive differential settlement can cause
.........,.
r""' !""""'" ~ CEOSYNTHETIC ,·I~
CIP CCIHCRETE R£1 WCJRCI NG
~ ·;'
NG---...
CIA SHO TCAETE
f='ACI
cRANULAR F'l LL
MSE WALL W1 TH f4JOULAR MSE WALL WITH GEOSYNTHETIC

PRECAST CONCRETE FACING REINFORCEMENT AND CIP CONCRETE
PANELS OR SHOTCRETE FACING
MSE VALL VI TH SEGIENTAL

CONCRETE BLOCK FACING
FIGURE 5.2A Typical Mechanically Stabilized Earth Gravity Walls
cracking, excessive bending or shear stresses in the wall, Permanent nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
or rotation of the overall wall structure. structed of reinforced concrete, timber, and/or metals.
Temporary nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantllevered Walls structed of reinforced concrete, metal and/or timber. Suit-
able metals generally include steel for components such as
Nongravity cantilevered walls derive lateral resistance piles, brackets and plates, lagging and concrete reinforce-
through embedment of vertical wall elements and support ment. Nongravity cantilevered walls may be used for the
retained soil with facing elements. Vertical wall elements same applications as rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls,
may consist of discrete vertical elements (e.g., soldier or as well as temporary or permanent support of earth slopes,
sheet piles, caissons, or drilled shafts) spanned by a struc- excavations, or unstable soil and rock masses. This type of
tural facing (e.g., wood or reinforced concrete lagging,
wall requires little excavation behind the wall and is most
precast or cast-in-place concrete panels, wire or fiber re-
inforced shotcrete, or metal elements such as sheet piles). effective in cut applications. They are also effective where
The discrete vertical elements typically extend deeper into deep foundation embedment is required for stability.
the ground than the facing to provide vertical and lateral Nongravity cantilevered walls are generally limited to
support. Alternately, the vertical wall elements and facing a maximum height of approximately 5 meters (15 feet),
are continuous and, therefore, also form the structural fac- unless they are provided with additional support by means
ing. Typical continuous vertical wall elements include of anchors. They generally cannot be used effectively
piles, precast or cast-in-place concrete diaphragm wall where deep soft soils are present, as these walls depend on
panels, tangent piles, and tangent caissons. the passive resistance of the soil in front of the wall.
5.2.1.3 DIVISION I- DESIGN 11 3
I'ETAL BIN WALL PRECAST CONCRETE CRIB WALL
PRECAST CONCRETE BIN WALL CiABION WALL
FIGURE 5.2B Typical Prefabricated Modular Gravity Walls
5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls Anchors are usually required for supp01t of both temporary
and permanent nongravity cantilevered walls higher than
Anchored walls are typically composed of the same el- about 5 meters ( 15 feet), depending on soil conditions.
ements as nongravity cantilevered walls (Article 5.2. 1.2), Anchored walls are typically constructed in cut situa-
but derive additional lateral resistance from one or more tions, in which construction occurs from the top down to
tiers of anchors. Anchors may be prestressed or deadman the base of the wall. Anchored walls have been success-
type elements composed of strand tendons or bars (with fully used to support fi lls; however, certain difficulties
corrosion protection as necessary) extending from the arising in fill wall applications require special considera-
wall face to a ground zone or mechanical anchorage lo- tion during design and construction. In particular, there is
cated beyond the zone of soil applying load to the wall. a potential for anchor damage due to settlement of back-
Bearing elements on the vertical support elements or fac- fill and underlying soil s or due to improperly controlled
ing of the wall transfer wall loads to the anchors. In some backfilling procedures. Also, there is a potential for unde-
cases, a spread footing is used at the base of the anchored sirable wall deflection if anchors are too highly stressed
wall facing in lieu of vertical element embedment to pro- when the backfi ll is only partially complete and provides
vide vertical support. Due to their fl exibility and method li mited passive resistance.
of support, the distribution of lateral pressure on anchored The base of the vertical wall elements should be lo-
walls is influenced by the method and sequence of wall cated below any soft soils which are prone to settlement,
construction and anchor prestressing. as settlement of the vertical wall elements can cause de-
Anchored walls are applicable for temporary and per- stressing of the anchors. Also, anchors should not be lo-
manent support of stable and unstable soi I and rock masses. cated within soft clays and silts, as it is difficult to obtain
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.2.1.3
114
Mort.ar Rubble Ma•onrJ' Reinforced Concrete Can Ule•er

Rl&ld GraYlt.J' Wall Semi•GraYl\7 Wall
Reinforced Concrete Counlerfor\ Sharr7 or C7Under Pile

Seml·Gra•ltJ' Wall Non·araYI\J' Can\Ue•er Wall
Soldier Plle Tl•baclc Wall
FIGURE 5.2C Typical Rigid Gravity, Semi-Gravity Cantilever, Nongravity Cantilever, and Anchored Walls
adequate long-term capacity in such materials due to inforced soil mass behind the facing. For relatively thick
creep. facings, such as segmental concrete block facings, the
dead weight of the facing may also provide a significant
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls contribution to the capacity of the wall system.
MSE walls are typically used where conventional
MSE systems, whose elements may be proprietary, gravity, cantilever, or counterforted concrete retaining
employ either metallic (strip or grid type) or geosynthetic walls are considered, and are particularly well suited
(geotextile, strip, or geogrid) tensile reinforcements in the where substantial total and differential settlements are an-
soil mass, and a facing element which is vertical or near ticipated. The allowable settlement of MSE walls is lim-
vertical. MSE walls behave as a gravity wall, deriving ited by the longitudinal defonnability of the facing and the
their lateral resistance through the dead weight of the re- performance requirements of the structure. MSE walls
have been successfully used in both fill and cut wall ap- lutants, other environmental conditions which are defined
0 .
plications. However, they are most effective in fill wall
applications. MSE walls shall not be used under the fol-
lowing conditions.
as aggressive as described in Division II, Article 7 .3.6.3,
or where deicing spray is anticipated .
5.2.2 Wall Capacity

• When utilities other than highway drainage must be
constructed within the reinforced zone if future Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate
access to the utilities would require that the rein- structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate
forcement layers be cut, or if there is potential for foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements,
material which can cause degradation of the soil re- and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to
inforcement to leak out of the utilities into the wall walls. The tolerable level of wall lateral and vertical de-
backfill. formations is controlled by the type and location of the
• With soil reinforcements exposed to surface or wall structure and surrounding facilities.
ground water contaminated by acid mine drainage,
other industrial pollutants, or other environmental 5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity
conditions which are defined as aggressive as de- .
scribed in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3, unless envi- The bearing capacity of wall foundation support sys-
ronment specific long-term corrosion or degradation tems shall be estimated using procedures described in Ar-
studies are conducted. ticles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted theories.
• When floodplain erosion may undermine the rein- Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters mea-
forced fill zone or facing column, or where the depth sured by in situ and/or laboratory tests.
of scour cannot be reliably determined.
5.2.2.2 Settlement
MSE walls may be considered for use under the fol-
lowing special conditions: The settlement of wall foundation support systems
shall be estimated using procedures described in Articles
• When two intersecting walls form an enclosed angle 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted methods. Such
0 of 70° or less, the affected portion of the wall is de-
signed as an internally tied bin structure with at-rest
earth pressure coefficients.
methods are based on soil and rock parruneters measured
directly or inferred from the results of in situ and/or labo-
ratory test.
• Where metallic reinforcements are used in areas
of anticipated stray currents within 60 meters (200 5.2.2.3 Overall Stability
feet) of the structure, a corrosion expert should eval-
uate the potential need for corrosion control require- The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
ments. shall be considered as part of the design of retaining walls.
The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained slope,
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for all walls
using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis such as the
Prefabricated modular wall systems, whose elements Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or Spencer methods of
may be proprietary, generally employ interlocking soil- analysis. A minimum factor of safety of 1.3 shall be used
filled reinforced concrete or steel modules or bins, rock for walls designed for static loads, except the factor of
filled gabion baskets, precast concrete units, or dry cast safety shall be 1.5 for walls that support abutments, build-
segmental masonry concrete units (without soil reinforce- ings, critical utilities, or for other installations with a low
ment) which resist earth pressures by acting as gravity re- tolerance for failure. A minimum factor of safety of 1.1
taining walls. Prefabricated modular walls may also use shall be used when designing walls for seismic loads. In
their structural elements to mobilize the dead weight of a all cases, the subsurface conditions and soil/rock proper-
portion of the wall backfill through soil arching to provide ties of the wall site shall be adequately characterized
resistance to lateral loads. Prefabricated modular systems through in-situ exploration and testing and/or laboratory
may be used where conventional gravity, cantilever or testing as described in Article 5.3.
counterfort concrete retaining walls are considered. Seismic forces applied to the mass of the slope shall be
Steel modular systems shall not be used where the steel based on a horizontal seismic coefficient kh equal to one-
will be exposed to surface or subsurface water which is half the ground acceleration coefficient A, with the verti-
0 contaminated by acid mine drainage, other industrial pol- cal seismic coefficient kv equal to zero.
It must be noted that, even if overall stability is satis- 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6. For gravity and semi-gravity walls, lat-
factory, special exploration, testing and analyses may be eral movement results from a combination of differential ·~.
required for bridge abutments or retaining walls con- vertical settlement between the heel and the toe of the wall . J
structed over soft subsoils where consolidation and/or lat- and the rotation necessary to develop active earth pressure
eral flow of the soft soil could result in unacceptable long- conditions (see Table 5.5.2A). If the wall is designed for
term settlements or horizontal movements. at-rest earth pressure conditions, the deflections in Table
Stability of temporary construction slopes needed to 5.5.2A do not need to be considered. For anchored walls,
construct the wall shall also be evaluated. deflections shall be estimated in accordance with Article
5.7.2. For MSE walls, deflections may be estimated in ac-
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Deformations cordance with Article 5.8.10.
Where a wall is used to support a structure, tolerable
Tolerable vertical and lateral deformation criteria for re- movement criteria shall be established in accordance with
taining walls shall be developed based on the function and Articles 4.4.7.2.5, 4.5 and 4.6. Where a wall supports soil
type of wall, unanticipated service life, and consequences of on which an adjacent structure is founded, the effects of
unacceptable movements (i.e., both structural and aesthetic). wall movements and associated backfill settlement on the
Allowable total and differential vertical deformations adjacent structure shall be evaluated.
for a particular retaining wall are dependent on the ability For seismic design, seismic loads may be reduced, as
of the wall to deflect without causing damage to the wall result of lateral wall movement due to sliding, for what is
elements or exhibiting unsightly deformations. The total calculated based on Division 1A using the Mononobe-
and differential vertical deformation of a retaining wall Okabe method if both of the following conditions are met:
should be small for rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain-
ing walls, and for soldier pile walls with a cast-in-place • the wall system and any structures supported by the
facing. For walls with anchors, any downward movement wall can tolerate lateral movement resulting from
can cause significant destressing of the anchors. sliding of the structure,
MSE walls can tolerate larger total and differential ver- • the wall base is unrestrained regarding its ability to
tical deflections than rigid walls. The amount of total and slide, other than soil friction along its base and min-
differential vertical deflection that can be tolerated de- imal soil passive resistance.
pends on the wall facing material, configuration, and tim-
ing of facing construction. A cast-in-place facing has the Procedures for accomplishing this reduction in seismic
same vertical deformation limitations as the more rigid re- load are provided in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
taining wall systems. However, an MSE wall with a cast- Specifications, 2nd Edition. In general, this only applies to
in-place facing can be specified with a waiting period be- gravity and semi-gravity walls. Though the specifications
fore the cast-in-place facing is constructed so that vertical in Division 1A regarding this issue are directed at struc-
(as well as horizontal) deformations have time to occur. tural gravity and semi-gravity walls, these specifications
An MSE wall with welded wire or geosynthetic facing can may also be applicable to other types of gravity walls re-
tolerate the most deformation. An MSE wall with multi- garding this issue provided the two conditions listed above
ple precast concrete panels cannot tolerate as much verti- are met.
cal deformation as flexible welded wire or geosynthetic
facings because of potential damage to the precast panels 5.2.3 SoU, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
and unsightly panel separation.
Horizontal movements resulting from outward rotation Geologic and environmental conditions can influence
of the wall or resulting from the development of internal the performance of retaining walls and their foundations,
equilibrium between the loads applied to the wall and the and may require special· consideration during design. To
internal structure of the wall must be limited to prevent the extent possible, the presence and influence of such
overstress of the structural wall facing and to prevent the conditions shall be evaluated as part of the subsurface ex-
wall face batter from becoming negative. In general, if ploration program. A representative, but not exclusive,
vertical deformations are properly controlled, horizontal listing of problem conditions requiring special considera-
deformations will likely be within acceptable limits. For tion is presented in Table 4.2.3A for general guidance.
MSE walls with extensible reinforcements, reinforcement
serviceability criteria, the wall face batter, and the facing 5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
type selected (i.e., the flexibility of the facing) will influ- TESTING PROGRAMS
ence the horizontal deformation criteria required.
· Vertical wall movements shall be estimated using con- The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
ventional settlement computational methods (see Articles programs shall be the responsibility of the Designer, based
on the specific requirements of the project and his or her local conditions. Where the wall is supported on deep foun-
~l experience with local geological conditions. dations and for all non-gravity walls, the depth of the sub-
~ surface explorations shall extend a minimum of 6 meters
5.3.1 General Requirements (20 feet) below the anticipated pile, shaft, or slurry wall tip
elevation. For piles or shafts end bearing on rock. or shafts
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing extending into rock, a minimum of 3 meters (10 feet) of
programs shall define the following, where applicable: rock core, or a length of rock core equal to at least three
times the shaft diameter, which ever is greater, shall be ob-
• Soil strata: tained to insure that the exploration has not been tenninated
-Depth, thickness, and variability on a boulder and to determine the physical characteristics of
-Identification and classification the rock within the zone of foundation influence for design.
-Relevant engineering properties (i.e., natural
moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear strength, 5.3.3 Minimum Coverage
compressibility, stiffness, permeability, expan-
sion or collapse potential, and frost susceptibility) A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
-Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resistivity, retaining wall. For retaining walls over 30 meters ( 100
and sulfide content feet) in length, the spacing between borings should be 30
• Rock strata: meters ( l 00 feet). The number and spacing of the bore
-Depth to rock holes may be increased or decreased from 30 meters
-Identification and classification ( l 00 feet), depending upon the anticipated geological con-
-Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and ditions within the project area. In planning the exploration
presence of joint filling, resistance to weathering, program, consideration should be given to placing borings
if exposed, and solutioning) inboard and outboard of the wall line to define conditions
-Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres- in the scour zone at the toe of the wall and in the zone be-
sion, point load index) hind the wall to estimate lateral loads and anchorage or re-
-Expansion potential inforcement capacities.
• Ground water elevation, including seasonal varia-
0 tions, chemical composition, and pH (especially im-

portant for anchored, non-gravity cantilevered, mod-
ular, and MSE walls) where corrosion potential is an
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to de-

termine engineering characteristics including unit weight,
important consideration
natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, gradation, shear
• Ground surface topography
strength, compressive strength and compressibility. In the
• Local conditions requiring special consideration
absence of laboratory testing, engineering characteristics
(e.g., presence of stray electrical currents).
may be estimated based on field tests and/or published prop-
erty correlations. Local experience should be applied when
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de- establishing project design values based on laboratory and
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or field tests.
qc), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type 5.3.5 Scour
of SPT hammer (i.e., safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone
penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any un- The probable depth of scour shall be determined by
usual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures, subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to Ar-
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted ticle 1.3.2 and FHWA (1991) for general guidance re-
on the exploration logs. garding hydraulic studies and design.
5.3.2 Minimum Depth 5.4 NOTATIONS
Regardless of the wall foundation type, borings shall ex- The following notations apply for design of retaining
tend into a bearing layer adequate to support the anticipated walls:
foundation loads, defined as dense or hard soils, or bedrock.
In general, for walls which do not utilize deep foundation A =Acceleration coefficient (dim); (See Article
support, subsurface explorations shall extend below the an- 5.8.9.1)
ticipated bearing level a minimum of twice the total wall Ac = Reinforcement area corrected for corrosion
height. Greater depths may be required where warranted by losses (mm2); (See Article 5.8.6)
Am = Maximum wall acceleration coefficient at the FH = Horizontal component of active lateral earth
centroid (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.1) pressure force (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
b = Width of discrete wall backfill element (m); (See FT =Resultant active lateral earth pressure force
Article 5.8.6) (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
br = Width of vertical or horizontal concentrated dead FS = Factor of safety (dim); (See Article 5.5.5)
load (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) FSOT =Factor of safety against overturning (dim); (See
B = Total base width of wall, including facing ele- Article 5.8.2)
ments (m); (See Article 5.5.5) FSro =Safety factor against pullout (dim); (See Article
B' = Effective base width of retaining wall foundation 5.8.5.2)
(m); (See Article 5.8.3) FSsL =Factor of safety against sliding (dim); (See Arti-
C = Overall reinforcement surface area geometry fac- cle 5.8.2)
tor (dim); (See Article 5.8.5.2) Fv = Vertical component of active lateral earth pres-
Cr = Distance from back of wall facing to front edge sure force (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
of footing or other concentrated surcharge load Gu = Distance to center of gravity of a modular block
(m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) facing unit, including aggregate fill, measured from
CRr. = A reduction factor to account for reduced con- the front of the unit (m); (See Article 5.8.7 .2)
nection strength resulting from pullout of the h = Equivalent height of soil representing surcharge
connection (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2) pressure or effective total height of soil at back of
CRu = A reduction factor to account for reduced ulti- reinforced soil mass (m); (See Article 5.8.2)
mate strength resulting from rupture of the con- hp = Vertical distance Fp is located from bottom of
nection (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2) wall (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
Cu = Soil coefficient of uniformity (dim); (See Article H = Design wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.1)
5.8.5.2) H1 = Equivalent wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.5.1)
d = Distance from back of wall face to center of con- H2 = Effective wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
centrated dead load (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1); Hh = Hinge height for block facings (m); (See Article
also, the effective depth relative to stem of con- 5.8.7.2)
crete semi-gravity walls for locating critical sec- Hs = Surcharge height (m of soil); (See Article 5.5.2)
tion for shear (m); (See Article 5.5.6.1) Hu = Facing unit height (m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
Di = Effective width of applied load at depth within or Hw = Height of water in backfill above base of wall (m)
behind wall due to surcharge (m); (See Article I = Average slope of broken back soil surcharge
5.8.12.1) above wall (deg); (See Article 5.8.2)
D* = Reinforcement bar diameter corrected for corro- ib = Inclination of wall base from horizontal (deg);
sion losses (mm); (See Article 5.8.6) (See Article 5.8.7.2)
e, e' = Eccentricity of forces contributing to bearing kh = Horizontal seismic coefficient (dim); (See Article
pressure (m); (See Articles 5.8.3 and 5.8.12.1) 5.8.9.1)
Ec = Thickness of metal reinforcement at end of ser- kv = Vertical seismic coefficient (dim); (See Article
vice life (mm); (See Article 5.8.6) 5.8.9.1)
En = Nominal thickness of steel reinforcement at con- K = Earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
struction (mm); (See Article 5.8.6.1.1) Kae = Total Mononobe-Okabe seismic lateral earth
~ = Equivalent sacrificed thickness of metal expected pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
to be lost by uniform corrosion to produce ex- 4Kae = Dynamic increment of the Mononobe-Okabe
pected loss of tensile strength during service life seismic lateral earth pressure coefficient (dim);
of structure (nun); (See Article 5.8.6.1.1) (See Article 5.8.9.1)
f = Friction factor (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) Knr = Active earth pressure coefficient for the soil be-
F* = Pullout resistance factor (dim); (See Article 5.8.5.2) hind the MSE wall reinforcements (dim); (See
FP = Lateral force resulting from KruilCTv (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
Article 5.8.12.1) Kr = Lateral earth pressure coefficient for the soil
Fy = Yield strength of the steel (kN/mm2); (See Article within the MSE wall reinforced soil zone (dim);
5.8.6.1.1) (See Article 5.8.4.1)
F, =Active lateral earth pressure force for level back- Ka =Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
fill conditions (k.N/m); (See Article 5.8.2) ticle 5.5.2)
F2 = Lateral earth pressure force due to traffic or other Ko =At-rest earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
continuous surcharge (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2) ticle 5.5.2)
K, = Passive earth pressure coefficient for curved fail- Pw = Force due to hydrostatic water pressure behind
0 K'p
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
= Passive earth pressure coefficient for planar faiJ-
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
q
wall (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.3)
=Traffic live load pressure (kN/m2 ); (See Article
5.8.2)
1., h = Depth from concentrated horizontal dead load 1o- qc = Cone end bearing resistance (kN/m2). (See Arti-
cation that force is distributed (m); (See Article cle 5.3.1)
5.8.12.1) QL =Line load force (kN/m); (See ArticJe 5.5.2}
L = Length of soil reinforcing elements (m); (See Ar- Qp = Point load force (kN); (See Article 5.5.2)
ticle 5.8.2); length of structural footings (m); (See R = Resultant of foundation bearing pressure (kN or
ArticJe 5.8.12.1) kN/m); (See ArticJe 5.8.3)
Lu =Length of reinfor~ement in the active zone (m); R' = Distance above walJ base to resultant of lateral
(See Article 5.8.5.2) pressure due to surcharge (m); (See Article 5.5.2)
Le = Length of reinforcement in the resistant zone (m); Rc = Soil reinforcement coverage ratio (dim); (See Ar-
(See Article 5.8.5.2) tide 5.8.6)
Lei =Effective reinforcement length for layer i (m); RF = Reduction factor applied to the ultimate tensile
(See ArticJe 5.8.9.2) strength to account for short and long-term degra-
m = Relative horizontal distance of point load from dation factors such as instalJation damage, creep,
back of wall face (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) and chemical aging (dim); (See ArticJe 5.8.6.1.2)
MA = The moment about point z at base of segmental RFc: = Reduction factor applied to the ultimate tensile re-
concrete facing blocks due to force W A (m- inforcement-facing connection strength to account
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) for long-term degradation factors such as creep
Ma = The moment about point z at base of segmental and chemical aging (dim); (See ArticJe 5.8.7.2)
concrete facing blocks due to force W 8 (m- RF10 = Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) count for installation damage (dim); (See ArticJe
n =Relative depth below top of wall when calculat- 5.8.6.1.2)
ing lateral pressure due to point load above wall RFcR = Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
(dim); (See Article 5.5.2) count for creep rupture (dim); (See Article
0 N
Pa
= Number of reinforcement layers vertically within
MSE wall (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.2)
=Active earth pressure force (kN/m); (See Article
5.8.6.1.2)
RFo = Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
count for rupture due to chemical/biological
5.5.2) degradation (dim); (See Artide 5.8.6. I .2)
Pir = Inertial force caused by seismic acceleration of the s = Equivalent soil surcharge height above wall (m);
reinforced soil mass (kN/m); (See Artide 5.8.9.1) (See Article 5.8.4.1)
pi!> = Inertial force caused by seismic acceleration of sh = Horizontal reinforcement spacing of discrete re-
the sloping soil surcharge above the reinforced inforcements (mm); (See Article 5.8.6)
soil mass (kN/m); (See ArticJe 5.8.9.1) sr!o = The reinforcement strength needed to resist the
Po = At-rest earth pressure force (kN/m); (See ArticJe static component of load (kN/m); (See Artide
5.5.2) 5.8.9.2)
PR = Earth pressure force resulting from uniform sur- srt = The reinforcement strength needed to resist the
charge behind wall (kN/m); (See ArticJe 5.5.2) dynamic or transient component of load (kN/m);
PAE = Dynamic horizontal thrust due to seismic loading (See Artide 5.8.9.2)
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1) s. = Transverse grid element spacing (mm); (See Ar-
Pu = Concentrated horizontal dead load force (kN/m); ticle 5.8.5.2)
(See Articles 5.5.2 and 5.8.12.1) Sv = Vertical spacing of soil reinforcement (mm); (See
Pt = Inertial force of ma"s within active zone due to Article 5.8.4.1)
seismic loading (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.2) =Transverse grid or bar mat element thickness
PIR = Reinforced wall mass inertial force due to seis- (mm); (See ArticJe 5.8.5.2)
mic loading (kN/m); (See ArticJe 5.8.9.1) T = Total load applied to structural frame around ob-
PN = Resultant horizontal load on wall due to point struction (kN); (See Article 5.8.12.4)
load (kN/m), (See ArticJe 5.5.2) Ta = The allowable load which can be applied to each
Pv = Concentrated vertical dead load force for strip soil reinforcement layer per unit width of rein-
load (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) forcement (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.6)
Pv' = Concentrated vertical dead load force for isolated Tac = The allowable load which can be applied to each
0 footing or point load (kN/m); (See Article 5.8. 12. I) soil reinforcement layer per unit width of rein-
forcement at the connection with the wall face ~ = Depth where effective surcharge width Di inter-
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7 .2) sects back of wall face (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
Tmu = Maximum load applied to each soil reinforce- a = Scale effect correction factor (dim); (See Article
ment layer per unit width of wall (kN/m); (See 5.8.5.2)
Article 5.8.4.1) ~ = Inclination of ground slope behind wall measured
T111 =Allowable long-term reinforcement tension per counterclockwise from horizontal plane (deg);
unit reinforcement width for ultimate limit state (See Article 5.5.2)
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2) 8 = Friction angle between two dissimilar materials
T1ot = The ultimate wide width tensile strength for the (deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
reinforcement material lot used for connection 8mu = Maximum lateral wall displacement occurring
strength testing (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) during wall construction (mm); (See Article 5.8.1 0)
Tmd = Incremental dynamic inertia force at level i 8R = Relative lateral wall displacement coefficient
(kN/m of structure); (See Article 5.8.9.2) (dim); (See Article 5.8.10)
To = Applied reinforcement load per unit width of wall d = Lateral Rotation at top of wall (mm); (See Article
at the connection with the facing (kN/m); (See 5.5.2)
Article 5.8.4.2) dah = Horizontal stress at the soil reinforcement loca-
T~ = The peak load per unit reinforcement width in the tion resulting from a concentrated horizontal load
connection test at a specified confining pressure (kN/m2); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
where reinforcement pullout is known to be the Aav 1 = Vertical stress at the soil reinforcement location
mode of failure (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) resulting from a concentrated vertical load (kNfm2);
T,ota~ = The total static plus seismic load applied to each (See Article 5.8.12.1)
reinforcement layer per unit width of wall 'Y = Soil unit weight (kN/ml)
(KN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.2) 'Yr = Soil unit weight for random backfill behind and
Tuh = Ultimate tensile strength of geosynthetic rein- above reinforced backfill (kN/m3); (See Article
forcement per unit reinforcement width (kN/m); 5.8.1)
(See Article 5.8.6.1.2.) 'Yr = Soil unit weight for reinforced wall backfill
Tulle: = The peak load per unit reinforcement width in the (kN/m3); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
connection test at a specified confining pressure 'Y' = Effective unit weight of soil or rock (kN/ml)
where reinforcement rupture is known to be the 'Yw = Unit weight of water (kNfml)
mode of failure (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) <t> =Friction angle of the soil (deg); (See Article
v. = Weight of reinforced soil mass (kN/m); (See Ar- 5.5.2)
ticle 5.8.2) <t>' = Effective stress angle of internal friction (deg);
(See Article 5.5.2)
V2 = Weight of sloping soil surcharge on top of rein- = Friction angle of the soil behind the MSE wall re-
<f>r
forced soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
inforcements (deg); (See Article 5.8.1 or 5.8.4.1)
w = Weight of reinforced wall mass (kN/m); (See Ar-
<J>, = Friction angle of the soil within the MSE wall re-
ticle 5.8.9.1)
inforcement zone (deg); (See Article 5.8.1 or
WA = Weight of facing blocks outside the heel of the 5.8.4.1)
base unit (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) e = Inclination of back of wall measured clock-wise
Wa = Weight of facing blocks inside the heel of the base from horizontal plane (deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
unit within hinge height {kN/m); (See Article p = SoiVreinforcement interface friction angle (deg);
5.8.7.2) (See Article 5.8.2)
Ww = Weight of facing blocks over the base unit 0'2 = Vertical stress due to equivalent horizontal soil
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) surcharge above wall when sloping ground pre-
Wu = Width of wall facing or facing blocks (mm); (See sent (kN/m2); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
Article5.8.7.2) O'g = Active pressure on the back of a wall (kN/m2);
x. = Horizontal distance of concentrated dead load (See Article 5.5.2)
from Point 0 toe of wall {m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) O'h = Horizontal soil stress at the soil reinforcement
z = Depth below effective top of wall or to reinforce- (kN/m2); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
ment (m); (See Article 5.8.4.1 or 5.8.12.1) O'v = Vertical stress on the soil reinforcement (kN/mZ);
Zp = Depth to reinforcement at beginning of resistant (See Articles 5.8.4.1 and 5.8.5.2)
zone for pullout computations (m); (See Article O'H = Horizontal stress due to point load above wall
5.8.4.1) (kN/m2); (See Article 5.5.2)
r.
~
w
'IF
=Wall face batter due to setback per course (deg);
(See Article 5.8.5. I)
= Inclination of internal failure surface from hori-
5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
Earth pressute loading on rigid gravity and semi-gravity

zontal (deg); (See Article 5.8.5.1) walls is a function of the type and condition of soil backfill,
the slope of the ground surface behind the wall, the rrlction
The notations for dimension units include the follow- between the wall and soil, and the ability of the wall to trans-
ing: deg = degree; dim = dimensionless; m = meter; late or rotate about their base. Restrained walls are fixed or
mm = millimeter; kN = kilonewton; and kg = kilo- partially restrained against translation and/or rotation.
gram. The dimensional units provided with each nota- For yielding walls, lateral earth pressures shall be com-
tion are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a puted assuming active stress conditions and wedge theory
dimensionally correct combination of units for the wall using a planar surface of sliding defined by Coulomb The-
design procedures presented herein. If other units are ory. Development of an active state of stress in the soil be-
used, the dimensional correctness of the equations hind a rigid wall requires an outward rotation of the wall
should be confirmed. about its toe. The magnitude of rotation required to develop
active pressure is a function of the soil type and conditions
PartB behind the wall, as defined in Table 5.5.2A. Refer to Figure
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD 5.5.2A for procedures to determine the magnitude and lo-
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN cation of the earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
gravity retaining walls subjected to active earth pressures.
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY For restrained or yielding walls for which the tilting or
WALL DESIGN deflection required to develop active earth pressure is not
tolerable (i.e., yielding walls located adjacent to structures
5.5.1 Design Terminology sensitive to settlement), lateral earth pressures shall be com-
puted assuming at-rest conditions using the relationships
Refer to Figure 5.5.1A for terminology used in the de-
sign of rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls. (5.5.2-1)
0 .
STRUCTURAL KEY
BETWEEN CONCRETE
POURS
FRONT FACE
I
BUTTRESS
1'I
STRUCTURAL KEY
BASE SHEAR KEY

r'h FIGURE S.S.tA Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Retaining WaDs
~
TABLE S.S.2A Relationship Between Soil Backfill Type (5.5.2-3)

and Wall Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth
Pressures Behind Rigid Retaining Walls acting at the mid-height of the wall where K is equal to K11
Soil1)rpe and Wall Rotation, 4/H or Ko depending on wall restraint. If the surcharge is
Condition Active Passive greater than that applied by 0.6 meters (2 feet) of soil, the
design earth pressures shall be increased by the actual
Dense Cohesionless 0.001 0.020 amount of the surcharge. Unless actual data regarding the
Loose Cohesionless 0.004 0.060 magnitude of the anticipated surcharge loads is available,
Stiff Cohesive 0.010 0.020 assume. a minimum soil unit weight of 19.6 kN/m3 (0.125
Soft Cohesive 0.020 0.040 kcO in determining the surcharge load.
The effects of permanent point or line surcharge loads
Ko = I - sin<J>' (5.5.2-2) (other than normal traffic live loads) on backslopes shall
also be considered in developing the design earth pres-
When traffic loads are applied within a horizontal dis- sures. See Figure 5.5.2B to estimate the effects of perma-
tance from the top of the wall equal to one-half the wall nent point and line surcharge loads.
height, the· lateral earth pressure for design shall be in- The effect of compacting backfill in confined areas be-
creased by a minimum surcharge acting on the backslope hind retaining walls may result in development of earth
equivalent to that applied by 0.6 meters· (2 feet) of soil as pressures greater than those represented by active or at-
described in Article 3.20.3. The surcharge will result in rest conditions. Where use of heavy static or vibratory
the application of an additional uniform pressure on the compaction equipment within a distance of about 0.5H
back of the wall having a resultant magnitude behind the wall is anticipated, the effects of backfill com-
sin• 8 sin(8-8 >

E·
sin(c#»'• 8) sin(4»'-S>
sintB- 8) sln(8 • B>
J•
Y'= EFFECTIVE UNIT WEIGHT
~·=EFFECTIVE ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
8 = ANGLE OF WALL FRICTION CSEE TABLE 5.5.28>
S = SLOPE ANGLE
B = WALL FACE BATTER
ALL ANGLES ARE POSITIVE(+) AS SHOWN
FIGURE 5.5.2A Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures (Coulomb Analysis)
Line LoadQL Point. Load Qp
0 .
" ~-m~
f.+-..,_
H .L.
__,
i.~........__._
SE~TION SECTION PLAN
LINE LOAD POINT LOAD
'• 0.4~--~-----.----~--~~~~
N
c
0
l
. 0. 6 t----+--....;,j~,......---+-~R-.--t
0.60K
0.60H
0.&6H
0.48H
I
1.0 .._.........._.........._ _ _ _ _ ___,
0 0.8 0.8 1.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Value of CTH (.Ji)
QL
Value of CTH
<cfp)
LINE LOAD POINT LOAD
FIGURE 5.5.2B Procedure to Determine Lateral Pressure Due to Point and Line Loads, Modified after Thrzaghi (1954)
paction shall be considered in estimating the lateral earth of disturbance (e.g., a utility trench excavation in front of
pressure distribution used for design. the wall). Where passive earth pressure in front of a wall
In addition to the earth, surcharge and water pressures, can be considered, refer to Figures 5.5.2C and 5.5.2D for
the backwalls of abutments shall be designed to resist loads procedures to determine the magnitude and location of
due to design live and impact loads. For design purposes, the passive earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
it shall be assumed that wheel loads are positioned to gen- gravity walls. Development of passive earth pressure in
erate the maximum tensile stresses at the back of the back- the soil in front of a rigid wall requires an outward rota-
wall when combined with stresses caused by the backfill. tion of the wall about its toe or other movement of the wall
The resistance due to passive earth pressure in front of into the soil. The magnitude of movement required to mo-
the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends well bilize passive pressure is a function of the soil type and
0 below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other types · condition in front of the wall as defined in Table 5.5.2A.
. 124 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.5.2
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AHGLl OFIHTERHAL FAICT10N••• OEGAE£S
FIGURE 5.5.2C Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping Wall
with Horizontal Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis), Modified After U.S. Department of Navy (1982)
tO.O Ill+···~
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FIGURE 5.5.20 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical Wall
with Sloping Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis), Modified After U.S. Department of Navy (1982)
0
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage Refer to Figure 5.5.5A for computational procedures to
determine the factors of safety for sliding and overturning
Walls shall be designed to resist the maximum antici- failure modes using the Coulomb analysis.
pated water pressure. For a horizontal, static ground water Unfactored dead and live loads shall be used to deter-
table, the total hydrostatic water pressure should be determine the FS against sliding and overturning. In determin-
mined using the following relationship: ing the FS, the effect of passive soil pressure resistance in
front of a wall shall only be considered when competent
(5.5.3-1) soil or rock exists which will not be removed or eroded
during the structure life. Table 5.5.2B may be used for gen-
If the ground water levels differ on opposite sides of a eral guidance in selecting coefficients of sliding friction
wall, the effects of seepage forces on wall stability or pip- between the wall base and foundation soil or rock.
ing potential shall be considered. Seepage forces may be For static loading, the location of the bearing pressure
determined by flow net procedures or various analytical resultant (R) on the base of the wall foundation shall be
methods. Hydrostatic pressures and seepage shaH be con- within B/6 of the center of the foundation for foundations
troJled by providing free-draining granular backfill and a on soil and within B/4 of the center of the foundation for
positive drainage collection system. The positive drainage foundations on rock where B is the width of the wall base
system shall be located at the lowest elevation that will or footing.
permit gravity drainage. Portions of the walls below the For seismic loading, the location of R shall be within
level of the drainage system shall be designed for full hy- B/3 of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil
drostatic pressure unless a deeper drainage system is pro- and rock.
vided behind and at the base of the wall. See Article 4.4.5 for procedures to determine the re-
quired embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure 4.4. 7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design
spread footings on soil and rock; and Articles 4.5 and 4.6,
Refer to Section 6 of Division 1-A for guidance regard- respectively, for procedures to design pile and drilled
ing the lateral earth pressure on gravity and semi-gravity shaft foundations.
retaining walls subjected to seismic loading. In general,
the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe-
5.5.6 Structure Design
Okabe may be used to estimate equivalent static forces for
seismic loads. The estimation of seismic design forces
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be
shall account for wall inertia forces in addition to the
by service load or load factor design methods in confor-
equivalent static forces. Where a wall supports a bridge
mance with Article 3.22.
structure, the seismic design forces shall also include
seismic forces transferred from the bridge through bear-
ing supports which do not slide freely (e.g., elastomeric
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs
bearings).
The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be de-
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability signed to support the entire weight of the superimposed
materials, unless a more exact method is used. The base
Gravity and semi-gravity walls shall be dimensioned to slabs of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers
ensure stability against possible failure modes by satisfy- supported by the wall. The base slabs of counterforted and
ing the following factor of safety (FS) criteria: buttressed walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous
beams of spans equal to the distance between counterforts
• Sliding - FS 2: 1.5 or buttresses.
• Overturning - The critical sections for bending moments in footings
FS 2: 2.0 for footings on soil shall be taken at the face and back of the stem. The criti-
FS 2: 1.5 for footings on rock cal sections for shear in the footings shall be taken at a
• Bearing Capacity for Static Loading - distanced (d = effective depth) from the face of the stem
See Article 4.4. 7 for footings on soil for the toe section and at the back of the stem for the heel
See Article 4.4.8 for footings on rock section.
• The factors of safety against sliding and overturning
failure under seismic loading may be reduced to 5.5.6.2 Wall Stems
75% of the factors of safety listed above.
• Bearing capacity for Seismic Loading - The upright stems of cantilever walls shall be designed
FS ~ 1.5 for footings on soil and rock as cantilevers supported at the base. The upright stems or
c
'
.
QEj:INITIDNS
DISIGll PACTOBS
W • WEIGHT OF W1U. .., SOl~ ..aDVE TOE FaA GMYITT

MD SIMIGMYITT vALLS.
• WEIGHT OF WU .., SOl~ ABOVE BASE S1.A8 FOR
, .~~'==sr.c~u ~-:2l.
CMTILEVIA MD CGUNTEAFOAT IMLLS.
Py • VERT ICM. CCIIICINTINT r1F P•

• P SIN C~'·l•ll
ft • tCJAIZONTAL COMPONENT t1 P•
• P CDS c..•·f•ll
1ft • ~SIVE SOIL "'SISTMG IN AGNT OF SHEM ICEY.
F • SUM OF FORCES PROVIDING RESISTMCE TO SLIDING.
I • INCLINATION OF 8ACIC til VaL~ WITH RESPECT TO MOAIZCNTAL.
I • .,_£
DF FRICTION •TmN vaLL NG SOIL IACICFILL•
FROM MSHTD T-.£ 5.5.21• Euu.L TO Z£RO
:1 r
FOR fWICifE MMLTSIS.
F • COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION .TWUN
UU. MG FCJI.IGATION
= r
c
SOIL DR ROQC, FROM MSHTD TML£ 5.5.21.
C • COMESION OF FCJUIOlTION SOl~.
S • SHEilA STRENGTH OF FOUNDATION RaCIC AT ZERO NORMAL LOtiO.
II
L-
..- p
c;. •AOMESION 1ETV££N COCSIYE SOIL NG CDIG£T£,
FROM IASMTD TAIL£ 5.5.28.
~
•• • EFFECTIVE MOLE DF INTER*L FRICTION CJF SOIL QR AOCIC.
FS • FACTOR OF WETY.
r-- M • ME I GMT OF tHILL
MEEL DIC • OEPTM OF ICET
I~ ME POINTS ON BASE OF ICEYID WALLS
SOl~ PAESSUAE ~-BASE OF

FOOTUG MSISTMC! TD MRTURNING
SUM MOMENTS ~T TO€•
Fs0 Hll''~NG
y
1
ala9NTS
lllkiFs
w.. • "'•
0 COUNT£RF01 •• 2.1
Pwb
t. 5 uiDA BASE DN ROOU
CFDA 8*5£ DN SOIL,
R£SISTMCE TD SLIDING
UNDRAUEO C:OCSI VE SO I~ I •• • I h
F • -=.<& _..., • ocMI • Pp
GRMULM SOIL OR DMINEO COtES IV£ SOt~ CC • I I
F • IV • P., I _,. I • Pp
ROCK•
F • IW • ~ J_,. I • ...... Pp
F~·
,
...... ,
,-•t.5
• 2.01(
...
NOTE• FDA COESIVE SOIL• OCCIC BOtM ORAl NED ..:J IHJRAINED
CASES TO DETERMINE MOST CAITIC"L CONDITION.
LOCATION OF R£SUL TMT

SUM MO€NTS A8CIUT TOE •
Ve • ~ • lkb A~ING Pp•l
I' • " • .,
p
f ·• r • ~ cFDA BASE ON SDILJ
' •r • ~ IFCIR BAS£ ON ROCK•
FQUNOATIQN LOAQINGS OVERALL STaBILITY

To deUHtafte allowable rouftdeUOf"' loodancJ•• ,..r.,. U
Oeur-~nuw owe,.oll nabah"'J or
wall. bock O"d ran
end roundaUOft llle'-,.101 waUl ,.estMC~ \0 deep
A..ucle 4,4 tSpoeod Fooung•l• 4.5 COrawen Pale•l HeUd r oalut"e u desc,.abed '" Arucle 5.2.2.3.
0
end 4.6 COralled Sherul
FIGURE 5.5.5A Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls, (Coulomb Analysis)
TABLE 5.5.28 Ultimate Friction Factors and Friction Angles for Dissimilar Materials,
After U.S. Department of the Navy (1982)
Friction Factor
f=tan Friction Angle,
Interface Materials 8 (dim) 8 (degrees)
Mass concrete or masonry on the following foundation materials:
-Clean sound rock 0.70 35
-Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 0.55 to 0.60 29 to 31
-Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty or clayey gravel 0.45 to 0.55 24 to 29
-Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 0.35 to 0.45 19 to 24
-Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.30 to 0.35 17 to 19
-Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay 0.40 to 0.50 22 to 26
-Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 0.30 to 0.35 17 to 19
Steel sheet piles against the following soils:
-Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls 0.40 22
-Clean sand. silty sand-gravel mixtures, single size hard rock fill 0.30 17
-Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay 0.25 14
-Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.20 11
Formed concrete or concrete sheet piling against the following soils:
-Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls 0.40 to 0.50 22 to 26
-Clean sand, siJty sand-gravel mixtures, single size hard rock fill 0.30 to 0.40 17 to 22
-Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay 0.30 17
-Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.25 14
Various structural materials:
-Masonry on masonry, igneous, and metamorphic rocks
• Dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 0.70 35
• Dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 0.65 33
• Dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 0.55 29
-Masonry on wood (cross grain) 0.50 26
-Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks 0.30 17
face walls of counterfort and buttress walls shall be de- foot) of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not
signed as fixed or continuous beams. The face walls (or otherwise reinforced to resist the formation of tempera-
stems) shall be securely anchored to the supporting coun- ture and shrinkage cracks.
terforts or buttresses by means of adequate reinforcement. The reinforcement in each construction panel (i.e., be-
Wall stems shall be designed for combined axial load tween vertical construction joints) of wall with height
(including the weight of the stem and friction due to back- varying uniformly from one end to another, shall be de-
fill acting on the stem) and bending due to eccentric ver- signed for the loading condition acting at one-third of the
tical loads, surcharge loads and earth pressure. panel length from the high end of the panel. If practical,
the thickness of the footings shan be maintained constant
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses in each panel or in each group of panels. The width of the
footings, however, may vary according to the height of the
Counterforts shall be designed as rectangular beams. wall as require4 by design.
In connection with the main tension reinforcement of Tension reinforcement at the bottom of the heel shall
counterforts, there should be a system of horizontal and be provided if required during the construction stage prior
vertical bars or stirrups to anchor the face walls and base to wall backfill. The adequacy of the reinforcement shan
slab to the counterfort. These stirrups should be anchored be checked due to the dead load of the stem and any other
as near to the outside faces of the face walls, and as near vertical loads applied to the stem prior to backfilling.
to the bottom of the base slab as practicable. Reinforcement in wall and abutment stems shall be ex-
tended a minimum distance equal to the effective depth of
5.5.6.4 Reinforcement the section or 15 bar diameters, whichever. is greater, but
not less than 0.3 meter ( 1 foot) beyond the point at which
Except in gravity walls, not less than 81 mm2 ( •Is computations indicate reinforcement is no longer needed
square inch) of horizontal reinforcement per 0.3 meter ( 1 to resist stress.
0
1
0( r, H+_g_3 >'21 01
( 2y: H +y~D)
H H
D ROCK
P _ sO
p -(I-+ TAN /3') W-+nb)
o. EMBEDMENT IN SOIL b. EMBEDMENT IN ROCK
NOTE: REFER TO TABLE 5.6. 2A FOR

GENERAL NOTES AND LEGEND
FIGURE 5.6.2A Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls
With Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints 5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED
0 Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals

not exceeding 9 meters (30 feet) and expansion joints at
WALl, DESIGN
5.6.1 Design Terminology

intervals not exceeding 27 meters (90 feet) for gravity or
reinforced concrete walls. All joints shall be filled with A nongravity cantilevered wall includes an exposed
approved filling material to ensure the function of the design height (H) over which soil is retained by the verti-
joint. Joints in abutments shall be located approximately cal and facing elements, and a vertical element embed-
midway between the longitudinal members bearing on ment depth (0) which provides lateral support to the ver-
the abutments. tical wall elements.
5.5.7 Backfill 5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
The backfill material behind aU retaining walls shaH be Lateral earth pressures shall be estimated assuming
free draining, nonexpansive, noncorrosive material and wedge theory using a planar surface of sliding defined by
shall be drained by weep holes with french drains or other Coulomb theory.
positive drainage systems, placed at suitable intervals and For determining lateral earth pressures on permanent
elevations. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one walls, effective stress methods of analysis and drained
drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts. Silts and shear strength parameters for soil shall be used.
clays shall not be used for backfill unless suitable design For permanent walls and for temporary walls in granu-
procedures are followed and construction control mea- lar soils. the simplified earth pressure distributions shown in
sures are incorporated in the construction documents to Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.28. or other suitable earth pressure
account for their presence. distributions. may be used. If walls will support or are sup-
ported by cohesive soils for temporary applications, walls
5.5.8 Overall Stability may be designed based on total stress methods of analysis
and undrained shear strength parameters. For this latter
0 Refer to Article 5.2.2.3. case, the simplified earth pressure distributions shown in
1. Detercaine the act.lve earth pressure on the

wall due to surcharge loads, the retained
soil and differential water pressure above
the dredge line trefer to Table 5.6.2A for
determination of K.).
2. Determine the caagnitude of active pressure
at the dredge llne (P*) due to succi .. ge
loads, retained soil and differential watec
pressure, using the earth pressure
coefficient K., .
l. Determine the value of x • P•/lfK~ 1 -K 1 JY;I
for the distribution of net passive •
pressure in front of the wall below the
dredge line (refer to Table 5.6.2A for
determination of K. and KP).
4. Sum ~DCCDents about the point of action of F
to determine the elllbed:Dent (Du) for which
the net passive pressure is sufficient to
provide equilibrium.
5. Determine the depth (l~int a) at which the
shear in the wall is zero (i.e., the point
at which the a1eas of the driving and
resisting pressure diagrams are
equivalent) •
6. Calculate the JMxiniUIII benchng IIIOiflent at the
point of zero shear.
1. Calculate the design depth, D • 1.2 D to
o. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION 1.4 D0 for a safety factor of 1.5 to ~.0.
NOlES: C1) suaatMGE AND ta'J'ER PltESSURES tiJS'l' 8E ADDED TO 'mZ MOVE b. SIMPLIFIED DESIGN PROCEDURE
DR'l1l RtESSUaS.
(2) fORCES SIDfi ME PER HORJZCWI'AL FOOT Of VERTICAL tw.L

a.tNHr.
FIGURE 5.6.28 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent Flexible
Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements Modified after Teng (1962)
CONSIDER POSSIBLE CONDITION

CF WATER IN TENSION CRACK
COHESIVE SOIL(~')
NOTE FOR SLOPING BACKFILL

USE EFFECTIVE SHEAR STRENGrtt
H PARAMETERS ( C =0) AND
H FIGURE 5.6.2.C. o
1-....:.~t-t--A _JYs'H-2Su)Hl
a- 2
/3'
)5'H-2Su
p • 3b0
P (I+ TAN/3')
'--t:'Su- Y~
a EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL
H ~S.,-y~H
b EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL
RETAINING GRANULAR SOU. RETAINING COHESIVE SOIL
NOTEr REFER TO TABLE 5.6.2A FOR

GENERAL NOTES AND LEGEND
FIGURE S.6.2C Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
c
'
'
'
'
COHESIVE
SOIL
0
Q
00
.
N
l4Su-y~H)
o. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL b. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL
RETAINING GRANULAR SOIL RETAINING COHESIVE SOl L
Nl'IUI Cll reB NW.S DIDaa:D IN GMICANl SOU., Urt.111Q FIQJII£ 5.6.28 IJI SdiCIWlC£ AND W.TER i'IIZSSUI&S IIJST BE ADDED 1Q 111£ AllCNE
AND USI .Nia4 DUGMN fOR 1\E'rAIID COIICSIVE SOIL NIIEM rAimt l'IICSSUIIU •
.vnoNIATE.
141 f'OICU SlOtt ARC HR IIORIIOft'N. root 01 IIEIIfiCAL 1W.1.
111 RUal 'Pl FIGJRE 5.6.2a fOil AIIIPLIFim DUICN PIIOCDlUU. a.a.r.
FIGURE 5.6.2D Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements
Modified after Teng (1962)
0 TABLE 5.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent and
Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
LEGEND:
= Effective unit weight of soil
= Vertical element width
= Spacing between vertical wall elements (c/c)
= Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil
= Shear strength of rock mass
= Passive resistance per vertical wall element
= Active earth pressure per vertical wall element
= Ground surface slope behind wall { + for slope up from wall }
= Ground surface slope in front of wall - for slope down from wall
= Active earth pressure coefficient; Refer to Figure 5.5.2A
= Passive earth pressure coefficient; Refer to Figures 5.5.2C and 5.5.2D
= Effective angle of soil friction
NarES:
(1) For temporary walls embedded in granular soil or rock, refer to Figure 5.6.2A to determine passive resistance and use diagrams on Figure
5.6.2C to determine active earth pressure of retained soil.
(2) Surcharge and water pressures must be added to the indicated earth pressures.
(3) Forces shown are per vertical wall element.
(4) Pressure distributions below the exposed portion of the wall are based on an effective element width of 3b, which is valid for 2:: 5b. For < Sb,
refer to Figures 5.6.28 and 5.6.20 for continuous wall elements to determine pressure distributions on embedded portions of the walll
Figures 5.6.2C and 5.6.20, or other suitable earth pressure freezing and expansion. In such cases, insulation shall be
distributions, may be used with the following restrictions: provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil, or
consideration should be given during wall design to
• The ratio of overburden pressure to undrained shear the pressures which may be exerted on the wall by
strength (i.e., stability number N = 'YHic) must be frozen soil.
<3.
• The active earth pressure shall not be less than 0.25 5.6.4 Seismic Pressure
times the effective overburden pressure at any depth.
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance re-
Where discrete vertical wall elements are used for sup- garding the design of flexible cantilevered walls subjected
port, the width of each vertical element shall be assumed to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-
to equal the width of the flange or diameter of the element static approach developed by Mononobe-Okabe may be
for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled used to estimate the equivalent static forces. Forces
hole for sections encased in concrete. resulting from wall inertia effects may be ignored in esti-
The magnitude and location of resultant loads andre- mating the seismic lateral earth pressure.
sisting forces for permanent walls with discrete vertical
elements embedded in soil and rock for lateral support 5.6.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability
may be determined using the earth pressure distributions
presented in Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.2C, or other earth Flexible cantilevered walls shall be dimensioned to en-
pressure distributions developed for use in the design of sure stability against passive failure of embedded vertical
such walls. The procedure for determining the resultant elements such that FS ~ 1.5. Unfactored dead and live
passive resistance of a vertical element embedded in soil loads shall be used to evaluate the factor of safety against
assumes that net passive resistance is mobilized across
passive failure of embedded vertical elements.
a maximum of three times the element width or dia-
Vertical elements shall be designed to support the full
meter (reduced, if necessary, to account for soft clay or
design earth, surcharge and water pressures between the
discontinuities in the embedded depth of soil or rock) and
elements. In determining the depth of embedment to mo-
that some portion of the embedded depth below finished
bi1ize passive resistance, consideration shall be given to
grade (usually 2 to 3 feet for an element in soil, and 1 foot
planes of weakness (e.g., slickensides, bedding planes.
for an element in rock) is ineffective in providing passive
and joint sets) that could reduce the strength of the soil or
lateral support.
rock determined by field or laboratory tests. Embedment
In developing the design lateral pressure, the lateral
in intact rock, including massive to appreciably jointed
pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line surcharge
rock which should not fail through a joint surface, should
loads, backfill compaction, or other types of surcharge
be based on an allowable shear strength of 0.1 OCo to
loads shall be added to the lateral earth pressure in accor-
0.15C0 of the intact rock.
dance with ArticJes 3.20.3 and 5.5.2.
5.6.3 Water Pressure and Drainage 5.6.6 Structure Design
Flexible cantilevered walls shall be designed to resist Structural design of individual wall elements may be
the maximum anticipated water pressure. For a horizontal performed by service load or load factor design methods
static ground water table, the total hydrostatic water pres- in conformance with Article 3.22.
sure shall be determined using Equation 5.5.3-l. For dif- The maximum spacing between vertical supporting el-
fering ground water levels on opposite sides of the wall, ements depends on the relative stiffness of the vertical el-
the water pressure and seepage forces shall be determined ements and facing, and the type and condition of soil to be
by flow net procedures or other appropriate methods of supported. Mma" in a 1-foot height of wall facing at any
analysis, where necessary. Seepage shall be controlled by level may be determined by the following, or other ac-
installation of a drainage medium (e.g., preformed ceptable design procedures:
drainage panels, sand or gravel drains or wick drains) be-
hind the facing with outlets at or near the base of the wall. • Simple span (no soil arching)
Drainage panels shall maintain their drainage characteris-
tics under the design earth pressures and surcharge load- MllUIX = Paf218 (5.6.6-1)
ings, and shall extend from the base of the wall to a level
I foot below the top of the wall. • Simple span (soil arching)
Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls, sat-
urated or moist soil behind the panels may be subject to (5.6.6-2)
• Continuous (no soil arching) sidered adequate with respect to the decay hazard and ex-
pected service life of the structure.
Mlllllx = Paf 2/l0 (5.6.6-3)
5.6.7 Overall Stability
• Continuous (soil arching)
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3.
(5.6.6-4)
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection
Equation 5.6.6-1 is applicable for simply supported fac-
ing behind which the soil will not arch between vertical Refer to Article 5.7.8.
supports (e.g., in soft cohesive soils or for rigid concrete
facing placed tightly against the in-place soil). Equation
5.6.6-2 is applicable for simply supported facing behind 5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN
which the soil will arch between vertical supports (e.g., in
granular or stiff cohesive soils with flexible facing or rigid 5.7.1 Design Terminology
facing behind which there is sufficient space to permit the
in-place soil to arch). Equations 5.6.6-3 and 5.6.6-4 are ap- Refer to Figure 5.7.1 A for terminology used for the de-
plicable for facing which is continuous over several verti- sign of anchored retaining walls.
cal supports (e.g., reinforced shotcrete or concrete).
Timber facings should be constructed of stress-grade 5.7.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
lumber in conformance with Article 13.2.1. If timber is
used where conditions are favorable for the growth of The development of lateral earth pressures for design
decay-producing organisms, wood should be pressure shall consider the method and sequence of construction,
treated with a wood preservative unless the heartwood of the rigidity of the wall/anchor system, the physical char-
a naturally decay-resistant species is available and is con- acteristics and stability of the ground mass to be sup-
0
--
: I:
1-
:I:
~ WALL BEARING
:I: ELEMENT
z
<!I
in
1.1.1
0
WALL (VERllCAL
ELEMENTS WllH
FACING) ---.-.t ANCHOR INCUNAllON
AS REQUIRED
PRIMARY GROUT
·~·
FIGURE 5.7.1A Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.7.2
134
APPARENT EARTH
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION NOTATION
SOIL TYPE
~- H- FINAL WALL HEIGHT
~
'.
~
K0 - ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
SAND (4 ) COEFFICIENT
H
(OR PERMANE NT y'- EFFECTIVE SOIL UNIT WEIGHT
WALLS IN CLA~l - 1J
y - TOTAL SOIL UNIT WEIGHT
If C 11:
m- REDUCTION FACTOR
,.. --i (I) Qu- UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
0.65Kay'H STRENGTH
. .
..~.25H
~
NOTES
~
~
4)
SOFTTO l (2)
MEDIUM CLA~ Ka =1-m ( 2qulyHl BUT NOT
o.75H LESS THAN 0.25
(qu "0.25 TO 1.0 TSF)
-
- ,, m = I FOR OVERCONSOUDATED
CLAYS
m~: 0.4 FOR NORMALLY
II',, •
t- KciyH -'i (2)
CONSOLIDATED CLAY
( 3) VALUE OF 0.4 SHOULD BE USED

FOR LONG-TERM EXCAVATIONS;
VALUES BETWEEN 0.4 AND
0.2 MAY BE USED FOR
SHORT-TERM CONDITIONS.
STIFF TO l 4 )
HARD CLAY (4) SURCHARGE AND WATER
(qu > 1.0 TSF) PRESSURES MUST BE ADDED
TO THESE EARTH PRESSURE
DIAGRAMS. THE TWO LOWER
DIAGRAMS ARE NOT VALID FOR
PERMANENT WALLS OR WALLS
WHERE WATER LEVEL LIES
ABOVE BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION.
FIGURE 5.7.2A Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with 1\vo or More Levels of Anchors
Constructed from the Top Down Modified after Thrzaghi and Peck (1967)
ported, allowable wall deflections, the space between incorporate the effects of anchors or which consider in-
anchors, anchor prestress, and the potential for anchor terstice equilibrium and provide information on interslice
yield. forces. In developing the design earth pressure for a par-
For stable ground masses, the final distribution and ticular wall section, consideration shall be given to waH
magnitude of lateral earth pressure on a completed an- displacements that may affect adjacent structures or un-
chored wall with two or more levels of anchors con- derground utilities. Very approximate estimates of settle-
structed from the top down may be computed using the ments adjacent to braced or anchored flexible walls can be
apparent earth pressure distributions shown in Figure made using Figure 5. 7 .2B. If waH deflections estimated
5.7.2A or any other applicable earth pressure distribution using Figure 5.7.2B are excessive for a particular appli-
developed for this purpose. For unstable or marginally cation, a more detailed analysis using beam on elastic
stable ground masses, the design earth pressure may ex- foundation, finite element or other methods of analysis
ceed those shown in Figure 5.7.2Aand loads should bees- which consider the soil-structure interaction effects of an-
timated using methods of slope stability analysis which chored walls may be warranted.
0 0.3
0.5 t-----....--
z
0
F=
<
~ ~ 1.0
L&J(.)
::ex
L&JL&J
gL&..
wo
tnF
a..
L&J
c 2.0t------
0.0 .75 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

DISTANCE FROM EXCAVA llON
DEPlH OF EXCAVAllON
CURVE I ::s Sand

CURVE II: = Stiff to very hard clay
CURVE 1II = Soft to medium clay, factor of
Safety against basal heave (a
~.1 Su)
0 CURVE rsz: =
Equal to 2.0 "' +
Soft to medium clay, factor of
Safety against basal heave (a
~)
q
Equal to 1.2 -yH + q

FIGURE 5.7.2B Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls
Modified after Clough and O'Rourke (1990)
Anchored walls with one level of anchors may be de- For the conditions where there is no or one anchor
signed using a triangular earth pressure distribution in ac- level, the magnitude and distribution of lateral resisting
cordance with Article 5.6.2 or using another suitable earth forces for embedded vertical elements in soil or rock shall
pressure distribution consistent with the expected wall de- be determined following procedures described in Article
flection. For the case where excavation has advanced 5.6.2. When two or more levels of anchors have been in-
down to the first anchor level but the first row of anchors stalled, the magnitude of lateral resistance provided by
has not yet been installed, the wall shall be treated as a embedded vertical elements will depend on the element
nongravity cantilevered wall and the earth pressure distri- stiffness and deflection under load.
bution loading on the wall shall be assumed as triangular The earth pressures on anchored walls constructed in
in accordance with Article 5.6.2. Overstressing of the an- fill situations from the bottom up are affected by the
chors should be avoided as excessive anchor loads rela-
method and sequence of construction. Therefore, the
tive to the capacity of the retained ground mass to support
method and sequence of construction must be considered
the anchor loads can result in undesirable deflections, or
when selecting appropriate lateral earth pressures for an-
passive failure of the wall into the retained soil.
chored walls in fill situations. As a general guide, the fol-
In developing the design lateral pressure for walls con-
lowing may be considered:
structed from the top down, the lateral pressure due to
traffic or other surcharge loading, shall be added to the lat-
eral earth pressure in accordance with Articles 3.23.3 and • For walls with a single anchor level-A triangular
0 5.5.2, using an earth pressure coefficient consistent with

the estimated magnitude of wall deflection.
distribution defined by Ka'Y per unit length of wall
height plus surcharge loads.
• For walls with multiple anchor levels-A rectangu- Refer to Article 5.7.2 for general guidance regarding
lar pressure distribution derived by increasing the wall deflections.
total force from the triangular pressure distribution
described above by one-third and applying the force 5.7.6 Structure Design
as a uniform pressure distribution.
Depending on the characteristics of the wall, the wall
5.7.3 Water Pressure and Drainage components shall be designed by service load or load fac-
tor methods in conformance with Article 3.22.
Refer to Article 5.6.3.
5.7.6.1 General
5.7.4 Seismic Pressure
The procedure for anchored wall design depends on
the number of anchor rows and the construction sequence.
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance re- For a typical wall with two or more rows of anchors
garding the design of anchored retaining walls subjected constructed from the top down, the procedure requires
to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-sta- · design for the final structure with multiple rows of an-
tic approach developed by Mononobe-Okabe may be used chors and checking the design for the various stages of
to estimate the equivalent static forces provided the max- wall construction.
imum lateral earth pressure be computed using a seismic The required horizontal component of each anchor
coefficient kh= 1.5A. Forces resulting from wall inertia force shall be computed using the apparent earth pressure
effects may be ignored in estimating the seismic lateral distributions in Figure 5.7.2A, or other applicable earth
earth pressure. pressure distributions, and any other horizontal water
pressure, surcharge or seismic forces acting on the wall.
5.7.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability The total anchor force shall be determined based on the
anchor inclination. The horizontal anchor spacing and an-
The design of anchored walls includes determination chor capacity shall be selected to provide the required
of the following: total anchor force.
The vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist
• Size, spacing, and depth of embedment of vertical all horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure,
wall elements and facing; anchor and seismic loadings as well as the vertical com-
• 'JYpe, capacity, spacing, depth, inclination and cor- ponent of the anchor loads and any other vertical loads.
rosion protection of anchors; and Supports may be assumed at each anchor location and at
• Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall the bottom of the wall if the vertical element is extended
foundation, and surrounding soil mass for all inter- below the bottom of the wall.
mediate and final stages of construction. The stresses in and the design of the wall facing shall
be computed in accordance with the requirements of Ar-
The bearing capacity and settlement of vertical wall el- ticle 5.6.6. ·
ements under the vertical component of the anchor forces All components of the anchored wall system shall be
and other vertical loads shall be determined in accordance checked for the various earth pressure distributions and
with Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6. other loading conditions which will exist during the
For walls supported in or through soft clays with Su < course of construction.
0.3'Y'H, continuous vertical elements extending well
below the exposed base of the wall may be required to pre- 5.7.6.2 Anchor Design
vent heave in front of the wall. Otherwise, the vertical el-
ements are embedded several feet as required for stability Anchor design shall include an evaluation of the feasi-
or end bearing. (Where significant embedment of the wall bility of using anchors, selection of an anchor system, es-
is required to prevent bottom heave, the lowest section of timates of anchor capacity, determination of unbonded
wall below the lowest row of anchors must be designed to length, and determination of corrosion protection require-
resist the moment induced by the pressure acting between ments. In determining the feasibility of employing an-
the lowest row of anchors and the base of the exposed wall, chors at a particular location, consideration shall be given
and the force Pb = 0.7('YHBe - 1.4cH - pcBc) acting at to the availability or ability to obtain underground ease-
the midheight of the embedded depth of the wall.) ments, proximity of buried facilities to anchor locations,
The required embedment depth (D or 0 0 ) may be de- and the suitability of subsurface soil and rock conditions
termined in accordance with Article 5.6.2. within the anchor stressing zone.
TABLE 5.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors
in Soil Modified after Cheney (1982)
Estimated
Relative DensityI Ultimate 'Ihlnsfer Load
Soill)'pe Consistency< I) (kips/lineal foot)
Sand and Gravel Loose 10
Medium dense 15
Dense 20
Sand Loose 7
Medium dense 10
Dense 13
Sand and Silt Loose 5
Medium dense 7
Dense 9
Silt-clay Mixture with Minimum Stiff 2
LL, PI, and LI Restrictions, or Hard 4
Fine Micaceous<2>Sand or Silt
Mixtures
<t> Values corrected for overburden pressure.
<Z> The presence of mica tends to increase the volume and compressibility of sand and soft deposits due to bridging action
and subsequent flexibility under increased pressures.
TABLE 5.7.6.2B Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load in soil and 3.0 for anchors in rock. Bearing elements for
Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock anchors shall be designed to maintain shear stresses in the
Modified after Cheney (1982) vertical wall elements and facing within allowable values.
Estimated The capacity of each anchor shall be verified as part of a
Ultimate 'fransfer Load stressing and testing program. (See Division II.)
Rockl)'pe (kips/lineal foot) Determination of the unbonded anchor length shall con-
sider the location of the critical failure surface farthest from
Granite or Basalt 50 the wall, the minimum length required to insure minimal
Dolomitic Limestone 40 loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground move-
Soft Limestone 30 ments, and the depth to adequate anchoring strata. As shown
Sandstone 30 in Figure 5.7.1A, the unbonded (or free) anchor length
Slates and Hard Shales 25 should not be less than 15 feet and should extend beyond
Soft Shales 10 the critical failure surface in the soil mass being retained by
the wall. For granular soils or drained cohesive soils, the
critical failure surface is typically assumed to be the active
The required anchor forces shall be determined in ac- failure wedge which is defined by a plane extending upward
cordance with Article 5. 7 .6.1. The ultimate anchor capac- from the base of the wall at an angle of 45 + <1> '/2 from the
ity per unit length may be preliminarily estimated using horizontal. Longer free lengths may be required for anchors
the guidelines presented in Tables 5.7.6.2A and 5.7.6.28 in plastic soils or where critical failure surfaces are defined
for soil and rock, respectively. These guidelines are for by planes or discontinuities with other orientations.
preliminary design of straight shaft anchors installed in Selection of an anchor inclination shall consider the lo-
small diameter holes using a low grout pressure. Other an- cation of suitable soil or rock strata, the presence of buried
chor types and installation procedures could provide other utilities or other geometric constraints, and constructabil-
estimated ultimate anchor capacities. Final determination ity of the anchor drill holes. The component of vertical
of the anchor capacity and required bond length shall be load resulting from anchor inclination shall be included in
the responsibility of the anchored wall specialty contrac- evaluating the end bearing and settlement of vertical wall
tor. The allowable anchor capacity for small diameter an- elements.
chors may be estimated by multiplying the ultimate The minimum horizontal spacing of anchors should be
anchor capacity per unit length times the bonded (or either three times the diameter of the bonded zone or 4
stressing) length and dividing by a FS of 2.5 for anchors feet, whichever is larger. If smaller spacings are required,
consideration can be given to differing anchor inclinations (5.8.5.2) shall also be satisfied, as well as overall stability
between alternating anchors. requirements as provided in Article 5.2.2.3.
The soil reinforcement length shall be calculated based
5.7.7 Overall Stability on external and internal stability considerations in accor-
dance with Articles 5.2.2.3 and 5.5.5, and all relevant por-
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3. tions of Article 5.8. Soil reinforcement length shall be as a
minimum approximately 70% of the wall height (as mea-
5.7.8 Corrosion Protection sured from the leveling pad) and not less than 2.4 meters (8
feet). The wall height is defined as the difference in eleva-
Prestressed anchors and anchor heads shall be pro- tion between the top of the wall at the wall face (i.e., where
tected against corrosion consistent with the ground and the finished grade intersects the back of the wall face) and
ground water conditions at the site. The level and extent the top of the leveling pad. The reinforcement length shall
of corrosion protection shall be a function of the ground be uniform throughout the entire height of the wall, unless
environment and the potential consequences of an anchor substantiating evidence is presented to indicate that varia-
failure. Corrosion protection shall be applied in accor- tion in length is satisfactory. External loads such as sur-
dance with Section 6 of Division II-Ground Anchors. charges will increase the minimum reinforcement length.
Greater reinforcement lengths may also be required for very
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing soft soil site.~ and to satisfy global stability requirements.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of the
All anchors shall be tested in accordance with Section reinforced soil mass, which is the same as the top of the
6 of Division 11-Ground Anchors, Article 6.5.5, Testing leveling pad, shall be based on bearing capacity, settle-
and Stressing. ment, and stability requirements determined in accordance
with Articles 5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.3, and pertinent
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED portions of Article 5.8, including the effects of frost heave,
EARTH (MSE) WALL DESIGN scour, proximity to slopes, erosion, and the potential fu-
ture excavation in front of the wall. The lowest backfill re-
MSE walls shall be designed for external stability of inforcement layer shall not be located above the long-term
the wall system as well as internal stability of the rein- ground surface in front of the wall. As an alternative to
forced soil mass behind the facing. Internal design of being below the depth of frost penetration, the soil below
MSE wall systems requires knowledge of short and long- the wall but above the depth of frost penetration can be
term properties of the materials used as soil reinforce- removed and replaced with nonfrost susceptible clean
ments as well as the soil mechanics which govern MSE granular soil. In addition to general bearing capacity, set-
wall behavior. Structural design of the wall facing may tlement, and stability considerations, the minimum em-
also be required. bedment required shall consider the potential for local
The specifications provided herein for MSE walls do bearing capacity failure under the leveling pad or footing
not apply to geometrically complex MSE wall systems due to higher vertical stresses transmitted by the facing.
such as tiered walls (walls stacked on top of one another), A minimum horizontal bench 1.2 meters (4 feet) wide
back-to-back walls, or walls which have trapezoidal sec- shall be provided in front of walls founded on slopes.
tions. Design guidelines for these cases are provided in For walls constructed along rivers and streams. embed-
FHWA publication No. FHWASA-96-071 "Mechanically ment depths shall be established at a minimum of 0.6 me-
Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design ters (2 feet) below potential scour depth as determined in
and Construction Guidelines." Compound stability should accordance with Article 5.3.5.
also be evaluated for these complex MSE wall systems
(see Article 5.8.2). 5.8.2 External Stability
5.8.1 Structure Dimensions Stability computations shall be made by assuming the

reinforced soil mass and facing to be a rigid body. The co-
An illustration of the MSE wall element dimensions efficient of active earth pressure, Kar used to compute the
needed for design is provided in Figure 5.8.IA. horizontal force resulting from the retained backfill be-
MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the hind the reinforced zone and other loads shall be com-
minimum factors of safety required by Article 5.5.5 for puted on the basis of the friction angle of the retained
sliding and overturning stability are satisfied. In addition, backfill. In the absence of specific data, a maximum fric-
the minimum factors of safety provided in Article 5.8 for tion angle of 30° should be used. The limitation also ap-
foundation bearing capacity (5.8.3) and pullout resistance plies when determining the coefficient of sliding friction
WlL,ACIIG
PMELS DA UNJ TS
I
RIINFGRCCD SDI L .... I I
~ y I( I '"IL&Mr SUWICE 'DII
t---r_r_r_ __.,_ _ _ _ _ EXTERNAL STMILI TY'/
I
I I
H I
ACTIVE ZO.C
I I R£TAI lCD ,. LL
I I
I .,_ Yr Kor
-.L lAS£ WIDTH. I
For external and 1nt.er-nol st.obaht.y colculot.tons, the wetght. end damensaons or the
focang elements o,.e typ1colly agnor-ed. Ho..,ever, 1t. as occept.oble t.o anclude the rocang
dtmensaons and weaght 1n shdang, over-t.urnang, end beerang cepect tA;j celculot.aons. For
snt.ernol st.obth~ colculottons, the ..,all damensaons ere consadered t.o beg1n et. the bock
of the roctng e[oment.s. .
FIGURE 5.8.1A MSE Wall Element Dimensions Needed for Design
at the wall base. Passive pressures shall be neglected in used. as illustrated in Figure 5.8.2.C. Alternatively. a bro-
stability computations. ken back slope design can be performed for the actual
The active earth pressure coefficients for retained slope geometry by using a graphical Coulomb procedure
backfill (i.e .• fill behind the reinforced soil mass) for ex- such as the Culmann method:
ternal stability calculations only is computed as shown in For sliding stability, the coefficient of sliding used to
Figure 5.5.2A. with 8 = (3. calculate frictional resistance at the base of the wall shall
Figures 5.8.2A, 5.8.28, and 5.8.2C illustrate external be the minimum of the following determinations:
stability equations for MSE walls with horizontal back-
slope, inclined backslope, and a broken backslope, re- • Tan Q> at the base of the wall, where Q> is the friction
spectively. Dead load surcharges, if present. shall be angle of the backfill or the foundation soil. which-
taken into account in accordance with Figures 5.8. I 2.1 A, ever is lowest.
5.8.12.l.B. and 5.8.12.1C. • Tan p if continuous or near continuous reinforcement
If a break in the slope behind the wall facing is located layers are used, where p is the soiVreinforcement
horizontally within two times the height of the wall (2H). interface angle for the bottom of the lowest rein-
a broken backslope design (A.R.E.A. method) shall be forcement layer.
HORIZONTAL BACKSLOPE WITH TRAFFIC SURCHARGE

Assumed f' o,. beo,.ang copeca ty
end ove,.ell CglobeU stobah tv
comps.
Assumed ro,. OYOr"tur"ntng end

sladang ,.esastonce comps.
M-----\t-z =q H \ r
H ~...-t!---1'
V1 : Y., H L
,._.._ _ ......,:~= %fH2~r
'
%
~~-- _ - - . . L_ __..j
,.. B ~
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING lMOMENTS ABOUT POINT OJ•
I Moments Resastana (M,.J _ Ya (L/2)
FSoT = I Moments Ove,.turnang tMoJ - F 1 (H/J) + Fz lH/2r 2 •0
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST SLIDING•

•
FS = I Ho,.azontal Ressstang Fo,.ce(s) =Y, (Ton po,. Ten •)
St. I Ho,.azontol 0r"avang Fo,.ce(s) F1 + F2 ~l.S
- .
•= F,.actaon Angle or Reanro,.ced Beckran 0,. Foundetaon, whachever" IS lowest.
q = T,.of'f'ac Lave Loed
• Tenp as ro,. cont.snuous soal ,.eanro,.cements (e.g., g,.ads end sheets).
Fo,. dascontanuous so&l ,..,nr o.-cements te.g., str-aps) use Ten • P as the soal/
,.eanro,.cement. ante,.f'ece f',.act.aon engle. Use the lowe,. or Ton •at the bose or the
woll Or" Ton p at. the lowest r"esnro,.cement laye.- ro.- contanuous ,..,nro.-cements.
t:!sua.J Fo.- r"Olot.aveltj thack rocsng elements (e.g•• segmental concr"ete rocsng blocks)
at moy be desa.-oble to anclude the fecang damenssons and weaght an shdsng end
ove,.t.u.-nang colculot.aons h.e., use 'B' an heu or 'L'J.
FIGURE 5.8.2A External Stability for Wall with Horizontal Backslope and Traffic Surcharge
5.8.2
DIVISION I DESIGN
141
SLOPING BACKSLOPE CASE
h-H ,.. .£L

3
h
H
V1 ·~HL
h/3
rt.
~
,·_~
I
II L
•
8 ·I
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING <MOMENTS ABOUT POINT 0)•
I Moments Reststtng CM.-J v, <LI2J + v,<2L/3J + F, CLJ
I Moments Over-tur-ntng CMoJ • FH (h/3J 21
!: •

FSsL = I Hor-tzontel Restst.tna For-ce(sJ = CV, +V 2 +F. )(Ten p or- Ten •)
•
I Hor-1zontel Or-av1ng For-ce(s) FH ~ 1.5
•= F... sCtlOn Angle or Retnfor-ced Beckftll Or' Foundetlon, -..htchever- IS lowest.
• Ten p 15 r Or' cont.tnuous SOil r-etnr or-cements (e.g., gr-tds end sheets).
Fo,. dtsconttnuous soal r-etnfor-cemenu (e.g., strsps)use Ten •· PIS the sotl/
r'Otnfor-cement tnt.er-fece rr-sctaon angle. Use the lower- of Tan • et the base of the
well or- Tenp et t.he lo-..est r-esnfor-cement layer- for- contsnuous r-esnfor-cements.
Not.e: For- r-elottvely thtck fectng elements <e.g •• segmental concr-et.e foctng blocks)
1 t me~:~ be des tr-eble t.o tnclude the r ec1ng dtmensLons end wetght. an shdtng end
ove,.t.u,.nlng celculottons h.e., use '8' 1n heu of 'L ').
FIGURE 5.8.28 External Stability for Wall with Sloping Backslope
0
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.8.2
142
H
~
V1=l;HL
ct.
I
~ i ~
FH: ~ cos (I)
Fv: Fy san U )
FOR INFINITE SLOPE I =B
K. Fo,. Re~aned F11l Us1ng & = S = I (See Fsgu,.e 5.5.2Ah
Ssn2 (8 ••' )
-------------------2
K. :
2
5 '" IS&nCB- a) l
[
+
s,nc•'+&J Ssn c•'- I)
Su,CB -a )Ssnll +I )
J
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING CMOMENTS ABOUT POINT OJ•
I Moments Ressst.ang (M,.) _ v, (L/2) + VzC2L/3) + Fv (l) !: •
28
FSoT = I Moments Ove,.tu,.nsng (Mo) - F" (h/3)

FSs..:
I Ho,.azontol Re!nst.sng Fo,.ce(s) = cv, +Vz +F, )(Tan Po,.. Ten .~
21.5
I i:tOr"'lZOnt.ol o. . avsng Fo..ce(s) FH
4» = F,.act.aon Angle of Resnfo,.ced Backfsll o,. Foundot.son, whscheve,. 1s lowest.

• Tan p ss ro,. cont.snuous soal ,.esnro,.cements (e.g., g,.1ds end sheets).
Fo,. dsscont.1nuous sosl ,.e,nfo,.cament.s (e.g.. strsps) use Ten •. P ts the scull
,.esnfo,.cement. sn-te,.foce r,..sct.son engle.• Usa the lowe,. of Ton • et. the bose of the
well 0,. Tenp at. the lowest. ,.esnf o ..cement. leye,. r Or' cont.lnuous -esnr o,.cement.s.
Nota: Fo,. ,.elet.1vely t.hsck fac1ng element.s (e.g., segmen~l conc,.et.e focsng blocks)
1 t. me'J be deSl,.eble t.o 1nclude V.e r ecsng d1menssons end we1ght. sn shd1ng end
ove,.tu,.n1ng celcula't.lons h.e., use '8' sn heu of 'L ~).
FIGURE S.8.2C External Stability for WaD with Broken Backslope
See Appendix A ofFHWAPublication No. FHWA SA- compound failure surfaces which pass through a portion of
96-071 "Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wails and Rein- the reinforced soil mass as illustrated in Figure 5.8.2D shall
forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines" be analyzed, especially where the wall is located on slop-
for how to detennine Tan p from pullout or direct shear ing or soft ground where overall stability is marginal. Fac-
tests. H site specific data for tan p is not available, use tors of safety and methods of analysis provided in Article
0.67Tan ~ for the coefficient of sliding for continuous or 5.2.2.3 are still applicable. The long-term strength of each
near continuous reinforcement layers. backfill surface should be considered as restoring forces in
For calculations of external stability, the continuous the limit equilibrium slope stability analysis.
traffic surcharge loads shall be considered to act beyond the
end of the reinforced zone as shown in Figure 5.8.2.A. 5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
Overall stability analyses shall be performed in accordance
with Article 5.2.2.3. Additionally for MSE walls with com- Allowable bearing capacities for MSE walls shall be
plex geometries, or where walls support steep, infinite, computed using a minimum factor of safety of 2.5 for
sloping surcharges (i.e., a slope greater than 2H in length as Group 1 loading applied to the calculated ultimate bear-
shown in Figure 5.8.2C and a slope of 2H: IV or steeper), ing capacity. A lesser FS. of 2.0. could be used if justified
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
,//"'Ovo"oll Stoboh t,j
I 1 Fo&lur-e sur-foce
I I
I I
I
I I
/ /
I /
I /
/
/ /
/ /
/ /
,,
/ / /
, /
/
/
--------~----,-'-------/" ,
,,
,' ,', , , ,' , ,,
,
_,, , ,,
," ,
__ ....... , ,"
_,, ,'
... ---- __ , , , " ' ""'
--~-------- ---
FIGURE 5.8.20 Overall and Compound Stability of Complex MSE Wall Systems
by a geotechnical analysis. The width of the footing for ul- crete wall facings are used due to their weight. Further-
timate bearing capacity calculations shall be considered to more, differential settlements between the facing ele-
be the length of the reinforcement calculated at the foun- ments and the reinforced soil zone of the wall due to con-
dation level. The location of the resultant center of pres- centrated bearing stresses from the facing weight on soft
sure shall be as stated in Article 5.5.5. Provided the resul- soil could create concentrated stresses at the connection
tant location meets this criteri~ an overturning stability between the facing elements and the wall backfill rein-
analysis is not necessary. Bearing pressures shall be com- forcement. In both cases, the leveling pad shall be em-
puted using the Meyerhof distribution, which considers a bedded adequately to meet bearing capacity and settle-
uniform base pressure distribution over an effective base ment requirements or dimensioned and designed to keep
width of B' = L - 2e, as shown in Figures 5.8.3A and bearing stresses beneath the leveling pad and the remain-
5.8.38. It is acceptable to use "B" in lieu of "L,,. espe- der of the wall as uniform as possible.
cially for walls with relatively thick facing units.
Where soft soils are present or if on sloping ground, the 5.8.4 Calculation of Loads for Internal Stability
difference in bearing stress calculated for the wall rein- Design
forced soil zone relative to the local bearing stress beneath
the facing elements shall be considered when evaluating Reinforcement loads calculated for internal stability
bearing capacity. This is especially important where con- design are dependent on the soil reinforcement extensi-
Reanf orced Reteaned

Soal Mess Fall
•r Yr 1(,. •, Yr K.r
'l
'
V1 = Y.,HL
q = Troffac Lave Lood

R : Resultant. of Vert.acol Forces
SUMMING MOMENTS ABOUT POINT C•
F I (H/3) + Fz (H/2) v.. =_v_._•~g-L_
e =----------------
v, ql+ L-2e
I r hove concentr-ot.ed deod loads, such os those allusvet.ed an fagures 5.8.12.1A ond
5.8.12.18, 'the exteP"nel forces P"esul tang r .. om those deed loods should be odded to the
80P"t.h pressuP"e r OP"Ces shown obove by superposa t.aon (see F agu... 5.8.12.1C).
No"ta: Fo... r:.elotavely 'thack foc1ng elements (e.g., segmental concrete focang blocks) at moy
be desaroble 'to anclude the f ocang d1mensaons end we1ght. an beor1ng cepoca t.y colculotaons
h.e., use ·a· an heu or 'l..,.
FIGURE 5.8.3A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity Calculations (for Horizontal Backslope Condition)
I Rettuned Fall
" . L(h·H) » •, Yr K.r
2
I
Reanr or-ced
Soal Moss
.p yp Kr
h
H
h/3
' '
NOTE:
rr concentr-ated deed load
B surchar-ges pr-esen~ such os
those allus'trot.ed an F agur-es
SUMMING MOMENTS ABOUT POINT C• 5.8.t2.1A end 5.812.18,
anclude arrect or those sur-char-ges
e =F,Ccos B) h/3- Fr (san B ) L/2- ~ ( L/6 J as shown 1n F agu.-e 5.8.12.tC.
rr br-oken beckslope condatlon
V a + Vz + Fr sanS oxasu, desagn usang equavolent.
slope •t• os shown an Fagur-e 5.8.2C.
tTy = V1 +L·2e
Vz + F, san@
H IS the t.otol wall heaght. at the race.
R = Resul tent. or ver-~acol r or-ces

~ Fo.- r-elo't.lvely thack recang elements (e.g •• segmental conc.-ete rocang blocks)
~ me~ be desar-oble to anclude the recang damensaons end weaght. an beor-ang copocat.y
'lculetaons h.e., use •e• an heu or •L •).
FIGURE 5.8.38 Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity Calculations (for Sloping Backslope Condition)
bility and material type. In general, inextensible rein- account through an equivalent uniform surcharge and as-
forcements consist of metallic strips, bar mats, or welded suming a level backslope condition. For these calculations,
wire mats, whereas extensible reinforcements consist of the depth "Z" is referenced from the top of the wall at the
geotextiles or geogrids. Inextensible reinforcements reach wall face, excluding any copings and appurtenances.
their peak strength at strains lower than the strain required The lateral earth pressure coefficient "K," is determined
for the soil to reach its peak strength. Extensible rein- by applying a multiplier to the active earth pressure coef-
forcements reach their peak strength at strains greater than ficient. The active earth pressure coefficient shall be deter-
the strain required for soil to reach its peak strength. In- mined using the Coulomb method as shown in Figure
ternal stability failure modes include soil reinforcement 5.5.2A, but assuming no wall friction (i.e., set 8 = ~).Note
rupture (ultimate limit state), soil reinforcement pullout that since it is assumed that 8 = ~. and ~ is assumed to al-
(ultimate limit state), and excessive reinforcement elon- ways be zero for internal stability, for a vertical wall, the
gation under the design load (serviceability limit state). Coulomb equation simplifies mathematically to the sim-
The serviceability limit state is not evaluated in current plest form of the Rankine equation:
practice for internal stability design. Internal stability is
determined by equating the tensile load applied to the re- K11 = Tan2 (45 - <l>'/2) (5.8.4.1-1)
inforcement to the allowable tension for the reinforce-
If the wall face is battered, the following simplified
ment, the allowable tension being governed by reinforce-
form of the Coulomb equation can be used:
ment rupture and pullout.
The load in the reinforcement is determined at two crit- 2
K = Sin (a+$') (5.8.4.1-2)
ical locations, i.e., at the zone of maximum stress and at
the connection with the wall face, to assess the internal " SinJe[J +Sin$']
Sin a
stability of the wall system. Potential for reinforcement
rupture and pullout are evaluated at the zone of maximum
with variables as defined in Figure 5.5.2A.
stress. The zone of maximum stress is assumed to be lo-
The multiplier to Kn shall be determined as shown in
cated at the boundary between the active zone and the
Figure 5.8.4.1 C. Based on this figure, the multiplier to K.. is
resistant zone. Potential for reinforcement rupture and a function of the reinforcement type and the depth of there-
pullout are also evaluated at the connection of the rein- inforcement below the wall top. These multipliers are suffi-
forcement to the wall facing. ciently accurate for the reinforcement types covered in Fig-
The maximum friction angle used for the computation ure 5.8.4.1 C. Multipliers for other reinforcement types can
of horizontal force within the reinforced soil mass shall be be developed as needed through analysis of measurements
assumed to be 34°, unless the specific project select back- of reinforcement load and strain in full scale structures.
fill is tested for frictional strength by triaxial or direct The applied load to the reinforcements, T11111X• shall be
shear testing methods, AASHTO T 234 and T 236, calculated on a load per unit of wall width basis. There-
respectively. fore, the reinforcement load, accounting for the tributary
area of the lateral stress, is determined as follows:
5.8.4.1 Calculation of Maximum Reinforcement
Loads (5.8.4.1-3)
Maximum reinforcement loads shall be calculated (5.8.4.1-4)

using a Simplified Coherent Gravity approach. For this ap-
proach, the load in the reinforcements is obtained by mul- where, ah is the horizontal soil stress at the reinforcement,
tiplying a lateral earth pressure coefficient by the vertical Sv is the vertical spacing of the reinforcement, K, is the lat-
pressure at the reinforcement, and applying the resulting eral earth pressure coefficient for a given reinforcement
lateral pressure to the tributary area for the reinforcement. type and location, a v is the vertical earth pressure at the
Other widely accepted and published design methods for reinforcement, and aah is the horizontal stress at the rein-
calculation of reinforcement loads may be used at the dis- forcement location resulting from a concentrated hori-
cretion of the wall owner or the approving agency. zontal surcharge load. (See Article 5.8.12.1.)
The vertical stress. <Tv. is the result of gravity forces The design specifications provided herein assume that
from soil self weight within and immediately above there- the wall facing combined with the reinforced backfill acts
inforced wall backfill, and any surcharge loads present. as a coherent unit to form a gravity retaining structure.
Vertical stress for maximum reinforcement load calcula- The effect of relatively large vertical spacing of rein-
tions shall be determined as shown in Figures 5.8.4.1A and forcement on this assumption is not well known, and a
5.8.4.1B. Note that sloping soi1 surcharges are taken into vertical spacing greater than 0.8 meters (31 inches) shall flit-\
'··'
Assumed only for mox1mum

0 q ,. ,, ~ ,, ! If
q hor-1zontel stress computet1ons,
not pullout.
Re1nforced Reto1ned F1ll
So1l Moss
•,.. Y,.. K,..K 0 ~ •r. Yr. Kor
z
'
V1 =Y,. ZL
Any level
1n well I
ZSH~
Note: &:rv 1s os deter-m1ned

Mex. Stress: a.,: ~z + q + lluv from F 1gur-e 5.8.12.1A.
H 1s the totol well he1gnt
Pullout: a-.,: Y.,. Z + &rv et the fece.
FIGURE 5.8.4.1A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Horizontal Backslope Condition, Including Live Load and Dead Load
Surcharges for Internal Stability Design
not be used without full scale waH data (e.g .• reinforce- 5.8.5 Determination of Reinforcement Length
ment loads and strains, and overall deflections) which Required for Internal Stability
supports the acceptability of larger vertical spacings.
These MSE wall specifications also assume that inex- 5.8.5.1 Location of Zone of Maximum Stress
tensible reinforcements are not mixed with extensible
reinforcements within the same walL MSE waJis which The location of the zone of maximum stress for inex-
contain a mixture of inextensible and extensible rein- tcnsible and extensible wall systems, which forms the
forcements are not recommended. boundary between the active and resistant zones, is de-
termined as shown in Figure 5.8.5.1 A. For all wall sys-
5.8.4.2 Determination of Reinforcement Tensile tems. the zone of maximum stress shall be assumed
Load at the Connection to the Wall Face to begin at the back of the facing elements at the toe of
the wall.
The tensile load applied to the soil reinforcement con- For extensible wall systems with a face batter of
nection at the wall face, T0, shall be equal toTrna' for all less than I oo from the vertical, the zone of maximum
0 wall systems regardless of facing and reinforcement type. stress should be determined using the Rankine method.
H- _ L<TenS
"'2- 2 >y r
z.,: depth of SOll et r-etnfor-cement

Retnf or-ced layer- et begtnntng of r-es1stant
Sotl Mess
z zone, r or- pullout celculattons
Yr:• Kr.:Ke
' t
cl» ,.t ,' I
·-----~~
An\1 Level
tn Welllj
J- V1 •Y,.ZL I
I
/
I
Z~H I
I
I
I
Max Str-ess: S =~L TenS

tr., :Y,.Z+~L<TenB>Yr
wtth 1< 8 deter-mtned us1ng
e slope engle of rf •
Oeter-mtne K,. r room F1gur-e 5.8.4.1C.
Pullout: tl'., =Y,. Z P • ond ~p ~ Z + S

Note: H 1s the to tel hetght. of the well et the face.
FIGURE 5.8.4.18 Calculation of Vertical Stress for Sloping Backslope Condition for Internal Stability Design
Since the Rankine method cannot account for wall face 5.8.5.2 Soil Reinforcement Pullout Design
batter or the effect of concentrated surcharge loads
above the reinforced backfill zone, the Coulomb The reinforcement pullout resistance shall be checked
method shall be used for walls with extensible rein- at each level against pullout failure for internal stability.
forcement in cases of significant batter (defined as 10° Only the effective pullout length which extends beyond the
from vertical or more) and concentrated surcharge loads theoretical failure surfaces shall be used in this computa-
to determine the location of the zone of maximum tion. Note that traffic loads are neglected in pullout calcu-
stress. lations (see Figure 5.8.4.l.A).
'
0
N
-
0
3
•
...0
6m
Q.
0
t-
-
I
0
G
CD
L
.
Q.
G
0
I
I
i
v
1.0 1.2
• Does not. 1nclude pol~:~me .. str1p re1nrorcement.
FIGURE 5.8.4.1 C Variation of the Coefficient of Lateral Stress Ratio Kr/K" with Depth in a Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Wall
The effective pullout length required shall be deter- forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines."
mined using the foJlowing equation: For standard backfill materials (see Artide 7.3.6.3 in Divi-
sion II), with the exception of uniform sands (i.e., coefficient
of uniformity Cu < 4 ), it is acceptable to use conservative
(5.8.5.2-1)
default values for F* and a as shown in Figure 5.8.5.2A and
Table 5.8.5.2A. For ribbed steel strips, if the specific Cu for
where Le is the length of reinforcement in the resisting the wall backfill is unknown at the time of design, a Cu of
zone, FSPO is the safety factor against pullout (minimum 4.0 should be assumed for design to determine F*.
of 1.5), F* is the pullout resistance factor, a is a scale ef- A minimum length, Le, in the resistant zone of 0.9 me-
fect correction factor, rrv is the vertical stress at the rein- ters (3 feet) shall be used. The total length of reinforce-
forcement in the resistant zone, C is an overall reinforcement required for pullout is equal to L11 + Le as shown in
ment surface area geometry factor based on the gross Figure 5.8.5.1A.
perimeter of the reinforcement and is equal to 2 for strip, For grids, the spacing between transverse grid ele-
grid, and sheet type reinforcements (i.e., two sides), Rc: is ments, St shall be uniform throughout the length of the re-
the reinforcement coverage ratio (see Article 5.8.6), and inforcement rather than having transverse grid members
other variables are as defined previously. F*acrvCLe is the concentrated only in the resistant zone.
pullout resistance P, per unit of reinforcement width. These pullout calculations assume that the long-term
F* and a shall be determined from product specific pull- strength of the reinforcement (see Article 5.8.6.1) in the
out tests in the project backfill material or equivalent soil, or resistant zone is greater than T max·
they can be estimated empirically/theoretically. Pullout test-
ing and interpretation procedures (and direct shear testing 5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design
for some parameters), as well as typical empirical data, are
provided in Appendix A of FHWA Publication No. FHWA The strength of the reinforcement needed, for internal
0 SA-96-071 "Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein- stability, to resist the load applied throughout the design
..,__ H tanS• 1.3H

·" • + 1 - 1.3 un B
•1 r wall race lS bat.wi-ecf.
en orfset. or IJ.lH. lS st.all
,.equa,.ed, and V.e upper
pOt"'t.IOn or V,e zone or
H1 mexamum svess should
2 be pa..ellel ~ the wall race.
H,
, H
j
.!:h..
2
•• u ,
L
I•
Zone or moxamum •~•••

o,. potantaol r oalu,.e sur-race
F o,. ve,.tacel walls•

•• 45 +- ••2
.L.
...
I
L
For- walls wa1h • rece bot.t.er 11. OP" Cft0P"8 r ..om the ¥8P"'tacal.
tan ,.,_ . , =·t.an•· 8) • ft.anc•·B ltanc•- Bl• cot~+ I- qa)][l + tan C8+ '11 ·I Jco\ ,.. I -C!I)]
1 • tan ca• • • e, [ \an c.-a, • co\ c•• s-qan
w&1h a= a end all ot.he,. VOP"I~1·• defaned an Faguroe 5.5.2A
Cb) Exwnsablo Reanr o..cemenu
FIGURE 5.8.5.1A Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability Design of MSE Walls
Default. Values for- Pullout. Fr-1ct.1on J:oct.or-, F•
0 r-----------.-~--~---2_0_<t.~'~s~~-,--------------~2.;0______~
]
a. tQ! TO
N
\.
SCALE
0
N
.
0
::.
'-
0
Q.
G~od ~bee,.ong membe~
0 6m
s
0 I .. ~I
I
c
. . c:
•c:
~LZZZZ Z
I -"'
aJ sl
c c
= I
Cl
!. s i J
'.,"'
II t- t-
~
-::; • I 0
0
Q.
aJ II !!
t.l
I
(D
csi
CD
csi
II
•
L...
La ~
I II
...•
.nl
a.
II
...
• u..• "'
Q.
I• s.
i .,
\.
.,"' •I
" i
I
I
I
I
~
.,
C)
L
.,
.,
en
Q)
tn
.,
.,.,
en
-5
0
0
e
en
-
~
en
Q)
)(
.,
Q)
0
Q)
C)
Ul
"tJ
L
CJ\
01
~I
en
Q)
.,Q)
en
"tJ
Q)
.c
.c
a:
s.J
FIGURE 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Pullout Friction Factor, F*
TABLE 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Scale Effect Correction Factor, ex.
Reinforcement Type Default Value for ex
All Steel Reinforcements 1.0
Geogrids 0.8
Geotextiles 0.6
IDGHWAY BRIDGES 5.8.6
152
life of the wall shall be determined where the reinforcement maintaining allowable material stresses to the end of the
load is maximum {i.e., at the boundary between the active 75 or 100 year service life.
and resistant zones) and at the connection of the reinforce- Temporary MSE walls are typically designed for a ser-
ment to the wall face. The reinforcement strength required vice life of 36 months or less.
shall be checked at every level within the wall for ultimate
limit state. The serviceability limit state is not specifically 5.8.6.1.1 Steel Reinforcement
evaluated in current practice to design backfill reinforce- For steel reinforcements, the required sacrificial thick-
ment for internal stability. A first order estimate of lateral ness shall be provided in addition to the required struc-
deformation of the entire wall structure, however, can be tural reinforcement thickness to compensate for the ef-
accomplished as shown in Article 5.8.10. fects of corrosion.
Therefore, where the load is maximum, The structural design of galvanized steel soil rein-
forcements and connections shall be made on the basis of
(5.8.6-1) Fy, the yield strength of the steel, and the cross-sectional
area of the steel determined using the steel thickness after
T11 shall be determined in accordance with Article corrosion losses, Ec. defined as follows:
5.8.6.2.1 for steel reinforcement and Article 5.8.6.2.2 for
geosynthetic reinforcement. (5.8.6.1.1-1)
At the connection with the wall face,
where ER is the total loss in thickness due to corrosion to
(5.8.6-2) produce the expected loss in tensile strength during the re-
quired design life. See Figure 5.8.6A for an illustration of
Tuc shall be determined at the wall face connection in how to calculate the long-term strength of the reinforce-
accordance with Article 5.8.7.1 for steel reinforcement ment based on these parameters. The sacrificial thickness
and Article 5.8.7 .2 for geosynthetic reinforcement. Fur- (i.e., corrosion loss) is computed for each exposed surface
thermore, the difference in the environment occurring im- as follows, assuming that the soil backfill used is non-
mediately behind the wall face relative to the environment aggressive:
within the reinforced backfill zone and its effect on the
long-term durability of the reinforcement/connection shall Galvanization loss 15 J.Ulllyear {0.60 mils/year) for
be considered when determining Tac· first 2 years
To shall be determined on a long-term strength per unit 4 J.lrnlyear {0.16 mils/year) for
of reinforcement width basis and multiplied by the rein- subsequent years
forcement coverage ratio R: so that it can be directly com- Carbon steel loss 12 J.lrnlyear {0.47 mils/year)
pared to Tmo,. which is determined on a load per unit of after zinc depletion
wall width basis {this also applies to Tac and T0). For dis-
crete (i.e., not continuous) reinforcements, such as steel These sacrificial thicknesses account for potential pitting
strips or bar mats, the strength of the reinforcement is con- mechanisms and much of the uncertainty due to data scat-
verted to a strength per unit of wall width basis by taking ter, and are considered to be maximum anticipated losses for
the long-term strength per reinforcement, dividing it by soils which are defined as nonaggressive. Soils shall be con-
the discrete reinforcement width, b, and multiplying it by sidered nonaggressive if they meet the following criteria:
the reinforcement coverage ratio, Rc. as shown in Figures
5.8.6A and 5.8.68. For continuous reinforcement layers, pH of5 to 10
b 5 I and Rtjl = I. Resistivity of not less than 3,000 ohm-em
Chlorides not greater than 100 ppm
Sulfates not greater than 200 ppm
5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements
If the resistivity is greater than or equal to 5,000 ohm-
Reinforcement elements in MSE walls shall be de- em, the chlorides and sulfates requirements may be
signed to have a corrosion resistance/durability to ensure waived. Recommended test methods for soil chemical
a minimum design life of 75 years for permanent struc- property determination include AASHTO T 289 for pH,
tures. For retaining structure applications designated as AASHTO T 288 for resistivity, AASHTO T 291 for chlo-
having severe consequences should poor performance or rides, and AASHTO T 290 for sulfates.
failure occur, a 100-year service life shall be considered. These sacrificial thickness requirements are not applic-
The allowable reinforcement tension shall be based on able for soils which do not meet one or more of the nonag-
0 "
Ec = strlp tntckness corrected for corr-oston loss.
s..
Ac = <No. of longt tudtnol bars) ., + • 2
0 0• = dtometer of bor or- wtre co,..,..ect.ed for- corr-oston loss.

b = unt t wtdth of retnfo,..cement <tf retnforcement ts conttnuous
count number of bor-s for retnf or-cement wtdth of 1 unt t).
(see A,..ttcle 5.8.6.2.1>
Whe,..e- T0 = allowable long-ter-m tenstle strength of r-etnforcement

(strength/untt r-etnforcement wtdtn)
FS = foetor of sofet.y (see Arttcle 5.8.6.21
F='., = ~1eld strength of steel

b
Rc = ,..etnforcement coverage ratiO = Sh
Use R c : 1 fo,.. conttnuous ,..etnfo,..cement (t.e •• 5,..= b = 1 untt wtdth).
i max = moxtmum lood opphed to ,..etnf o,..cement. <lood/unt t. woll wtdth).

FIGURE 5.8.6A Parameters for Metal Reinforcement Strength Calculations
0
'
T9 t R,
= (See Ar-t1cle 5.8.6.2.2>
<FS>
Wker-e T0 = elloweble long-ter-m tens1le strength of r-e1nf or-cement
(strengt.h/unlt r-e1nfor-cement wLdth)
T ol : long-ter-m t.ensLle strength r-equ1r-ed to pr-event r-uptur-e
<strengt.h/unLt r-e1nfor-cement w1dthJ
T"'" = w1de w1dth t.ens1le strength Cstrengt.h/un1 t r-e1nf or-cement w1dthJ
Rc = re1nf or-cement. cover-oge r-ot1o =

Use Rc =1 ro ... cont.lnuous geosynthetlC sheets (L.e •• sh = b = 1 unl t wldth)
FS : sef e~ f ector- (see Ar-t1cle 5.8.6.2)
RF = comb1ned ,.educt1on foetor- to occount for- longt.er-m oegr-odet1on

<see Ar-t.1cle 5.8.6.1.2>.
FIGURE 5.8.68 Parameters for Geosynthetic Reinforcement Strength Calculations
5.8.6.1 DIVISION I DESIGN
155
gressive soil criteria Additionally, these sacrificial thick- mal. Even with product specific test results, RFm and RF0
ness requirements are not applicable in applications where:
0 • the MSE wall will be exposed to a marine or other
shaH be no less than 1.1 each.
For conditions which are outside these defined limits
(i.e., applications in which the consequences of poor per-
chloride rich environment;
formance or failure are severe, aggressive soil conditions,
• the MSE wall will be exposed to stray currents such or polymers which are beyond the specific limits set}, or
as from nearby underground power lines or adjacent
if it is desired to use an overall reduction factor which is
electric railways;
less than the default reduction factor recommended
• the backfill material is aggressive; or
herein, then product specific durability studies shall be
• the galvanizing thickness is less than specified in
carried out prior to use. These product specific studies
these guidelines.
shall be used to estimate the short-term and long-term ef-
fects of these environmental factors on the strength and
Each of these situations creates a special set of condi:-
deformational characteristics of the geosynthetic rein-
tions which should be specifically analyzed by a corrosion
forcement throughout the reinforcement design life.
specialist. Alternatively, noncorrosive reinforcing ele-
Wall application limits, soil aggressiveness, polymer
ments can be considered. Furthermore, these corrosion
requirements, and the calculation of long-term reinforce-
rates do not apply to other metals. The use of alloys such
ment strength are specificaiiy described as follows:
as aluminum and stainless steel is not recommended.
Corrosion-resistant coatings should consist of galva- 1) Structure Application Issues: Identification of ap-
nization. Galvanized coatings shall be a minimum of 0.61 plications for which the consequences of poor perfor-
kg/m2 (2 oz/ft2), or 86 f.Lm in thickness, applied in conformance or failure are severe shall be as described in Arti-
mance to AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123) for strip type cle 5.1. In such applications, a single default reduction
reinforcements or ASTM A 641 for bar mat or grid type factor shall not be used for final design.
steel reinforcement.
2) Determination of Soil Aggressiveness: Soil ag-
There is insufficient evidence at this time regarding the
gressiveness for geosynthetics is assessed based on the
long-term performance of epoxy coatings for these coat- soil pH, gradation, plasticity, organic content, and in-
ings to be considered equivalent to galvanizing. If epoxy
ground temperature. Soil shall be defined as nonaggres-
type coatings are used, they should meet the requirements sive if the following criteria are met:
of AS1M A 884 for bar mat and grid reinforcements, or
AASHTO M 284 (ASTM D 3963} for strip reinforcements.
• The pH. as determined by AASHTO T 289, is 4.5 to
and have a minimum thickness of0.4I mm (16 mils).
9 for permanent applications and 3 to 10 for tempo-
rary applications,
5.8.6.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement
• The maximum soil particle size is less than 20 mm
The durability of geosynthetic reinforcements is influ- (0.75 inches), unless full scale installation damage
enced by environmental factors such as time. temperature. tests are conducted in accordance with ASTM D
mechanical damage, stress levels, and chemical exposure 5818,
(e.g., oxygen, water, and pH, which are the most common • The soil organic content, as determined by
chemical factors}. Microbiological attack may also affect AASHTO T 267 for material finer than the 2 mm
certain polymers, though in general most of polymers used (No. I 0) sieve, is I% or less, and
for carrying load in soil reinforcement applications are not • the design temperature at the wall site, as defined
affected by this. The effects of these factors on product dura- below. is less than 30° C (85° F) for permanent appli-
bility are dependent on the polymer type used (i.e., resin cations and 35° C (95° F) for temporary applications.
type, grade, additives, and manufacturing process} and the
macrostructure of the reinforcement. Not all of these factors The effective design temperature is defined as the tem-
will have a significant effect on all geosynthetic products. perature which is halfway between the average yearly air
Therefore, the response of geosynthetic reinforcements to temperature and the normal daily air temperature for the
these long-term environmental factors is product specific. highest month at the wall site. Note that for walls which
However, within specific limits of wan application, face the sun, it is possible that the temperature immedi-
soil conditions, and polymer type, strength degradation ately behind the facing could be higher than the air tem-
due to these factors can be anticipated to be minimal and perature. This shall be considered when assessing th~ de-
relatively consistent from product to product, and the im- sign temperature, especially for wall sites located in
pact of any degradation which does occur will be mini- warm, sunny climates.
156
Soil backfill not meeting the particle size, electro- tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized
chemical, and in-ground temperature requirements pro- Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes" is not obtained. Of
vided herein shall be considered to be aggressive. course, polymer materials not meeting the requirements in
A single default reduction factor shall not be used in Table 5.8.6.1.2A could be used if this detailed product spe-
aggressive soil conditions. The environment at the face, in cific data extrapolated to the design life intended for the
addition to within the wall backfill. shall be evaluated, es- structure is obtained.
pecially if the stability of the facing is dependent on the 4) Calculation of Long-Term Reinforcement
strength of the geosynthetic at the face, i.e., the geosyn- Strength: For ultimate limit state conditions,
thetic reinforcement forms the primary connection be-
tween the body of the wall and the facing.
(5.8.6.1.2-1)
The chemical properties of the native soil surrounding
the mechanically stabilized soil backfill shall also be con-
where,
sidered if there is potential for seepage of ground water
from the native surrounding soils to the mechanically sta- RF = RF10 X RFcR X RFo (5.8.6.1.2-2)
bilized backfill. If this is the case, the surrounding soils
shall also meet the chemical criteria required for the back- T 01 is the long-term tensile strength required to prevent
fill material if the environment is to be considered non- rupture calculated on a load per unit of reinforcement
aggressive, or adequate long-term drainage around the width basis, Tu11 is the ultimate tensile strength of the re-
geosynthetic reinforced mass shall be provided to ensure inforcement determined from wide width tensile tests
that chemically aggressive liquid does not enter into the (ASTM D 4595) for geotextiles and geogrids, or rib ten-
reinforced backfill. sile test for geogrids (GRI:GGl, but at a strain rate of
3) Polymer Requirements: Polymers which are likely 10%/minute ), RF is a combined reduction factor to ac-
to have good resistance to long-term chemical degrada- count for potential long-term degradation due to installa-
tion shall be used if a single default reduction factor is to· tion damage, creep, and chemical aging, RF10 is a strength
be used, to minimize the risk of the occurrence of signifi- reduction factor to account for installation damage to the
cant long-term degmdation. The polymer material re- reinforcement, RFCR is a strength reduction factor to pre-
quirements provided in Table 5.8.6.1.2A shall therefore be vent long-term creep rupture of the reinforcement, and
met if detailed product specific data as described in FHWA RF0 is a strength reduction factor to prevent rupture of the
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 "Mechanically Stabi- reinforcement due to chemical and biological degrada-
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and tion. The value selected forT ull shall be the minimum av-
Construction Guidelines"-Appendix B, and in FHWA erage roll value (MARV) for the product to account for
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 "Corrosion/Degrada- statistical variance in the material strength.
TABLE 5.8.6.1.2A Minimum Requirements for Geosynthetic Products to Allow Use of Default Reduction Factor
for Long·Term Degradation
Polymer Type Property Test Method Criteria to AUow Use of Default RF*
Polypropylene UV Oxidation Resistance ASTMD4355 Min. 70% strength retained after 500 hrs in
weatherometer
Polyethylene UV Oxidation Resistance ASTMD4355 Min. 70% strength retained after 500 hrs in
weatherometer
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance Inherent Viscosity Method Min. Number Average Molecular Weight
(ASTM D 4603 and GRI Test Method of25,000
GG8**) or Determine Directly Using
Gel Penneation Chromatography
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance GRI Test Method GG7 Max. of Carboxyl End Group Content of 30
All Polymers Survivability Weight per Unit Area (ASTM D 5261) Min. 270 glm2
All Polymers % Post-Consumer Recycled Certification of Materials Used Maximum of 0%
Material by Weight
*Polymers not meeting these requirements may be used if product specific test results obtained and analyzed in accordance with FHWA Publication No.
FHWA SA-96-071 "Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines.,-Appendix B, and in FHWA
Publication No. FHWASA-96-072 "Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes..
are provided.
**These test procedures are in draft form. Contact the Geosynthelic Research lnslitute, Drexel University in Philadelphia, PA.
TABLE 5.8.6.1.2B Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic Ultimate Limit State
Strength Reduction Factor, RF
Application Total Reduction Factor, RF
All applications. but with product specific data obtained and analy1..ed in All reduction factors shall be based on product
accordance with FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 specific data. RFm and RF0 shall not be Jess
"Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design than 1.1.
and Construction Guidelines"-Appendix B. and FHWA Publication No.
FHWA SA-96-072 "Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes"
Pennanent applications not having severe consequences should poor 7.0
performance or failure occur. nonaggressive soils, and polymers meeting
the requirements listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A, provided product specific data
is not available
Temporary applications not having severe consequences should poor 3.5
performance or failure occur, nonaggressive soils. and polymers meeting
the requirements listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A. provided product specific data
is not available
Values for RF10, RFcR• and RFt> shall be determined sile stress may be increased by 40%. The global safety fac-
from product specific test results. Even with product spe- tor of 0.55 applied to Fy for permanent structures accounts
cific test results, RFm and RF0 shall be no less than I. I for uncertainties in structure geometry, fill properties, ex-
each. Guidelines for how to determine RFID, RFcR• and ternally applied loads, the potential for local overstress due
· RF0 from product specific data are provided in FHWA to load nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term re-
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 "Mechanically Stabi- inforcement strength. Safety factors less than 0.55, such as
Jized Earth Wa11s and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and the 0.48 factor applied to grid members, account for the
Construction Guidelines"-Appendix B, and in FHWA greater potential for local overstress due to load nonuni-
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 "Corrosion/Degrada- formities for steel grids than for steel strips or bars.
tion of Soil Reinforcements for MechanicalJy Stabilized The allowable reinforcement tension is determined by
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes." For wall appli- multiplying the allowable stress by the cross-sectional
cations which are defined as not having severe conse- area of the steel reinforcement after corrosion losses., (See
quences should poor performance or failure occur, having Figure 5.8.6A.) The loss in steel cross-sectional area due
nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the geosynthetic to corrosion shall be determined in accordance with Arti-
product meets the minimum requirements listed in Table cle 5.8.6.1.1. Therefore,
5.8.6.1.2A, the long-term tensile strength of the rein-
forcement may be determined using a default reduction
factor for RF as provided in Table 5.8.6.1.28 in lieu of (5.8.6.2. I- I)
product specific test results.
where, all variables are as defined in Figure 5.8.6A. ~
5.8.6.2 Allowable Stresses
5.8.6.2.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcemellts
5.8.6.2. I Steel Reinforcements
The aJlowable tensile load per unit of reinforcement
The allowable tensile stress for steel reinforcements and width for geosynthetic reinforcements for permanent
connections for permanent structures (i.e., design lives of structures (i.e., design lives of 75 to 100 years) is deter-
75 to 100 years) shall be in accordance with Article 10.32, mined as follows: (See Figure 5.8.68.)
in particular Table I0.32. 1A. These requirements result in
an allowable tensile stress for steel strip reinforcement, in T = Tult (5.8.6.2.2-1)
the wall backfill away from the wall face connections, of a FSxRF
0.55Fy. For grid reinforcing members connected to a rigid
facing element (e.g., a concrete panel or block), the allow- where, FS is a global safety factor which accounts for un-
able tensile stress sha11 be reduced to 0.48Fy. Transverse certainties in structure geometry, fill properties, externally
and longitudinal grid members shall be sized in accordance applied loads. the potential for local overstress due to load
with AASHTO M 55 (ASTM A 185). For temporary struc- nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term reinforce-
tures (i.e., design lives of 3 years or less), the allowable ten- ment strength. For ultimate limit state conditions for per-
158
manent walls, a FS of 1.5 shall be used. Note that the un- forced soil mass shall be considered when assessing po-
certainty of determining long-term reinforcement strength tential corrosion losses.
is taken into account through an additional factor of safety,
which is typically about 1.2, depending on the amount of 5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic
creep data available, through the creep extrapolation pro- Reinforcements
tocol provided in Appendix B of the FHWA-SA-96-071,
"Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil To evaluate the long-term geosynthetic strength at the
Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines." connection with the wall facing, reduce Tult using the
connection/seam strength determined in accordance with
5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection ASTM D 4884 for structural (i.e., not partial or full fric-
Strength Design tion) connections. ASTM D 4884 will produce a short-
term connection strength equal to Tult X CRu. (See Equa-
5.8.7.1 Connection Strength for Steel Soil tion 5.8.7.2-1.) Note that ASTM D 4884 will need to be
Reinforcements modified to accommodate geogrid joints such as a Bodkin
joint. The portion of the connection embedded in the con-
Connections shall be designed to resist stresses result- crete facing shall be designed in accordance with Article
ing from active forces (T0, as described in Article 5.8.4.2) 8.31.
as well as from differential movements between the rein- For reinforcements connected to the facing through
forced backfill and the wall facing elements. embedment between facing elements using a partial or
Elements of the connection which are embedded in the full friction connection (e.g., segmental concrete block
facing element shall be designed with adequate bond faced walls), the capacity of the connection shall be re-
length and bearing area in the concrete to resist the con- duced from Tu 11 for the backfill reinforcement using the
nection forces. The capacity of the embedded connector connection strength determined from laboratory tests.
shall be checked by tests as required in Article 8.31. Con- (See Equation 5.8.7.2-1.) This connection strength is
nections between steel reinforcement and the wall facing based on the lessor of the pullout capacity of the connec-
units (e.g., welds, bolts, pins, etc.) shall be designed in action, the long-term rupture strength of the connection and
cordance with Article 10.32. T111 as determined in Article 5.8.6.1.2. An appropriate lab-
Connection materials shall be designed to accommo- oratory testing and interpretation procedure, which is a
date losses due to corrosion in accordance with Article modification of NCMA Test Method SRWU-1 (Simac, et.
5.8.6.1.1. Potential differences between the environment al., 1993 ), is discussed in Appendix A of FHWA Publica-
at the face relative to the environment within the rein- tion No. FHWA SA-96-071 ''Mechanically Stabilized
TABLE 5.8.7.2A Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic Ultimate Limit State
Strength Reduction Factor at the Facing Connection, RFr
Application Total Reduction Factor, RFr
All applications, but with product specific data obtained and analyzed in All reduction factors shall be based on product
accordance with FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 specific data. RF10 and RF0 shall not be less
"Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design than 1.1.
and Construction Guidelines"-Appendix B, and FHWA Publication No.
FHWA SA-96-072 "Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes."
Permanent applications not having severe consequences should poor 4.0
performance or failure occur, nonaggressive soils, and polymers meeting
is not available. If using polyester reinforcement, the pH regime at the
connection must be investigated and determined to be within the pH
requirements for a nonaggressive environment. (See Division II, Article
7.3.6.3.)
Temporary applications not having severe consequences should poor 2.5
performance or failure occur, nonaggressive soils, and polymers meeting
is not available.
0
C~ang Unn.. H c:u
A
•'- Hange Heagh"
~......~ ....... .,. heel or b - ......

~~~rm'r ~
z
Ww ,WA •We : Include ell una u dte" ..-e •\aek•d
Weagh" ov•.-
V.e ove.- 1he h. .l CPoan" l) or 11\e boM
boM una" ••pen~l ""'" •he.-e Me s_ MA
Hal"'ge Heaghs.. Hh. The full •eagh'- or ell ••t•en"-l fec:al"'g bloc:k unau
•• \han Hh
r oc:ang block.
wall be C:Ofta&de,.ed ~ ec:" 0'- 1he boM or 1he lo•et"Men'- sepen~l
wher-e:
'"\, = Segmen't.Ol f ecang block una 't. he&gh't. (m)
'Wu = Segmen~l foc&ng block un&'t. w&!=f~. fr-on't. 't.o beck (m)
Gu = d&a't.Once 't.Q· 'the cent-er-
or gr-ev&'t.y of e hor-&zon~l
segmen't.Ol focang block un&'t.. &nclud&ng ogg... ega't.e r,u. measur-ed
r.-om the r.-on't. of the un&'t. (m)
W = ..,oll bo't.'t.er- due 't.O ae't.bock per- cour-ae Cdeg)
H : -to't.Ol he&gh't. or wall (m)
Hh = hange he&gh't. (m)
FIGURE 5.8.7.2A Determination of Hinge Height for Segmental Concrete Block Faced MSE Walls
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Con- mode of failure, Tsc is the peak load per unit of reinforce-
struction Guidelines." ment width in the connection test at a specified confining
From this test, a peak connection strength load as a func- pressure where pullout is known to be the mode of failure,
tion of vertical confining stress, Tu 1 ~e or Tsc, are obtained, T101 is the ultimate wide width tensile strength (ASTM
which can be used to determine CRu and CRs as follows: D 4595) for the reinforcement material lot used for the
connection strength testing, CRu is a reduction factor to
(5.8.7.2-1) account for reduced ultimate strength resulting from the
connection where rupture is the mode of failure, and CRs
is a reduction factor to account for reduced strength due
CR = Tsc (5.8.7.2-2)
s Tlot
to connection pullout.
Therefore, determine the long-term geosynthetic con-
where, Tuttc is the peak load per unit reinforcement width nection strength Tac on a load per unit reinforcement width
0 in the connection test at a specified confining pressure

where rupture of the reinforcement is known to be the
basis as follows:
If the failure mode for the connection is rupture,
mine the minimum overlap length required, but in no case

(5.8.7.2-3) shall the overlap length be less than 1.0 meter (3.3 feet). If
Tan p is determined experimentally based on soil to rein-
and, forcement contact, Tan p shall be reduced by 30 % where
reinforcement to reinforcement contact is anticipated.
RFc = RFcR X RFo (5.8.7.2-4)
5.8.8 Design of Facing Elements
If the failure mode for the connection is pullout,
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the hori-
T = Tult xCRS (5.8. 7 .2-5) zontal forces calculated according to Articles 5.8.4.2 and
nc FS 5.8.9.3. In addition to these horizontal forces, the facing
elements shall also be designed to resist potential com-
where, FS is as defined previously and is equal to 1.5 for paction stresses occurring near the wall face during erec-
permanent structures, RFc is a reduction factor to account tion of the wall. The facing elements shall be stabilized
for potential long-term degradation of the reinforcement such that they do not deflect laterally or bulge beyond the
at the wall face connection due to the environmental fac- established tolerances.
tors mentioned previously, and other variables are as de-
fined previously. Note that the environment at the wall 5.8.8.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel,
face connection may be different than the environment and Timber Facings
away from the wall face in the wall backfill. This shall be
considered when determining RFcR and RFo. Facing elements shall be structura11y designed in ac-
Values for RFcR and RF0 shall in general be determined cordance with Sections 8, I 0, and 13 for concrete, steel,
from product specific test results. Guidelines for how to de- and timber facings, respectively.
termine RFCR and RF0 from product specific data are pro- Reinforcement for concrete panels shall be provided to
vided in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 "Me- resist the average loading conditions for each panel. As a
chanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil minimum, temperature and shrinkage steel shall be pro-
Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines"-Appendix vided. Epoxy coating for corrosion protection of panel re-
B, and in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 inforcement where salt spray is anticipated is recom-
"Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Me- mended.
chanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes." For wall applications which are defined as not hav- 5.8.8.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings
ing severe consequences should poor performance or fail-
ure occur, having nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the If welded wire, expanded metal, or similar facing pan-
geosynthetic product meets the minimum requirements els are used, they shall be designed in a manner which pre-
listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A, the long-term connection vents the occurrence of excessive bulging as backfill be-
strength may be determined using a default reduction factor hind the facing elements compresses due to compaction
for RFc as provided in Table 5.8.7.2A for the ultimate limit stresses or self weight of the backfill. This may be ac-
state in lieu of product specific test results. Note that it is complished by limiting the size of individual panels ver-
possible use of default reduction factors may be acceptable tically and the vertical spacing of the soil reinforcement
where the reinforcement load is maximum (i.e., in the mid- layers, and by requiring the facing panels to have an ade-
dle of the wall backfill) and still not be acceptable at the fac- quate amount of vertical slip between adjacent panels.
ing connection if the facing environment is defined as ag- Furthermore, the top of the flexible facing panel at the top
gressive. of the wall shall be attached to a soil reinforcement layer
CRu and CRs shall be determined at the anticipated ver- to provide stability to the top facing panel.
tical confining pressure at the wall face between the fac- For segmental concrete facing blocks, facing stability
ing blocks. The vertical confining pressure shall be calcu- calculations shall include an evaluation of the maximum
lated using the Hinge Height Method as shown in Figure vertical spacing between reinforcement layers, the maxi-
5.8.7.2A. Note that Tac should not be greater than T0 • mum allowable facing height above the uppermost rein-
Geosynthetic walls are sometimes designed using a forcement layer, inter-unit shear capacity, and resistance
flexible reinforcement sheet as the facing using only an of the facing to bulging. The maximum vertical spacing
overlap with the main backfill reinforcement. The overlaps between reinforcement layers shall be limited to twice the
shall be designed using a pullout methodology. Equation width, Wu (see Figure 5.8.7.2A), of the proposed seg-
5.8.5.2-1, but replacing Tmn11 with To. can be used to deter- mental concrete facing unit or 0.8 meter (31 inches),
whichever is less, and the maximum facing height above 5.8.9.IA. Values of PAE and P1R for structures with hori-
0 the uppermost reinforcement layer and the maximum

depth of facing below the bottom reinforcement layer
should be limited to the width, Wu (see Figure 5.8.7.2A),
zontal backfill shall be determined using the following
equations:
of the proposed segmental concrete facing unit. Am= (1.45- A)A (5.8.9.1-1)
Geosynthetic facing elements shall not. in general, be
left exposed to sunlight (specifically ultraviolet radia- (5.8.9.1-2)
tion) for permanent walls. If geosynthetic facing ele-
ments must be left exposed permanently to sunlight, the (5.8.9.1-3)
geosynthetic shall be stabilized to be resistant to ultravi-
olet radiation. Furthermore, product specific test data ..A" is defined as the ground acceleration coefficient
shall be provided which can be extrapolated to the in- as determined in Division I-A, Article 3.2. in particular
tended design life and which proves that the product will Figure 3. Am is defined as the maximum wall accelera-
be capable of performing as intended in an exposed tion coefficient at the centroid of the wall mass. For
environment. ground accelerations greater than 0.45 g, Am would be
calculated to be less than A. Therefore, if A> 0.45 g, set
5.8.8.3 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing Design Arn = A. The equation for PAE was developed assuming
a friction angle of 30°. P AE may be adjusted for other soil
Steel to steel contact between the soil reinforcement friction angles using the Mononobe-Okabe method, with
connections and the concrete facing steel reinforcement the horizontal acceleration kh equal to Am and kv equal
sha11 be prevented so that contact between dissimilar met- to zero.
als (e.g., bare facing reinforcement steel and galvanized For structures with sloping backfills, the inertial force
soil reinforcement steel) does not occur. Steel to steel con- (P1R) and the dynamic horizontal thrust (PAE) are based
tact in this case can be prevented through the placement of on a height H2 near the back of the waH determined as
a nonconductive material between the soil reinforcement follows:
face connection and the facing concrete reinforcing steel.
(Iii\ _ H Tan~ x 0.5H
v 5.8.9 Seismic Design H 2 - + ---=----
(1- 0.5Tan~)
(5.8.9.1-4)
The seismic design procedures provided herein do not

directly account for the lateral deformation which may PAE shall be adjusted for sloping backfills using the
occur during large earthquake seismic loading. It is there- Mononobe-Okabe method, with the horizontal accelera-
fore recommended that if the anticipated ground acceler- tion kh equal to Am and kv equal to zero. A height of H2
ation is greater than 0.29 g, a detailed lateral deformation shall be used to calculate PAE in this case. P1R for sloping
analysis of the structure during seismic loading should be backfills shall be calculated as follows:
performed.
(5.8.9.1-5)
5.8.9.1 External Stability
(5.8.9.1-6)
Stability computations (i.e., sliding, overturning, and
bearing capacity) shall be made by including, in addition (5.8.9.1-7)
to static forces, the horizontal inertial force (P1R) acting si-
multaneously with 50% of the dynamic horizontal thrust where, Pir is the inertial force caused by acceleration of the
(PAE) to determine the total force applied to the wall. The reinforced backfill and Pi~ is the inertial force caused by
dynamic horizontal thrust PAE is evaluated using the acceleration of the sloping soil surcharge above the rein-
pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method and is applied to forced backfill, with the width of mass contributing to P1R
the back surface of the reinforced fill at a height of 0.6H equal to 0.5H 2• P 1R acts at the combined centroid of Pir and
from the base for level backfill conditions. The horizontal Pis· This is illustrated in Figure 5.8. 9 .I A.
inertial force P1R is determined by multiplying the weight Factors of safety against sliding. overturning, and bear-
of the reinforced wall mass, with dimensions of H (wall ing capacity failure under seismic loading may be reduced
height) and 0.5H, assuming horizontal backfill conditions, to 75% of the factors of safety defined in Articles 5.8.2
by the acceleration Am. P1R is located at the centroid of the and 5.8.3. The factor of safety for overall stability may be
structure mass. These forces are illustrated in Figure reduced to 1.1. (See Article 5.2.2.3.)
Re&nrorcement. Loyer
0.6H
\.."----..zv-.....- - -../
..... fOP .......... , ......
(o) Level beckf11l cond1t.1on
l
I
l
T
0.6~
'
"'"'---.....v.....----I
..._ '• ~··""' reran
(b) Slop1nq bockf11l cond1t10n

FIGURE 5.8.9.1A Seismic External Stability of a MSE Wall
5.8.9.2 Internal Stability
0 Reinforcements shall be designed to withstand hori-

zontal forces generated by the internal inertial force (P 1)
(5.8.9.2-1)
in addition to the static forces. The total inertial force P 1

per unit width of structure shall be considered equal to As shown in Figure 5.8.9.2A, the total load applied to
the weight of the active zone times the maximum wall the reinforcement on a load per unit of wall width basis is
acceleration coefficient Am. This inertial force is distrib- as follows:
uted to the reinforcements proportionally to their resis-
tant areas on a load per unit of wall width basis as
Tlolnl = Tmnx + Tmd (5.8.9.2-2)
follows: where, Tmn" is determined using Equation 5.8.4.1-3.
Res1sten't
Zone
~ .. """..._
~
...... . .
h-~,___...;;..;;..;;;....;;.,;;;__;;,--4 3
.......
Inex-tens1ble Re1nf or-cemen-ts Ex-tens1ble Resnr or-cemen-ts
Internal inertial force due to the weight of the

P, = backfill within the active zone.
L., The length of reinforcement in the resistant

= zone of the i'th layer.
r... = The load per unit wall width applied to each reinforcement
due to static forces.
T_. = The load per unit wall width applied to each
reinforcement due to dynamic forces.
The total load per unit wall width applied to each layer, T.....a = T... + T-.:~
For seismic loading, the dimensions of the active zone are the same as
for the static loading. (See Rgure 5.8.5.1A.)
FIGURE 5.8.9.2A Seismic Internal Stability of a MSE Wall
0
For seismic loading conditions, the value of F*, the If the seismic performance category is uc" or higher
pullout resistance factor, shall be reduced to 80% of the (see Section 3, Division 1-A), facing connections in seg-
values used for static design. Factors of safety under com- mental block faced walls shall not be fully dependent on
bined static and seismic loads for pullout and breakage of frictional resistance between the backfill reinforcement
reinforcement may be reduced to 75% of the factors of and facing blocks. Shear resisting devices between the
safety used for static loading. facing blocks and backfill reinforcement such as shear
For geosynthetic reinforcement rupture, the reinforce- keys, pins, etc. shall be used.
ment must be designed to resist the static and dynamic For steel reinforcement connections, safety factors for
components of the load as follows: combined static and seismic loads may be reduced to 75%
For the static component, of the safety factors used for static loading. Ba'ied on these
safety factors, the available connection strength must be
greater than T,otlll·
(5.8.9.2-3)
For the static component,
For the dynamic component, T ~ Srs x CRu < 0. 8(Srs x CR 1 ) (5.8.9.3-1)

max FS x RFc FS
T < srt X Rc (5.8.9.2-4) For the dynamic component,
md - FS X RF10 X Rfo
Therefore, the ultimate strength of the geosynthetic re- T S Srt X CRu <o.s(Srt x CR 1 ) (5.8.9.3-2)
inforcement required is, md FS x RF0 FS
-
Tull- s + srt
rs
(5.8.9.2-5) The reinforcement strength required for the static com-
ponent, Srs, must be added to the reinforcement strength
For reinforcement pullout, required for the dynamic component, sri. to determine the
total ultimate strength required for the reinforcement, Tu 11 •
L > FSpo x Ttotal (5.8.9.2-6)

5.8.10 Determination of Lateral Wall
e 0.8F * X a X (J v X c X Rc Displacements
where, all variables are as defined in Article 5.8.5.2.
Lateral wall displacements are a function of overall
5.8.9.3 Facing/Soil Reinforcement Connection structure stiffness, compaction intensity, soil type. rein-
Design for Seismic Loads forcement length, slack in reinforcement-to-facing con-
nections, and deformability of the facing system. A first
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the seismic order estimate of lateral wall displacements occurring
loads determined in accordance with Article 5.8.9.2 (i.e., during wall construction for simple MSE walls on firm
TtotaJ). foundations can be determined from Figure 5.8.1 OA. If
Allowable stresses used for the design of the wall fac- significant vertical settlement is anticipated or heavy sur-
ing are permitted to increase by 50% for steel, 33% for charges are present, lateral displacements could be con-
concrete, and 50% for timber components of the facing. siderably greater. Appropriate uses of this figure are as a
Facing elements shall be designed in accordance with Di- guide to establish an appropriate wall face batter to obtain
vision I-A. a near vertical wall or to determine minimum clearances
For segmental concrete block facing walls, the blocks between the wall face and adjacent objects or structures.
located above the uppermost backfill reinforcement layer
shall be designed to resist toppling failure during seismic 5.8.11 Drainage
loading.
For geosynthetic connections, the long-term connection MSE walls in cut areas and side-hill fills with estab-
strength must be greater than T ITIIIX + T md· Where the long- lished ground water levels should be constructed with
term connection strength is partially or fully dependent on drainage blankets in back of and beneath the reinforced
friction between the facing blocks and the reinforcement, zone. Internal drainage measures should be considered for
and connection pullout is the controlling failure mode, the all structures to prevent saturation of the reinforced back-
long-term connection strength to resist seismic loads shall fill or to intercept any surface flows containing aggressive
be reduced to 80% of its static value. elements such as deicing chemicals.
~
~'
3~----~~--------~--------~
&max • 'A ·H/250UNEXTENSIBLE>
~
&mex •&R · H/75 (EXTENSIBLE>
z I
L&J
2: WHERE: & = MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT
L&J mex IN UNITS OF H
u 2
([
...J
Q..
H : HEIGHT OF WALL IN m•
C/)
c &R = EMPIRICALLY DERIVED

RELATIVE DISPLACEMENT
LIJ COEFFICIENT.
->
~
([
1
...J
LIJ
a:
0~--------~--------~~--------~
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
L/H
0 Besed on 6 m C20 foot.) tugn wells, relet1ve d1splocement

1nc,..eoses oppi"'OJumotely 25% for- evel"'y 1q kPe C400 psf) of
SUI"'Chor-ge. Exper-lence lndlCOtes thot. for- hlgher- wolls.
the sur-cnorge effect moy be g,..eoter-.
Note: Th1s f1gur-e 1s only o gu1de. Actuol d1splocement. w1ll
depend, 1n odd1 t1on to the poromet.er-s oddr-essed 1n the
f1gure, on so1l chor-octer-1st1cs, compoct.1on effor-t. ond
cont.roctor wo,..kmonshlp.
FIGURE 5.8.10A Empirical Curve for Estimating Anticipated Lateral Displacement During Construction for MSE Walls
For MSE walls utilizing metallic backfill reinforce- · 5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions
ments supporting roadways which are chemically deiced
in the winter, an impervious membrane should be placed 5.8.12.1 Concentrated Dead Loads
below the pavement and just above the first row of rein-
forcements to intercept any flows containing deicing Concentrated dead loads shall be incorporated into
chemicals. The membrane should be sloped to drain away the internal and external stability design by using a sim-
from the facing to an inten;epting longitudinal drain out- plified uniform vertical distribution of 2 vertical to 1
letted beyond the reinforced zone. Typically, a minimum horizontal to determine the vertical component of stress
membrane thickness of0.8 mm (30 mils) should be used. with depth within the reinforced soil mass as shown in
All seams in the membrane shall be welded to prevent Figure 5.8.12.1A. Figure 5.8.12.18 shows how concen-
leakage. trated horizontal dead loads are distributed within and
0
- d
--- (Foou"g br• L
I l
/1 . br •I\
I
,,z
y.
\
-- I o,
~~
Z2
2
I
12 \
I \
I \
,. I \
II
\
For- z~Z.s \
o,
=b( ·~ = b(c-z. __\
Fo... z ,> Q-- Z.t. Fo,.. st,..ap loadz ll cr • p

.,
a;-
Oa =~%.
v
2 Fo,.. ISOlated roo't.ln g looda
llcr • P~ /Z.
v 01(L~>
For- poant lood1
A -
1..\ - ¥
•
7p: ..._
WI~
b
f' : "'
,.
I
01 = Errec:tave wadth or apphed load ot any depth. calculated o•
shown obove
br::.. Wadth or apphed load. Fo,.. f"ootangs whac:h or-e ec:cen"t.r-.acolly
loaded (e.g •• b.-adge obu~ent roatangs). se't. b, equal 't.O the
equavolen't. rootang wadth B" by r-eduCing It by 2e". wher-e e" IS
occenvaca'C.y or the rootang lood h.e •• br -2e").
L : Leng'th or roo"C.ang
P., :: Lood pe.- hneor- mete,.. (foo"C.> or str-ap footang
P,;= Lood on asoloted r-ec:"C.angulo,.. f'ootang or- poan'C. lood
z 1 = dep'th whe.-e ef'rec:"C.ave wadth an~r-sect• bock of' woll roc• = 2d - br
Assume 't.he anc,..eased ve.-tacol s't.,..oss due t.o the •u,..cha.-go load has no
anrluonc• on atr-ot~ses used 'Coo ovoluote anter-nol st.obahty ar the
aur-cho.-~.. load as loca"C.ed bohand the r-oanfor-ced aoal moss. Fo.- oxte.-nol
Stoblll~ ~saume the sur-chor-ge hos no anfluonCO ar It IS }ocot&d
oytsade 't.h oc't.1vo zo,e behand tho wall.
FIGURE S.8.12.1A Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Vertical Load Pv for Internal
and External Stability Calculations
5.8.12.1 DIVISION I- DESIGN 167
"'-- br
r1· ·I
\Atr~mox = 2 IF/1
n
1
q
1
p..
::~
f IF=P.. +F1 +Fz
lote.r._ol f OI"Ce due to
la eo.- v. p.-easu.-e
loter-ol for-ce due to
voff1c sUf'cho.-ge
Otsv&buf.lon lote.-ol ro.-ce due to
1uper-svuctur-e o.- ot.he.-
11=1C ,•br -2e')tonlo45+ ~/2) concenvoted l o~r-o l loods
,_~-~-----;
L
o' = o cconvlCltlj of lood on foof.lng l1eo F&gu.-e 5.8.12.1C
r01" exomple of how to colculote th&l)
o. Oa •v•b~o~1.ton or Svess fo.- lnto,.nol Stobaht.y Co lc~o~lo1.&ons.
c,
q
PIQ
·~I
11 mox.=2 IFII.z
I I
~··12
12
P" 2 = lo~.-ol fo.-ce due to
L
I I s upe .-sv...ctu.-e o.- othe.-
" ...:. ~··

conconvot.ed lot.e.-ol loods
WH.t-- ------ I I I ~z
----v 1
I
If foot.ang as loco~d complet.ely o~o~uade
oct-ave zone beh&nd woll, the foof.lng lood
does not. need to be consade,.ed '" tho
• •~,.no l stob1ht.y colc~o~lof.lonl.
b. 01Sv&b~o~uon of Sven fo.- Ext.e,.nol Stobl11t.y Colc~o~louons.
FIGURE 5.8.12.1B Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Horizontal Loads
behind the reinforced soil mass. Concentrated horizon- above or within the reinforced soil zone are present, the
tal loads at the top of the wall shall also be di stributed reinforcement connections to the wall face shall be de-
within the reinfo rced soil mass as shown in this figure. sig ned fo r 100% of Tm" (or T,0 , , 1 for seismic loads)
Figure 5.8.12.1 C shows how these loads can be com- throughout the height of the wall.
bined using superposition principles to evaluate external If concentrated dead loads are located behind the rein-
and internal wall stability. Depending on the size and lo- forced soil mass, they shall be distributed in the same way
cation of the concentrated dead load, the location of the as would be done within the reinforced soil mass. The ver-
boundary between the active and resistant zones may tical stress distributed behind the reinforced zone in this
need to be adjusted. Figure 5.8.1 2. 1D illustrates how this way shall be multiplied by K,r to determine the effect this
adjustment should be made. When dead load surcharges surcharge load has on external stability. The concentrated
Concentrated Concentrated
Deed Load •t Deed Load •2
(ill
.PHt- I Jill
PH2 I
e
tPvz
1-. ~ ...,
VPYl
qt I
' *
*
Re1nfo,.ced
Sosl Mess<t
Rete1ned
lz/3 F1l1
.,. Y,. K,. •r Yr K.r
H
1
V1 =Y,. HL
''''''''''
I .L-2e
JlO.~~~--~----~
Note: These equet1ons assume 'that concentr-ated deed

load •2 IS located wsthsn the ect.1ve zone behsnd the
r-e1nf o.-ced sosl moss.
For Ex"ternol S't.Obsbty, Summsng Moments about Po1nt 0:
~ (L/2) + P¥1 CX1 ) + qL CL/2)
FSor =
F, CH/3) + ~ (H/2) + PHl(H) + P142 CH-1 2 /3) + Fp h.,
CV1 + q L + PV1 ) Ton •
FSSL =
For Beo.-1ng Colulot1ons, Summsng Moments about. Posnt. C:
e : F 1 CH/3) + Fz CH/2) + PH2 (H-12 /3J + Fp hp+ P" 1 H 't P,, CL/2 - X 1 )
Y,.HL + qL + P¥1
tT., = vI
L-2e
+qL A-
+ Yl#VJ
Not.e: Fo,. r-elatively thsck fecsng elements (e.g., segmental conc.-ete fec1ng blocks)
It moy be de~nr-eble to snclude the focang d1mensaons end we1ght sn shdsng, overturn
end beer-sng capocs ty calculetsons h.e.,.use '8' sn heu of 'L ').
Note: Py1 , PHI. Pvz• P.tz·&fvt·~·Mvz·end 12 Ol"'e as detel"'mlned from
Fagures 5.8.12.1A end 5.8.12.18 end Fp results from Py2 h.e., K Mvz from fsgur-e 5.8.12.1A).
H IS the toto I wall hesght at the face.
FIGURE 5.8.12.1 C Superposition of Concentrated Dead Loads for External Stability Evaluation
0 p
y
0.3H
H
2
ACTIVE
ZONE
RESISTANT ZONE
H
2
FIGURE 5.8.12.1D Location of Maximum Tensile Force Line in Case of Large Surcharge Slabs
(lnextensible Reinforcements)
horizontal stress distributed behind the wall can be taken barrier and slab to resist the impact load in sliding and over-
into account directly. turning without directly transmitting load to the top facing
units.
5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers For checking pu11out safety of the reinforcements, the
lateral traffic impact load shall be distributed to the upper
Traffic loads shall be treated as uniform surcharge loads soil reinforcement and facing units using Figure
in accordance with the criteria outlined in Article 3.20.3. 5.8.12. I B, assuming br equal to the width of the base
The live load surcharge pressure shall be equal to not less slab. The full length of reinforcements shall be consid-
than 0.6 meter (2 feet) of earth. Pampets and traffic barri- ered effective in resisting pullout due to impact load. The
ers, constructed over or in line with the front face of the wall upper row(s) of soil reinforcement shall have sufficient
shall be designed to resist overturning moments by their pullout capacity to resist a horizontal load of 45 kN (I 0
own mass. Base slabs shall not have any tmnsverse joints kips) distributed over the full6 meters (20 feet) base slab
except construction joints, and adjacent slabs shall be length. The force distribution for pullout computations is
joined by shear dowels. The upper row(s) of soil reinforce- different than what is used for tensile capacity computa-
ment shall have sufficient tensile capacity to resist a con- tions because the entire base slab must move laterally to
centrated horizontal load of 45 kN ( 10 kips) distributed initiate a pullout failure due to the relatively large defor-
over a barrier length of 1.5 meters (5 feet). This force dis- mation required, This distributed force would be equal to
tribution accommodates the local peaking of force in the PH 1 in Figure 5.8.12.1B.
soil reinforcements in the vicinity of the concentrated load. Due to the transient nature of traffic barrier impact
This distributed force would be equal to PH 1 in Figure loads, when designing for reinforcement rupture, the
5.8.12. 1B, and would be distributed to the reinforcements geosynthetic reinforcement must be designed to resist the
assuming br equal to the width of the base slab. Adequate static and transient (impact) components of the load as
room shall be provided laterally between the back of the follows:
facing panels and the traffic barrier/slab to a11ow the traffic For the static component, see equation 5.8.9.2-3.
~
v
For the transient component, described in Article 5 .8.12.4. The upper two rows of rein-
forcement shall be designed for an additional horizontal
load of 4,400 N per linear meter of wall (300 pounds per
A s < ___s~rt~x_R....:c::,.._._ (5.8.12.2-1)
u.(Jh v - linear foot of wall).
FS x RF10 X RF0
where ~c:Jh is the traffic barrier impact stress applied

over the reinforcement tributary area as determined in 5.8.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressures
Article 5.8.12.1.
The reinforcement strength required for the static For structures along rivers and canals, a minimum dif-
component, Srs, must be added to the reinforcement ferential hydrostatic pressure equal to 1.0 meter (3.3 feet)
strength required for the transient component, srt. to de- of water shall be considered for design. This load shall be
termine the total ultimate strength required for the re- applied at the high-water level. Effective unit weights
inforcement, Tult· shall be used in the calculations for internal and external
Parapet reinforcement shall be in accordance with Ar- stability beginning at levels just below the equivalent sur-
ticle 2.7. The anchoring slab shall be strong enough to re- face of the pressure head line.
sist the ultimate strength of the standard parapet. Situations where the wall is influenced by tide or river
Flexible post and beam barriers, when used. shall be fluctuations may require that the wall be designed for
placed at a minimum distance of 1.0 meter (3.3 feet) from rapid drawdown conditions. which could result in differ-
the wall face, driven 1.5 meters (5 feet) below grade. and ential hydrostatic pressure considerably greater than 1.0
spaced to miss the reinforcements where possible. If the meter (3.3 feet). or alternatively rapidly draining backfill
reinforcements cannot be missed, the wall shall be de- material such as shot rock or open graded coarse gravel be
signed accounting for the presence of an obstruction as used as backfill. Backfill material meeting the gradation
Str-uctu.-ol F.-ome
T = To't.ol Lood wh1cn S~uctur-ol Fr-ome mus't. cor-r-~.
FIGURE S.8.12.4A Structural Connection of Soil Reinforcement Around Backfill Obstructions

requirements in Article 7 .3.6.3 of Division II is not con- face where it joins the obstruction. To this end, a collar
sidered to be rapid draining. next to the wall face around the obstruction may be
needed.
5.8.12.4 Design for Presence of Obstructions in If driven piles must be placed through the reinforced
the Reinforced Soll Zone zone, the recommendations provided in Section 7 of
Division I shall be followed.
If the placement of an obstruction in the wall soil rein-
forcement zone such as a catch basin, grate inlet, signal or
sign foundation, guardrail post, or culvert cannot be 5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR
avoided, the design of the wall near the obstruction shall WALL DESIGN
be modified using one of the following alternatives:
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions
(1) Assuming reinforcement layers must be partially
or fully severed in the location of the obstruction, de- Prefabricated modular walls shall be dimensioned
sign the surrounding reinforcement layers to carry the to ensure that the applicable factors of safety outlined in
additional load which would have been carried by the Article 5.5.5 are satisfied.
severed reinforcements. Minimum embedment and scour protection shall sat-
(2) Place a structural frame around the obstruction isfy the requirements of Article 5.8.1.
which is capable of carrying the load from the rein-
forcements in front of the obstruction to reinforce-
ments connected to the structural frame behind the ob- 5.9.2 External Stability
struction. This is conceptually illustrated in Figure
5.8.12.4A. Stability computations shall be made by assuming that
(3) If the soil reinforcements consist of discrete strips the system acts as a rigid body.
or bar mats rather than continuous sheet~. depending on Lateral pressures shall be computed by wedge theory
the size and location of the obstruction, it may be pos- using a plane surface of sliding (Coulomb theory). Where
sible to splay the reinforcements around the obstruction. the rear of the prefabricated modular systems forms an ir-
regular surface (stepped modules), pressures shall be
For the first alternative, the portion of the wall facing computed on an average plane surface drawn from the
in front of the obstruction shall be made stable against a lower back heel of the lowest module to the upper rear
toppling (overturning) or sliding failure. If this cannot be heel of the top module, as shown in Figures 5. 9.2A and
accomplished, the soil reinforcements between the ob-
5.9.2B.
struction and the wall face can be structurally connected The following wall friction angles, 8, shall be used un-
to the obstruction such that the wall face does not topple,
less more exact coefficients are demonstrated:
or the facing elements can be structurally connected to ad-
jacent facing elements to prevent this type of failure.
For the second alternative, the frame and connections Wall Friction
shall be designed in accordance with Article 10.32 for steel Case Angle (8)
frames. Note that it may be feasible to connect the soil re- (a) Significant vibrations of back-
inforcement directly to the obstruction depending on the fill or modules settling more
reinforcement type and the nature of the obstruction. than backfill 0
For the third alternative, the splay angle, measured (b) Continuous pressure surface of
fr9m a line perpendicular to the wall face, shall be small precast concrete (uniform
enough that the splaying does not generate moment in the width modules) 1/2cp
reinforcement or the connection of the reinforcement to
(c) Averaged pressure surface
the wall face. The tensile capacity of the splayed re-
(stepped modules) 3/4cfJ
inforcement shall be reduced by the cosine of the splay
angle.
If the obstruction must penetrate through the face of Computations for stability shall be made at every mod-
the wall, the wall facing elements shall be designed to ule level. At each level, the required factors of safety with ·
fit around the obstruction such that the facing elements respect to overturning shall be provided. The value of
are stable (i.e., point loads should be avoided) and such Ka used to compute the lateral thrust resulting from the
that wall backfill soil cannot spill through the wall random backfill and other loads shall be computed on
r
H
I
1
1~
FIGURE S.9.2A Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular WaDs

Case 1-Continuous Pressure Surfaces
the basis of the friction angle of the backfill behind the ules is effective in resisting overturning moments. In the
modules. absence of specific data, a total unit weight of 1I 0 pounds
If sufficient amounts of structural backfill are used be- per cubic foot shall be assumed.
hind the prefabricated modules, a value of 34 o may be Computations for sliding stability may consider that
used for <f>. In the absence of specific data, a maximum I 00% of the soil-fill weight inside the modules is
friction angle of 30° shall be used. The coefficient of slid- effective in resisting sliding motion. The value of <f>
ing friction at the wall base shall be the lesser of the coef- of the foundation soils shall be used in these computa-
ficients of the backfill or the foundation soil. Passive pres- tions.
sures shall be neglected in stability computations. For structures loaded with sloping surcharges, refer to
Computations for overturning stability shall consider Article 5.2.2.3 regarding overall stability analysis of
that only 80% of the soil-fill unit weight inside the mod- slopes.
FIGURE 5.9.28 Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls

Case 11-Irregular Pressure Surfaces
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability ports per unit length, at the rear and front of the modules
or at the location of the bottom legs.
Allowable bearing capacities for concrete modular For modules supported on integrally cast legs, the re-
systems shall be computed using a minimum factor of actions shall be similarly calculated.
safety of 3 for Group I loading applied to the ultimate For this computation, a minimum of 80% of the soil
bearing capacity or to a bearing capacity obtained in ac- weight inside the modules shall be considered effective. If
cordance with At1icles 4.4.7 and 4.4.8. foundation conditions require a footing under the total
Footing loads shall be computed by assuming that dead area of the module, I 00% of the soil weight inside the
loads and earth pressure loads are resisted by point sup- modules shall be considered.
The overall slope stability condition, of which the re- factor, and statistical reliability shall be considered when
taining wall may only be part, shall be evaluated in ac- selecting procedures for calculating resistance. The pro-
cordance with Article 5.2.2.3. cedures used in developing values of performance factors
contained in this Part are summarized in Appendix A of
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses the Final Report for NCHRP Project 24-4 (Barker, et al.,
1991 ). Other methods may be used if the statistical nature
Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for de- of the factors given above are considered, and are ap-
veloped earth pressures behind the wall and from pres- proved by the owner.
sures developed inside the modules. Rear face surfaces
shall be designed for the difference of these pressures. Al- 5.11 DEFINITIONS
lowable stresses and reinforcement requirements for con-
crete modules shall be in accordance with Section 8. Only terms relating to retaining walls are provided in
Inside pressures (bin) shall be the same for each mod- this Section. Definitions for terms relating to foundation
ule and shall not be less than as follows: types and LFD design are given in Article 4.8.
Cantilever Walls-Walls that resist the forces exerted
(5.9.4-1) on them by flexural strength. These walls consist of a con-
crete wall stem, a concrete slab, and possibly a shear key.
Concrete modules shall be designed for bending in Gravity Walls-Massive stone or concrete masonry
both vertical and horizontal directions between their sup- walls which depend primarily on their weights to maintain
ports. Steel reinforcing shall be symmetrical on both faces stability. Only a nominal amount of steel is placed near the
unless positive identification of each face can be ensured exposed faces of these walls to prevent surface cracking
to preclude reversal of units. Corners shall be adequately due to temperature changes.
reinforced. Retaining Walls-Structures that provide lateral sup-
Allowable stresses for steel module members shall port for a mass of soil and that owe their stability primar-
be in accordance with Article I0.32. The net section used ily to their own weights and to the weights of any soils lo-
for design shall be reduced in accordance with Article cated directly above their base.
5.8.6.1. Semi-gravity Walls-These walls are somewhat more
slender than gravity walls and require reinforcement con-
5.9.5 Drainage sisting of vertical bars along the inner face and dowels
continuing into the footing.
Prefabricated modular units in cut and side-hill fill
areas shall be designed with a continuous subsurface drain 5.12 NOfATIONS
placed at. or near, the footing grade and out-letted as re-
quired. In cut and side-hill fill areas with established or = sliding resistance
potential ground water levels above the footing grade, a = height of retaining wall
continuous drainage blanket shall be provided and con- Hr = factored horizontal load
nected to the longitudinal drain system. K = coefficient of earth pressure
For systems with open front faces, a surface drainage Ko = coefficient of earth pressure at rest
system shall be provided as needed above the top of the N = factored bearing pressure resultant
wall to collect and divert surface runoff and prevent ero- p = lateral earth pressure
sion of the front face. Po = active earth load
ph = lateral earth load
Parte Pv = vertical earth load
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD qr =factored bearing capacity
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN qmax = maximum bearing pressure calculated using fac-
tored loads
5.10 SCOPE q, = surcharge loading
qult = ultimate bearing capacity
The provisions of this Part shall apply for the design of R1 = reduction factor due to load inclination effect
rigid gravity and semi-rigid gravity walls, and nongravity Rn = nominal resistance
cantilevered walls. Vr = factored vertical load
The probabilistic LFD basis of these specifications y = distance to the point of action for lateral earth
which produces an inter-related combination of load, load pressure
Greek -ground deformability,

~ =load factor coefficient (see Article 5.13.4) -groundwater, and
~E = load factor coefficient for earth pressure -swelling pressure in clay backfills.
-y =load factor (See Article 5.13.4)
-yeq = equivalent fluid pressure 5.13.3 Strength Requirement
8 = angle of shearing resistance between wall and soil
a = wall displacement Retaining walls and their foundations shall be propor-
4> = performance factor tioned by the methods specified in Article 5.14 so that
their design strength exceeds the required strength.
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND The required strength is the combined effect of fac-
RESISTANCE FACTORS tored loads for each applicable load combination. stipu-
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the design each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, R 0 ,
to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance)
factor, 4>. Procedures for calculating nominal resistance
5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States are provided in Article 5.1, and values of performance fac-
tors are given in Article 5.13.5.
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and
nongravity cantilever walls shall consider the following 5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors
serviceability limit states:
Retaining structures and their foundations shall be pro-
--excessive movements of retaining walls and their portioned to withstand safely all load combinations stipu-
foundations, lated in Article 3.22 which are applicable to the particular
--excessive vibrations caused by dynamic loadings, and site or walVfoundation type. Impact forces shall not be in-
--deterioration of element(s) of retaining structures. cluded in retaining wall design. (Refer to Article 3.8.)
Values of -y and ~ coefficients for load factor design, as
A The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride- given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state
\)1 ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation considerations; while those for service load design (also
movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply to serviceability con-
superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or siderations.
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More 5.13.5 Performance Factors
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
Values of performance factors for geotechnical design
5.13.2 Strength Limit States of foundations are given in Tables 4.10.6- I through
4.10.6-3, while those for structural design are provided in
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and Article 8.16.1.2.2.
nongravity cantilever walls shall be checked against the If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1
strength limit states of: through 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capacity, the
performance factors chosen shall provide the same relia-
-bearing capacity failure, bility as those given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through 4.10.6-3.
-lateral sliding,
--excessive loss of base contact, 5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL
-overall instability, and DESIGN, AND CANTILEVER
-structural failure. WALL DESIGN
The limit state which governs the design depends on: 5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill
-type and function of retaining structure, The provisions of Articles 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 shall also
--earth pressures exerted on the wall by the retained apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and semi-
backfill, gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls respec-
-geometry of the ground and the structure, tively; with the exception that the loads shall be factored
-strength of the ground, according to the bottom half of Table 3.22.1A when
checking wall stability against bearing capacity. sliding and no significant pore pressures act in the backfill. If a
and overturning. Vertical earth pressure due to the dead thorough drainage system is not provided to dewater the
load of the backfill shall have an overall load factor, "Y[3E, failure wedge, or if its adequate performance cannot be
of 1.()-y. guaranteed, walls shall be designed to resist the maximum
Lateral earth pressures on walls backfilled with cohe- anticipated water pressure. For walls backfilled with co-
sionless soils shall be designed using effective stresses. hesionless soils, the lateral earth pressure shall be calcu-
Walls backfilled with cohesive soils shall be designed lated using buoyant unit weights below the groundwater
using equivalent fluid pressures. The backfill. whether co- level and multiplied by the load factor for lateral earth
hesionless or cohesive, shall be well drained, so that no pressure. The wall shall be designed for these factored lat-
water pressures act on the wall, and no significant pore eral earth pressures ("Yf3E) plus factored hydrostatic water
pressures act in the backfill. The load factor for lateral pressure ( l.(}y).
earth pressures calculated using equivalent fluid pressures In the case of an undrained analysis of cohesive back-
shall be the same as those calculated using effective fills, the lateral earth pressure shall be calculated using
stresses ("Y[3E = 1.3"Y). equivalent fluid pressure, which inherently includes water
The "Y and f3E coefficients specified for earth pressure pressure effects. The calculated lateral earth pressure shall
in Table 3.22.1 A are applicable directly to active or at rest then be multiplied by 1.3"Y.
earth pressures. The resistance due to passive eurth pres- If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the
sure in front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the po-
extends wen below the depth of frost penetration, scour or tential for piping shall be considered. Pore pressures be-
other types of disturbance. Where passive pressure is as- hind the wall can be determined by flow net procedures or
sumed to provide resistance, the performance factor (<t>) various analytical methods. and shall be added to the ef-
shall be taken a~ 0.6. fective horizontal stresses when calculating total lateral
earth pressures on the wall. The effective lateral earth
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge pressure shall be multiplied by "Yf3E (obtained from Table
3.22.1 A) and the hydrostatic pressure shall be factored by
In the design of retaining walls and abutments where 1.()-y. when designing the wall.
traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the top
of the wall equal to one-half the wall height, the lateral 5.14.4 Seismic Pressure
earth pressure shall be increased by a live load surcharge
pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of earth (Article The provisions of Article 5.6.4 shall apply to the load
3.20.3). Impact loads shall not be included in the design factor design of walls when considering earthquakes
of abutments (Article 3.8.1 ). Vertical earth pressure in- loads.
duced by live load surcharge and dead load surcharge
shall have overall load factors of 1.67"Y and 1.3"Y, respec- 5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States
tively. Lateral earth pressure induced by live load
and dead load surcharge shall have an overall load factor The movement of wall foundation support systems
of 1.3"Y. shall be estimated using procedures described in Article
Where heavy static and dynamic compaction equip- 4.11.3, 4.12.3.2.2, or 4.13.3.2.2, for walls supported on
ment is used within a distance of one-half the wall height spread footings, driven piles, or drilled shafts, respec-
behind the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that tively. Such methods are based on soil and rock parame-
may be induced by compaction shall be taken into ac- ters measured directly or inferred from the results of in
count. The load factor for compaction-induced earth pres- situ and/or laboratory tests.
sures shall be the same as for lateral earth pressures Tolerable movement criteria for retaining walls shall
("Y(3E= 1.3"Y). be developed based on the function and type of wall, an-
ticipated service life, and consequence of unacceptable
5.14.3 Water Pressure and Drainage movements. Tolerable movement criteria shall be estab-
lished in accordance with Articles 4.11.3.5, 4.12.3.2.3,
The provisions of Articles 5.5.3 and 5.6.3 shall and 4.13.3.2.3.
also apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and
semi-gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls, 5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure
respectively.
The backfill, whether cohesive or cohesionless, shall Gravity and semi-gravity walls, and cantilever walls
be well drained so that no water pressures act on the wall shall be dimensioned to ensure stability against bearing ca-
pacity failure. overturning, and sliding. Where a wall is 5.14.6.2 Sliding

0 supported by clayey foundation, safety against deep-seated
foundation failure shall also be investigated. Stability cri-
teria for walls with respect to various modes of failure sha11
Where the retaining wall is founded on a spread foot-
ing. safety against sliding shall be investigated using the
be as shown in Figures 5.14.6-1 through 5.14.6-3. procedures specified in Article 4.11.4.3.
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure 5.14.6.3 Overturning
The safety against bearing capacity failure shall be The safety against overturning shall be ensured by lim-
investigated: ( 1) by using factored soil pressures which iting the location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
are uniformly distributed over the effective base area, if (N) on the wall base. For walls supported by soil founda-
the wall is supported by a soil foundation (see Figures tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
5.14.6-1 and 5.14.6-2); or (2) by using factored soil on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
pressures which vary linearly over the effective base area, dle half of the base. For walls supported by rock founda-
if the wall is supported by a rock foundation (see Figure tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
5.14.6-3). on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
Retaining walls and their foundations are considered to dle three-quarters of the base.
be adequate against bearing capacity failure if the factored
bearing capacity (taking into consideration the effect of 5.14.6.4 Overall Stability (Revised Article
load inclination) exceeds the maximum soil pressure 5.2.2.3)
(qmax) determined using factored louds. Methods for
calculating factored bearing capacity are provided in Ar- The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
ticle 4.11.4 for walls founded on spread footings, and in shall be considered.
Articles 4.12.3.3 and 4.13.3.3 for walls supported on dri- The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained
ven piles or drilled shatls. respectively. slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for
~
'J
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t·
I
I
h H Earth Loads
I Pw Mel Ph biSedon ~a.
I with allawanCe fDr creep
J
I
I ,.o.4H
I
StabilitY Criteria
FIGURE 5.14.6-1 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Clayey Soils
in the Backfill or Foundation (After Duncan et al., 1990)
(a) fCiftlll on Wll (b) fORIII an V..., Pllne

'111rc1&9t Hill cl Wd
H H
EarlhLoads
Pa n P r.Cibdltld using CouiDmb ~dive 8lltta prlll&n Chearr
I 01 Pa esanatld using judglmlnt. ... IIDWII• fDr I'IIDVII1III1I
of blddlll'lllllveiD ....
r•0.4H
StabilitY Criteria
Uledfarblnlgelpdrc:hlck
------ Fa:nd a.tngc.p.cllr

N q1 • fiR, q'*
FIGURE 5.14.6-2 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backfills
and Foundations on Sand or Gravel (After Duncan et al., 1990)
I
I
I
I
I
I Earth Loads
I
G I
H
Pt. based on 11-rest pessure
Pw estimated uUIQ )udgmenl
,.o.4H
I•
. •
I•
'
Stability Criteria
............. CIIPidlr chldl
·------------- F.-nd~~
N q, • -Rtq•
FIGURE 5.14.6-3 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backfills
and Foundations on Rock (After Duncan et al., 1990)
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure

V1 FldDrld Vertlcat a.a.d
The structural design of individual wall elements and
wall foundations shall comply to the requirements given
in Section 8.
In the structural design of a footing on soil and rock at
ultimate limit states, a linear contact pressure distribution
determined using factored loads, as shown in Figure
5.14.7-1, shall be considered. The maximum pressure for
structural design may be greater than the factored bearing
Vf F8Ctarld Vlltlcal La.t capacity.
.I
qmu
FICIIRd a.tng Clpldlr
-----------------· ql • ~R1 quit
5.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs
See ArticJe 5.5.6.1.
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems
See Artide 5.5.6.2.
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses
·I
See Artide 5.5.6.3.
qrnu 5.14.7.4 Reinforcement

- --------------·
See Article 5.5.6.4.
Note: maximum toe pressure q ma may exceed
lhe factDred bearing c:apadr, q' .
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
FIGURE 5.14.7-1 Contact Pressure Distribution See Article 5.5.6.5.

for Structural Design of Footings on Soil and Rock
at Strength Limit States
5.14.8 Backfill
all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis. Where possible, the backfill material behind all
The Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or Spence meth- retaining walls shall be free draining, nonexpansive,
ods of analysis may be used. Special exploration, testing noncorrosive and shall be drained by weep-holes and
and analyses may be required for bridge abutments or re- french drains placed at suitable intervals and eleva-
taining walls constructed over soft deposits where con- tions. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one
solidation and/or lateral flow of the soft soil could result drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts.
in unacceptable long-term settlements or horizontal Silts and clays shall, if possible, be avoided for use as
movements. backfill.
-
Section 6
CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND forced floor shall be used to distribute the pressure over
WATERWAY OPENINGS the entire horizontal area of the structure. In any location
subject to erosion, aprons or cutoff walls shall be used at
Recommendations on culvert location, length, and
both ends of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire
waterway openings are given in the AASHTO Guide on
floor area between the wing walls shall be paved. Baffle
Hydraulic Design o.f Culverts.
walls or struts across the unpaved bottom of a culvert bar-
rel shall not be used where the stream bed is subject to ero-
6.2 DEAD LOADS
sion. When conditions require, culvert footings shall be
Vertical and horizontal earth pressures on culverts may reinforced longitudinally.
be computed by recognized or appropriately documented
analytical techniques based on the principles of soil me- 6.4 DISTRmUTION OF WHEEL LOADS
chanics and soil structure interaction, or design pressures THROUGH EARTH Ji,ILLS
shall be calculated as being the result of an equivalent
fluid weight as follows. 6.4.1 When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more, concen-
trated loads shall be considered as uniformly distributed
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on over a square with sides equal to 1¥.! times the depth of
yielding foundation till.
A. Rigid culverts except reinforced concrete boxes:
( 1) For vertical earth pressure- 120 pcf 6.4.2 When such areas from several concentrations over-
For lateral earth pressure- 30 pcf lap, the total load shall be uniformly distributed over the
(2) For vertical earth pressure-120 pcf area defined by the outside limits of the individual areas,
For lateral earth pressure- 120 pcf but the total width of distribution shall not exceed the total
B. Reinforced concrete boxes: width of the supporting slab. For single spans, the effect of
( 1) For vertical earth pressure- 120 pcf live load may be neglected when the depth of fill is more
For lateml earth pressure- 30 pcf than 8 feet and exceeds the span length; for multiple spans
(2) For vertical earth pressure-120 pcf it may be neglected when the depth of fill exceeds the dis-
For lateral earth pressure- 60 pcf tance between faces of end supports or abutments. When
C. Flexible Culverts: the depth of fill is less than 2 feet the wheel load shall be
For vertical earth pressure-120 pcf distributed as in slabs with concentrated loads. When the
For lateral earth pressure- 120 pcf calculated live load and impact moment in concrete slabs,
When concrete pipe culverts are designed by the Indirect ba.~ed on the distribution of the wheel load through earth
Design Method of Article 16.4.5, the design lateral earth fills, exceeds the live load and impact moment calculated
pressure shall be determined using the procedures given according to Article 3.24, the latter moment shaH be used.
in Article 16.4.5.2.1 for embankment installations and in
Article 16.4.5.2.2 for trench installations. 6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation Where the depth of fill exceeds 2 feet, reinforcement to
provide for the lateral distribution of concentrated loads is
A special analysis is required.
not required.
6.3 FOOTINGS
6.6 DESIGN
Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation
sufficient to secure a firm foundation, or a heavy rein- For culvert design guidelines, see Section 16.
181
Section 7
SUBSTRUCTURES
Part A
7.1 GENERAL Ka = Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Arti-

cle 7.7.4.)
7.1.1 Definition V 1 = Vertical soil stress (ksf); (See Article 7.5.4.)
V 2 = Vertical stress due to footing load (kst); (See Arti-
A substructure is any structural, load-supporting com- cle 7.5.4.)
ponent generally referred to by the terms abutment, pier, crH = Supplementary earth pressure (kst); (See Article
retaining wall, foundation or other similar terminology. 7.5.4.)
7.1.2 Loads The notations for dimension units include the follow-
ing: dim=dimensionless; ft =foot; and ksf = kip/ft 2• The
Where appropriate, piers and abutments shall be de- dimensional units provided with each notation are pre-
signed to withstand dead load, erection loads, live loads
sented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally
on the roadway, wind loads on the superstructure, forces
correct combination of units for the design procedures
due to stream currents, floating ice and drift, temperature
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
and shrinkage effects, lateral earth and water pressures,
correctness of the equations should be confirmed.
scour and collision and earthquake loadings.
7.1.3 Settlement
PartB
The anticipated settlement of piers and abutments
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
should be estimated by appropriate analysis, and the ef- ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
fects of differential settlement shall be accounted for in
the design of the superstructure. 7.3 PIERS
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design 7.3.1 Pier Types
Refer to Section 4 for the design of spread footing, 7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers
driven pile and drilled shaft foundations and Section 5 for
the design of retaining walls. Solid wall piers are designed as columns for forces and
moments acting about the weak axis and as piers for those
7.2 NOTATIONS acting about the strong axis. They may be pinned, fixed or
free at the top, and are conventionally fixed at the base.
The following notations shall apply for the design of Short, stubby types are often pinned at the base to elimi-
pier and abutment substructure units: nate the high moments which would develop due to fixity.
Earlier, more massive designs, were considered gravity
B =Width of foundation (ft} types.
e = Eccentricity of load from foundation centroid in
the indicated direction (ft) 7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers
H = Height of abutment (ft)
K =Coefficient of earth pressure (dim); (See Article More recent designs consist of double walls, spaced in
~ 7.5.4.) the direction of traffic, to provide support at the continu-
'A
183
ous soffit of concrete box superstructure sections. These 7.3.2.4 Facing

walls are integral with the superstructure and must also be
designed for the superstructure moments which develop Where appropriate, the pier nose should be designed
from live loads and erection conditions. to effectively break up or deflect floating ice or drift. In
these situations, pier life can be extended by facing the
nosing with steel plates or angles, and by facing the pier
7.3.1.3 Bent Piers with granite.
Bent type piers consist of two or more transversely
spaced columns of various solid cross sections, and these 7.4 TUBULAR PIERS
types are designed for frame action relative to forces act-
ing about the strong axis of the pier. They are usually fixed 7.4.1 Materials
at the base of the pier and are either integral with the su-
perstructure or with a pier cap at the top. The columns Tubular piers of hollow core section may be of steel,
may be supported on a spread- or pile-supported footing, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, of such cross
or a solid wall shaft, or they may be extensions of the piles section to support the forces and moments acting on the
or shaft above the ground line. elements.
7.4.2 Configuration
7.3.1.4 Single-Column Piers
The configuration can be as described in Article 7 .3.1
Single-column piers, often referred to as "T" or "Ham-
and, because of their vulnerability to lateral loadings,
merhead" piers, are usually supported at the base by a
spread- or pile-supported footing, and may be either inte- shall be of sufficient wall thickness to sustain the forces
gral with, or provide independent support for, the super- and moments for all loading situations as are appropriate.
structure. Their cross section can be of various shapes and Prismatic configurations may be sectionally precast or
the column can be prismatic or flared to form the pier cap prestressed as erected.
or to blend with the sectional configuration of the super-
structure cross section. This type pier can avoid the com- 7.5 ABUTMENTS
plexities of skewed supports if integrally framed into the
superstructure and their appearance reduces the massive- 7.5.1 Abutment Types
ness often associated with superstructures.
7.5.1.1 Stub Abutment
7.3.2 Pier Protection
Stub abutments are located at or near the top of ap-
7.3.2.1 Collision proach fills, with a backwall depth sufficient to accom-
modate the structure depth and bearings which sit on the
Where the possibility of collision exists from highway bearing seat.
or river traffic, an appropriate risk analysis should be
made to determine the degree of impact resistance to be 7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment
provided and/or the appropriate protection system.
Partial-depth abutments are located approximately at
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls mid-depth of the front slope of the approach embankment.
The higher backwall and wingwalls may retain fill mate-
Collision walls extending 6 feet above top of rail are rial, or the embankment slope may continue behind the
required between columns for railroad overpasses, and backwall. In the latter case, a structural approach slab or
similar walls extending 2.35 feet above ground should be end span design must bridge the space over the fill slope,
considered for grade separation structures unless other and curtain walls are provided to close off the open area.
protection is provided. Inspection access should be provided for this situation.
7.3.2.3 Scour 7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment
The scour potential must be determined and the de- Full-depth abutments are located at the approximate
sign must be developed to minimize failure from this front toe of the approach embankment, restricting the
condition. opening under the structure.
0 7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment
Integral abutments are rigidly attached to the super-

holes with french drains placed at suitable intervals and
elevations. Silts and clays shall not be used for backfill.
structure and are supported on a spread or deep foundations

capable of permitting necessary horizontal movements. 7.5.3 Integral Abutments
7.5.2 Loading Integral abutments shall be designed to resist the forces

generated by thermal movements of the superstructure
Abutments shall be designed to withstand earth pres- against the pressure of the fill behind the abutment. Integral
sure as specified in Articles 5.5 and 5.6, the weight of the abutments should not be constructed on spread footings
abutment and bridge superstructure, live load on the su- founded or keyed into rock. Movement calculations .shall
perstructure or approach fill, wind forces and longitudinal consider temperature, creep, and long-term prestress short-
forces when the bearings are fixed, and longitudinal forces ening in determining potential movements of abutments.
due to friction or shear resistance of bearings. The design Maximum span lengths, design considerations, details
shall be investigated for any combination of these forces should comply with recommendations outlined in FHWA
which may produce the most severe condition of loading. Technical Advisory T 5140.13 ( 1980) except where sub-
Integral abutments must be designed for forces generated stantial local experience indicates otherwise.
by thermal movements of the superstructure. To avoid water intrusion behind the abutment, the ap-
proach slab should be connected directly to the abutment
7.5.2.1 Stability (not to wingwalls), and appropriate provisions should be
made to provide for drainage of any entrapped water.
Abutments shall be designed for the loading combina-
tion specified in Article 3.22.
7.5.4 Abutments on Mechanically Stabilized
• Abutments on spread footings shall be designed to Earth Walls
resist overturning (FS ~ 2.0) and sliding (FS ~ 1.5).
0 Dead and live loads are assumed uniformly distrib-

uted over the length of the abutment between ex-
pansion joints.
Design of bridge abutment footings and connecting
back wall, shall be based on bridge loading developed by
service load methods and earth pressures on the back wall.
• Allowable foundation pressures and pile capacities Abutment footings shall be proportioned to meet the over-
shall be determined in accordance with Articles 4.4 turning and sliding criteria specified in Article 5.5.5 and
and4.3. for maximum uniform bearing pressures using an effec-
• The earth pressures exerted by fill in front of the tive width of foundations (B- 2e). The maximum allow-
abutment shall be neglected. able bearing pressure shall be 4.0 ksf.
• Earthquake loads shall be considered in accordance The mechanically stabilized earth wall below the abut-
with Article 3.21. ment footing shall be designed for the additional loads im-
• The earth pressures exerted by the fill material shall
posed by the footing pressure and supplemental earth pres-
be calculated in accordance with Articles 5.5.2 and
sures resulting from horizontal loads applied at the bridge
5.6.2.
seat and from the back wall. The footing load is assumed to
• The cross section of stone masonry or plain concrete
be uniformly distributed over the effective width of foun-
abutments shall be proportioned to avoid the intro-
dation (B - 2e) at the base of the footing and is dispersed
duction of tensile stress in the material.
with depth, using a slope of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal. The
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature supplemental loads are applied as horizontal shears along
the bottom of the footing, uniformly diminishing in magni-
Except in gravity abutments, not less than !Is square inch tude with depth to a point on the face of the wall equal to
of horizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall be pro- a distance of (B - 2e) multiplied by Tan (45 + <f>/2) as
vided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced to re- described in Article 5.8.12.1.
sist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks. Horizontal and vertical stresses in abutment reinforced
zones are calculated by superposition as shown in Articles
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backfilling 5.8.4.1 and 5.8.12.1.
The filling material behind abutments shall be free The effective length used for calculations of internal sta-
draining, nonexpansive soil, and shall be drained by weep bility under the abutment footing shall always be the length
beyond the end of the footing or beyond a distance of zontal distance equal to 50% of the height of the abutment
0.3(H1) from the facing, whichever is less, where H1 is the wall.
height of wall plus surcharge. The horizontal forces transmitted to the piles shall be
The minimum distance from the center line of the resisted by the lateral capacity of the pile itself, or the soil
bearing· on the abutment to the outer edge of the facing reinforcements in the upper part of the wall designed to
shall be 3.5 feet. The minimum distance between carry the additional loads transmitted from the piles to the
the back face of the panel and the footing shall be 6 reinforced soil backfill. Where interference between the
inches. piles and the soil reinforcement occurs, the reinforce-
The abutment footing should be placed on a bed of comments must be designed around the piles, and the piles
pacted coarse aggregate 3 feet thick when significant frost treated as backfill obstructions (see Article 5.8.12.4). A
penetration is anticipated. clear distance of no less than 0.5 meters ( 1.5 feet) from the
Abutments shall not be constructed on mechanically back of the wall facing to the edge of the nearest pile or
stabilized embankments if anticipated differential settle- pile casing shall be provided. Piles should be driven prior
ments between abutments or between piers and abutments to wall construction and cased through fill if necessary.
are greater than one-half the limiting differential settle- Lateral loads transmitted from the piles to the rein-
mentS as shown in Figure 7.5.4A. This figure should be forced backfill may be determined using a P-Y lateral load
used for general guidance only. Detailed analyses will still analysis technique.
be required to address differential settlement problems.
For structures supporting bridge abutments, the maxi- 7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems
mum horizontal force shall be used for connection design Abutments seats constructed on modular units shall be
throughout the height of the structure. designed by considering, in addition to earth pressures, the
The density, length, and cross section of the soil rein- supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat
forcements designed for support of the abutment wall beam and earth pressures on the back wall. The top module
shall be carried on the wing walls for a minimum hori- shall be proportioned to be stable, with the required factor
0 75 100 125
SPAN LENGTH (f11
FIGURE 7.5.4A Limiting Values ofDift'erential Settlement Based on Field Surveys of Simple
and Continuous Span Structures of Various Span Lengths, Moulton, et al. (1985)
of safety, under the combined actions of normal and sup- ments to tie them together. Such bars shall extend into the
0 plementary earth pressures. Minimum top module width

shall be 6 feet. The center line of bearing shall be located a
masonry on each side of the joint far enough to develop
the strength of the bar as specified for bar reinforcement,
minimum of 2 feet from the outside face of the top precast and shall vary in length so as to avoid planes of weakness
module. The abutment beam seat shall be supported and in the concrete at their ends. If bars are not used, an ex-
cast integrally to the top module. The front face thickness pansion joint shall be provided and the wingwall shall be
of the top module shall be designed for bending forces de- keyed into the body of the abutment.
veloped by supplemental earth pressures. Abutment beam-
seat loadings shall be carried to foundation level and shall
be considered in the design of footings. Differential settle-
ment restrictions in Article 7.5.4. shall apply. Parte
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
7.5.6 Wingwalls LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.5.6.1 Length 7.6 GENERAL
Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the The provisions of Articles 7 .l through 7.5 shall apply
roadway embankment to the required extent and to fur- to the load factor design of abutments with the exception
nish protection against erosion. The wingwall lengths that: ( 1) Article 7.5 .2 on loading shall be replaced by the
shall be computed using the required roadway slopes. articles for loads, earth pressures and water pressures in
Articles 5.13 and 5.14 for retaining walls, and (2) Article
7.5.6.2 Reinforcement 7 .5.2.1 shall be replaced by the articles for stability in Ar-
ticles 5.13 and 5 .14. Abutments shall be designed to with-
Reinforcing bars or suitable rolled sections shall be stand earth pressures, water pressures and other loads sim-
spaced across the junction between wingwalls and abut- ilar to the design of retaining walls.
0
Section 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE*
Part A
(;ENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
8.1 APPLICATION Ar = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel re-

sisting moment, sq. in. (Articles 8.15.5.8 and
8.1.1 General 8.16.6.8)
= gross area of section, sq. in.
The specifications of this section are intended for de- = area of shear reinforcement parallel to flex-
sign of reinforced (nonprestressed) concrete bridge mem- ural tension reinforcement, sq. in. (Articles
bers and structures. Bridge members designed as pre- 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
stressed concrete shall confonn to Section 9. = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel re-
sisting tensile force Nc (Nuc). sq. in. (Articles
8.1.2 Notations 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
= area of tension reinforcement, sq. in.
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block = area of compression reinforcement. sq. in.
(Article 8.16.2. 7) = area of reinforcement to develop compres-
= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block sive strength of overhanging flanges ofl- and
for balanced strain conditions, in. (Article T-sections (Article 8.16.3.3.2)
8.16.4.2.3) = area of skin reinforcement per unit height
= shear span, distance between concentrated in one side face, sq. in. per ft. (Article
load and face of suppm1 (Articles 8.15.5.8 8.17 .2.1.3).
and 8.16.6.8) = total area of longitudinal reinforcement
A = effective tension area, in square inches, of (Articles 8.16.4.1.2 and 8.16.4.2.1)
concrete surrounding the flexural tension re- = area of shear reinforcement within a dis-
inforcement and having the same centroid as tances
that reinforcement, divided by the number of = area of shear-friction reinforcement, sq. in.
bars or wires. When the flexural reinforce- (Article 8.15.5.4.3)
ment consists of several bar or wire sizes, the =area of an individual wire to be developed or
number of bars or wires shall be computed as spliced. sq. in. (Articles 8.30.1.2 and
the total area of reinforcement divided by the 8.30.2)
area of the largest bar or wire used. For cal- = loaded area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)
culation purposes, the thickness of clear con- = maximum area of the portion of the support-
crete cover used to compute A shall not be ing surface that is geometrically similar to
taken greater than 2 inches. and concentric with the loaded area (Articles
= area of an individual bar, sq. in. (Article 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7 .2)
8.25.1) = width of compression face of member
= area of core of spirally reinforced compres- = perimeter of critical section for slabs and
sion member measured to the outside diame- footings (Articles 8.15.5.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.2)
ter of the spiral, sq. in. (Article 8.18.2.2.2) = width of cross section at contact surface
= area of concrete section resisting shear trans- being investigated for horizontal shear (Arti-
fer, sq. in. (~ticle 8.16.6.4.5) cle 8.15.5.5.3)
0 *The specifications of Section 8 are pauerned after and arc in general conformity with the provisions of ACI Standard 318 for reinforced concrete de-
sign and its commentary, ACI 318 R, published by the American Concrete Institute.
189
= web width, or diameter of circular section = tensile stress in reinforcement at service

(Article 8.15.5.1.1) loads, psi (Article 8.15.2.2)
c =distance from extreme compression fiber to f; = stress in compression reinforcement at bal-
neutral axis (Article 8.16.2.7) anced conditions (Articles 8.16.3.4.3 and
= factor relating the actual moment diagram 8.16.4.2.3)
to an equivalent uniform moment diagram = extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at ser-
(Article 8.16.5.2.7) vice loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi
centroid of tension reinforcement, in. For = overall thickness of member, in.
computing shear strength of circular sections, = compression flange thickness of I- and T-
d need not be less than the distance from ex- sections
treme compression fiber to centroid of ten- = moment of inertia of cracked section trans-
sion reinforcement in opposite half of mem- formed to concrete (Article 8.13.3)
ber. For computing horizontal shear strength = effective moment of inertia for computation
of composite members, d shall be the dis- of deflection (Article 8.13.3)
tance from extreme compression fiber to cen- = moment of inertia of gross concrete section
troid of tension reinforcement for entire com- about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforce-
posite section. ment
d' =distance from extreme compression fiber to = moment of inertia of reinforcement about
centroid of compression reinforcement, in. centroidal axis of member cross section
d" = distance from centroid of gross section, ne- k = effective length factor for compression mem-
glecting the reinforcement, to centroid of ten- bers (Article 8.16.5.2.3)
sion reinforcement, in. =additional embedment length at support or at
= nominal diameter of bar or wire, in. point of inflection, in. (Article 8.24.2.3)
= distance measured from extreme tension = development length, in. (Articles 8.24
through 8.32)
fiber to center of the closest bar or wire in
= development length of standard hook in ten-
inches. For calculation purposes, the thick-
sion, measured from critical section to out-
ness of clear concrete cover used to compute
side end of hook (straight embedment length
de shall not be taken greater than 2 inches.
between critical section and start of hook
= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article
(point of tangency) plus radius of bend and
8.7.1)
one bar diameter), in. (Article 8.29)
EI = flexural stiffness of compression member
= fhh X applicable modification factor
(Article 8.16.5.2.7)
= basic development length of standard hook in
= modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi
tension, in.
(Article 8.7.2)
= unsupported length of compression member
= average bearing stress in concrete on loaded (Article 8.16.5.2.1)
area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.1)
= computed moment capacity (Article 8.24.2.3)
=extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete
= maximum moment in member at stage for
at service loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1) which deflection is being computed (Article
f: = specified compressive strength of concrete, 8.13.3)
psi = nominal moment strength of a section at bal-
= square root of specified compressive strength anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3)
of concrete, psi = moment to be used for design of compression
= average splitting tensile strength of light- member (Article 8.16.5.2. 7)
weight aggregate concrete, psi =cracking moment (Article 8.13.3)
= fatigue stress range in reinforcement, ksi (Ar- = nominal moment strength of a section
ticle 8.16.8.3) = nominal moment strength of a section in the
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level in reinforce- direction of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
ment (Article 8.16.8.3) = nominal moment strength of a section in the
= modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (Article direction of they axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
8.15.2.1.1) = factored moment at section
= factored moment component in the direction P ny = nominal axial load strength corresponding to
of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3) Mny• with bending considered in the direction
Muy = factored moment component in the direction of they axis only (Article 8.16.4.3)
of the y axis (Article 8.16.4.3) Pnxy = nominal axial load strength with biaxial load-
= value of smaller end moment on compression ing (Article 8.16.4.3)
member due to gravity loads that result in no Pu =factored axial load at given eccentricity
appreciable sidesway calculated by conven- r = radius of gyration of cross section of a com-
tional elastic frame analysis, positive if mem- pression member (Article 8.16.5.2.2)
ber is bent in single curvature, negative if s = spacing of shear reinforcement in direction
bent in double curvature (Article 8.16.5.2.4) parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement, in.
= value of larger end moment on compression Sw = spacing of wires to be developed or spliced,
member due to gravity loads that result in no
in.
appreciable sidesway calculated by conven-
S = span length, ft
tional elastic frame analysis, always positive
V = design shear force at section (Article
(Article 8.16.5.2.4)
8.15.5.1.1)
= value of larger end moment on compression
v = design shear stress at section (Article
member due to lateral loads or gravity loads
that result in appreciable sidesway, defined 8.15.5.1.1)
by a deflection fl., greater than ejl500, cal- Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete
culated by conventional elastic frame analy- (Article 8.16.6.1)
sis, always positive. (Article 8.16.5.2) Vc =permissible shear stress carried by concrete
n = modular ratio of elasticity = E/Ec (Article (Article 8.15.5.2)
8.15.3.4) vdh = design horizontal shear stress at any cross
N = design axial load normal to cross section oc- section (Article 8.15.5.5.3)
curring simultaneously with V to be taken as vh = permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
positive for compression, negative for ten- 8.15.5.5.3)
sion and to include the effects of tension due Vn = nominal shear strength (Article 8.16.6.1)
to shrinkage and creep (Articles 8.15.5.2.2 Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
and 8.15.5.2.3) 8.16.6.5 .3)
= design tensile force applied at top of bracket V" = nominal shear strength provided by shear re-
of corbel acting simultaneously with V, to be inforcement (Article 8.16.6.1)
taken as positive for tension (Article 8.15.5.8) Vu = factored shear force at section (Article
= factored axial load normal to the cross sec- 8.16.6.1)
tion occurring simultaneously with Vu to be We =weight of concrete, lb per cu ft
taken as positive for compression, negative y, =distance from centroidal axis of gross sec-
for tension, and to include the effects of ten- tion, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme
sion due to shrinkage and creep (Article fiber in tension (Article 8.13.3)
8.16.6.2.2) z = quantity limiting distribution of flexural rein-
Nuc = factored tensile force applied at top of forcement (Article 8.16.8.4)
bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with a (alpha)= angle between inclined shear reinforcement
v u• to be taken as positive for tension (Arti- and longitudinal axis of member
cle 8.16.6.8)
ar =angle between shear-friction reinforcement
= nominal axial load strength of a section at bal-
and shear plane (Articles 8.15.5.4 and
anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3)
8.16,6.4) I
= critical load (Article 8.16.5.2.7)

~h (beta) = ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total
= nominal axial load strength of a section at
zero eccentricity (Article 8.16.4.2.1) area of reinforcement at the section (Article
=nominal axial load strength at given eccen- 8.24.1.4.2)
tricity ~c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
= nominal axial load strength corresponding to load or reaction area; for a circular concen-
Mmu with bending considered in the direction trated load or reaction area, ~c = 1.0 (Articles
of the x axis only (Article 8.16.4.3) 8.15.5.6.3 and 8.16.6.6.2)
= absolute value of ratio of maximum dead Design load-All applicable loads and forces or their
load moment to maximum total load mo- related internal moments and forces used to proportion
ment, always positive members. For design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN, de-
= ratio of depth of equivalent compression sign load refers to loads without load factors. For design
zone to depth from fiber of maximum com- by STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD, design load refers
pressive strain to the neutral axis (Article to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
8.16.2.7) Design strength-Nominal strength multiplied by a
= correction factor related to unit weight for strength reduction factor, <j>.
concrete (Articles 8. I5.5.4 and 8.16.6.4) Developmelltlength-Length of embedded reinforce-
J.l (mu) = coefficient of friction (Article 8.15.5 .4.3) ment required to develop the design strength of the rein-
p (rho) = tension reinforcement ratio = A/bwd, AJbd forcement at a critical section.
p' = compression reinforcement ratio = A:Jbd Embedment length-Length of embedded reinforce-
Ph = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain ment provided beyond a critical section.
conditions (Article 8.16.3.1.1) Factored load-Load, multiplied 'by appropriate load
Ps = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to factors, used to proportion members by the STRENGTH
total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of DESIGN METHOD.
a spirally reinforced compression member Nominal strength-Strength of a member or cross sec-
(Article 8.18.2.2.2) tion calculated in accordance with provisions and as-
Pw =reinforcement ratio used in Equation (8-4) sumptions of the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD be-
and Equation (8-48) fore application of any strength reduction factors.
= moment magnification factor for members Plain reitiforcement-Reinforcement that does not
braced against sidesway to reflect effects of conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
member curvature between ends of compres- Required strength-Strength of a member or cross sec-
sion member tion required to resist factored loads or related internal
=moment magnification factor for members
moments and forces in such combinations as are stipu-
not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral
lated in Article 3.22.
drift resulting from lateral and gravity loads
Sen'ice /oad....:..Loads without load factors.
 (phi) = strength reduction factor (Article 8.16.1.2)
Spiral rebiforcemem-Continuously wound reinforce-
8.1.3 Definitions ment in the form of a cylindrical helix.
Splitting tensile strength (fct)-Tensile strength of con-
The following terms are defined for general use in crete determined in accordance with "Specifications for
Section 8. Specialized definitions appear in individual Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete,"
Articles. AASHTO M 195 (ASTM C 330).
Stirrups or ties-Lateral reinforcement formed of in-
Bracket or corbel-Short (haunched) cantilever that dividual units, open or closed, or of continuously wound
projects from the face of a column or wall to support a reinforcement. The term "stirrups" is usually applied to
concentrated load or beam reaction. See Articles 8.15.5.8 lateral reinforcement in horizontal members and the term
and 8.16.6.8. "ties" to those in vertical members.
Compressil•e strength of concrete (f; )-Specified Tension tie member-Member having an axial tensile
compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square force sufficient to create tension over the entire cross sec-
inch (psi). tion and having limited concrete cover on all sides. Ex-
Concrete, structural lightweight-A concrete contain- amples include: arch ties, hangers carrying load to an
ing lightweight aggregate having an air-dry unit weight as overhead supporting structure, and main tension elements
determined by "Method of Test for Unit Weight of Struc- in a truss.
tural Lightweight Concrete" (ASTM C 567), not exceed- Yield strength or _vield point (fy)-Specified minimum
ing 115 pcf. In this specification, a lightweight concrete yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in pounds
without natural sand is termed "all-lightweight concrete" per square inch.
and one in which all fine aggregate consists of normal
weight sand is termed "sand-lightweight concrete." 8.2 CONCRETE
Defonned reinforcement-Deformed reinforcing bars,
deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric, and welded The specified compressive strength, f:, of the con-
deformed wire fabric. crete for each part of the structure shall be shown on
the plans. The requirements for f ~ shall be based on tests of 8.3.3 Designs shall not use a yield strength, fy, in excess
cylinders made and tested in accordance with Section 4- of 60,000 psi.
Division II.
8.3.4 Deformed reinforcement shall be used except that
plain bars or smooth wire may be used for spirals and
8.3 REINFORCEMENT ties.
8.3.1 The yield strength or grade of reinforcement shall
be shown on the plans. 8.3.5 Reinforcement shall conform to the specifica-
tions listed in Division II, Section 5, except that, for
8.3.2 Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on reinforcing bars, the yield strength and tensile strength
the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-sized
specified. bars.
PartB
ANALYSIS
8.4 GENERAL 8.6 STIFFNESS
All members of continuous and rigid frame structures 8.6.1 Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for
shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of
0 specified in Articles 3.2 through 3.22 as determined by the

theory of elastic analysis.
continuous and rigid frame members. The assumptions
made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
8.6.2 The effect of haunches shall be considered both in

determining moments and in design of members.
8.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
8.5.1 In general, provisions for temperature changes 8.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND
shall be made in simple spans when the span length ex- POISSON'S RATIO
ceeds 40 feet.
8.7.1 The modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete~may be
8.5.2 In continuous bridges, the design shall provide for taken as wP 33 v'fJ in psi for values of We between 90
thermal stresses or for the accommodation of thermal and 155 pounds per cubic foot. For normal weight con-
movement with rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, crete (wc = 145 pcO, Ec may be considered as 57 ,ooov'f;.
or other means.
8.7.2 The modulus of elasticity, Es, for nonprestressed
8.5.3 The coefficient of thermal expansion and contrac- steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi.
tion for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006
8.7.3 Poisson's ratio may be assumed as 0.2.
perdeg F.
8.5.4 The coefficient of shrinkage for normal weight 8.8 SPAN LENGTH
concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
8.8.1 The span length of members that are not built in-
8.5.5 Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for light- tegrally with their supports shall be considered the clear
weight concrete shall be determined for the type of light- span plus the depth of the member but need not exceed the
weight aggregate used. distance between centers of supports.
8.8.2 In analysis of continuous and rigid frame mem- TABLE 8.9.2 Recommended Minimum Depths for
bers, distances to the geometric centers of members shall Constant Depth Members
be used in the determination of moments. Moments at Minimum Depth
faces of support may be used for member design. When in Feef
Superstructure 1}rpe Simple Spans Continuous Spans
fillets making an angle of 45° or more with the axis of a
continuous or restrained member are built monolithic with Bridge slabs with main
reinforcement parallel
the member and support, the face of support shall be con- to traffiC l.2(S + 10)130 (S + 10)130 i!: 0.542
sidered at a section where the combined depth of the T-Girders 0.0705 0.06SS
member and fillet is at least one and one-half times the
thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be Box-Girders 0.0605 o.osss
considered as adding to the effective depth. Pedestrian Structure
Girders 0.033S 0.033S
8.8.3 The effective span length of slabs shall be as spec- a When variable depth members are used, values may be adjusted to
account for change in relative stiffness of positive and negative mo-
ified in Article 3.24.1. ment sections.
S =span length as defined in Article 8.8 in feet.
8.9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
thickness of the slab or one-half the clear distance to the
8.9.1 General next web.
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be de- 8.10.1.2 For girders having a slab on one side only, the
signed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed Y12 of
any deformations that may adversely affect the strength or the span length of the girder, six times the thickness of the
serviceability of the structure at service load plus impact. slab, or one-half the clear distance to the next web.
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations 8.10.1.3 Isolated T-girders in which the T-shape is
used to provide a flange for additional compression area
The minimum depths stipulated in Table 8.9.2 are rec- shall have a flange thickness not less than one-half the
ommended unless computation of deflection indicates that width of the girder web and an effective flange width not
lesser depths may be used without adverse effects. more than four times the width of the girder web.
8.9.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations
8.10.1.4 For integral bent caps, the effective flange
width overhanging each side of the bent cap web shall not
When making deflection computations, the following exceed six times the least slab thickness, or Y,o the span
criteria are recommended. length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span
length shall be taken as two times the length of the
8.9.3.1 Members having simple or continuous spans
cantilever span.
preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to
service live load plus impact shall not exceed Ysoo of the span,
except on bridges in urban areas used in part by pedestrians 8.10.2 Box Girders
whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed Y.cm.
8.10.2.1 The entire slab width shall be assumed
8.9.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to ser- effective for compression.
vice live load plus impact preferably should be limited to
Y100 of the cantilever arm except for the case including 8.10.2.2 For integral bent caps, see Article 8.1 0.1.4.
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be Yns.
8.10 COMPRESSION FLANGE wmm 8.11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS
8.1 0.1 T-Girder 8.11.1 The thickness of deck slabs shall be designed in
accordance with Article 3.24.3 but shall not be Jess than
8.10.1.1 The total width of slab effective as a T- specified in Article 8.9.
girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span
length of the girder. The effective flange width overhang- 8.11.2 The thickness of the bottom slab of a box girder
ing on each side of the web shall not exceed six times the shall be not less than y,6 of the clear span between girder
0 webs or 5 Y2 inches, except that the thickness need not be

greater than the top slab unless required by design.
live loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to
all longitudinal flexural members.
8.11.3 When required by design, changes in girder web 8.13.3 Deflections that occur immediately on applica-
thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 tion of load shall be computed by the usual methods or
times the difference in web thickness. formulas for elastic deflections. Unless stiffness values
are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, immedi-
ate deflections shall be computed taking the modulus of
8.12 DIAPHRAGMS elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 8.7 for nor-
mal weight or lightweight concrete and taking the mo-
8.12.1 Diaphragms shall be used at the ends ofT-girder ment of inertia as either the gross moment of inertia, lg, or
and box girder spans unless other means are provided the effective moment of inertia, Ie as follows:
to resist lateral forces and to maintain section geometry.
Diaphragms may be omitted where tests or structural
analysis· show adequate strength.
8.12.2 In T-girder construction, one intermediate di-

aphragm is recommended at the point of maximum posi- where:
tive moment for spans in excess of 40 feet. (8-2)
8.12.3 Straight box girder bridges and curved box girder and fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Arti-
bridges with an inside radius of 800 feet or greater do not cle 8.15.2.1.1.
require intermediate diaphragms. For curved box girder For continuous members, effective moment of inertia
bridges having an inside radius less than 800 feet, inter- may be taken as the average of the values obtained from
mediate diaphragms are required unless shown otherwise Equation (8-1) for the critical positive and negative mo-
by tests or structural analysis. For such curved box gird- ment sections. For prismatic members, effective moment
ers, a maximum diaphragm spacing of 40 feet is recom- of inertia may be taken as the value obtained from Equa-
mended to assist in resisting torsion. tion (8-1) at midspan for simple or continuous spans, and
as the value at the support for cantilevers.
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS
8.13.4 Unless values are obtained by a more compre-
8.13.1 Computed deflections shall be based on the hensive analysis, the long-time deflection for both normal
cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure sec- weight and lightweight concrete flexural members shall
tion excluding railings, curbs, sidewalks, or any element be the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
not placed monolithically with the superstructure section considered, computed in accordance with Article 8.13.3,
before falsework removal. multiplied by one of the following factors:
(a) Where the immediate deflection has been based on

8.13.2 Live load deflection may be based on the as- 18, the multiplication factor for the long-time deflection
sumption that the superstructure flexural members act to- shall be taken as 4.
gether and have equal deflection. The live loading shall (b) Where the immediate deflection has been based on
consist of all traffic lanes fully loaded, with reduction in Ie, the multiplication factor for the long-time deflection
load intensity allowed as specified in Article 3.12. The shall be taken as 3 - 1.2(~/As) ~ 1.6.
Parte
DESIGN
8.14 GENERAL allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE LOAD DE-

SIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load factors and
8.14.1 Design Methods strengths as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN.
8.14.1.1 The design of reinforced concrete members 8.14.1.2 All applicable provisions of this specifica-
shall be made either with reference to service loads and tion shall apply to both methods of design, except Articles
3.5 and 3.17 shall not apply for design by STRENGTH nected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in
DESIGN. accordance with the requirements of Article 8.15.5.5 or
Article 8.16.6.5.
8.14.1.3 The strength and serviceability require-
ments of STRENGTH DESIGN may be assumed to be 8.14.3 Concrete Arches
satisfied for design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN if the
service load stresses are limited to the values given in 8.14.3.1 The combined flexure and axial load
Article 8.15.2. strength of an arch ring shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5. Slenderness ef-
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members fects in the vertical plane of an arch ring, other than tied
arches with suspended roadway, may be evaluated by the
8.14.2.1 Composite flexural members consist of pre- approximate procedure of Article 8.16.5.2 with the un-
cast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in e
supported length, u• taken as one-half the length of the
separate placements but so interconnected that all ele- arch ring, and the radius of gyration, r, taken about an axis
ments respond to superimposed loads as a unit. When con- perpendicular to the plane of the arch at the quarter point
sidered in design, shoring shall not be removed until the of the arch span. Values of the effective length factor, k,
supported elements have developed the design properties given in Table 8. J4.3 may be used. In Equation (8-41 ), Cm
required to support all loads and limit deflections and shall be taken as 1.0 and shall be taken as 0.85.
cracking.
8.14.3.2 Slenderness effects between points oflateral
8.14.2.2 The entire composite member or portions support and between suspenders in the vertical plane of a
thereof may be used in resisting the shear and moment. tied arch with suspended roadway, shall be evaluated by a
The individual elements shan be investigated for aU criti- rational analysis taking into account the requirements of
cal stages of loading and shall be designed to support all Article 8.16.5 .I. I. ·
loads introduced prior to the full development of the de-
sign strength of the composite member. Reinforcement 8.14.3.3 The shape of arch rings shall conform, as
shall be provided as necessary to prevent separation of the nearly a-; is practicable. to the equilibrium polygon for full
individual elements. dead load.
8.14.2.3 If the specified strength, unit weight, or 8.14.3.4 In arch ribs and barrels, the longitudinal re-
other properties of the various elements are different, the inforcement shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
properties of the individual elements, or the most critical gross concrete area at least equal to 0.01, divided equally
values, shall be used in design. between the intrados and the extrados. The longitudinal
reinforcement shall be enclosed by lateral ties in accor-
8.14.2.4 In calculating the flexural strength of a com- dance with Article 8.18.2.ln arch barrels, upper and lower
posite member by strength design, no distinction shall be levels of transverse reinforcement shall be provided that
made between shored and unshored members. are designed for transverse bending due to loads from
columns and spandrel walls and for shrinkage and tem-
perature stresses.
8.14.2.5 When an entire member is assumed to resist
the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance with
the requirements of Article 8.15.5 or Article 8.16.6 as for 8.14.3.5 If transverse expansion joints are not pro-
a monolithically cast member of the same cross-sectional vided in the deck slab, the effects of the combined action
shape. of the arch rib, columns and deck slab shall be considered.
Expansion joints shall be provided in spandrel walls.
8.14.2.6 Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored
into the interconnected elements in accordance with Arti- TABLE 8.14.3 Effective Length Factors, k
c1e 8.27. Extended and anchored shear r~inforcement may Rise-to-Span 3-Hinged 2-Hinged Fixed
be included as ties for horizontal shear. Ratio Arch Arch Arcb
0.1-0.2 1.16 1.04 0.70
8.14.2.7 The design shall provide for fuli transfer of · 0.2-0.3 1.13 1.10 0.70
horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of intercon- 0.3-0.4 1.16 1.16 0.72
8ol4.3.6 DIVISION I-DESIGN 197
8.14.3.6 Walls exceeding 8 feet in height on filled within the support and having for its upper base the loaded
spandrel arches shall be laterally supported by transverse area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
diaphragms or counterforts with a slope greater than 45 When the loaded area is subjected to high-edge stresses
degrees with the vertical to reduce transverse stresses in due to deflection or eccentric loading, the allowable .bear-
the arch barrel. The top of the arch barrel and interior ing stress on the loaded area, including any increase due
faces of the spandrel waiJs shall be waterproofed and a to the supporting surface being larger than the loaded area,
drainage system provided for the fill. shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.75.
8.15.2.2 Reinforcement
8.15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN) The tensile stress in the reinforcement, f.., shall not ex-
ceed the following:
8.15.1 General Requirements
Gmde 40 reinforcement ............................... 20.000 psi
8.15.1.1 Service load stresses shall not exceed the Grade 60 reinforcement ...............................24,000 psi
values given in Article 8.15.2.
In straight reinforcement, the range between the max-
8.15.1.2 Development and splices of reinforcement imum tensile stress and the minimum stress caused by live
shall be as required in Articles 8.24 through 8.32. load plus impact shall not exceed the value given in Arti-
cle 8.16.8.3. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be
8.15.2 Allowable Stresses avoided in regions of high-stress range.
8.15.2.1 Concrete 8.15.3 Flexure
Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following: 8.15.3.1 For the investigation of stresses at service
loads, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flex-
8.15.2.1.1 Flexure ure shall be used with the following assumptions.
Extreme fiber stress in compression, ( .. o •••• 0.40f~ 8.15.3.2 The strain in reinforcement and concrete is
Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
concrete, f, .................................................0.21 fr except that for deep flexural members with overall depth
to span ratios greater than¥.~ for continuous spans and 'Y.s
Modulus of rupture. fr, from tests, or, if data are not for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of strain shall be
available: considered.
Normal weight concrete .................7.5 v'f! 8.15.3.3 In reinforced concrete members, concrete
"Sand-lightweight" concrete ..... 6.3 0 ••••••• v'f! resists no tension.
"All-lightweight" concrete ............... 5.5 v'f!
8.15.3.4 The modular ratio, n = EJEc. may be taken
8.15.2.1.2 Shear as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6 ). Except
For detailed summary of allowable shear stress, Vc, see in calculations for deflections. the value of n for light-
weight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for
Article 8.15.5.2.
normal weight concrete of the same strength.
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress
8.15.3.5 In doubly reinforced flexural members, an
The bearing stress. fb. on loaded area shall not exceed effective modular ratio of 2EiEc shall be used to trans-
o.3o f:. form the compression reinforcement for stress computa-
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides tions. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall
than the loaded area. the allowable be~stress on the not be greater than the allowable tensile stress.
loaded area may be multiplied by V AiA .. but not by
more than 2. 8.15.4 Compression Members
When the supporting surface is sloped or stepped, A2
may be taken as the area of the lower base of the largest The combined flexural and axial load capacity .of com-
frustrum of the right pyramid or cone contained wholly pression members shall be taken as 35% of that computed
in accordance with the provisions of Article 8.16.4. Slen- taken as 0.95 Vf!. A more detailed calculation of the al-
derness effects shall be included according to the require- lowable shear stress can be made using:
ments of Article 8.16.5. The term Pu in Equation (8-41)
shall be replaced by 2.5 times the design axial load. In
using the provisions of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5, ~shall
be taken as 1.0.
Note:
8.15.5 Shear
(a) M is the design moment occurring simultaneously
8.15.5.1 Shear Stress with V at the section being considered.
(b) The quantity V diM shall not be taken greater than
8.15.5.1.1 Design shear stress, v, shall be computed 1.0.
by:
8.1 5.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members
(8-3) For members subject to axial compression, the allow-
able shear stress carried by the concrete, vc, may be taken
as 0.95 Vf!. A more detailed calculation can be made
where V is design shear force at section considered, bw is using:
the width of web, and d is the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal ten- (8-5)
sion reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects of tor-
sion* shall be included.
The quantity N/A8 shall be expressed in pounds per square
8.15.5.1.2 For a circular section, bw shall be the di- inch.
ameter and d need not be less than the distance from the
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu- 8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members
dinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce-
8.15.5.1.3 For tapered webs, bw shall be the average ment shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is detailed calculation is made using
smaller.
8.15.5.1.4 When the reaction, in the direction of the

applied shear, introduces compression into the end re-
gions of a member, sections located less than a distance d Note:
from the face of support may be designed for the same
shear, V, as that computed at a distance d. An exception (a) N is negative for tension.
occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed be- (b) The quantity N/A8 shall be expressed in pounds
tween that point and the face of support. In that case sec- per square inch.
tions closer than d to the support shall be designed for V
at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
8.1 5.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete
8.15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete The provisions for shear stress, vc• carried by the con-
crete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
8.15.5.2. 1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modi-
Footings fications shall apply:
For members subject to shear and flexure only, the al-
lowable shear stress carried by the concrete, vc• may be (a) When fa is specified, the shear stress, Vc:, shall be
modified by substituting fa/6. 7 for Vf!. but the value
*The design crilerill for combined torsion and shear given in "Building Code Re-
of fc/6. 7 used shall not exceed Vf!.
quirements for Reinforced Concrele"-American Concrete Institute 318 Bulletin (b) When fa is not specified, the shear stress, vc• shall be
maybe used. multiplied by 0.75 for "all-lightweight" concrete, and
0.85 for "sand-lightweight" concrete. Linear interpola- 8.15.5.3.9 The value of (v - Vc) shall not exceed
tion may be used when partial sand replacement is used. 4Vff.
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear 8.15.5.3.10 When flexural reinforcement located
Reinforcement within the width of a member used to compute the shear
strength is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforce-
ment shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4.
8.15.5.3.1 Where design shear stress v exceeds shear
stress carried by concrete, Vc, shear reinforcement shall 8.15.5.4 Shear Friction
be provided in accordance with this article. Shear rein-
forcement shall also conform to the general requirements 8.15.5.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be ap-
of Article 8.19. plied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an in-
8.15.5.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular
tetface between two concretes cast at different times.
to the axis of the member is used:
8.15.5.4.2 A crack shall be assumed to occur along
the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-fric-
tion reinforcement Avr across the shear plane may be de-
signed using either Article 8.15.5.4.3 or any other shear
8.15.5.3.3 When inclined stirrups are used: transfer design method that results in predicti9n of
strength in substantial agreement with results of com-
prehensive tests. Provisions of Articles 8.15.5.4.4
through 8.15.5.4.8 shall apply for all calculations of
shear transfer strength.
8.15.5.3.4 When shear reinforcement consists of a
single bar or a single group of parallel bars all bent up at 8.15.5.4.3 Shear-friction Design Method
the same distance from the support:
(a) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicu-
lar to the shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforce-
A = (v-vc)bwd (8-9) ment Avr shall be computed by:
v f8 sina
where (v-vc) shall not exceed 1.5 Vff. (8-10)
8.15.5.3.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a where 1.1 is the coefficient of friction in accordance with
series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent- Article 8.15.5.4.3(c).
up bars at different distances from the support, the re- (b) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to
quired area shall be computed by Equation (8-8). the shear plane such that the shear force produces ten-
sion in shear-friction reinforcement, the area of shear-
8.15.5.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the in- friction reinforcement Avr shall be computed by:
clined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be con-
sidered effective for shear reinforcement.
(8 -11)
8.15.5.3. 7 Where more than one type of shear rein-
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the where lXr is the angle between the shear-friction rein-
member, the required area shall be computed as the sum forcement and the shear plane.
of the values computed for the various types separately. In (c) Coefficient of friction 1.1 in Equations (8-10) and
such computations, vc shall be included only once. (8-11 ) shall be:
concrete placed monolithically ............ 1.4A
8.15.5.3.8 When (v - Vc) exceeds 2 Vff the maxi- concrete placed against hardened concrete with
mum spacings given in Article 8.19 shall be reduced by surface intentionally roughened as specified in
one-half. Article 8.15.5.4.7 .................... ~ .. LOX.
concrete placed against hardened concrete not

intentionally roughened ..................0.6~ (8-llA)
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by
headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Article where V is the design shear force at the section considered
8.15.5.4.8 .............................0.7~ and d is for the entire composite section. Horizontal shear
where ~ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in ac-
..sand-lightweight" concrete; and 0.75 for "all light- cordance with the following:
weight" concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied
when partial sand replacement is used. (a) When the contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not
8.15.5.4.4 Shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09f~ nor exceed 36 psi.
360 psi. (b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Article 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surface is clean
8.1 5.5.4.5 Net tension across the shear plane shall be and free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened,
resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net com- shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi.
pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive (c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
to the force in the shear-friction reinforcementAvrf,, when with Article 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surface is clean,
calculating required Avr· free of laitance. and intentionally roughened to a full
magnitude of approximately Yo~ inch, shear stress vh
8.1 5.5.4.6 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be ap- shall not exceed 160 psi.
propriately placed along the shear plane and shall be an- (d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the
chored to develop the specified yield strength on both contact surface in excess of the minimum required
by Article 8.15.5.5.5, permissible vh may be increased
sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
by 72fy!40,000 psi.
8.15.5.4.7 For the purpose of Article 8.15.5.4, when

8.15.5.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by
concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete,
computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
the interface for shear transfer shaH be clean and free of
span, the actual change in compressive or tensile force to
laitance. If 1.1 is assumed equal to 1.0~. the interface shall
be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force
be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately Y.. inch. as horizontal shear between interconnected elements.
Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible hori-
8. I 5.5.4.8 When shear is transferred between steel zontal shear stress vh in accordance with Article
beams or girders and concrete using headed studs or 8.15.5.5.3.
welded reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of
paint. 8.15.5.5.5 7ies for Horizomal Shear
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforce-
8.15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite ment shall be provided between interconnected ele-
Concrete Flexural Members ments. Tie area shall not be Jess than 50bvslfy. and tie
spacing s shall not exceed four times the least web
8.15.5.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of width of support element, nor 24 inch.
horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars
of interconnected elements. or wire. multiple leg stirrups. or vertical legs of welded
wire fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be ad-
8. I 5.5.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hori- equately anchored into interconnected elements by
zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of embedment or hooks.
Articles 8.15.5.5.3 or 8.15.5.5.4 or any other shear
transfer design method that results in prediction of 8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and
strength in substantial agreement with results of compre- Footings
hensive tests.
8.15.5.6.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the
8.15.5.5.3 Design horizontal shear stress vdh at any vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gov-
cross section may be computed by: erned by the more severe of two conditions:
(a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical

0 .
section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distanced from the face of the concentrated
(8 -14)
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or but vc shall not exceed 1.8 Vf[. For single cell box culverts
footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles only, Vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken
8.15.5.1 through 8.15.5.3, except at footings supported less than I.4Vf[, and Vc for slabs simply supported need
on piles, the shear on the critical section shall be de- not be taken less than 1.2\l'f7. The quantity Vd/M shall not
tennined in accordance with Article 4.4.11.3. be taken greater than 1.0 where M is the moment occurring
(b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a crit- simultaneously with V at the section considered. For slabs
ical section perpendicular to the plane of the member of box culverts under less than 2 feet of fill, applicable pro-
and located so that its perimeter bo is a minimum, but visions of Articles 3.24 and 6.4 should be used.
not closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or 8.15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and
footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles Corbels*
8.15.5.6.2 and 8.15.5.6.3.
8.15.5.8.1 Provisions of Article 8.15.5.8 shall apply
8.1 5.5.6.2 Design shear stress, v, shall be computed by: to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio
aid not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal ten-
(8-12) sile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be mea-
sured at the face of support.
where V and bn shall be taken at the critical section de- 8. I 5.5.8.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall
fined in Article 8.15.5.6.1 (b). not be less than 0.5d.
8. 15.5.6.3 Design shear stress, v, shall not exceed Vc 8.15.5.8.3 The section at the face of support shall be
given by Equation (8-13) unless shear reinforcement is designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment
~ provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.6.4. [Vav + Nc (h- d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nc. Dis-
'J tance h shall be measured at the face of support.
(8 -13)
(a) Design of shear-friction reinforcement. Avr• tore-
sist shear, V, shall be in accordance with Article
8.15.5.4. For nonnal weight concrete, shear stress v
~c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
shall not exceed 0.09f: nor 360 psi. For "all light-
load or reaction area.
weight" or "sand-lightweight" concrete, shear stress v
shall not exceed (0.09-0.03avfd)f: nor (360-l26ajd)
8.1 5.5.6.4 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or
psi.
wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance
(b) Reinforcement Ar to resist moment [Vav + Nc(h -
with the following provisions:
d)] shall be computed in accordance with ~icle~
8.15.2 and 8.15.3.
(a) Shear stresses computed by Equation (8-12) shall
(c) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc shall be
be investigated at the critical section defined in Article
computed by An = N/f5 • Tensile force Nc shall not be
8. J5.5.6.1 (b) and at successive sections more distant
taken less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made
from the support.
to avoid tensile forces.
(b) Shear stress Vc at any section shall not exceed 0.9
(d) Area of primary tension reinforcement, As• shall be
v1! and v shall not exceed 3\l'f7. made equal to the greater of (Ar+ An)• or (2Avr13+ An).
(c) cWhere v exceeds 0.9 \l'f7. shear reinforcement
shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.3.
8. 15.5.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel to ~. with
a total area Ah not less than 0.5(As- An), shall be uni-
8.15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box
Culverts
*These provisions do not apply to beam ledges. The PCA publication,
For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or more fill, shear
~
"Notes on ACI 318-83," contains an example design of beam ledges-
stress Vc may be computed by: Part 16, example 16·3.
'J
formly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth the structure in the combinations stipulated in Article
adjacent to As. 3.22. All sections of structures and structural members
shall have design strengths at least equal to the required
8.15.5.8.5 Ratio p = AJbd shall not be taken less strength.
than 0.04(fc:' /fy).
8.16.1.2 Design Strength
8.15.5.8.6 At the front face of a bracket or corbel,
primary tension reinforcement, As. shall be anchored by
8.16.1.2.1 The design strength provided by a mem-
one of the following:
ber or cross section in terms of load, moment, shear, or
stress shall be the nominal strength calculated in accor-
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least
dance with the requirements and assumptions of the
equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified
strength-design method, multiplied by a strength-reduc-
yield strength fy of As bars;
(b) bending primary .tension bars As back to form a tion factor <J>. *
horizontal loop; or
8.16.1. 2. 2 The strength-reduction factors, <J>, shall be
(c) some other means of positive anchorage.
as follows:
8.15.5.8. 7 Bearing area of load on a bracket or cor-
bel shall not project beyond the straight portion of primary (a) Flexure .......................... = 0.90
tension bars As. nor project beyond the interior face of a (b) Shear ........................... = 0.85
(c) Axial compression with-
transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
Spirals .......................... = 0.75
Ties ............................. = 0.70
(d) Bearing on concrete ................ = 0.70
bearing The value of <1> may be increased linearly from the

plate"'\ value for compression members to the value for flexure as
A.lPrlmary
He relnlorcement) the design axial load strength, Pn• decreases from 0.1 or:
1~~==~===~
A8 or Pb, whichever is smaller, to zero.
.r
! I ..------~-=--~~ 8./6.1.2.3 The development and splice lengths. of re-
inforcement specified in Articles 8.24 through 8.32 do not
h d
' require a strength-reduction factor.
ll_ --,~====fl
_l
8.16.2 Design Assumptions
Att(closed
stirrups or ties)
8.16.2.1 The strength design of members for flexure
Framing bar to anchor J and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in
stirrups or ties
this article, and on the satisfaction of the applicable con-
ditions of equilibrium of internal stresses and compatibil-
FIGURE 8.15.5.8 ity of strains.
8.16.2.2 The strain in reinforcement and concrete is

8.16 STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
(LOAD FACTOR DESIGN)
8.16.2.3 The maximum usable strain at the extreme
8.16.1 Strength Requirements concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003.
8.16.1.1 Required Strength

*The coefficient~ provides for the possibility that smaJI adverse vari-
The required strength of a section is the strength nec- ations in material strengths, workmanship, and dimensions, while indi-
vidually within acceptable tolerances and limits of good practice, may
essary to resist the factored loads and forces applied to combine to result in understrength.
8.16.2.4 The stress in reinforcement below its speci-

fied yield strength, fy. shall be Es times the steel strain. For ~Mn =~[A,fyd( 1-0.6 p:! )] (8-15)
strains greater than that corresponding to fy. the stress in
the reinforcement shall be considered independent of
strain and equal to fy· ='[Asfy( d-~)] (8-16)
8.16.2.5 The tensile strength of the concrete is ne-

where,
glected in flexural calculations.
8.16.2.6 The concrete compressive stress/strain dis- (8-17)

tribution may be assumed to be a rectangle, trapezoid,
parabola, or any other shape that results in prediction of
8.16.3.2.2 The balanced reinforcement ratio, Pb• is
strength in substantial agreement with the results of com- given by:
prehensive tests.
Pb _
__ ~~r: (
o.85__..:.....:....::.. 87,ooo ) (8-18)
8.16.2.7 A compressive stress/strain distribution, fy 87,000+fy
which assumes a concrete stress of 0.85 f~ uniformly dis-
tributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by
the edges of the cross section and a line parallel to the neu- 8.16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension
tral axis at a distance a = j3 1c from the fiber of maximum Reinforcement Only
compressive strain, may be considered to satisfy the re-
quirements of Article 8.16.2.6. The distance c from the 8.16.3.3.1 When the compression flange thickness is
fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be mea- equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rec-
sured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor tangular stress block, a, the design moment strength, <t>Mn,
j3 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths. fc', up to may be computed by Equations (8-15) and (8-16).
and including 4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi,j3 1
shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 8.16.3.3.2 When the compression flange thickness is
1,000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi but j3 1 shall not less than a, the design moment strength may be computed
be taken less than 0.65. by:
8.16.3 Flexure <t>Mn = <t>[(As- Asr)fy(d-a/2)

+ A.rfy (d-0.5hr)] (8-19)
8.16.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural
Members where,
8.16.3./.1 The ratio of reinforcement p provided A _ 0.85f: (b- bw )hr

sf- f (8- 20)
shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio Pb that would produce y
balanced strain conditions for the section. The portion of
Pb balanced by compression reinforcement need not be re-
(8-21)
duced by the 0.75 factor.
8./6.3.1.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross

8.16.3.3.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio, Pb• is
section when the tension reinforcement reaches the strain
given by:
corresponding to its specified yield strength, fy, just as the
concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate
strain of 0.003.
8.16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension

Reinforcement Only where,
8.16.3.2.1 The design moment strength, <t>Mn, may (8- 23)

be computed by:
8.16.3.3.4 ForT-girder and box-girder construction, stress and strain compatibility using assumptions given in
the width of the compression face, b, shall be equal to the Article 8.16.2. The requirements of Article 8.16.3.1 shall
effective slab width as defined in Article 8.1 0. also be satisfied.
8.16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression 8.16.4 Compression Members

Reinforcement
8.16.4.1 General Requirements
The design moment strength, <f>Mn• may
8.16.3.4.1
be computed as follows: 8.16.4.1.1 The design of members subject to axial
load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based
If (
As -A~);?!
bd
0 _ 85 ~ 1 (f~d')( 87,000 )
fyd 87,000- fy
on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions
given in Article 8.16.2. Slenderness effects shall be in-
(8- 24) cluded according to the requirements of Article 8.16.5.
then.
8.16.4.1.2 Members subject to compressive axial
<f>Mn = <f>[(As- A~)fy(d - a/2) + A~fy (d - d')] load combined with bending shall be designed for the
(8-25) maximum moment that can accompany the axial load.
The factored axial load, Pu• at a given eccentricity shall
where, not exceed the design axial load strength <f>Pn(lllall) where:
(a) For members with spiral reinforcement conform-

(8-26) ing to Article 8.18.2.2
Pn(mu) = 0.85[0.85 f~ (A8 -A5J+fyAsJ (8-29)

8.16.3.4.2 When the value of (A, - A~)/bd is less
<f> = 0.75
than the value required by Equation (8-24), so that the
(b) For members with tie reinforcement conforming to
stress in the compression reinforcement is less than the
Article 8.18.2.3
yield strength, fy, or wlien effects of compression rein-
forcement is less than the yield strength, fy, or when ef-
fects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the de-
Pncmu> = 0.80[0.85 f: (A 8- Asr)+fyAsr] (8-30)
= 0.70
sign moment strength may be computed by the equations
in Article 8.16.3.2. Alternatively, a general analysis may
The maximum factored moment, Mu, shall be magnified
be made based on stress and strain compatibility using the
for slenderness effects in accordance with Article 8.16.5.
assumptions given in Article 8.16.2.
8.16.4.2 Compression Member Strengths
8.16.3.4.3The balanced reinforcement ratio Pb for
rectangular sections with compression reinforcement is The following provisions may be used as a guide to de-
given by:
fine the range of the load-moment interaction relationship
for members subjected to combined flexure and axial
Pb =[0.85~ 1 f~ ( 87,000 )]+p'((:) <8 _27 > load.
fy 87,000+ fy fy
8.16.4.2.1 Pure Compression
where,
The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity, cf>Po,
may be computed by:
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections For design, pure compressive strength is a hypothetical
condition since Article 8.16.4.1.2 limits the axial load
For other cross sections the design moment strength, strength of compression members to 85 and 80% of the
<f>Mn, shall be computed by a general analysis based on axial load at zero eccentricity. ·
8.16.4.2.2 Pure Flexure when the factored axial load,

The assumptions given in Article 8.16.2 or the applic-
(8-37)
able equations for flexure given in Article 8.16.3 may be
used to compute the design moment strength, <f>Mn, in or,
pure flexure.
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions

Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are de-
fined in Article 8.16.3.1.2. For a rectangular section with when the factored axial load,
reinforcement in one face, or located in two faces at ap-
proximately the same distance from the axis of bending, Pu < 0.1 f: Ag (8-39)
the balanced load strength, <t>Pb, and balanced moment
strength, <f>Mh, may be computed by: 8.16.4.4 Hollow Rectangular Compression
Members
(8-32)
8.16.4.4. 1 The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow
and, rectangular cross section, Xuft, is defined in Figure
8.16.4.4.1. Wall slenderness ratios greater than 35.0 are
<t>Mb = <f>[0.85f:bab(d - d" - at/2) not permitted, unless specific analytical and experimental
+ A~f~(d - d' - d") + Asfyd"] evidence is provided justifying such values.
(8-33)
8.16.4.4.2 The equivalent rectangular stress block
where, method shall not be employed in the design of hollow rec-
tangular compression members with a wall slenderness
a -( 87,000 )A. d ratio of 15 or greater.
(8- 34)
b- 87,000+fy 1-'l
8.16.4.4.3 If the wall slenderness ratio is less than 15,
and, then the maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete
compression fiber is equal to 0.003. If the wall slenderness
ratio is 15 or greater, then the maximum usable strain at
, + f Y )] s fy (8- 35)
d')(87~000
f; = 87,ooo [ 1- ( d"
7 000 the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to the
computed local buckling strain of the widest flange of the
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load
cross section, or 0.003, whichever is less.
The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension 8.1 6.4.4.4 The local buckling strain of the widest
when the nominal axial load strength, P0 , is less than the flange of the cross section may be computed assuming
balanced load strength, Pb, and is controlled by compres- simply supported boundary conditions on all four edges
sion when Pn is greater than Pb. of the flange. Nonlinear material behavior shall be con-
The nominal values of axial load strength, P"' and mo- sidered by incorporating the tangent material moduli of
ment strength, Mn, must be multiplied by the strength re- the concrete and reinforcing steel in computations of the
duction factor, <1>. for axial compression as given in Arti- local buckling strain. I
cle 8.16.1.2.
8.16.4.4.5 In lieu of the prov1s1ons of Articles
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading 8.16.4.4.2, 8.16.4.4.3 and 8.16.4.4.4, the following ap-
proximate method may be used to account for the strength
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and reduction due to wall slenderness. The maximum· usable
strain compatibility, the design strength of noncircular strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be
members subjected to biaxial bending may be computed taken as 0.003 for all wall slenderness ratios up to and in-
cluding 35.0. A strength reduction factor <l>w shall be ap-
by the following approximate expressions:
plied in addition to the usual strength reduction factor, <f>,
in Article 8.16.1.2. The strength reduction factor cl»w shall
1 1 1 1 be taken as 1.0 for all wall slenderness ratios up to and
--=-+--- (8- 36)
Pnxy Pnx Pny Po including 15.0. For wall slenderness ratios greater than
TTtJ}o:l Motrllllltlc ,.,,, SCI/ott
FIGURE 8.16.4.4.1 Definition of Wall Slenderness Ratio
15.0 and less than or equal to 25.0, the strength reduction support for the compression member. Where haunches are
factor <f>w shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.025 present, the unsupported length shall be measured to the
for every unit increase in the wall slenderness ratio above lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.
15.0. For wall slenderness ratios greater than 25.0 and less
than or equal to 35.0, the strength reduction factor <l>w shall 8.16.5.2.2 The radius of gyration, r, may be assumed
be taken as 0.75. equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction
in which stability is being considered for rectangular com-
8.16.4.4.6 Discontinuous. non-post-tensioned rein- pression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circu-
forcement in segmentally constmcted hollow rectangular lar compression members. For other shapes, r may be
compression members shall be neglected in computations computed for the gross concrete section.
of member strength.
8.16.5.2.3 For compression members braced against
8.16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression sidesway, the effective length factor, k, shall be taken as 1.0,
Members unless an analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For
compression members not braced against sidesway, k shall
8.16.5.1 General Requirements be determined with due consideration of cracking and rein-
forcement on relative stiffness and shall be greater than 1.0.
8.16.5.1.1 The design of compression members shall
be based on forces and moments determined from an 8.16.5.2.4 For compression members braced against
analysis of the structure. Such an analysis shall include sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
the influence of axial loads and variable moment of iner- when klJr is less than 34-( 12MJtiM2b>·
tia on member stiffness and fixed-end moment~. the effect
of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effect 8.16.5.2.5 For compression members not braced
of the duration of the loads. against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be ne-
glected when ktJr is less than 22.
8.16.5.1.2 In lieu of the procedure described in Arti-
cle 8.16.5.1.1, slenderness effect~ of compression mem- 8.16.5.2.6 For all compression members where ktJr
bers may be evaluated in accordance with the approxi- is greater than I00, an analysis as defined in Article
mate procedure in Article 8.16.5.2. 8.16.5.1 shall be made.
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness 8.16.5.2. 7 Compression members shall be designed

Effects using the factored axial load Pu, derived from a conven-
tional elastic analysis and a magnified factored moment,
8.16.5.2.1 The unsupported length, lu, of a compres- Me, defined by
sion member shall be the clear distance between slabs,
girders, or other members capable of providing lateral (8-40)
where (a) When the computed end eccentricities are less than
(0.6 + 0.03h) inches, the computed end moments may
be used to evaluate M 11,1M 2b in Equation (8-45).
(8- 41) (b) If computations show that there is essentially no
moment at either end of the member, the ratio M11,1M2b
shall be equal to one.
(8-41A)
8.16.5.2.9 In structures that are not braced against I
sidesway. the flexural members framing into the com-

pression member shall be designed for the total magnified
and end moments of the compression member at the joint.
8.16.5.2.10 When compression members are subject

(8- 42) to bending about both principal axes, the moment about
each axis shall be magnified by 8, computed from the cor-
responding conditions of restraint about that axis.
For members braced against sidesway. 8~ shall be taken as
1.0. For members not braced against sidesway, 8b shall be 8.16.5.2.11 When a group of compression members
evaluated as for a braced member and 8~ for an unbraced on one level comprise a bent, or when they are connected
member. integrally to the same superstructure. and collectively re-
In lieu of a more precise calculation, El may be taken sist the sidesway of the structure, the value of 8s shall be
either as computed for the member group with :tPu and IPc equal
to the summations for all columns in the group.
8.16.6 Shear
(8- 43)
8.16.6.1 Shear Strength
or conservatively as 8.16.6.1.1 Design of cross sections subject to shear

shall be based on
(8-46)
(8- 44)
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered and Vn is the nominal shear strength computed by,
where ~d is the ratio of maximum dead load moment to
maximum total load moment and is always positive. For (8-47)
members braced against sidesway and without transverse
loads between supports. Cm may be taken as where Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by the
concrete in accordance with Article 8.16.6.2, and V,. is the
(8-45) nominal shear strength provided by the shear reinforce-
ment in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. Whenever ap-
plicable, effects of torsion* shall be included.
but not less than 0.4.
For all other cases, Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
8.16. 6.1. 2 When the reaction, in the direction of ap-
plied shear. introduces compression into the end regions
8.16.5.2.8 If computations show that there is no mo- of a member, sections located less than a distance d from
ment at either end of a compression member braced or on- the face of support may be designed for the same shear,
braced against sidesway or that computed end eccentrici- Vu• as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs
ties are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches, M 2b and M 2 ~. in when major concentrated loads are imposed between that
Equation (8-40) shall be based on a minimum eccentric- point and the face of support. In that case, sections closer
ity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches about each principal axis sep-
arately. The ratio M 11,1M2b in Equation (8-45) shall be de- *The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in "Build-
termined by either of the following: ing Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete" ACI 318 may be used.
than d to the support shall be designed for V at a distance

d plus the major concentrated loads. (8- 52)
8.16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete

Note:
8.16.6.2.1 Slzear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and (a) Nu is negative for tension.
Footings (b) The quantity NJAg shall be expressed in pounds
per square inch.
For members subject to shear and flexure only, Vc shall
be computed by,
8.16.6.2.4 Shear ilz Lightweight Concrete
Vc =(t.9v'f: +2,500pw ~~}wd (8-48) The provisions for shear stress, Vc, carried by the con-
crete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modi-
or, fications shall apply:
(8-49) (a) When fc, is specified, the shear strength, Vc• shall
be modified by substituting fc/6.7 for Vfj, but the
where bw is the width of web and dis the distance from the value of fc/6.7 used shall not exceed Vf:.
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu- (b) When fa is not specified, Vc shall be multiplied by
dinal tension reinforcement. Whenever applicabl'e, effects 0.75 for "all lightweight" concrete, and 0.85 for "sand-
of torsion shall be included. For a circular section, bw shall lightweight" concrete. Linear interpolation may be
be the diameter and d need not be less than the distance used when partial sand replacement is used.
from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the 8.16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear
member. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width Reinforcement
or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
8.16.6.3.1 Where factored shear force Vu exceeds
Note: shear strength <f> Vc• shear reinforcement shall be provided
(a) Vc shall not exceed 3.5 Vf: bwd when using more to satisfy Equations (8-46) and (8-47), but not less than
detailed calculations. that required by Article 8.19. Shear strength Vs shall be
(b) The quantity VudiMu shall not be greater than 1.0 computed in accordance with Articles 8.16.6.3.2 through
where Mu is the factored moment occurring simultane- 8.16.6.3.1 0.
ously with Vu at the section being considered.
8.16.6.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members
to the axis of the member is used:
For members subject to axial compression, Vc may be
computed by: Av fy d
vs =------
s
(8-53)
Vc = 2(1 + Nu
2,000A 8
J.Ji: (bwd) (8-50)
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement within a
or, distances.
(8-51) 8.16.6.3.3 When inclined stirrups are used:
Note: V = _A_v_f::;_Y_(s_in_a_+_c_os_a_)_d
The quantity NJAg shall be expressed in pounds per s s (8-54)
square inch.
8.1 6.6.3.4 When a single bar or a single group of par-
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members
allel bars all bent up at the same distance from the support
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce- is used:
ment shall be designed to cany total shear, unless a more
detailed calculation is made using: (8-55)
0 8.16.6.3.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a

series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-
up bars at different distances from the support, shear
(8-56)
where J.l is the coefficient of friction in accordance with

strength V~ shall be computed by Equation (8-54). Article (c).
(b) When the shear-friction reinforcement is inclined
8.16.6.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the in- to the shear plane, such that the shear force produces
clined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be con- tension in shear-friction reinforcement, shear strength
sidered effective for shear reinforcement. Vn shall be computed by:
8.16.6.3.7 Where more than one type of shear rein- Yn = Avrfy (J.l sin cxr + cos cxr) (8-56A)
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the
member, shear strength Vs shall be computed as the sum where cxr is the angle between the shear-friction rein-
of the V,. values computed for the various types. forcement and the shear plane.
(c) Coefficient of friction J..l in Equations (8-56) and
8.16.6.3.8 When shear strength Yr. exceeds 4 Vf7 (8-56A) shall be:
bwd, spacing of shear reinforcement shall not exceed one-
half the maximum spacing given in Article 8.19.3. Concrete placed monolithically .............. 1.4)\
Concrete placed against hardened concrete with
8.16. 6.3. 9 Shear strength V., shall not be taken surface intentionally roughened as specified in Ar-
greater than 8 v'fi bwd. ticle 8.16.6.4.8 .......................... .1.0)\ 1
Concrete placed against hardened concrete not in~

8.16.6.3./0 When flexural reinforcement, located tentionally roughened ......................0.6)\
within the width of a member used to compute the shear Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by
strength, is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforce- headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Article
ment shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4. 8.16.6.4.9) ..............................0.7)\
8.16.6.4 Shear Friction where A = 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for
"sand lightweight" concrete; and 0. 75 for "all light-
8.16.6.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be ap- weight" concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied
plied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer when partial sand replacement is used.
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an in-
8.16.6.4.5 Shear strength Vn shall not be ;taken
terface between two concretes cast at different times.
greater than 0.2f: Acv nor 800 Acv in pounds, where Acv is
the area of the concrete section resisting shear transfer.
8.16.6.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to shear
transfer as described in Article 8.16.6.4.1 shall be based
on Equation (8-46), where shear strength Vn is calculated 8.16.6.4.6 Net tension across the shear plane shall be
in accordance with provisions of Article 8.16.6.4.3 or resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net com-
8.16.6.4.4. pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive
to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement, A.,rfy,
8.16.6.4.3 A crack shall be assumed to occur along when calculating required Avr·
the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction
reinforcement Avr across the shear plane may be designed 8. I 6.6.4. 7 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be ap-
using either Article 8.16.6.4.4 or any other shear transfer propriately placed along the shear plane and shall be an-
design methods that result in prediction of strength in sub- chored to develop the specified yield strength on both
stantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
Provisions of Articles 8.16.6.4.5 through 8.16.6.4.9 shall
apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength. 8.16.6.4.8 For the purpose of Article 8.16.6.4, when
concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete,
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-Friction Design Metlwd the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free
(a) When the shear-friction reinforcement is perpen- of laitance. If J.l is assumed equal to 1.0)\, the interface
dicular to the shear plane, shear strength, V"' shall be shall be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately
computed by: V.. inch.
8.16.6.4.9 When shear is transferred between as- tal shear strength cf> Vnh in accordance with Article
rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded re- 8.16.6.5.3, except that the length of the segment consid-
inforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint. ered shall be substituted for d.
8.16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for

8.16.6.5.5 Tlesfor Horizontal Shear
Composite Concrete Flexural Members
8.16.6.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of ment shall be provided between interconnected ele-
horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50bvslf,, and tie
of interconnected elements. spacing, s, shall not exceed four times the least web
width of the support element, nor 24 inches.
8.16.6.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hori- (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist o( single bars
zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded
Article 8.16.6.5.3 or 8.16.6.5.4, or any other shear trans- wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into
fer design method that results in prediction of strength interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive
tests.
8.16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and
Footings
8.16.6.5.3 Design of cross sections subject to hori-
zontal shear may be based on:
8.1 6. 6. 6.1 Shear strength of slabs and footings in the
vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gov-
(8-57)
erned by the more severe of two conditions:
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered, V nh is the nominal horizontal shear strength in ac- (a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical
cordance with the following, and where d is for the entire section extending in a plane across the entire width and
composite section. located at a distanced from the face of the concentrated
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
(a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles
intentionally roughened, shear strength V nh shall not be 8.16.6. I through 8. 16.6.3 except at footings supported
taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds. on piles, the shear on the critical section shaH be de-
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance termined in accordance with Article 4.4.11.3.
with Article 8.16.6.5.5, and contact surface is clean and (b) 1\vo-way action for the slab or footing, with a
free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear critical section perpendicular to the plane of the mem-
strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 80 bvd, in ber and located so that its perimeter b0 is a minimum,
pounds. but need not approach closer than d/2 to the perimeter
(c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this con-
with Article 8.16.6.5 .5. and contract surface is clean, dition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accor-
free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full dance with Articles 8.16.6.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.3.
amplitude of approximately Y.. inch, shear strength Vnh
shall not be taken greater than 350bvd, in pounds. 8.16.6.6.2 Design of slab or footing for two-way
(d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the action shall be based on Equation (8-46), where shear
contact surface in excess of the minimum required by strength Vn shall not be taken greater than shear strength
Article 8.16.6.5.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased Vc given by Equation (8-58), unless shear reinforcement
by ( 160fyl40,000)bvd. in pounds. is provided in accordance with Article 8.16.6.6.3.
8.16.6.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by

computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as f3c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The load or reaction area, and bo is the perimeter of the criti-
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon- cal section defined in Article 8.16.6.6.1 (b).
8. I 6.6.6.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or 8.16.6.8.2 Depth at the outside edge of bearing area
wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance shall not be less than 0.5d.
with the following provisions:
8.16.6.8.3 The section at the face of the support shall
(a) Shear strength V n shall be computed by Equation be designed to resist simultaneously a shear V u• a moment
(8-47), where shear strength Vc shall be in accordance (V uav + Nuc (h - d)), and a horizontal tensile force Nuc·
with paragraph (d) and shear strength Vfo shall be in ac- Distance h shall be measured at the face of support.
cordance with paragraph (e).
(b) Shear strength shall be investigated at the critical (a) In all design calculations in accordance with Arti-
section defined in Article 8.16.6.6.1 (b}, and at succes- cle 8.16.6.8. the strength reduction factor <1> shall be
sive sections more distant from the support. taken equal to 0.85.
(c) Shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than 6 (b) Design of shear-friction reinforcement A.. r to resist
Vf7b0 d, where bois the perimeter of the critical section shear V u shall be in accordance with Article 8.16.6.4.
defined in paragraph (b). For normal weight concrete, shear strength V nshall not
(d) Shear strength Vc at any section shall not be taken be taken greater than 0.2f;bwd nor 800bwd in pounds.
greater than 2 VfJb0 d, where b0 is the perimeter of the For "all lightweight" or "sand-lightweight" concrete.
critical section defined in paragraph (b). shear strength V 11 shall not be taken greater than (0.2-
(e) Where the factored shear force Vu exceeds the shear 0.07a/d)f:bwd nor (800- 280avfd)bwd in pounds.
strength <f> Vcas given in paragraph (d), the required area (c) Reinforcement Ar to resist moment (Vuav +
Av and shear strength Vs of shear reinforcement shall be Nuc (h- d)) shall be computed in accordance with Ar-
calculated in accordance with At1icle 8.16.6.3. ticles 8.16.2 and 8.16.3.
(d) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall
8.16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box be determined from Nuc :5 <t>Anfy. Tensile force Nuc:
Culverts shall not be taken less than 0.2V 11 unless special provi-
sions are made to avoid tensile forces. Tensile force Nuc
shall be regarded as a live load even when tension re-
8. /6.6. 7. I For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or
sultc; from creep, shrinkage. or temperature change.
more fill, shear strength Vc may be computed by:
(e) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be
made equal to the greater of (Ar + An) or:
vc =(2.14.[1'1 +4,600p ~~)bd (8-59)
2Avr A
-3-+ n·
but V c shall not exceed 4 Vf7 bd. For single cell box cul-
verts only, Vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be
taken less than 3 Vf7 bd, and Vc for slabs simply sup-
ported need not be taken .less than 2.5 Vf7 bd. The quan-
tity V ud!Mu shall not be taken greater than 1.0 where Mu
is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu bearlng
at the section considered. For slabs of box culverts under plate,
A.(prfmary
less than 2 feet of fill, applicable provisions of Articles relnlorcement)
3.24 and 6.4 should be used.
8.16.6.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and

Corbels*
1 ~d
3
8.16.6.8. I Provisions of Article 8. 16.6.8 shall apply _j_

to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio
aid not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal ten- Ah(closed
sile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distanced shall be mea- stirrups or ties)
sured at the face of support.
Framing bar to anchor J
stirrups or ties
*These provisions do not apply to beam ledges. The PCA publication.
"Notes on ACI 318-83" contains an example design of beam ledges-
Part 16, example 16-3. FIGURE 8.16.6.8
8.16.6.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with at service load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements
a total area Ah not less than 0.5(As - An), shall be uni- for fatigue in Article 8.16.8.3, and for distribution of rein-
formly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth forcement in Article 8.16.8.4. The requirements for con-
adjacent to As. trol of deflections in Article 8.9 shall also be satisfied.
8.16.6.8.5 Ratio p = AJbd shall not be less than 8.16.8.2 Service Load Stresses
0.04(f:lfy).
For investigation of stresses at service loads to satisfy
8.16.6.8.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary the requirements of Articles 8.16.8.3 and 8.16.8.4, the
tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be
following: used and the assumptions given in Article 8.15.3 shall
apply.
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least
equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified 8.16.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limits
yield strength fy of As bars,
(b) bending primary tension bars A5 back to form a The range between a maximum tensile stress and min-
horizontal loop, or imum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
(c) some other means of positive anchorage. plus impact at service load shall not exceed:
8./6.6.8.7 Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel fc = 21 - 0.33fmin + 8(r/h) (8-60)

shaH not project beyond straight portion of primary ten-
sion bars As. nor project beyond interior face of transverse where:
anchor bar (if one is provided).
fr = stress range in kips per square inch;
8.16.7 Bearing Strength fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive,
compression negative in kips per square inch~
8.16.7.1 The bearing stress, fb, on concrete shall not
f:
exceed 0.85<!> except as provided in Articles 8.16. 7.2, r/h = ratio of base radius to height of roBed-on trans-
verse deformations; when the actual value is not
8.16.7.3. and 8.16.7.4.
known, use 0.3.
8.16.7.2 When the supporting surface is wider on all Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in re-
sides than the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on gions of high stress range.
the loaded area may be multiplied by VA;ii\., but not by Fatigue stress limits need not be considered for con-
more than 2. crete deck slabs with primary reinforcement perpendicu-
lar to traffic and designed in accordance with the approx-
8.16.7.3 When the supporting surface is sloped or imate methods given under Article 3.24.3, Case A.
stepped, A2 may be taken as the area of the lower base of Fatigue stress limits for welded splices and mechani-
the largest frustum of a right pyramid or cone contained cal connections that are subjected to repetitive loads shall
wholly within the support and having for its upper base conform with the requirements of Article 8.32.2.5.
the loaded area, and having side slopes of I vertical to 2
horizontal. 8.16.8.4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement
8.16.7.4 When the loaded area is subjected to To control flexural cracking of the concrete, tension rein-
high edge stresses due to deflection or eccentric loading, forcement shall be well distributed within maximum flexural
the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including zones. When the design yield strength. fy, for tension rein-
any increase due to the supporting surface being larger forcement exceeds 40,000 psi, the bar sizes and spacing at
than the loaded area, shall be multiplied by a factor maximum positive and negative moment sections shall be
of0.75. chosen so that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at
service load f5, in ksi does not exceed the value computed by:
8.16.8 Serviceability Requirements
(8-61)
8.16.8.1 Application
For flexural members designed with reference to load

factors and strengths by Strength Design Method, stresses where:
= effective tension area, in square inches, of con- calculation purposes, the thickness of clear con-
0 A
crete surrounding the flexural tension reinforce-
ment and having the same centroid as that re-
crete cover used to compute de shall not be taken
greater than 2 inches.
inforcement, divided by the number of bars or
wires. When the flexural reinforcement con- The quantity z in Equation (8-61) shall not exceed
sists of several bar or wire sizes, the number 170 kips per inch for members in moderate exposure
of bars or wires shall be computed as the total conditions and 130 kips per inch for members in severe
area of reinforcement divided by the area of the exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
largest bar or wire used. For calculation pur- to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments,
poses, the thickness of clear concrete cover such as deicer chemicals, protection should be provided
used to compute A shall not be taken greater by increasing the denseness or imperviousness to
than 2 in. water or furnishing other protection such as a waterproof-
de = distance measured from extreme tension fiber to ing protecting system, in addition to satisfying Equa-
center of the closest bar or wire in inches. For tion (8-61 ).
PartD
REINFORCEMENT
8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL not less than 0.4% of the excess slab area shall be pro-
MEMBERS vided in the excess portions of the slab.
8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement 8. 17.2.1.2 For integral bent caps ofT-girder and box-
girder construction, tension reinforcement shall be rplaced
8.17.1.1 At any section of a flexural member where within a width not to exceed the web width plus an over-
tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the rein- hanging slab width on each side of the bent cap web equal
forcement provided shall be adequate to develop a mo- to one-fourth the average spacing of the intersecting
ment at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on girder webs or a width as defined in Article 8.1 0.1.4 for
the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight con- integral bent caps, whichever is smaller.
crete specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1.
8.17.2.1.3 If the depth of the side face of a member
(8-62) exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be
uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member
8.17.1.2 The requirements of Article 8.17 .1.1 may be for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforce-
waived if the area of reinforcement provided at a section ment. The area of skin reinforcement Au per foot of height
is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis on each side face shall be=::: 0.012 (d - 30). The maxi-
based on the loading combinations specified in Article 3.22.
mum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed the
8.17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement lesser of d/6 and 12 inches. Such reinforcement may be
included in strength computations if a strain compatibil-
8.17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in ity analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual
Zones of Maximum Tension bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin rein-
forcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the
8./7.2.1.1 Where flanges ofT-girders and box-gird- required flexural tensile reinforcement.
ers are in tension, tension reinforcement shall be distrib-
uted over an effective tension flange width equal to one- 8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in
tenth the girder span length or a width as defined in Article T-Girders and Box Girders
8.1 0.1, whichever is smaller. If the actual slab width, cen-
ter-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension At least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse
~ flange width, and for excess portions of the deck slab reinforcement in the deck slab shall extend to the exterior
'-4 overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement with area face of the outside girder web in each group and be an-
chored by a standard 90° hook. If the slab extends beyond designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
the last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into ductility to resist expected seismic movements.
the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the
exterior face of the girder web not less than that provided 8.17.4 Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular
by a standard hook. Compression Members
8.17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box 8.17.4.1 The area of longitudinal reinforcement in
Girders the cross section shall not be less than 0.0 I times the gross
area of concrete in the cross section.
8.17. 2.3./ Minimum distributed reinforcement of
0.4% of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab 8.17.4.2 1\vo layers of reinforcement shall be pro-
vided in each wall of the cross section, one layer near each
parallel to the girder span. A single layer of reinforcement
face of the wall. The areas of reinforcement in the two lay-
may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall
ers shall be approximately equal.
not exceed 18 inches.
8.17.4.3 The center-to-center lateral spacing of lon-
8.17.2.3.2 Minimum distributed reinforcement of
gitudinal reinforcing bars shall be no greater than 1.5
0.5% of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the
times the wall thickness, or 18 inches, whichever is less.
least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab trans-
verse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be dis-
8.17.4.4 The center-to-center longitudinal spacing of
tributed over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of I 8 lateral reinforcing bars shaii be no greater than 1.25 times
inches. All transverse reinforcement in the bottom slab shall the wall thickness, or 12 inches, whichever is less.
extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each
group and be anchored by a standard 90° hook. 8.17.4.5 Cross ties shall be provided between lay-
ers of reinforcement in each wall. The cross ties shall in-
8.17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members clude a standard 135° hook at one end, and a standard
90° hook at the other end. Cross ties shall be located at
8.17.3.1 Compression reinforcement used to in- bar grid intersections, and the hooks of all ties shall en-
crease the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed close both lateral and longitudinal bars at the intersec-
by ties or stirrups which shall be at least No. 3 in size for tions. Each longitudinal reinforcing bar and each lateral
longitudinal bars that are No. I 0 or smaller, and at least reinforcing bar shall be enclosed by the hook of a cross
No. 4 in size for No. 11, No. I 4, No. I 8, and bundled lon- tie at a spacing not to exceed 24 inches.
gitudinal bars. Welded wire fabric of equivalent area may
be used instead of bars. The spacing of ties shall not ex- 8.17.4.6 For segmentally constructed members, ad-
ditional cross ties shall be provided along the top and
ceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties
bottom edges of each segment. The cross ties shall be
shall be provided throughout the distance where the com-
placed so as to link the ends of each pair of internal and
pression reinforcement is required. This paragraph does
external longitudinal reinforcing bars in the walls of the
not apply to reinforcement located in a compression zone
cross section.
which has not been considered as compression reinforce-
ment in the design of the member.
8.17.4.7 Lateral reinforcing bars may be joined at the
corners of the cross section by overlapping 90° bends.
8.17.3.2 Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall Straight lap splices of lateral reinforcing bars are not per-
consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals, combined mitted unless the overlapping bars are enclosed over the
with longitudinal bars. See Article 8.15.5.1.1 or 8.16.6.1.1. length of the spJice by the hooks of at least four cross ties
located at intersections of the lateral bars and longitudinal
8.17.3.3 Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in one bars.
piece by overlapping the standard end hooks of ties or stir-
rups around a longitudinal bar, or may be formed in one or 8.17.4.8 When details permit, the longitudinal rein-
two pieces by splicing with Class C splices (lap of 1.7 fd). forcing bars in the corners of the cross section shall be en-
closed by closed hoops. If closed hoops cannot be pro-
8.17.3.4 In seismic areas, where an earthquake that vided, then pairs of "U" shaped bars with legs at least
could cause major damage to construction has a high twice as long as the wall thickness. and orientated 90° to
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be one another, may be substituted.
8.17.4.9 Post-tensioning ducts located in the cor- where fy is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforce-
ners of the cross section shall be anchored into the ment but not more than 60,000 psi.
corner regions with closed hoops, or by stirrups having
a 90° bend at each end which encloses at least one lon- 8.18.2.2.3 The clear spacing between spirals shall
gitudinal bar near the outer face of the cross section. not exceed 3 inches or be less than 1 inch or 1Yl times the
maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
8.18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION

8.18.2.2.4 Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall
MEMBERS be provided by 1Y2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each
end of a spiral unit.
8.18.1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal
Reinforcement 8.18.2.2.5 Spirals shall extend from top of footing or
other support to the level of the lowest horizontal rein-
8.18.1.1 The area of longitudinal reinforcement for forcement in members supported above.
compression members shall not exceed 0.08 times the
gross area, Ag, of the section. 8.18.2.2.6 Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap
splices of 48 bar or wire diameters but not less than 12
8.18.1.2 The minimum area of longitudinal rein- inches. or shall be welded.
forcement shall not be less than 0.01 times the gross area,
A8 , of the section. When the cross section is larger than 8.18.2.2.7 Spirals shall be of such size and ~o as-
that required by consideration of loading, a reduced ef- sembled to permit handling and placing without distortion
fective area may be used. The reduced effective area shall from designed dimensions.
not be less than that which would require I% of
longitudinal reinforcement to carry the loading. The min- 8.18.2.2.8 Spirals shall be held firmly in place by at-
imum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be six tachment to the longitudinal reinforcement and true to line
for bars in a circular arrangement and four for bars in a by vertical spacers.
rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bars shall
be No.5. 8.18.2.3 Ties
8.18.2 Lateral Reinforcement Tie reinforcement for compression members shall con-
form to the following:
8.18.2.1 General
8.18.2.3. 1 All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties
In a compression member that has a larger cross sec- which shall be at least No. 3 in size for longitudinal bars
tion than that required by conditions of loading, the lateral that are No. I 0 or smaller, and at least No.4 in size for No.
reinforcement requirements may be waived where struc- 11 , No. 14, No. 18, and bundled longitudinal bars. De-
tural analysis or test-, show adequate strength and feasi- formed wire or welded wire fabric of equivalent area may
bility of construction. be used instead of bars.
8.18.2.2 Spirals 8.18.2.3.2 The spacing of ties shall not exceed the
least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches.
Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall When two or more bars larger than No. 10 are bundled to-
conform to the following: gether. tie spacing shall be one-half that specified above.
8./8.2.2.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced con- 8.18.2.3.3 Ties shall be located not more than half a
tinuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of % inch. tie spacing from the face of a footing or from the nearest
longitudinal reinforcement of a cross-framing member.
8.18.2.2.2 The ratio of spiral reinforcement to total
yolume of core, p~, shall not be less than the value given 8.18.2.3.4 No longitudinal bar shall be more than 2
by: feet, measured along the tie, from a restrained bar on ei-
ther side. A restrained bar is one which has lateral support
~ Ag
Ps =0.45 ( --1
)- f: (8 -63)
provided by the comer of a tie having an included angle
\)}I A c
f y
of not more than 135°. Where longitudinal bars are lo-
cated around the perimeter of a circle, a complete circular (d) Combinations of stirrups and bent longitudinal re-
tie may be used. inforcement.
(e) Spirals.
8.18.2.4 Seismic Requirements
8.19.2.2 Shear reinforcement shall be developed at
In seismic areas, where an earthquake which could both ends in accordance with the requirements of Article
cause major damage to construction has a high probabil- 8.27.
ity of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers
shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate 8.19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
strength and ductility to resist expected seismic move-
ments. Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular
to the axis of the member shall not exceed d/2 or 24
8.19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT inches. Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforce-
ment shall be so spaced that every 45° line extending to-
8.19.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement ward the reaction from the mid-depth of the member, d/2,
to the longitudinal tension reinforcement shall be crossed
8.19.1.1 A minimum area of shear reinforcement by at least one line of shear reinforcement.
shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs and
footings, where
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE
(a) For design by Strength Design, factored shear REINFORCEMENT
force Vu exceeds one-half the shear strength provided
by concrete Vc· 8.20.1 Reinforcement. for shrinkage and temperature
stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls
(b) For design by Service Load Design, design shear and slabs not otherwise reinforced. The total area of rein-
stress v exceeds one-half the permissible shear stress forcement provided shall be at least Ys square inch per foot
carried by concrete vc· in each direction.
8.19.1.2 Where shear reinforcement is required by 8.20.2 The spacing of shrinkage and temperature rein-
Article 8.19 .1.1 , or by analysis, the area provided shall not forcement shall not exceed three times the wall or slab
be less than: thickness, or 18 inches.
A = 50bws (8- 64)

v f 8.21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT
y
where bw and s are in inches. 8.21.1 For cast-in-place concrete the clear distance be-
tween parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than 1.5 bar
8.19.1.3 Minimum shear reinforcement require- diameters, 1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse ag-
ments may be waived if it is shown by test that the re- gregate, or IY2 inches.
quired ultimate flexural and shear capacity can be devel-
oped when shear reinforcement is omitted. · 8.21.2 For precast concrete (manufactured under plant
control conditions) the clear distance between parallel
8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement bars in a layer shall be not less than I bar diameter, I Yl
times the maximum size of the coarse aggrega_te, or 1
8.19.2.1 Shear reinforcement may consist of: inch.
(a) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or 8.21.3 Where positive or negative reinforcement is
making an angle of 45° or more with the longitudinal placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall
tension reinforcement. be placed directly above those in the bottom layer with the
(b) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendic- clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch.
ular to the axis· of the member.
(c) Longitudinal reinforcement with a bent portion 8.21.4 The clear distance limitation between bars shall
making an angle of 30° or more with the longitudinal also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap
tension reinforcement splice and adjacent splices or bars.
8.21.5 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in con- TABLE 8.23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend
tact to act as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any one bundle. Bar Size Minimum Diameter
Bars larger than No. 11 shall be limited to two in any one
Nos. 3 through 8 6-bar diameters
bundle in beams. Bundled bars shall be located within stir- Nos. 9, 10, and 11 8-bar diameters
rups or ties. Individual bars in a bundle cut off within the Nos. 14 and 18 10-bar diameters
span of a member shall terminate at point.li at least 40-bar
diameters apart. Where spacing limitations are based on bar
diameter, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single concrete or other means. Other means of positive corro-
bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area. sion protection may consist of, but not be limited to,
epoxy-coated bars, special concrete overlays, and imper-
8.21.6 In walls and slabs the primary flexural reinforce- vious membranes; or a combination of these means.*
ment shall be spaced not farther apart than 1.5 times the
wall or slab thickness, or 18 inches. 8.22.4 Exposed reinforcement, inserts, and plates in-
tended for bonding with future extensions shall be pro-
8.22 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION tected from corrosion.
8.22.1 The following minimum concrete cover shall be 8.23 HOOKS AND BENDS
provided for reinforcement:
8.23.1 Standard Hooks
Minimum
Cover The term "standard hook" as used herein shall mean
(inches) one of the following:
Concrete cast against and permanently
(I) 180° bend plus 4dh extension, but not less than 2Y2
exposed to earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
inches at free end of bar.
Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
(2) 90° bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
Primary reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(3) For stirrup and tie hooks:
Stirrups, ties, and spirals . . . . . . . . . . . I Y2
(a) No. 5 bar and smaller, 90° bend plus 6db exten-
Concrete deck slabs in mild climates:
sion at free end of bar, or
Top reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(b) No. 6, No. 7, and No. 8 bar, 90° bend plus 12dh
Bottom reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
extension at free end of bar, or
Concrete deck slabs which have no positive
(c) No. 8 bar and smaller, 135° bend plus 6db ex-
corrosion protection and are frequently
tension at free end of bar.
exposed to deicing salts:
Top reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Y2
8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters
Bottom reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Concrete not exposed to weather or in
8.23.2.1 Diameter of bend measured on the inside of
contact with ground:
the bar, other than for stirrups and ties, shall not be less
Primary reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Y2
than the values given in Table 8.23.2.1.
Stirrups, ties, and spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Concrete piles cast against and/or
8.23.2.2 The inside diameter of bend for stirrups and
permanently exposed to earth . . . . . . . . 2
ties shall not be less than 4 bar diameters for sizes No. 5
and smaller. For bars larger than size No. 5 diameter of
8.22.2 For bundled bars, the minimum concrete cover
bend shall be in accordance with Table 8.23.2.1.
shall be equal to the equivalent diameter of the bundle, but
need not be greater than 2 inches, except for concrete cast 8.23.2.3 The inside diameter of bend in smooth or de-
against and permanently exposed to earth in which case
formed welded wire fabric for stirrups and ties shall not be
the minimum cover shall be 3 inches. less than 4-wire diameters for deformed wire larger than D6
and 2-wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside
8.22.3 In corrosive or marine environments or other se-
vere exposure conditions, the amount of concrete protec- *For additional information on corrosion protection methods, refer to
tion shall be suitably increased, by increasing the dense- National Cooperative Highway Research Report 297, "Evaluation of
ness and imperviousness to water of the protecting Bridge Deck Protective Strategies."
diameters of less than 8-wire diameters shall not be less 8.24.1.4.3 For No. 11 bars and smaller, the continu-
than 4-wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection. ing bars provide double the area required for flexure at the
cutoff point and the shear does not exceed three-fourths
8.24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL that permitted.
REINFORCEMENT
8.24.1.5 Adequate end anchorage shall be provided
8.24.1 General for tension reinforcement in flexural members where re-
inforcement stress is not directly proportional to moment,
8.24.1.1 The calculated tension or compression in such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets;
the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on deep flexural members; or members in which the tension
each side of that section by embedment length. hook or reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
mechanical device, or a combination thereof. Hooks may
be used in developing bars in tension only. 8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement
8.24.1.2 Critical sections for development of rein- 8.24.2.1 At least one-third the positive moment rein-
forcement in flexural members are at points of maximum forcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive
stress and at points within the span where adjacent rein- moment reinforcement in continuous members shall ex-
forcement terminates or is bent. The provisions of Article tend along the same face of the member into the support.
8.24.2.3 must also be satisfied. In beams, such reinforcement shall extend into the support
at least 6 inches.
8.24.1.2.1 Reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for 8.24.2.2 When a flexural member is part of the lateral
a disumce equal to the effective depth of the member, 15 load resisting system, the positive moment reinforcement
bar diameters, or Yw of the clear span, whichever is required to be extended into the support by Article
greater. except at supports of simple spans and at the free 8.24.2.1 shall be anchored to develop the specified yield
ends of cantilevers. strength, fy. in tension at the face of the support.
8.24.1.2.2 Continuing reinforcement shall have an 8.24.2.3 At simple supports and at points of inflec-
embedment length not less than the development length .ed tion, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be lim-
beyond the point where bent or terminated tension rein- ited to a diameter such that .ed computed for f) by Article
forcement is no longer required to resist flexure. 8.25 satisfies Equation (8-65); except Equation (8-65)
need not be satisfied for reinforcement terminating beyond
8.24.1.3 Tension reinforcement may be developed center line of simple supports by a standard hook, or a me-
by bending across the web in which it lies or by making it chanical anchorage at lea~t equivalent to a standard hook.
continuous with the reinforcement on the opposite face of
the member. (8- 65)
8.24.1.4 Flexural reinforcement within the portion of
the member used to calculate the shear strength shall not where M is the computed moment capacity assuming all
be terminated in a tension zone unless one of the follow- positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to
ing conditions is satisfied: be fully stressed. V is the maximum shear force at the
ea
section. at a support shall be the embedment length be-
8.24.1.4.1 The shear at the cutoff point does not ex- yond the center of the support. At a point of inflection, fa
ceed two-thirds of that permitted, including the shear shall be limited to the effective depth of the member or
strength of shear reinforcement provided. 12 db. whichever is greater. The value MN in the devel-
opment length )imitation may be increased by 30% when
8.24. 1.4. 2 Stirrup area in excess of that required for the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compres-
shear is provided along each terminated bar over a dis- sive reaction.
tance from the termination point equal to three-fourths the
effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area, A"' 8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement
shall not be less than 60 bwslf). Spacing, s, shall not
exceed d/(8 f3b) where f3b is the ratio of the area of rein- 8.24.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement in a con-
forcement cut off to the total area of tension reinforcement tinuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any mem-
at the section. ber of a rigid frame, shall be anchored in or through the
supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or me- "all lightweight" concrete ........ 1.33
0 chanical anchorage. "sand lightweight" concrete ...... I . I 8
Linear interpolation may be
8.24.3.2 Negative moment reinforcement shall have applied when partial sand
an embedment length into the span as required by Article replacement is used.
8.24.1.
8.25.2.3 Bars coated with epoxy with
8.24.3.3 At least one-third of the total tension rein-
cover less than 3db or clear
forcement provided for negative moment at the support
spacing between bars
shall have an embedment length beyond the point of in-
less than 6db . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 .5
flection not less than the effective depth of the member, 12-
bar diameters or Y16 of the clear span, whichever is greater. All other cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.15
The product obtained when combining
the factor for top reinforcement
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS with the applicable factor for
AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION epoxy coated reinforcement need
not be taken greater than I. 7
The development length, .fd, in inches shall be com-
puted as the product of the basic development length de-
8.25.3 The basic development length, modified by the
fined in Article 8.25.1 and the applicable modification fac-
appropriate factors of Article 8.25.2, may be multiplied by
tor or factors defined in Article 8.25.2 and 8.25.3, but fd
the following factors when:
shall be not less than that specified in Article 8.25.4.
8.25.1 The basic development length shall be: 8.25.3.1 Reinforcement being developed in the
length under consideration is spaced later-
No. 11 bars and smaller ................... 0.04Abfy ally at least 6 inches on center with at least
{i~ 3 inches clear cover measured in the direc-
tion of the spacing .................0.8
but not less than ........................0.0004dbfy
8.25.3.2 Anchorage or development for reinforce-

No. 14 bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.085fy
.Jf[ ment strength is not specifically required or
reinforcement in flexural members is in ex-
cess of that required by analysis
No. 18 bars .............................. O.llfy
$[
(As required)/(Ar. provided)
. 0.03dbfy
deformed wtre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $[
f'c 8.25.3.3 Reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral of
not less than X inch in diameter and not
8.25.2 The basic development length shall be multiplied more than 4 inch pitch .............0.75
by the following applicable factor or factors:
8.25.4 The development length, cd. shall not be less than
8.25.2.1 Top reinforcement so placed 12 inches except in the computation of lap splices by
that more than 12 inches of Article 8.32.3 and development of shear reinforcement by
concrete is cast below the Article 8.27.
reinforcement .................... 1.4
8.25.2.2 Lightweight aggregate 8.26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN

concrete when fc:, is $[ COMPRESSION
specified ..................... 6 ·7 ~
fct The development length, ed. in inches, for deformed
but not less than 1.0 bars in compression shall be computed as the product of
0 When fct is not specified the basic development length of Article 8.26.1 and ap-
plicable modification factors of 8.26.2, but ed shall not be 8.27.2.4.1 1\vo longitudinal wires at 2-inch spacing
less than 8 inches. along the member at the top of the U.
8.26.1 The basic development length shall be ...... . 8.27.2.4.2 One longitudinal wire located not more
0.02dbf/v'f7 than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire
but not less than .................0.0003~fy closer to the compression face and spaced at least 2 inches
from the first wire. The second wire may be located on the
8.26.2 The basic development length may be multiplied stirrup leg beyond a bend or on a bend with an inside di-
by applicable factors when: ameter of bend of not less than S-wire diameters.
8.26.2.1 Anchorage or development for reinforce-
8.27.2.5 For each end of a single-leg stirrup of
ment strength is not specifically required, or
welded smooth or welded deformed wire fabric, there
reinforcement is in excess of that required
shall be two longitudinal wires at a minimum spacing of
by analysis ..............(As required)/
(As provided) 2 inches and with the inner wire at least the greater of d/4
or 2 inches from mid-depth of member d/2. Outer longi-
8.26.2.2 Reinforcement is enclosed in a spiral of not tudinal wire at the tension face shall not be farther from
less than ~ inch in diameter and not more the face than the portion of primary flexural reinforcement
than 4-inch pitch .................0.75 closest to the face.
8.27 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR 8.27.3 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a

REINFORCEMENT closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the
laps are 1.7 ed.
8.27.1 Shear reinforcement shall extend at least to the
centroid of the tension reinforcement, and shall be carried 8.27.4 Between the anchored ends, each bend in the
as close to the compression and tension surfaces of the continuous portion of a single U- or multiple U-stirrup
member as cover requirements and the proximity of other shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
reinforcement permit. Shear reinforcement shall be an-
chored at both ends for its design yield strength. For com- 8.27.S Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforce-
posite flexural members, all beam shear reinforcement
ment, if extended into a region of tension, shall be con-
shall be extended into the deck slab or otherwise shall be
tinuous with the longitudinal reinforcement and, if ex-
adequately anchored to assure full beam design shear
tended into a region of compression, shall be anchored
capacity.
beyond the mid-depth, d/2, as specified for development
length in Article 8.25 for that part of the stress in the re-
8.27.2 The ends of single leg, single U, or multiple U-
stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means: inforcement required to satisfy Equation (8-8) or Equa-
tion (8-54).
8.27.2.1 A standard hook plus an embedment of the
stirrup leg length of at least 0.5 ed between the mid-depth 8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS
of the member d/2 and the point of tangency of the hook.
The development length of individual bars within a
8.27.2.2 An embedment length of .ed above or below bundle, in tension or compression, shall be that for the in-
the mid-depth of the member on the compression side but dividual bar, increased by 20% for a three-bar bundle, and
not less than 24-bar or wire diameters or, for deformed 33% for a four-bar bundle.
bars or deformed wire, 12 inches.
8.29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS
8.27.2.3 Bending around the longitudinal reinforce- INTENSION
ment through at least 180°. Hooking or bending stirrups
around the longitudinal reinforcement shall be considered 8.29.1 Development length edh in inches, for deformed
effective anchorage only when the stirrups make an angle bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article
of at least 45° with the longitudinal reinforcement. 8.23.1) shall be computed as the product of the basic de-
velopment length .ftm of Article 8.29.2 and the applicable
8.27.2.4 For each leg of welded smooth wire fabric modification factor or factors of Article 8.29.3, but edb
forming single U-stirrups, either: shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches, whichever is greater.
Critical
section
#3 through 1#8 FIGURE 8.29.4 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements

4db or
21/z" min 1#9, 1#10 and 111
8.29.3.6 Epoxy-coated reinforcement hooked bars
with epoxy coating ................ 1.2
1#14 and 1#18
8.29.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at

discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and
top (or bottom) cover over hook le&s than 2Y2 inches,
FIGURE 8.29.1 Hooked-Bar Details for Development of hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
Standard Hook.~ along the full development length cdh• not greater than 3dh.
where db is the diameter of the hooked bar. For this case,
8.29.2 Basic development length C11 h for a hooked
the factor of Article 8.29.3.3 shall not apply.
bar with fy equal to 60,000 psi shall be
....................................................... 1,200 dtiVf!
8.29.5 Hooks shall not be considered effective in devel-
8.29.3 Basic development length f 11h shall be multiplied oping bars in compression.
by applicable modification factor or factors for:
8.30 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE
8.29.3.1 Bar yield strength: FABRIC IN TENSION
Bars with f). other than 60,000 psi
...................................................... f)/60,000 8.30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric
8.29.3.2 Concrete cover: 8.30.1.1 The development length, ed, in inches of
For No. I 1 bar and smaller, side cover (nor-
welded deformed wire fabric measured from the point of
mal to plane of hook) not less than 2Y2 inches,
critical section to the end of wire shall be computed as the
and for 90° hook. cover on bar extension be-
product of the basic development length of Article
yond hook not less than 2 inches .......0.7
8.30.1.2 or 8.30.1.3 and the applicable modification fac-
8.29.3.3 Ties or stirrups: tor or factors of Articles 8.25.2 and 8.25.3 but ed shall not
For No. II bar and smaller, hook enclosed be less than 8 inches except in computation of lap splices
vertically or horizontally within ties or stir- by Article 8.32.5 and development of shear reinforcement
rup-ties spaced along the full development by Article 8.27.
length edh not greater than 3db. where db is
diameter of hooked bar ..............0.8 8.30.1.2 The basic development length of welded de-
formed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the
8.29.3.4 Excess reinforcement: development length not less than 2 inches from the point
Where anchorage or development for fy is of critical section, shall be:
not specifically required, reinforcement in
excess of that required by analysis ....(A~ (8-66)
required)/(A~ provided)
8.29.3.5 Lightweight aggregate concrete ...... 1.3 *The 20,000 has units of psi.
222 IDGHWAY BRIDGES 8.30.1.2
but not less than, a bundle. The length of lap, as prescribed in Article 8.32.3
or 8.32.4 shall be increased 20% for a three-bar bundle
and 33% for a four-bar bundle. Individual bar splices
(8- 67)
within the bundle shall not overlap.
8.30.1.3 The basic development length of welded 8.32.1.3 Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in
deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the de- flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther
velopment length, shall be determined as for deformed apart than one-fifth the required length of lap or 6 inches.
wire in accordance with Article 8.25.
8.32.1.4 The length, edt shall be the development
8.30.2 Smooth Wire Fabric length for the specified yield strength, f,, as given in Arti-
cle 8.25.
The yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall
be considered developed by embedment of two cross 8.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections
wires with the closer cross wire not less than 2 inches
from the point of critical section. However, development 8.32.2.1 Welded splices or other mechanical connec-
length td measured from the point of critical section to tions may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding
outermost cross wire shall not be Jess than: shall ~onform to the latest edition of the American Weld-
ing Society publication, "Structural Welding Code Rein-
forcing Steel."
(8-68)
8.32.2.2 A full welded splice shall develop in tension

modified by (As required)/(As provided) for reinforcement at least J25% of the specified yield strength of the bar.
in excess of that required by analysis and by factor of Ar-
ticle 8.25.2 for lightweight aggregate concrete, but fd shall 8.32.2.3 A full-mechanical connection shall develop
not be less than 6 inches except in computation of lap in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of
splices by Article 8.32.6. the specified yield strength of the bar.
8.31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE 8.32.2.4 Welded splices and mechanical connections

not meeting requirements of Articles 8.32.2.2 and 8.32.2.3
8.31.1 Any mechanical device shown by tests to be ca- may be used in accordance with ArticJe 8.32.3.4.
pable of developing the strength of reinforcement without
damage to concrete may be used as anchorage. 8.32.2.5 For welded or mechanical connections that
are subject to repetitive loads, the range of stress, fr. between
8.31.2 Development of reinforcement may consist of a a maximum tensile stress and a minimum stress in a rein-
combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional em- forcing bar caused by live load plus impact at service load
bedment length of reinforcement between point of maxi- shall not exceed:
mum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
fr
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT for greater than
'JYpe of Splice I ,000,000 cycles
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown Grout-filled sleeve, with or without epoxy
on the design drawings or as specified, or as authorized by
coated bar: 18 ksi
the Engineer.
Cold-swaged coupling sleeves without
threaded ends, and with or without
8.32.1 Lap Splices
epoxy-coated bar.
Integrally-forged coupler with upset NC
8.32.1.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger
threads;
than No. II. except as provided in ArticJes 8.32.4.1 and
Steel sleeve with a wedge;
4.4.11.4. I.
One-piece taper-threaded coupler. and
Single V-groove direct butt weld: 12 ksi
8.32.1.2 Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based
on the lap splice length required for individual bars within All other types of splices: 4 ksi
except that, for total cycles of loading, Ncyc• less than l

0 million cycles, fr may be increased by the quantity 24
(6 - logNcyc) in ksi to a total n~t greater than the value of
8.32.3.5 Splices in tension tie members shall be made
with a full-welded splice or a full-mechanical connection in
accordance with Article 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3. Splices in ad-
fr given by Equation (8-60) in Article 8.16.8.3. Higher val- jacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches.
ues of fr. up to the value given by Equation (8-60), may be
used if justified by fatigue test data on splices that are the 8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression
same as those which will be placed in service.
8.32.4.1 Lap Splices in Compression
8.32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed
Wire in Tension The minimum length of lap for compression lap splices
shall be 0.0005fydb in inches, but not less than 12 inches.
8.32.3.1 The minimum length of lap for tension lap When the specified concrete strength, fc', is less than
splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice, but 3,000 psi, the length of lap shall be increased by one-third.
not less than 12 inches. When bars of different size are lap spliced in compres-
sion. splice length shall be the larger of: development
Class A splice ........................... 1.0 fd length of the larger bar, or splice length of smaller bar. Bar
Class B splice ........................... 1.3 fd sizes No. 14 and No. 18 may be lap spliced to No. 11 and
Class C splice ........................... I. 7 ed smaller bars.
In compression members where ties along the splice
have an effective area not less than 0.0015hs, the
8.32.3.2 Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed
lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but the lap
wire in tension shall conform to Table 8.32.3.2.
length shall not be less than 12 inches. The effective area
of the ties shall be the area of the legs perpendicular to
8.32.3.3 Welded splices or mechanical connections
dimension h.
used where the area of reinforcement provided is less than
In compression members when spirals are used for lat-
twice that required by analysis shall meet the require-
eral restraint along the splice, the lap splice length may be
ments of Article 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3.
multiplied by 0.75, but the lap length shall not be less than
12 inches.
8.32.3.4 Welded splices or mechanical connections
used where the area of reinforcement provided is at least
8.32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices
twice that required by analysis shall meet the following:
In bars required for compression only, the compressive
8.32.3.4. I Splices shall be staggered at least 24
stress may be transmitted by bearing of square cut ends
inches and in such manner as to develop at every section
held in concentric contact by a suitable device. Bar ends
at least twice the calculated tensile force at that section but
shall terminate in flat surfaces within I Y2° of a right angle
not less than 20,000 psi for the total area of reinforcement
to the axis of the bars and shall be fitted within 3 o of full
provided.
bearing after assembly. End-bearing splices shall be used
only in members containing closed ties, closed stirrups, or
8.32.3.4.2 In computing tensile force developed at
spirals.
each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the
specified splice strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall
8.32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical
be rated at that fraction of fy defined by the ratio of the
Connections
shorter actual development length to ed required to de-
velop the specified yield strength fy· Welded splices or mechanical connections used in
compression shall meet the requirements of Article
TABLE 8.32.3.2 Tension Lap Splices 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3.
Maximum Percent of A.
Spliced within Required 8.32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in
Lap Length Tension
so 75 100
Equal to Or Greater than 2 Class A Class A Class B 8.32.5.1 The minimum length of lap for lap splices
Less than 2 Class B Class C Class C of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the
•Ratio of area of reinforcement provided to area of reinforcement ends of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.7 ed or
required by analysis at splice location. 8 inches, and the overlap measured between the outermost
cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 8.32.6.1 When the area of reinforcement provide'cl is
2 inches. less than twice that required by analysis at the splice lo-
cation, the length of overlap measured between the outer-
8.32.5.2 Lap splices of welded defonned wire fabric, most cross wires of each fabric sheet shaH not be less than
with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be one spacing of cross wires plus 2 inches or less than 1.5
determined as for defonned wire in accordance with Arti- ed. or 6 inches.
cle 8.32.3.1.
8.32.6.2 When the area of reinforcement provided is
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in at least twice that required by analysis at the splice loca-
Tension tion, the length of overlap measured between the outer-
most cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than
The minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded
1.5 .fd or 2 inches.
smooth wire fabric shall be in accordance with the fol-
lowing:
0
Section 9
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Part A
9.1 APPLICATION d = distance from extreme compressive fiber to

centroid of the prestressing force, or to cen-
9.1.1 General troid of negative moment reinforcing for pre-
cast girder bridges made continuous
The specifications of this section are intended for de- = distance from the extreme compressive fiber
sign of prestressed concrete bridge members. Members to the centroid of the non-prestressed tension
designed as reinforced concrete, except for a percentage reinforcement (Articles 9. 7 and 9.17-9.19)
of tensile steel stressed to improve service behavior, shall ES = loss of prestress due to elastic shortening (Ar-
conform to the applicable specifications of Section 8. . ticle 9.16)
Exceptionally long span or unusual structures require = base of Naperian logarithms (Article 9.16)
detailed consideration of effects which under this Section = average concrete compressive stress at the e.g.
may have been assigned arbitrary values. of the prestressing steel under full dead load
(Article 9.16)
9.1.2 Notations = average concrete stress at the e.g. of the pre-
stressing steel at time of release (Article 9 .16)
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
(Articles 9.7 and 9.19) =compressive strength of concrete at time of
A;. = area of compression reinforcement (Article initial prestress (Article 9.15)
9.19) = average splitting tensile strength of light-
At = area of prestressing steel (Article 9.17) weight aggregate concrete, psi
Asr = steel area required to develop the compressive = stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme
strength of the overhanging portions of the fiber of section where tensile stress is caused
flange (Article 9.17) by externally applied loads (Article 9 .20)
Asr = steel area required to develop the compressive fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after al-
strength of the web of a flanged section (Arti- lowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of
cles 9.17-9.19) cross section resisting externally applied
Av = area of web reinforcement (Article 9.20) loads or at junction of web and flange when
b = width of flange of flanged member or width of the centroid lies within the flange (In a com-
rectangular member posite member, fpc is resultant compressive
bv = width of cross section at the contact surface stress at centroid of composite section, or at
being investigated for horizontal shear (Arti- junction of web and flange when the centroid
cle 9.20). lies within the flange, due to both prestress
b' = width of a web of a flanged member and moments resisted by precast member act-
CRc = loss of prestress due to creep of concrete (Ar- ing alone.)(Article 9.20)
ticle 9.16) fpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective
CRs = loss of prestress due to relaxation of pre- prestress forces only (after allowance for all
stressing steel (Article 9.16) prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section
D = nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Arti- where tensile stress is caused by externally
cles 9.17 and 9.27) applied loads (Article 9.20)
225
fps = guaranteed ultimate tensile strength of the SH = loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage
prestressing steel, Atf! (Article 9.16)
fr = the modulus of rupture of concrete, as defined s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement
in Article 9.15.2.3 (Article 9.18) (Article 9.20)
Af5 = total prestress loss, excluding friction (Article =noncomposite section modulus for the ex-
9.16) treme fiber of section where the tensile stress
fse = effective steel prestress after losses is caused by externally applied loads (Article
ft = average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate 9.18)
load = composite section modulus for the extreme
f: = ultimate stress of prestressing steel (Articles fiber of section where the tensile stress is
9.15 and 9.17) caused by externally applied loads (Article
f..y =yield stress of non-prestressed conventional 9.18)
reinforcement in tension (Articles 9.19 and = average thickness of the flange of a flanged
9.20) member (Articles 9.17 and 9.18)
t; = yield stress of non-prestressed conven- =steel stress at jacking end (Article 9.16)
tional reinforcement in compression (Article =steel stress at any point x (Article 9.16)
9.19) = permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
f~ = yield stress of prestressing steel (Article 9.1 5) 9.20)
= 0.90 f! for low-relaxation wire or strand = nominal shear strength provided by concrete
f:
= 0.85 for stress-relieved wire or strand (Article 9.20)
= 0.85 f! for Type I (smooth) high-strength bar = nominal shear strength provided by concrete
= 0.80 f! for Type II (deformed) high-strength when diagonal cracking results from com-
bar bined shear and moment (Article 9.20)
h =overall depth of member (Article 9.20) Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the when diagonal cracking results from exces-
cross section (Article 9.20) . sive principal tensile stress in web (Article
K = friction wobble coefficient per foot of pre- 9.20)
stressing steel (Article 9.16) = shear force at section due to unfactored dead
L = length of prestressing steel element from jack load (Article 9.20)
end to point x (Article 9 .16) = factored shear force at section due to exter-
Mer = moment causing flexural cracking at sec- nally applied loads occurring simultaneously
tion due to externally applied loads (Article with Mlllllll (Article 9.20)
9.20) = nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
M~ =cracking moment (Article 9.18) 9.20)
Me11c = composite dead load moment at the section = verticaJ component of effective prestress force
(Commentary to Article 9.18) at section (Article 9.20)
Me~~nc = noncomposite dead load moment at the sec- = nominal shear strength provided by shear re-
tion (Article 9.18) inforcement (Article9.20)
Mma:\ = maximum factored moment at section due to =factored shear force at section (Article 9.20)
externally applied loads (Article 9.20) = distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in
Mu = factored moment at section ~ <f>Mn (Articles tension (Article 9.20)
9.17 and 9.18} fJ = friction curvature coefficient (Article 9.16)
p = Aibdt ratio of non-prestressed tension rein- a = total angular change of prestressing steel pro-
forcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19} file in radians from jacking end to point x (Ar-
p* = Atlbd, ratio of prestressing steel (Articles ticle 9.16)
9.17 and 9.19) ~. = factor for concrete strength, as defined in Ar-
p' = A~/bd,' ratio of compression reinforcement ticle 8.16.2.7 (Articles 9.17, 9.18 and 9.19)
(Article 9.19) -y* =factor for type of prestressing steel (Article
Pu = factored tendon force 9.17)
Q = statical moment of cross-sectional area, above = 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
or below the level being investigated for shear, = 0.40 for stress-relieved steel
about the centroid (Article 9.20) = 0.55 for bars
9.1.3 Definitions Elastic Shortening of Concrete-Shortening of

member caused by application of forces induced by pre-
The following terms are defined for general stressing.
use. Specialized definitions appear in individual articles. End Anchorage-Length of reinforcement, or me-
chanical anchor, or hook, or combination thereof, beyond
Anchorage Device-The hardware assembly used for point of zero stress in reinforcement.
transferring a post-tensioning force from the tendon End Block-Enlarged end section of member designed
wires, strands or bars to the concrete. to reduce anchorage stresses.
Anchorage Seating-Deformation of anchorage Friction (post-tensioning)---8urface resistance be-
or seating of tendons in anchorage device when pre- tween tendon and duct in contact during stressing.
stressing force is transferred from jack to anchorage General Zone-Region within which the concentrated
device. prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress dis-
Anchorage Spacing-Center-to-center spacing of an- tribution over the cross section of the member (Saint
chorage devices. Venant Region) (Article 9.21.2.1)
Anchorage Zone-The portion of the structure in Grout Opening or Vent-Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in
which the concentrated prestressing force is transferred post-tensioning duct for grout, water, or air ,
from the anchorage device into the concrete (Local Zone), Intermediate Anchorage-Anchorage not located at
and then distributed more widely into the structure (Gen- the end surface of a member or segment; usually in the
eral Zone) (Article 9.21.1). form of embedded anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess
Basic Anchorage Device-Anchorage device pockets
meeting the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate Jacking Force-Temporary force exerted by device
stiffness requirements of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through that introduces tension into prestressing tendons.
9.21.7.2.4; no acceptance test is required for Basic Local Zone-The volume of concrete surrounding and
Anchorage Devices. immediately ahead of the anchorage device, subjected to
Bonded Tendon-Prestressing tendon that is bonded to high local bearing stresses (Article 9.21.2.2)
concrete either directly or through grouting. Loss of Prestress-Reduction in prestressing force
Coating-Material used to protect prestressing ten- resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete
dons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and steel, including effects of elastic shortening, creep
and duct, or to debond prestressing tendons. and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, and
Couplers (Couplings)-Means by which prestressing for post-tensioned members, friction and anchorage
force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing seating.
tendon to another. Post-Tensioning-Method of prestressing in which
Creep of Concrete-Time-dependent deformation of tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
concrete under sustained load. Precompressed Zone-Portion of flexural member
Curvature Friction-Friction resulting from bends cross section compressed by prestressing force.
or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile. Prestressed Concrete-Reinforced concrete in
Debonding (blanketing)-Wrapping, sheathing, or which internal stresses have been introduced to· reduce
coating prestressing strand to prevent bond between potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting from
strand and surrounding concrete. loads.
Diaphragm-Transverse stiffener in girders to main- Pretensioning-Method of prestressing in which ten-
tain section geometry. dons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
Duct-Hole or void formed in prestressed member to Relaxation of Tendon Stress-Time-dependent reduc-
accommodate tendon for post-tensioning. tion of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
Edge Distance-Distance from the center of the Shear Lag-Nonuniform distribution of bending stress
anchorage device to the edge of the concrete over the cross section.
member. Shrinkage of Concrete-Tune-dependent deformation
Effective Prestress-Stress remaining in concrete due of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hy-
to prestressing after all calculated losses have been de- dration process).
ducted, excluding effects of superimposed loads and Special Anchorage Device-Anchorage device
weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing ten- whose adequacy must be proven experimentally in the
dons after all losses have occurred excluding effects of standardized acceptance tests of Division II, Article
dead load and superimposed load. 10.3.2.3.
Te1zdon-Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such ele- 9.3 REINFORCEMENT

ments, used to impart prestress to concrete.
Transfer-Act of transferring stress in prestressing 9.3.1 Prestressing Steel
tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member. Wrre, strands, or bars shall conform to one of the fol-
Transfer Length-Length over which prestressing lowing specifications.
force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned
members. "Uncoated Stress-Relieved Wrre for Prestressed Con-
Wobble Friction-Friction caused by unintended devi- crete," AASHTO M 204.
ation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified pro- "Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for Pre-
file or alignment. stressed Concrete," AASHTO M 203.
Wrapping or Sheathing-Enclosure around a pre- "Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing
stressing tendon to avoid temporary or permanent Concrete," ASTM A 722.
bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding
concrete. Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listed in AASHTO
M 204, AASHTO M 203, or ASTM A 722 may be used
9.2 CONCRETE provided they conform to the minimum requirements of
these specifications.
The specified compressive strength, f~. of the concrete
for each part of the structure shall be shown on the plans. 9.3.2 Non·Prestressed Reinforcement
The requirements for f~ shall be based on tests of cy1in-
ders made and tested in accordance with Division n. Sec- Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conform to the re-
tion 8, "Concrete Structures." quirements in Article 8.3.
PartB
ANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL 9.6 SPAN LENGTH
Members shall be proportioned for adequate strength The effective span lengths of simply supported beams
using these specifications as minimum guidelines. Con- shall not exceed the clear span plus the depth of the beam.
tinuous beams and other statically indeterminate struc- The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and
tures shall be designed for adequate strength and satisfac- beams shall be the clear distance between faces of sup-
tory behavior. Behavior shall be determined by elastic port. Where fillets making an angle of 45° or more with
analysis, taking into account the reactions, moments, the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are built mono-
shear, and axial forces produced by prestressing, the ef- lithic with the slab and support, the span shall be mea-
fects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axial deformation, sured from the section where the combined depth of the
restraint of attached structural elements, and foundation slab and the fillet is at least one and one-half times the
settlement. thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments are to
be considered as existing at the ends of the span, as above
defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered as
9.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION adding to the effective depth.
9.5.1 In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the 9.7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS
design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall CONSTRUCTION
be provided for movement caused by temperature
changes. 9.7.1 Cast-in·Piace Post-Tensioned Bridges
9.5.2 Movements not otherwise provided for, including The effect of secondary moments due to prestressing
shortening during stressing, shall be provided for by shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In
means of hinged columns, rockers, sliding plates, elas- calculating ultimate strength moment and shear require-
tomeric pads, or other devices. ments, the secondary moments or shears induced by pre-
stressing (with a load factor of 1.0) shall be added alge- segment weights and erection loads shall be accommo-
braically to the moments and shears due to factored or ul- dated in pier design or with auxiliary struts. Erection
timate dead and live loads. equipment which can eliminate these unbalanced mo-
ments may be used.
9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast
Prestressed Girders Made Continuous 9.7.3.2 Flexure
9.7.2.1 General
The transverse design of segmental box girders for
When structural continuity is assumed in calculating flexure shall consider the segments as rigid box frames.
live loads plus impact and composite dead load moments, Top slabs shaH be analyzed as variable depth sections con-
the effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered in sidering the fillets between top slab and webs. Wheel
the design of bridges incorporating simple span precast, loads shall be positioned to provide maximum moments,
prestressed girders and deck slabs continuous over two or and elastic analysis shan be used to determine the effec-
more spans. tive longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for each load
location. (See Article 3.11.) Transverse prestressing of top
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers slabs is generally recommended.
9.7.2.2.1 Provision shall be made in the design for 9.7.3.3 Torsion

the positive moments that may develop in the negative
moment region due to the combined effects of creep and In the design of the cross section, consideration shall
shrinkage in the girders and deck slab, and due to the ef- be given to the increase in web shear resulting from ec-
fects of live load plus impact in remote spans. Shrinkage centric loading or geometry of structure.
and elastic shortening of the pier shall be considered when
significant.
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH
9. 7.2.2.2 Non-prestressed positive moment con-
nection reinforcement at piers may be designed at a work-
9.8.1 T-Beams
ing stress of 0.6 times the yield strength but not to exceed
36 ksi. 9.8.1.1 For composite prestressed construction
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with
the beam, the effective flange width shall conform to the
9.7.2.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement shall be provisions forT-girder flanges in Article 8.1 0.1.
proportioned by strength design with load factors in ac-
cordance with Article 9.14. 9.8.1.2 For monolithic prestressed construction, with
normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective flange
9.7.2.3.2 The ultimate negative resisting moment width shall be the distance center-to-center of beams. For
shall be calculated using the compressive strength of the very short spans, or where girder spacing is excessive, an-
girder concrete regardless of the strength of the diaphragm alytical investigations shall be made to determine the an-
concrete. ticipated width of flange acting with the beam.
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders 9.8.1.3 For monolithic prestressed design of isolated
beams, the flange width shall not exceed 15 times the web
9.7.3.1 General
width and shan be adequate for all design loads.
9.7.3.1.1 Elastic analysis and beam theory may be
used in the design of segmental box girder structures. 9.8.2 Box Girders
9.7.3.1.2 In the analysis of precast segmental box 9.8.2.1 For cast-in-place box girders with normal
girder bridges, no tension shall be permitted across any slab span and girder spacing, where the slabs are consid-
joint between segments during any stage of erection or ered an integral part of the girder, the entire slab~ width
service loading. shall be assumed to be effective in compression.
9.7.3.1.3 In addition to the usual substructure design 9.8.2.2 For box girders of unusual proportions, in-
considerations, unbalanced cantilever moments due to cluding segmental box girders, methods of analysis which
consider shear lag shall be used to determine stresses in 9.10 DIAPHRAGMS

the cross section due to longitudinal bending.
9.10.1 General
9.8.2.3 Adequate fillets shall be provided at the in-
tersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder, Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with Ar-
except at the junction of web and bottom flange where ticles 9.10.2 and 9.10.3 except that diaphragms may be
none are required. omitted where tests or structural analysis show adequate
strength.
9.8.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with
Wide Top Flanges 9.10.2 T-Beams
9.8.3.1 For composite prestressed concrete where Diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends
slabs or flanges are a~sumed to act integrally with the pre- to strengthen the free edge of the slab and to transmit lat-
cast beam, the effective web width of the precast beam eral forces to the substructure. Intermediate diaphragms
shall be the lesser of ( 1) six times the maximum thickness shall be placed between the beams at the points of maxi-
of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web mum moment for spans over 40 feet.
plus the web and fillets, and (2) the total width of the top
flange. 9.10.3 Box Girders
9.8.3.2 The effective flange width of the com- 9.10.3.1 For spread box beams, diaphragms shall
posite section shall be the lesser of ( I) one-fourth of be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends
the span length of the girder, (2) six (6) times the and at the points of maximum moment for spans over
thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web 80 feet.
width as determined by Article 9.8.3.1 plus the effec-
tive web width, and (3} one-half the clear distance on 9.10.3.2 For precast box multi-beam bridges, di-
each side of the effective web width plus the effective web aphragms are required only if necessary for slab-end
width. support or to contain or resist transverse tension ties.
9.10.3.3 For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or

9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX
other means shall be used at span ends to resist lateral
GIRDERS
forces and maintain section geometry. Intermediate di-
aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius
9.9.1 Top Flange
of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
The minimum top flange thickness shall be Y10th of the
9.10.3.4 For segmental box girders, diaphragms shall
clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 6
be placed within the box at span ends. Intermediate di-
inches, except the minimum thickness may be reduced for
aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius
factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to
of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
SY2 inches.
9.10.3.5 For all types of prestressed boxes in bridges
9.9.2 Bottom Flange with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet, inter-
mediate diaphragms may be required and the spacing and
The minimum bottom flange thickness shall be Y30th of strength of diaphragms shall be given special considera-
the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than tion in the design of the structure.
SY2 inches, except the minimum thickness may be reduced
for factory produced precaCit. pretensioned elements to
5 inches. 9.11 DEFLECTIONS
9.9.3 Web 9.11.1 General
Changes in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for Deflection calculations shall consider dead load, live
a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web load, prestressing, erection loads, concrete creep and
thickness. shrinkage, and steel relaxation.
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders 9.12 DECK PANELS
Deflections shall be calculated prior to casting of seg- 9.12.1 General

ments and they shall be based on the anticipated casting
and erection schedules. Calculated deflections shall be 9.12.1.1 Precast prestressed deck panels used as per-
used as a guide against which actual deflection measure- manent forms spanning between stringers may be de-
ments are checked. signed compositely with the cast-in-place portion of the
slabs to support additional dead loads and live loads.
9.11.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations
9.12.1.2 The panels shall be analyzed assuming they
When making deflection computations, the following support their self-weight, any construction loads, and the
criteria are recommended. weight of the cast-in-place concrete, and shall be analyzed
assuming they act compositely with the cast-in-place con-
9.11.3.1 Members having simple or continuous crete to support moments due to additional dead loads and
spans preferably should be designed so that the deflection live loads.
due to service live load plus impact shall not exceed Ysoo
of the span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part 9.12.2 Bending Moment
by pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not
exceed YuXJO. 9.12.2.1 Live load moments shall be computed in ac-
cordance with Article 3.24.3.
9.11.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to ser-
vice live load plus impact preferably should be limited to 9.12.2.2 In calculating stresses in the deck panel due
Y100 of the cantilever arm except for the case including to negative moment near the stringer, no compression due
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be Y.n~. to prestressing shall be assumed to exist.
Parte
DESIGN
9.13 GENERAL 9.13.2.2 Before cracking, stress is linearly propor-

tional to strain.
9.13.1 Design Theory and General Considerations
9.13.2.3 After cracking, tension in the concrete is ne-
9.13.1.1 Members shall meet the strength require- glected.
ments specified herein.
9.13.1.2 Design shall be based on strength (Load 9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members
Factor Design) and on behavior at service conditions (Al-
lowable Stress Design) at all load stages that may be crit- Composite flexural members consisting of precast
ical during the life of the structure from the time pre- and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed ,in sep-
stressing is first applied. amte placements but so interconnected that all elements
respond to superimposed loads ac; a unit shall confonn to
9.13.1.3 Stress concentrations due to the prestressing the provisions of Articles 8.14.2. 1 through 8.14.2.4,
shall be considered in the design. Article 8.14.2.6, and the fo11owing.
9.13.1.4 The effects of temperature and shrinkage

shall be considered. 9.13.3.1 Where an entire member is assumed tore-
sist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance
9.13.2 Basic Assumptions with the requirements of Articles 9.20.1 through 9.20.3.
The following assumptions are made for design pur- 9.13.3.2 The design shall provide for full transfer
poses for monolithic members. of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of inter-
connected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall
9.13.2.1 Strains vary linearly over the depth of the be in accordance with the requirements of Article
member throughout the entire load range. 9.20.4.
9.13.3.3 In structures with a cast-in-place slab on At the end of the seating loss zone ...... 0.83 fl
precast beams, the differential shrinkage tends to cause Tensioning to 0.90 f1' for short periods of
tensile stresses in the slab and in the bottom of the beams. time prior to seating may be permitted to
Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended offset seating and friction losses provided
time period, the effect on the beams is reduced by creep. the stress at the anchorage does not exceed
Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load the above value.
and the beam deflection profile. When these factors are · Stress at service loadt after losses ......... 0.80 fl
particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage
should be added to the effect of loads.
9.15.2 Concrete
9.14 LOAD FACTORS 9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due

to Creep and Shrinkage
The computed strength capacity shall not be less than
the largest value from load factor design in Article 3.22. Compression:
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones a load Pretensioned members ................ 0.60 f~i
factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon jack- Post-tensioned members ............... 0.55 f;i
ing force. Tension:
The following strength capacity reduction factors shall Precompressed tensile zone ....... No temporary
be used: aiJowable stresses are specified. See Article
9.15.2.2 for allowable stresses after losses.
For factory produced precast prestressed concrete Other Areas
members <1> = 1.0 In tension areas with
For post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete members <t> no bonded reinforcement ....... 200 psi or 3~
= 0.95 Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds
For shear <t> = 0. 90 this value, bonded reinforcement shall be
For anchorage zones <t> = 0.85 for normal weight con- provided to resist the total tension force in
crete and <1> = 0. 70 for lightweight concrete. the concrete computed on the assumption
of an uncracked section. The maximum
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES tensile stress shall not exceed ......... 7.5~
The design of precast prestressed members ordinarily 9.15.2.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses
shall be based on f~ = 5,000 psi. An increase to 6,000 psi Have Occurred
is permissible where, in the Engineer's judgment,
it is reasonable. to expect that this strength will be ob- Compression:
tained consistently. Still higher concrete strengths may be (a) The compressive stresses under all load combina-
considered on an individual area basis. In such cases, tions, except as stated in (b) and (c), shall not exceed
the Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the 0.60f~.
controls over materials and fabrication procedures will (b) The compressive stresses due to effective prestress
provide the required strengths. The provisions of this plus permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40f:.
Section are equally applicable to prestressed concrete (c) The compressive stress due to live loads plus one-
structures and components designed with lower concrete half of the sum of compressive stresses due to prestress
strengths. and permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40fc.
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
9.15.1 Prestressing Steel (a) For members with bonded reinforce-
ment* ............................... 6~
Pretensioned members: For severe corrosive exposure conditions,
Stress immediately prior to transfer- such as coastal areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3~
Low-relaxation strands ................ 0.75 f~
Stress-relieved strands ................ 0. 70 fs
Post-tensioned members:
*Includes bonded prestressed strands.
Stress immediately after seating- tService load consists of all loads contained in Article 3.2 but does not
At anchorage ........................ 0.70 f! include overload provisions.
(b) For members without bonded reinforce- tions. Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to main-
ment ......................................0 tain their correct alignment without visible wobble during
Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary placement of concrete. Rigid ducts may be fabricated with
stresses specified in Article 9.15 .2.1. either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the
welded seam will not be required.
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress*
9.16.2 Prestress Losses
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available.
For normal weight concrete .............. 7 .5~ 9.16.2.1 General
For sand-lightweight concrete ............. 6.3~
For aiJ other lightweight concrete .......... 5.5~ Loss of prestress due to all causes, excluding friction,
may be determined by the following method.** The
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress
method is based on normal weight concrete and one of the
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load ... 3,000 psi following types of prestressing steel: 250 or 270 ksi,
(but not to exceed 0.9 f:i) seven-wire, stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 240
ksi stress-relieved wires~ or 145 to 160 ksi smooth or de-
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS formed bars. Refer to documented tests for data regarding
the properties and the effects of lightweight aggregate
9.16.1 Friction Losses concrete on prestress losses.
Friction losses in post-tensioned steel shall be based on TOTAL LOSS

experimentally determined wobble and curvature coeffi-
cients, and shall be verified during stressing operations.
Afs = SH + ES + CR: + CRs (9-3)
The values of coefficients assumed for design, and the ac-
ceptable ranges of jacking forces and steel elongations
where:
shall be shown on the plans. These friction losses shall be
calculated as follows: A(., = total loss excluding friction in pounds per
square inch;
(9-1)
SH = loss due to concrete shrinkage in pounds per
square inch;
When (KL + J.l<X) is not greater than 0.3, the following
equation may be used: ES = loss due to elastic shortening in pounds per
square inch;
(9-2)
CR: =loss due to creep of concrete in pounds per
The following values for K and J.l may be used when square inch;
experimental data for the materials used are not available: c~ = loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel in
pounds per square inch.
Type of Steel Type of Duct K/ft jJ.
9.16.2./.1 Shrinkage
Wire or strand Rigid and semi-rigid
galvanized metal 0.0002 0.15-0.25a Pretensioned Members:
sheathing
Polyethylene 0.0002 0.23
Rigid steel pipe 0.0002 0.25" SH = 17,000 - 150 RH (9-4)
High Strength
bars Galvanized metal sheathing 0.0002 0.15
Post-tensioned Members:
•A friction coefficient of 0.25 is appropriate for 12 strand tendons. A
lower coefficient may be used for larger tendon and duct sizes. SH = 0.80 (17,000- 150 RH) (9-5)
~>Lubrication will probably be required.
**Should more exact prestress losses be desired, data representing the

Friction losses occur prior to anchoring but should be materials to be used, the methods of curing, the ambient service condi-
tion and any pertinent structural details should be determined for use in
estimated for design and checked during stressing opera- accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses that is sup-
ported by appropriate research data. See also FHWA Report FHWAIRD
*Refer to Article 9.18. 85/045, Criteria for Designing Lightweight Concrete Bridges.
where RH = mean annual ambient relative humidity in 9.16.2.1.3 Creep of Concrete

percent. (See Figure 9.16.2.1.1.) Pretensioned and post-tensioned members
9.16.2.1.2 Elastic Shortening
(9-9)
Pretensioned Members
where
fcds = concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
(9-6) prestressing steel due to all dead loads except
the dead load present at the time the pre-
stressing force is applied.
Post-tensioned Members*
9. 16.2. 1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel**
(9-7) Pretensioned Members
250 to 270 ksi Strand

where CRs = 20,000 - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc)
for stress relieved strand (9-1 0)
Es = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel
strand, which can be assumed to be 28 X 1()6
CRs = 5,000 - 0.10 ES - 0.05 (SH + CRc)
psi;
for low relaxation strand (9-1 OA)
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete in psi at
transfer of stress, which can be calculated
Post-tensioned Members
from:
250 to 270 ksi Strand
E.Cl =33w 312 V~
1
ci (9-8) CR, = 20,000 - 0.3 FR - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc)
for stress relieved strand (9-11)
in which w is the concrete unit weight in
pounds per cubic foot and f:i is in pounds per CR. = 5,000 - 0.07 FR - 0.1 ES - 0.05 (SH + CRc)
square inch; for low relaxation strand (9-11 A)
fcir = concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
prestressing steel due to prestressing force and 240 ksi Wire
dead load of beam immediately after transfer; CR. = 18,000 - 0.3 FR - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc)
fcir shall be computed at the section or sections (9-12)
of maximum moment. (At this stage, the ini-
tial stress in the tendon has been reduced by 145- to 160-ksi Bars
elastic shortening of the concrete and tendon CRs = 3,000
relaxation during placing and curing the con-
crete for pretensioned members, or by elastic where
shortening of the concrete and tendon friction FR = friction loss stress reduction in psi below
for post-tensioned members. The reductions the level of 0.70 f~ at the point under
to initial tendon stress due to these factors can consideration, computed according to
be estimated, or the reduced tendon stress can Article 9.16.1,
be taken as 0.63 f~ for stress relieved strand or ES, SH, = appropriate values as determined for
0.69 f: for low relaxation strand in typical pre- and CRc either pretensioned or post-tensioned
tensioned members.) members.
**The relaxation losses are based on an initial stress equal to the stress
*Certain tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening losses. at anchorages allowed by Article 9.15.1.
0
MEAN ANNUAL RELATIVf HUMIDITY(")
"
"
0
--<
0
"
-
CZI
0
0
0
c: -I
z
0
" rn
•
sa ~
....
... -z
0
';I
Based on 1:30 a.m. & p.m.

and 7:30a.m. & p.m., e.s.t.
observations for 20 years
811'"'\. or more through 1964.
Holo\.? G " I I o I
HAWAII
ALASKA
FIGURE 9.16.2.1.1 Mean Annual Relative Humidity

9.16.2.2 Estimated Losses satisfy Equation (9-24), the design flexural strength shall
be assumed as:
In lieu of the preceding method, the following ·
estimates of total losses may be used for prestressed 4>M = "'{A* f* d[l- 0.6 ( p •fs: + ~ pfsy )]
members or structures of usual design. These loss values n 'I' s su f' d f'
c c
are based on use of normal weight concrete, normal
prestress levels, and average exposure conditions. For +A f d [1-0.6(.! p*fS: + pfsy )]}
s sy t d f' f'
exceptionally long spans, or for unusual designs, the t c c
method in Article 9.16.2.1 or a more exact method shall (9-13a)
be used.
9.17.3 Flanged Sections
TABLE 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses
Total Loss For sections having prestressing steel only, in which
'l)'peof
Prestressing Steel f~ = 4,000 psi f~ = 5,000 psi
the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (Asrf1u)/(0.85f~b') is greater than the
Pretensioning Strand 45,000psi compression flange thickness "t," and which satisfy
Post-'Thnsioning8 Equation (9-21), the design flexural strength shall be as-
Wire or Strand 32,000psi 33,000 psi
Bars 22,000psi 23,000 psi sumed as:
DLosses due to friction are excluded. Friction losses should be com-

puted according to Article 9.16.1.
9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
9.17.1 General + o.85 r:<b-b'J(t)(d-0.5t)} (9 -14)
Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act

as uncracked members subjected to combined axial and For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforce-
bending stresses within specified service loads. In calcu- ment included, in which the depth of the equivalent rec-
lations of section properties, the transformed area of tangular stress block, defined as (Avf~u)/(0.85 f~b') is
bonded reinforcement may be included in pretensioned greater than the compression flange thickness "t," and
members and in post-tensioned members after grouting; which satisfy Equation (9-25), the design flexural strength
prior to bonding of tendons, areas of the open ducts shall shall be assumed as:
be deducted.
9.17.2 Rectangular Sections
For rectangular or flanged sections having prestressing

steel only, which the depth of the equivalent rectangular
stress block, defined as (A~ f1u)/(0.85 f:b), is not greater + o.85 r: (b- b')(t)(d -0.5tl} (9-14a)
than the compression flange thickness "t", and which sat-
isfy Equation (9-20), the design flexural strength shall be
assumed as: where:
't' n = "'[A*f*d(l-0
"'M 't' s su ·6 f' p*fs~)] (9-13)
Au= A~- A,r in Equation (9-14); (9-15)
c Ar.r =A~+ (Asfs/f'tu)- Asr,
in Equation (9-14a) (9-15a)
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-
prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which
Asr = 0.85 f: (b- b'}t/f~u; (9-16)
the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, A,r = the steel area required .to develop the ultimate
defined as (At ftu + Asf\y)/(0.85 f~b), is not greater compressive strength of the overhanging por-
than the compression flange thickness "t," and which tions of the flange.
9.17.4 Steel Stress 9.18 DUCTILITY LIMITS

~
~ ...II 9.17.4.1 Unless the value of f't=u can be more accu- 9.18.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel
rately known from detailed analysis, the following values
maybe used: Prestressed concrete members shall be designed so that
the steel is yielding as ultimate capacity is approached. In
Bonded Members ... general, the reinforcement index shall be such that
with prestressing only (as defined);
(p*f'ru)lf: for rectangular sections (9-20)
(9 -17)
and
with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included;
Asrt"tul(b' df:l for flanged sections (9-21)
f*
su
=f'{t-~[p*f;
A f'
+~(Pfsy)]}
d f'
(9-17a)
5
1-11 c c does not exceed 0.3613 1• (See Article 9.19 for rein-
forcement indices of sections with non-prestressed
reinforcement.).
Unbonded members ... ft = fse + 900((d- Yu)lle) (9-18) For members with reinforcement indices greater than
0.3613tt the design flexural strength shall be assumed not
but shall not exceed ~· greater than:
Where For rectangular sections

Yu = distance from extreme compression fiber to
the neutral axis assuming the tendon pre- Mn = [(0.36 13 1 - 0.08 131) f:bd 2] (9-22)
stressing steel has yielded.
lc = 1/(l + 0.5N5); effective tendon length. For flanged sections
Ii =tendon length between anchorages (inch).
Ns = number of support hinges crossed by the ten- Mn = <J>[(0.3613t - 0.08 131> f:b'd 2 +
don between anchorages or discretely bonded r:
o.85 (b - b'> t (d - o.st>l (9-23)
points.
provided that 9.18.2 Minimum Steel
( 1) The stress-strain properties of the prestressing 9.18.2.1 The total amount of prestressed and non-
steel approximate those specified in Division II. Arti- prestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop an
cle 10.3.1.1. ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times
(2) The effective prestress after losses is not less than the cracking moment M~
0.5 f~.
9.17.4.2 At ultimate load, the stress in the pre-

stressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to where
t 2
f*
su D + -3 f5e
= _.!., (9 -19)
Appropriate values for Mdlnc and Sb shall be used for any

but shall not be greater than ftu as given by the equations intermediate composite sections. Where beams are de-
in Article 9.17 .4.1. In the above equation: signed to be noncomposite. substitute Sb for Sc in the
D = nominal diameter of strand in inches; above equation for the calculation of M~.
(o;e = effective stress in prestressing strand after losses
in kips per square inch; 9.18.2.2 The requirements of Article 9.18.2.1 may be
f x = distance from end of prestressing strand to center waived if the area of prestressed and non-prestressed re-
of panel in inches. inforcement provided at a section is at least one-third
greater than that required by analysis based on the load- wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis
ing combinations specified in Article 3.22. of the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to a
distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall
9.18.2.3 The requirements of Article 9 .18.2.1 may be be carried as close to the compression and tension sur-
waived if the area of prestressed and non-prestressed re- faces of the member as cover requirements and the
inforcement provided at a section is at least one-third proximity of other reinforcement permit. Web rein-
greater than that required by analysis based on the load- forcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design
ing combinations specified in Article 3.22. yield strength in accordance with the provisions of
Article 8.27.
9.18.2.4 The minimum amount of non-prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-in-place 9.20.1.3 Members subject to shear shall be designed
portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed deck panels so that
shall be 0.25 square inch per foot of slab width.
(9-26)
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT where Vu is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered, V c is the nominal shear strength provided by con-
Non-prestressed reinforcement may be considered as crete and V~~is the nominal shear strength provided by web
contributing to the tensile strength of the beam at ultimate reinforcement.
strength in an amount equal to its area times its yield
point, provided that 9.20.1.4 When the reaction to the applied loads in-
troduces compression into the end regions of the member,
For rectangular sections sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the face
of the support may be designed for the same shear V u as
( r: )~+(p
pfsy
d
*f~t )-( p'f;) ~ 0.36R
f: f: 1-'t
(9- 24) that computed at a distance h/2.
9.20.1.5 Reinforced keys shall be provided in the

For flanged sections webs of precast segmental box girders to transfer erection
shear. Possible reverse shearing stresses in the shear keys
(A!Ifsy)/(b'df:l + (Av f~u)/(b'df:) shall be investigated, particularly in segments near a pier.
- (A~f;)/(b'df:) ~ 0.3613t (9-25) At time of erection, the shear stress carried by the shear
key shall not exceed 2 ~-
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on
Equation (9-13a) or Equation (9-14a) if these values are 9.20.2 Shear-Strength Provided by Concrete
met, and on Equation (9-22) or Equation (9-23) if these
values are exceeded. 9.20.2.1 The shear strength provided by concrete, Vc•
shall be taken as the lesser of the values V ci or Vcw·
9.20 SHEAR* 9.20.2.2 The shear strength, Vch shall be computed

by
9.20.1 General
(9- 27)
9.20.1.1 Prestressed concrete flexural members, ex-
cept solid slabs and footings, shall be reinforced for shear
and diagonal tension stresses. Voided slabs shall be inves- but need not be less than 1. 7VIT b' d and d need not be
tigated for shear, but shear reinforcement may be omitted taken less than 0.8h.
if the factored shear force, v u• is less than half the shear The moment causing flexural cracking at the section
strength provided by the concrete <1> Vc· due to externally applied loads, Me,. shall be computed by:
9.20.1.2 Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups

perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded (9- 28)
*The method for design of web reinforcement presented in the 1979

Interim AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges is an The maximum factored moment and factored shear at
acceptable alternate.
the section due to externally applied loads. Mltlall and Vi.
shall be computed from the load combination causing 9.20.3.3 The minimum area of web reinforcement
maximum moment at the section. shall be
9.20.2.3 The shear strength, Yew• shaH be computed (9- 31)

by
(9- 29) where b' and s are in inches and f\Y is in psi.
but d need not be taken less than 0.8h.

9.20.3.4 The design yield strength of web reinforce-
ment, fsy• shall not exceed 60,000 psi.
9.20.2.4 For a pretensioned member in which
9.20.4 Horizontal Shear Design-Composite
the section at a distance h/2 from the face of support
Flexural Members
is closer to the end of the member than the transfer length
of the prestressing tendons, the reduced prestress shall
9.20.4.1 In a composite member, full transfer of hor-
be considered when computing V cw· The prestress
izontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of
force may be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the
interconnected element~.
end of the tendon to a maximum at a distance from
the end of the tendon equal to the trunsfer length, as-
9.20.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to horizon-
sumed to be 50 diameters for strand and I 00 diameters
tal shear may be in accordance with provisions of ArticJe
for single wire. 9.20.4.3 or 9.20.4.4, or any other shear transfer design
method that results in prediction of strength in substantial
9.20.2.5 The provtstons for computing the shear agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
strength provided by concrete, Vci and Yew• apply to nor-
mal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate con- 9.20.4.3 Design of cross sections subject to horizon-
cretes are used (see definition, concrete, structural light- tal shear may be bac;ed on:
weight, Article 8.1.3), one of the following modifications
shall apply: (9-31 a)
(a) When fc1 is specified, the shear strength, Vci and where Vu is factored shear force at section considered, Vnh
v CWt Shall be modified by SUbStituting fc/6. 7 forvn, is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with
but the value of fc/6. 7 used shall not exceed v'f[. the following, and where d is for the entire composite sec-
(b) When fct is not specified, V ci and Vcw shall be mod- tion.
ified by multiplying each term containing v'f[ by 0.75
for "all lightweight" concrete, and 0.85 for "sand-light- (a) When contact surface is clean, free oflaitance, and
weight" concrete. Linear interpolation may be used intentionally roughened, shear strength V nh shall not be
when partial sand replacement is used. taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds.
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean and
Reinforcement free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened~ shear
strength v nh shall not be taken greater than 80bvd, in
9.20.3.1
I
The shear strength provided by web rein- pounds.

forcement shall be taken as: (c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free
(9- 30) of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full am-
plitude of approximately Y4 inch, shear strength V nh
shall not be taken greater than 350bvd, in pounds.
where Avis the area of web reinforcement within a dis- (d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the
tances. Ys shall not be taken greater than 8 ~ b' d and contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
d need not be taken less than 0.8h. Article 9.20.4.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased
by ( 160fyf40,000)bvd, in pounds.
9.20.3.2 The spacing of web reinforcing shaH not ex-
ceed 0.75h or 24 inches. When V" exceeds 4 ~ b' d, this 9.20.4.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by
maximum spacing shall be reduced by one-half. computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be 9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The 9.21.2.1 General Zone
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon-
tal shear strength <f>Vnh in accordance with Article 9.21 .2. 1.1 The geometric extent of the general zone
9.20.4.3, except that length of segment considered shall be is identical to that of the overall anchorage zone as defined
substituted for d. in Article 9 .21.1 and includes the local zone.
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear 9. 21 .2. 1.2 Design of general zones shall meet the re-
quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.3.
ment shall be provided between interconnected ele- 9.21.2.2 Local Zone
ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50 bvslfy. and tie
spacing "s" shall not exceed four times the least web 9.21.2.2.1 The local zone is defined as the rectangu-
width of support element, nor 24 inches. lar prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular or
(b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars oval anchorages) of concrete surrounding and immedi-
or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded ately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral con-
wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into fining reinforcement. The dimensions of the local zone are
interconnected elements by embedment or hooks. defined in Article 9.21.7.
9.21.2.2.2 Design of local zones shall meet there-

9.21 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.7 or shall be based
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone on the results of experimental tests required in Article
9.21.7.3 and described in Article I 0.3.2.3 of Division II.
9.21.1.1 The anchorage zone is geometrically de- Anchorage devices based on the acceptance test of Divi-
fined as the volume of concrete through which the con- sion II, Article I0.3.2.3, are referred to as special anchor-
centrated prestressing force at the anchorage device age devices.
spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across
the entire cross section. 9.21.2.3 Responsibilities
9.21.1.2 For anchorage zones at the end of a member 9.21.2.3.1 The engineer of record is responsible for
or segment, the transverse dimensions may be taken as the the overall design and approval of working drawings for
depth and width of the section. The longitudinal extent of the general zone, including the specific location of the ten-
the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead dons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement,
of the anchorage) shall be taken as not less than the larger and the specific stressing sequence. The engineer of
transverse dimension but not more than 1Y2 times that record is also responsible for the design of local zones
dimension. based on Article 9.21.7.2 and for the approval of special
anchorage devices used under the provisions of Article
9.21.1.3 For intermediate anchorages in addition to
9.21.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be
the length of Article 9 .21.1.2 the anchorage zone shall be
approved by the engineer of record.
considered to also extend in the opposite direction for a
distance not less than the larger transverse dimension.
9.21.2.3.2 Anchorage device suppliers are responsi-
9.21.1.4 For multiple slab anchorages, both width ble for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the an-
and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal chor efficiency requirements of Division II, Article I 0.3.2.
to the center-to-center spacing between stressed tendons, In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the an-
but not more than the length of the slab in the direction of chorage device supplier is responsible for furnishing an-
the tendon axis. The thickness of the anchorage zone shall chorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test require-
be taken equal to the thickness of the slab. ments of Article 9.21.7.3 and of Division II, Article
10.3.2.3. This acceptance test and the anchor efficiency
9.21.1.5 For design purposes, the anchorage zone test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency
shall be considered as comprised of two regions; the gen- acceptable to the engineer of record. The anchorage de-
eral zone as defined in Article 9.21.2.1 and the local zone vice supplier shall provide records of the acceptance test
as defined in Article 9.21.2.2. in conformance with Division II, Article I 0.3.2.3.12 to the
engineer of record and to the constructor and shall spec- methods identical with the curing of the member, is at
ify auxiliary and confining reinforcement, minimum edge least 4,000 psi.
distance, minimum anchor spacing, and minimum
concrete strength at time of stressing required for proper 9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices
performance of the local zone.
Whenever special anchorage devices which do not
9.21.2.3.3 The responsibilities of the constructor are meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 are to be used,
specified in Division II, Article I 0.4. reinforcement similar in configuration and at least equiv-
alent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skin rein-
9.21.3 Design of the General Zone forcement permitted under the provisions of Division II,
Article I 0.3.2.3.4 shall be furnished in the corresponding
9.21.3.1 Design Methods regions of the anchorage zone.
The following methods may be used for the design of 9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing
general zones: Requirements
(1) Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie Good detailing and quality workmanship are essential
models) (see Article 9.21.4) for the satisfactory performance of anchorage zones.
(2) Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or Sizes and details for anchorage zones should respect the
equivalent) (see Article 9.21.5) need for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and place-
(3) Approximate methods for determining the com- ment of reinforcement, the size of aggregate and the need
pression and tension forces, where applicable. (See for placement and sound consolidation of the concrete.
Article 9.21.6.)
9.21.3.4.1 Compressive stresses in the concrete
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the require-
conform to the requirements of Article 9.21.3.4. ments of Article 9.21.7.2.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimen- I
sional effects shall be considered in the design. When 9.2/.3.4.2 Compressive stresses in the concrete
these three dimensional effect~ appear significant, they ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a
may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis proce- distance measured from the concrete-bearing surface
dures or may be approximated by considering two or more equal to the smaller of:
planes. However, in these approximations the interaction
of the planes' models must be considered, and the model ( I) The depth to the end of the local confinement re-
loadings and results must be consistent. inforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage de-
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths vice.
9.21.3.2.1 The nominal tensile strength of bonded re- These compressive stresses may be determined according
inforcement is limited to fsy for non-prestressed reinforce- to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4,
ment and to fy for prestressed reinforcement. The nominal from an elastic stress analysis according to Article
tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is 9.21.5.2, or by the approximate method outlined in Arti-
limited to (c.e + 15,000 psi. cle 9.21.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed
0.7r:r
9.21.3.2.2 The effective nominal compressive
strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of 9.21 .3.4.3 Compressive stresses shall also be
confined concrete, is limited to 0.7 fc'. The tensile strength checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within
of the concrete shall be neglected. or ahead of the anchorage zone may cause stress concen-
trations.
9.21.3.2.3 The compressive strength of concrete at
transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construc- 9.21.3.4.4 The bursting force is the tensile force in
tion drawings. If not otherwise specified, stress shall not the anchorage zone acting ahead of the anchorage device
be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength and transverse to the tendon axis. The magnitude of the
of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by bursting force, Tburstt and its corresponding distance from
the loaded surface, dburstt can be determined using the stressed or prestressed reinforcement located close to the
strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4, from an longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrange-
elastic stress analysis according to Article 9.21.5.3, or by ment and anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement
the approximate method outlined in Article 9.21.6.3. shall satisfy the following:
Three-dimensional effects shall be considered for the de-
termination of the bursting reinforcement requirements. (I) Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Arti-
cle 9.21.3.4.8 shall extend over the full width of the
9.21.3.4.5 Resistance to bursting forces, <f>Asf,Y member.
and/or <f>Arf:, shall be provided by non-prestressed or (2) Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchor-
prestressed reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed age devices shan effectively tie these anchorage de-
hoops, or well-anchored transverse ties. This reinforce- vices together.
ment is to be proportioned to resist the total factored burst- (3) Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and
ing force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting rein- spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices
forcement shall satisfy the following: shall be continuous. The reinforcement shall extend
along the tension face over the fuli length of the an-
(I) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the ful1 chorage zone and shall extend along the loaded face
width of the member and must be anchored as cJose to from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the ec-
the outer faces of the member as cover permits. centric anchornge device or group of anchorage devices.
(2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead
of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon 9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages
throughout a distance of 2.5 dburs• for the plane consid-
ered, but not to exceed 1.5 times the corresponding lat- 9.21.3.5.1 Intermediate anchorages shall not be used
eral dimension of the section. The centroid of the burst- in regions where significant tension is generated behind
ing reinforcement shall coincide with the distance dbur~>l the anchor from other loads. Whenever practical, blisters
used for the design. shall be located in the comer between flange and webs, or
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shaH exceed shall be extended over the fu11 flange width or web height
neither 24-bar diameters nor 12 inches. to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used
on a flange or web, local shear, bending and direct force
9.21.3.4.6 Edge tension forces are tensile forces effects shall be considered in the design.
in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to
the transverse edge and longitudinal edges of the mem-
9.2/.3.5.2 Bonded reinforcement shall be provided
ber. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the
to tie back at least 25% of the intermediate anchorage un-
anchors. The tensile force along the transverse edge is
factored stressing force into the concrete section behind
referred to as spa/ling force. The tensile force along the
the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement are lim-
longitudinal edge is referred to as longitudinal edge
tension force. ited to a maximum of 0.6f,y or 36 ksi. The amount of
tie back reinforcement may be reduced using Equation
9.21.3.4.7 Spalling forces are induced in con- (9-32), if permanent compressive stresses are generated
centrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded behind the anchor from other loads.
anchorage zones, and anchorage zones for multiple
anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced (9-32)
when the resultant of the anchorage forces considered
causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The where, Tia = the tie back tension force at the interme-
edge tension forces can be determined from an diate anchorage;
elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in Ps =the maximum unfactored anchorage
accordance with the approximate methods of Article stressing force;
9.21.6.4. feb = the compressive stress in the region be-
hind the anchor;
9.21.3.4.8 In no case shall the spalling force be Acb = the area of the continuing cross section
taken as less than 2% of the total factored tendon force. within the extensions of the sides of the
anchor plate or blister. The area of the
9.21.3.4.9 Resistance to edge tension forces, <f>Alsy blister or rib shall not be taken as part of
and/or <f>Atf-/, shall be provided in the form of non-pre- the cross section.
f1ll"\ 9.21.3.5.3 Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.7.2 Reinforcement shall be provided for the
\_) 9.21.3.5.2 shall be placed no further than one plate width bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab
from the tendon axis. It shall be fully anchored so that the and normal to the tendon axis in accordance with Articles
yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate 9.21.3.4.4 and 9.21.3.4.5. This reinforcement shall be an-
width or half the length of the blister or rib ahead of the chored close to the faces of the slab with standard hooks
anchor as well as at the same distance behind the anchor. bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum re-
The centroid of this reinforcement shall coincide with the inforcement is two #3 bars per anchor located at a distance
tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the re- equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor.
inforcement shall be placed in the continuing section near
that face of the flange or web from which the blister or rib 9. 21.3. 7.3 Reinforcement in the plane of the slab and
is projecting. normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge
tension forces, T .. between anchorages (Equation (9-33))
9.21.3.5.4 Reinforcement shall be provided through- and bursting forces, T 2• ahead of the anchorages (Equation
out blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel ac- (9-34)). Edge tension reinforcement shall be placed im-
tion, bursting forces, and deviation forces due to tendon mediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie
curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties adjacent anchors together. Bursting reinforcement shall be
or U-stirrups which encac;e the anchorage and tie it effec- distributed over the length of the anchorage zones. (See
tively into the adjacent web and flange. This reinforcement Atticle 9.21.1.4.)
shall extend as far as possible into the flange or web and
be developed by standard hooks bent around transverse
bars or equivalent. Spacing shall not exceed the smallest of (9- 33)
blister or rib height at anchor, blister width, or 6 inches.
9.2/.3.5.5 Reinforcement shall be provided to resist (9- 34)

local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the
tendon force and to resist lateral bending in ribs due to
tendon deviation forces. where T 1 = the edge tension force;
T 2 =the bursting force;
9.2/.3.5.6, Reinforcement required by Articles Pu =the factored tendon load on an individual
9.21.3.4.4 through 9.21.3.4.9 shall be provided to resist anchor;
tensile forces due to transfer of the anchorage force from a = the anchor plate width;
the blister or rib into the overall structure. s = the anchorage spacing.
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms 9.21.3.7.4 For slab anchors with an edge distance

of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness,
9.21.3.6.1 For tendons anchored in diaphragms. con- the edge tension reinforcement shall be proportioned to
crete compressive stresses shall be limited within the di- resist 25% of the factored tendon load. This reinforcement
aphragm in accordance with Articles 9.21.3.4.1 through shall preferably be in the form of hairpins and shall be dis-
9.21.3.4.3. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at tributed within one plate width ahead of the anchor. The
the transition from the diaphragm to webs and flanges of legs of the hairpin bars shall extend from the edge of the
the member. slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than a distance
equal to five plate widths plus development length.
9.2/.3.6.2 Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure
full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges
9.21.4 Application of Strut-and·Tie Models to the
and webs of the girder. The more general methods of Ar- 1
Design of Anchorage Zones

ticle 9.21.4 or 9.21.5 shall be used to determine this rein-
forcement. Reinforcement shall also be provided to tie
back deviation forces due to tendon curvature. 9.21.4.1 General
9.21.4.1./ The flow of forces in the anchorage zone

9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages
may be approximated by a series of straight compression
members (struts) and straight-tension members (ties) that
9.2/.3. 7.1 Minimum reinforcement meeting the re-
quirements of Articles 9.21.3.7.2 through 9.21.3.7.4 shall are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression
be provided unless a more detailed analysis is made. forces are carried by concrete compression struts and ten-
sian forces are carried by non-prestressed or prestressed 9.21.4.4 Ties

reinforcement.
9.21.4.4.1 Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model
shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-pre-
9.21.4.1.2 The selected strut-and-tie model shall fol-
stressed or prestressed reinforcement. Tensile strength of
low a load path from the anchorages to the end of the an-
the concrete shall be neglected.
chorage zone. Other forces acting on the anchorage zone,
such as reaction forces, tendon deviation forces, and ap- 9.21.4.4.2 Tension ties shall be properly detailed and
plied loads, shall be considered in the selection of the shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full tension
strut-and-tie model. The forces at the end of the anchor- tie force at the node. The reinforcement layout must
age zone can be obtained from an axial-flexural beam closely follow the directions of the ties in the strut-and-tie
analysis. model.
9.21.4.2 Nodes 9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis
Local zones which meet the provisions of Article 9.21.5.1 Analyses based on assumed elastic material
9.2 J .7 or Division II, Article 10.3.2.3 are considered as properties, equi1ibrium, and compatibility of strains are
properly detailed, adequate nodes. The other nodes in the acceptable for analysis and design of anchorage zones.
anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete
stresses in the struts meet the requirements of Article 9.21.5.2 If the compressive stresses in the concrete
9.21.4.3 and the tension ties are properly detailed to de- ahead of the anchorage device are determined from a lin-
velop the full-yield strength of the reinforcement. ear-elastic stress analysis, local stress maxima may be av-
eraged over an area equal to the bearing area of the an-
9.21.4.3 Struts chorage device.
9.2/.4.3.1 The effective concrete compressive 9.21.5.3 Location and magnitude of the bursting
strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to force may be obtained by integration of the corresponding
0.14> f:, In areas where the concrete may be extensively tensi1e bursting stresses along the tendon path.
cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large
plastic rotations are required, the effective compressive 9.21.6 Approximate Methods
strength shall be limited to 0.6~ f~i·
9.21.6.1 Limitations
9.2/.4.3.2 In anchorage zones the critical section for
compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete
with the local zone node. If special anchorage devices are compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device, loca-
used, the critical section of the strut can be taken as that tion and magnitude of the bursting force, and edge tension
section whose extension intersects the axis of the tendon forces may be estimated by Equations (9-35) through
at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth of the local (9-38), provided that:
confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension of the
( 1) The member has a rectangular cross section and its
anchorage device.
longitudinal extent is at least equal to the largest trans-
verse dimension of the cross section.
9.21.4.3.3 For thin members with a ratio of member
(2) The member has no discontinuities within or ahead
thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the of the anchorage zone.
dimension of the strut in the direction of the thickness of (3) The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in
the member can be approximated by assuming that the the main plane of the member is at least 1Y:! times the
thickness of the compression strut varies linearly from the corresponding lateral dimension. a, of the anchorage
transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface device.
of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at a (4) Only one anchorage device or one group of closely
depth equal to the thickness of the section. spaced anchorage devices is located in the anchorage
zone. Anchorage devices can be treated as closely
9.21.4.3.4 The compression stresses can be assumed spaced if their center-to-center spacing does not exceed
as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly 1Y:z times the width of the anchorage devices in the
distributed over its cross section. direction considered.
(5) The angle of inclination of the tendon with respect If a group of anchorages is closely spaced in two direc-
to the center line of the member is not larger than 20° tions, the product of the correction factors, K, for each di-
if the anchor force points toward the centroid of the rection is used in Equation {9-36).
section and for concentric anchors, and is not larger
than 5° if the anchor force points away from the cen- 9.21 .6.2.3 Effective bearing area, Ab, in Equation
troid of the section. (9-35) shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing
plate area, Aplute• or the bearing area of the confined
concrete in the local zone, Aeonf• with the following limi-
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses tations:
( 1) If Arlutc controls, Aplute shall not be taken larger than
9.21.6.2.1 No additional check of concrete compres- 4/'Tr Acunr·
sive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices sat- (2) If A,..10r controls, the maximum dimension of A,"'nr
isfying Article 9 .21. 7 .2. shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension
of Aplute or three times the minimum dimension of Aplate·
9.21.6.2.2 The concrete compressive stresses ahead If any of these limits is violated the effective-bearing
of special anchorage devices at the interface between local area, Ab, shall be based on Aplute·
zone and general zone shall be approximated by Equa- (3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct
tions (9-35) and (9-36). in the determination of Ab.
9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces

f = K 0.6Pu - - - - - (9-35)
en Ah l+fc ( _!___~ ) Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, T11urst•
herr t and for its distance from the loaded surface, dbursh shall be
estimated by Equations (9-37) and (9-38), respectively. In
K =I +(2- 2_)
acrr
(o.3 +~)for s < 2acrr (9- 36)
15
the application of Equations (9-37) and (9-38) the speci-
fied stressing sequence shall be considered if more than
one tendon is present.
K = 1 for s ;::: 2acrr
Tburst = 0.25:EPu ( 1- ~) + 0.5Pu sin a (9- 37)
where:
dbum = 0.5(h - 2e) + 5e sina (9-38)
fen = the concrete compressive stress ahead of the an-
chorage device; where, IPu =the sum of the total factored tendon
K = a correction factor for closely spaced anchor- loads for the stressing arrangement
ages; considered;
Ab = an effective bearing area as defined in Article a = the lateral dimension of the anchorage
9.21.6.2.3; device or group of devices in the direc-
Ucrr =the lateral dimension of the effective bearing tion considered;
area measured parallel to the larger dimension of e = the eccentricity (always taken as posi-
the cross section or in the direction of closely tive) of the anchorage device or group
of devices with respect to the centroid
spaced anchors;
of the cross section;
bc:rr = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing
h = the lateral dimension of the cross sec-
area measured parallel to the smaller dimension
tion in the direction considered;
of the cross section;
a = the angle of inclination of the resultant
fe = the longitudinal extent of confining reinforce-
of the tendon forces with respect to the
ment for the local zone, but not more than the
center line of the member.
larger of 1.15 Ucrr or 1.15 herr;
Pu = the factored tendon load; 9.21.6.4 Edge-Tension Forces
t = the thickness of the section;
s = the center-to-center spacing of multiple anchor- 9.21.6.4.1 For multiple anchorages with a center-to-
ages; center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the sec-
n = the number of anchorages in a row. tion, the spalling forces shall be given by Article
9.21.3.4.8. For larger spacings. the spalling forces shall be the bottom of each bearing surface plus the maximum
determined from a more detailed analysis. such as strut- dimension of that bearing surface.
and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as
9.21.6.4.2 If the centroid of all tendons considered is greater than I Y2 times the width of the local zone.
located outside of the kern of the section both spalling
forces and longitudinal edge tension forces are induced. 9.21.7.1.4 For closely spaced anchorages an en-
The longitudinal edge-tension force shall be determined larged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall
from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a section located also be considered.
at one-half the depth of the section away from the loaded
surface. The spalling force shall be taken as equal to the 9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength
longitudinal edge-tension force but not less than specified
in Article 9.21.3.4.8. 9.21.7.2.1 Anchorage devices may be either basic
anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressive
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone
strength limits of Articles 9 .21. 7 .2.2 through 9 .21.7 .2.4 or
special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone
Article 9.21.7.3.
9.21. 7.1. 1 When no independently verified manufac-
9.21.7.2.2 The effective concrete bearing compres-
turer's edge-distance recommendations for a particular
sive strength fb used for design shall not exceed that of
anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions
Equations (9-39) or (9-40).
of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the
larger of:
(9-39)
(I) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice
the minimum concrete cover required for the particu-
lar application and environment. but, (9-40)
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining re-
inforcement plus the required concrete cover over the where:
confining reinforcing steel for the particular applica-
tion and environment. fb =the maximum factoretl tendon load, Pu, divided
by the effective bearing area Ab;
9.21.7.1.2 When independently verified manufac- fci = the concrete compressive strength at stressing;
turer's recommendations for minimum cover. spacing and A = the maximum area of the portion of the support-
edge distances for a particular anchorage device are avail- ing surface that is geometrically similar to the
able, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each loaded area and concentric with it;
direction shall be taken as the smaller of: A 8 = the gross area of the bearing plate if the require-
ments of Article 9.21.7.2.3 are met, or is the area
(I) Twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage calculated in accordance with Article 9 .21. 7 .2.4;
device supplier. Ab = the effective net area of the bearing plate calcu-
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the an- lated as the area A8 minus the area of openings in
chorage device supplier. the bearing plate.
The manufacturer's recommendations for spacing and Equations (9-39) and (9-40) are only valid if general zone
edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.4 is provided and
values. if the extent of the concrete along the tendon axis ahead
of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the
9.21.7./.3 The length of the local zone along the ten- local zone as defined in Article 9.21.7.1.3.
don axis shall be taken as the greater of:
9.21.7.2.3 The full bearing plate area may be used
(I) The maximum width of the local zone. for A8 and the calculation of Ab if the anchorage device is
(2) The length of the anchorage device confining rein- sufficiently rigid. To be considered sufficiently rigid, the
forcement. slenderness of the bearing plate (nit) must not exceed the
(3) For anchorage devices with multiple-bearing sur- value given in Equation (9-41 ). The plate must also be
faces. the distance from the loaded concrete surface to checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
~ nits 0.08 V'E;Jf;: (9-41) 9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES

\_jjl
where: 9.22.1 In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at
a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist at least 4% of the total
n = the largest distance from the outer edge of the prestressing force shall be placed within the distance of
wedge plate to the outer edge of the bearing d/4 of the end of the beam.
plate. For rectangular-bearing plates this dis-
tance is measured parallel to the edges of the 9.22.2 For at least the distance d from the end of the
bearing plate. If the anchorage has no separate beam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose
wedge plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be the prestressing steel in the bottom flange.
taken as the distance between the extreme wedge
holes in the corresponding direction. 9.22.3 For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall
t = the average thickness of the bearing plate. be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the
Et, = the modulus of elasticity of the bearing-plate web of the girder.
material.
9.22.4 Unless otherwise specified. stress shall not be
9.21.7.2.4 For bearing plates that do not meet the transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of
stiffness requirements of Article 9.21.7.2.3, the effective the concrete as indicated by test cylinders. cured by meth-
gross-bearing area, Av., shall be taken as the area geomet- ods identical with the curing of the member. is at least
rically similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer perime- 4,000 psi.
ter of the wedge-hole pattern for plates without separate
wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load 9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT
spreading at a 45° angle. A larger effective-bearing area STRESS TRANSFER
may be calculated by assuming an effective area and
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be trans-
checking the new fh and nit values for conformance with fened to concrete until the compressive strength of the
Articles 9.21.7.2.2 and 9.21.7.2.3. concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods
identical with the curing of the members, is at least 4,000
9.21.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices psi for pretensioned members (other than piles) and 3,500
psi for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
Special anchorage devices that do not meet the require-
9.24 DECK PANELS
ments of Article 9.21.7.2 as well as other devices that do
meet the requirements of Article 9 .21. 7.2 but which the en- 9.24.1 Deck panels shall be prestressed with pre-
gineer of record requires to have tested may be used pro- tensioned strands. The strands shall be in a direction
vided that they have been tested by an independent testing transverse to the stringers when the panels are placed on
agency acceptable to the engineer of record according to the supporting stringers. The top surface of the panels shall
the procedures described in Division II, Article 10.3.2 (or be roughened in such a manner as to ensure composite ac-
equivalent) and meet the acceptance criteria specified in Di- tion between the precast and cast-in-place concrete.
vision II. Article 10.3.2.3.1 0. For a series of similar special
anchorage devices, tests are only required for representative 9.24.2 Reinforcing bars, or equivalent mesh, shall be
samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in placed in the panel transverse to the strands to provide at
the series are required by the engineer of record. least 0.11 square inches per foot of panel.
PartD
DETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT 9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL
Bar reinforcement for cast-in-place T-beam and box 9.26.1 Minimum Cover
girder flanges shall confonn to the provisions in Articles
8.17 .2.2 and 8.17.2.3 except that the minimum reinforcement The following minimum concrete cover shall be pro-
0 in bottom flanges shall be 0.3% of the flange section. vided for prestressing and conventional steel:
9.26.1.1 Prestressing Steel and Main 9.26.4 Size of Ducts

Reinforcement ........................... lY2 inch
9.26.4.1 For tendons made up of a number of wires,
9.26.1.2 Slab Reinforcement bars, or strands, duct area shall be at least twice the net
area of the prestressing steel.
9.26.1.2.1 Top of Slab ................. lYdnch
When deicers are used ..........2 inch
9.26.4.2 For tendons made up of a single wire, bar,
9.26.1.2.2 Bottom of Slab ............... .linch or strand, the duct diameter shall be at least Y.a inch
larger than the nominal diameter of the wire, bar, or strand.
9.26.1.3 Stirrups and Ties ............. .l inch
9.26.1.4 When deicer chemicals are used, drainage 9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND
details shall dispose of deicer solutions without constant COUPLERS
contact with the prestressed girders. Where such contact
cannot be avoided, or in locations where members are ex- 9.27.1 Anchorages, couplers, and splices for bonded
posed to salt water, salt spray, or chemical vapor, addi- post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop at least 95% of
tional cover should be provided. the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestress-
ing steel, tested in an unbonded state without exceeding
9.26.2 Minimum Spacing anticipated set. Bond transfer lengths between anchorages
and the zone where full prestressing force is required
9.26.2.1 The minimum clear spacing of prestressing under service and ultimate loads shall normally be suffi-
steel at the ends of beams shall be as follows: cient to develop the minimum specified ultimate strength
of the prestressing steel. Couplers and splices shall be
Pretensioning steel: The clear distance between placed in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in
strands shall not be less than ll/3 times the maximum a housing long enough to permit the necessary move-
size of the concrete aggregate. Also, the minimum ments. When anchorages or couplers are located at criti-
spacing center-to-center of strand shall be as follows: cal sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength re-
Strand Size Spacing quired of the bonded tendons shall not exceed the ultimate
1/2 inch special, 9/16 inch, 9/16 inch 2 inches capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage
special, and 6/1o inch or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
7/16 inch and 1/2 inch 13/4 inches
3/s inch 1112 inches 9.27.2 The anchorages of unbonded tendons shall de-
velop at least 95% of the minimum specified ultimate
Post-tensioning steel: IY2 inches or lY2 times the maxi- strength of the prestressing steel without exceeding antic-
mum size of the concrete aggregate, whichever is greater. ipated set. The total elongation under ultimate load of the
tendon shall not be less than 2% measured in a minimum
gauge length of 10 feet.
9.26.2.2 Prestressing strands in deck panels shall be
spaced symmetrically and uniformly across the width of
9.27.3 For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be
the panel. They shall not be spaced farther apart than 1Y2
performed on a representative specimen and the tendon
times the total composite slab thickness or more than 18
shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60%
inches.
to 66% of its minimum specified ultimate strength, and
also 50 cycles from 40% to 80% of its minimum specified
9.26.3 Bundling ultimate strength. The period of each cycle involves the
change from the lower stress level to the upper stress level
9.26.3.1 When post-tensioning steel is draped or de- and back to the lower. The specimen used for the second
flected, post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups dynamic test need not be the same used for the first dy-
of three maximum, provided that the spacing specified in namic test. Systems utilizing multiple strands, wires, or
Article 9.26.2 is maintained in the end 3 feet of the bars may be tested utilizing a test tendon of smaller capac-
member. ity than the full size tendon. The test tendon shall duplicate
the behavior of the full size tendon and generally shall not
9.26.3.2 Where pretensioning steel is bundled, all have less than 10% of the capacity of the full size tendon.
bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam Dynamic tests are not required on bonded tendons, unless
length and the deflection points shall be investigated for the anchorage is located or used in such manner that re-
secondary stresses. peated load applications can be expected on the anchorage.
9.27.4 Couplings of unbonded tendons shall be used

only at locations specifically indicated and/or approved by (9-42)
the Engineer. Couplings shall not be used at points of sharp
tendon curvature. All couplings shall develop at least 95%
of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the pre- where D is the nominal diameter in inches, Pst and fse are
stressing steel without exceeding anticipated set. The cou- in kips per square inch, and the parenthetical expression
pling of tendons shall not reduce the elongation at rupture is considered to be without units.
below the requirements of the tendon itself. Couplings
and/or coupling components shall be enclosed in housings 9.28.2 Investigations may be limited to those cross sec-
long enough to permit the necessary movements. All the tions nearest each end of the member which are required
coupling components shall be completely protected with a to develop their full ultimate capacity.
coating material prior to final encasement in concrete.
9.28.3 Where strand is debonded at the end of a mem-
9.27.5 Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed ber and tension at service load is allowed in the precom-
tendons shall be permanently protected against corrosion. pressed tensile zone, the development length required
above shall be doubled.
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED
STRAND
9.29 BEARINGS
9.28.1 Three- or seven-wire pretensioning strand shall Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures
be bonded beyond the critical section for a development shall be designed in accordance with Article .I 0.29 and
length in inches not less than Section 14.
Section 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Part A
10.1 APPLICATION A~ = total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at

the interior support within the effective
10.1.1 Notations flange width (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
A~ = total area of longitudinal slab reinforcement
A = area of cross section (Articles 10.37 .1.1, steel for each beam over interior support (Ar-
I 0.34.4. I 0.48.1.1, I 0.48.2.1, I 0.48.4.2, ticle 10.38.5.1.3)
10.48.5.3, and 10.55.1) = area of steel section (Articles l 0.38.5.1.2.
A = bending moment coefficient (Article I 0.54.1.1, and I 0.54.2.1)
10.50.1.1.2) = cross-sectional area of a stud shear connector
Ae = effective area of a flange or splice plate (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
with holes or a tension member with holes =area of web of beam (Article 10.53.1.2)
(Articles I 0.12, I 0.18.2.2.1, 10.18.2.2.3, = distance from center of bolt under con-
10.18.2.2.4, and l O.I8.4.1) sideration to edge of plate, in. (Articles
AF = amplification factor (Articles I0.37 .1.1 and 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
10.55.1) a = spacing of transverse stiffeners (Article
(AFy)hr = product of area and yield point for bottom I 0.39.4.4.2)
flange of steel section (Article 10.50.1.1.1) a =depth of stress block (Figure 10.50A)
(AFy)c = product of area and yield point of that part of a = ratio of numerically smaller to the larger end
reinforcing which lies in the compression moment (Article I 0.54.2.2)
zone of the slab (Article 10.50.1.1.1) B = constant based on the number of stress cycles
(AFy)tt = product of area and yield point for top flange (Article I 0.38.5.1.1)
of steel section (Article I 0.50.1.1.1) B = constant for stiffeners (Articles I0.34.4. 7
(AFy)w = product of area and yield point for web of and 10.48.5.3)
steel section (Article 10.50.1.1.1) b = compression flange width (Table I 0.32.1 A
Ar = area of flange (Articles I0.39.4.4.2, and Articles 10.34.2.1, 10.48, I 0.48.l.I,
10.48.2.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.56.3) I 0.48.2, I 0.48.2.I, and 10.61.4)
Ar = the sum of the area of filler plates on the top b = distance from center of bolt under consider-
and bottom of the connected plate (Article ation to toe of fillet of connected part. in. (Ar-
I 0.18.1.2.1) ticles l 0.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
Arc = area of compression flange (Articles b = effective width of slab (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
10.48.4.1 and 10.50.1.2.1) b = effective flange width (Articles 10.38.3 and
A8 = gross area of a flange, splice plate or tension l 0.38.5.1.2)
member (Articles 10.18.2.2.2, 10.18.2.2.4, b = widest flange width (Article 10.15.2.1)
and l 0.18.4.1) b = distance from edge of plate or edge of perfo-
An = net section of a tension member (Article ration to the point of support (Aryicle
IO.I8.4.1) 10.35.2.3)
Ap = the smaller of either the connected plate area b = unsupported distance between points of sup-
or the sum of the splice plate areas on the top port (Article 10.35.2.7)
and bottom of the connected plate (Article b = flange width between webs (Articles
10.18.1.2.1) 10.37.3.1. 10.39.4.2, I0.51.5.1, and 10.~5.3)
251
b' = width of stiffeners (Articles 10.34.5.2, d =depth of beam or girder, in. (Table 10.32.1A
I0.34.6, 10.37.2.4, I0.39.4.5.1, and 10.55.2) and Articles 10.13, 10.48.2, I 0.48.4.1, and
b' = width of a projecting flange element, angle, 10.50.1.1.2)
or stiffener (Articles 10.34.2.2, 10.34.4. 7, d = diameter of rocker or roller, in. (Article
10.37.3.2, 10.39.4.5.1, I 0.48.5.3, I0.51.5.5, 10.32.4.2)
and 10.55.3) =beam depth (Article I0.56.3)
c = web buckling coefficient (Articles I0.34.4, =column depth (Article 10.56.3)
10.38.1.7, I0.48.5.3, and 10.48.8) = spacing of intermediate stiffener (Articles
c = compressive force in the slab (Article I0.34.4, I 0.34.5, 10.48.5.3, 10.48.6.3, and
I0.50.1.I.1) 10.48.8)
c = equivalent moment factor (Article 10.54.2.I) = distance from the centerline of a plate longi-
C' =compressive force in top portion of steel sec- tudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle
tion (Article 10.50.1.1.1) longitudinal stiffener to the inner surface or
= bending coefficient (Table 10.32.1 A and Ar- the leg of the compression flange component
ticles 10.48.4.1 and 10.50.2.2) (Articles 10.34.3.2.1, 10.34.5.1, 10.48.4.1,
= column slenderness ratio dividing elastic and 10.49.3.2(a), and 10.61.1)
inelastic buckling (Table 10.32. 1A) E = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (Table
= coefficient about X axis (Article 10.36) 10.32.1A and Articles 10.15.3, I0.36, 10.37,
= coefficient about the Y axis (Article 10.36) 10.39.4.4.2, 10.54.1, and 10.55.1)
= buckling stress coefficient (Article = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article
10.51.5.2) 10.38.5.1.2)
D =clear distance between flanges, in. (Article e = distance from the centerline of a splice to the
10.15.2) centroid of the connection on the side of the
D = clear unsupported distance between flange joint under consideration (Articles 1O.I8.2.3.3,
components (Articles 10.18.2.3.4, 10.18.2.3.7, 1O.I8.2.3.5, and 10.18.2.3. 7)
10.18.2.3.8, 10.18.2.3.9, 10.34.3, I0.34.4, F = maximum induced stress in the bottom
10.34.5, 10.37.2, I0.48.1, I0.48.2, 10.48.4, flange (Article 10.20.2.1)
10.48.5, 10.48.6, I0.48.8, I0.49.2, 10.49.3.2, F = maximum compressive stress, psi (Article
I0.50.1.1.2, 10.50.2.I, 10.55.2, and 10.61.1) 10.41.4.6)
D' = distance from the top of the slab to the neu- = allowable axial unit stress (Table I0.32.1A
tral axis at which a composite section in pos- and Articles I0.36, 10.37.1.2, and 10.55.1)
itive bending theoretically reaches its plastic- =allowable bending unit stress (Table 10.32.1A
moment capacity when the maximum strain and Articles 10.18.2.2.3, 10.37.1.2, and
in the slab is at 0.003 (Article I0.50.1.1.2) 10.55.1)
= clear distance between the neutral axis and the =compressive bending stress permitted about
compression flange (Articles 10.34.3.2.1, the X axis (Article 10.36)
10.34.5.1, 10.48.4.I, 10.49.2, 10.49.3, =compressive bending stress permitted about
I0.50{b), I0.57, and 10.61.1) the Y axis (Article 10.36)
= moments caused by dead load acting on com- = buckling stress of the compression flange
posite girder (Article 10.50.1.2.2) plate or column (Articles 10.48.2, 10.50.2.2,
Dcp = depth of the web in compression at the plas- 10.51.1, 10.51.5, 10.54.1.1, and I0.54.2.1)
tic moment (Articles 10.50(b), 10.50.1.1.2, Fer = local buckling stress of a stiffener (Articles
and 10.50.2.1) 10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3)
= depth of the web in compression of the non- = design stress for the controlling flange at a
composite steel beam or girder (Articles point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.3 and
10.34.5.1 and 10.49.3.2(a)) I0.18.2.3.8)
Feu = design stress for the controlling flange at a
= distance from the top of the slab to the plas-
tic neutral axis, in. (Article I 0.50.1.1.2) point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.1 and
10.18.2.3.4)
= moments caused by dead load acting on steel
girder (Article I0.50.1.2.2) = maximum horizontal force (Article
d = bolt diameter (Table I0.32.3B) 10.20.2.2)
d = diameter of stud, in. (Article 10.38.5.1) =Euler buckling stress (Articles 10.37.1,
10.54.2.1, and 10.55.1)
I O.l.I DIVISION I-DESIGN 253
F~ = Euler stress divided by a factor of safety (Ar- = computed axial compression stress (Articles
ticJe I 0.36) 10.35.2.IO, I0.36, 10.37, I0.55.2, and
Fncr =design stress for the noncontrolling flange at 10.55.3)
a point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.3) = computed compressive bending stress (Arti-
Fncu =design stress for the noncontrolling flange at cJes I0.34.2, 10.34.3, 10.34.5.2, 10.37,
a point of splice (Article 1O.I8.2.2.I) 10.39, and 10.55)
FP =computed bearing stress due to design load = factored bending stress in the compression
(Table 10.32.3B) flange (Articles 10.48, 10.48.2.1 (b),
Fs = limiting bending stress (Article I0.34.4) 10.48.4.1, I 0.50.I.2.1, I 0.50.2.2, I 0.53, and
Fsr = allowable range of stress (Table 10.3.1 A) I0.53.1.2)
F: = reduced allowable tensile stress on rivet or = maximum factored noncomposite dead load
bolt due to the applied shear stress, ksi (Ar- compressive bending stress in the web (Arti-
ticles I 0.32.3.3.4 and I 0.56.1.3.3) cle 10.61.1)
F~ = specified minimum yield point of the rein- = unit ultimate compressive strength of con-
forcing steel (Article 10.38.5.1.2) crete as determined by cylinder tests at age of
F.S. = factor of safety (Table I 0.32.1 A and Articles 28 days. psi (Articles 10.38.1, 10.38.5.1.2,
10.32.1 and I 0.36) 10.45.3, and I0.50.1.1.1)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength (Tables = maximum flexural stress at the mid-thickness
10.2A, 10.32.IA and 10.32.38 and Article of the flange under consideration at a point of
10.18.4) splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.3 and 10.18.2.3.8)
Fu = tensile strength of electrode classification = maximum flexural stress due to the factored
(Table 10.56A and Article 10.32.2) loads at the mid-thickness of the controlling
Fu = maximum bending strength of the flange flange at a point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.1
(Articles I 0.48.8.2, 10.50.1.2.1, and and 10.18.2.3.4)
10.50.2.2) =noncomposite dead load stress in the com-
Fv = allowable shear stress (Table 10.32.1A and pression flange (Articles 10.34.5.1 and
10.32.3B and Articles 10.18.2.3.6, 10.32.2, 10.49.3.2(a))
10.32.3, 10.34.4, 10.38.1.7, and 10.40.2.2) = top flange compressive stress due to the fac-
Fv = shear strength of a fastener (Article 10.56.1.3) tored noncomposite dead load divided by the
Pvc: = combined tension and shear in bearing-type factor Rb (Article 10.61.4)
connections (Article 10.56.1.3) =total noncomposite and composite dead-load
Fw =design shear stress in the web at a point of plus composite live-load stress in the com-
splice (Articles 10.18.2.3.6, 10.I8.2.3.7, and pression flange at the most highly stressed
10.18.2.3.9) section of the web (Articles I 0.34.5.1 and
Fy = specified minimum yield point of steel (Arti- I0.49.3.2(a))
cles 10.15.2.1, 10.15.3, 10.16.11, 10.32.1, =top flange compressive stress due to non-
I0.32.4, 10.34, 10.35, I0.37.1.3, I0.38.l.7, composite dead load (Articles I 0.34.2.1 and
I 0.38.5, 10.39 .4, I 0.40.2.2, I 0.41.4.6, I0.46, 10.34.2.2)
10.48, 10.49, 10.50, 10.51.5, 10.54, and fnd = flexural stress at the mid-thickness of the non-
10.61.4) controlling flange concurrent with fc:r (Articles
Fyr = specified minimum yield strength of the flange 10.18.2.2.3 and 10.18.2.3.8)
(Articles 1O.I8.2.2.I, I 0.48.1.1, 10.53.1, fncu = flexural stress due to the factored loads at the
10.57 .I, and 10.57 .2) mid-thickness of the noncontrolling flange at
Fy wrrcncr = specified minimum yield strength of a a point of splice concurrent with feu (Articles
transverse stiffener (Articles I 0.34.4. 7 and 10.18.2.2. I and 1O.I8.2.3.4)
10.48.5.3) = maximum flexural stress due to D + J3L (L + I)
Fyw = specified minimum yield strength of the web at the mid-thickness of the flange under
(Articles I 0.18.2.2.1, 1O.I8.2.2.2, I 0.18.2.3.4, consideration at a point of splice (Articles
10.53.1, and 10.61.1) 10.18.2.2.2 and I0.18.2.3.5)
Fy web = specified mimi mum yield strength of the web = flexural stress due to D + Pt. (L + I) at the mid-
(Articles 10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3) thickness of the other flange at a point of
f = the lesser of (ft/Rb) or Fy (ArticJes splice concurrent with fo in the flange under
I0.48.2.l(b}, 10.48.2.2, and I0.53) consideration (Article 1O.I8.2.3.5)
= range of stress due to live load plus impact, K = effective length factor in plane of buckling
in the slab reinforcement over the support (Table 10.32.I A and Articles 10.37, 10.54.1,
(Article 10.38.5.1.3) and 10.54.2)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Kt, = effective length factor in the plane of bend-
Article 8.15.2.1.1 (Article 10.50.2.3) ing (Article 10.36)
= maximum longitudinal bending stress in the k =constant: 0.75 for rivets; 0.6 for high-
flange of the panels on either side of the strength bolts with thread excluded from
transverse stiffener (Article 10.39.4.4) shear plane (Article 10.32.3.3.4)
= factored bending stress in either the top or k =buckling coefficient (Articles 10.34.3.2.1,
bottom flange, whichever flange has the 10.34.4, 10.39.4.3, 10.48.~.1, 10.48.8,
larger ratio of ((JFu) (Article 10.48.8.2) 10.51.5.4, and 10.61.1)
f, = tensile stress due to applied loads (Articles k = distance from outer face of flange to toe of
10.32.3.3.3 and 10.56.1.3.2) web fillet of member to be stiffened (Article
f, = allowable tensile stress in the concrete spec- 10.56.3)
ified in Article 8.15.2.1.1 (Article l 0.38.4.3) k1 =buckling coefficient (Article 10.39.4.4)
= unit shear stress (Articles 10.32.3.2.3, L = distance between bolts in the direction of the
10.34.4.4, and 10.34.4.7) applied force (Table 10.32.38)
f~ = maximum shear stress in the web at a point of L = actual unbraced length (Table 10.32.1 A and
splice (Article 10.18.2.3.6) Articles 10.7 .4, 10.15.3, and 10.55.1)
=computed compressive bending stress about L = 1/2 of the length of the arch rib (Article
the x axis (Article 10.36) 10.37.1)
= computed compressive bending stress about L =distance between transverse beams (Article
they axis (Article 10.36) I0.41.4.6)
g = gage between fasteners, in. (Articles Lh = unbraced length (Table I 0.48.2.l.A and Arti-
10.16.14, 10.24.5, and 10.24.6) cles I 0.36, 10.48.1.1, I 0.48.2.1, I 0.48.4.1,
= height of stud, in. (Article 10.38.5.1.1) and 10.53.1.3)
= horizontal design force resultant in the web Lc = length of member between points of support,
at a point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.3.8 and in. (Article 10.54.1.1)
10.18.2.3.9) Lc = clear distance between the holes, or between
Hv.o = overload horizontal design force resultant the hole and the edge of the material in the di-
in the web at a point of splice (Article rection of the applied bearing force, in. (Table
10.18.2.3.5) 10.32.38 and Article 10.56.1.3.2)
= horizontal design force resultant in the web I., = limiting unbraced length (Article I 0.48.4.1)
at a point of splice (Articles I 0.18.2.3.4 Lr = limiting unbraced length (Article I 0.48.4.1)
and I0.18.2.3.5) e = member length (Table I 0.32.1 A and Article
h = average flange thickness of the channel 10.35.1)
flange, in. (Article I 0.38.5.1.2) . M = maximum bending moment (Articles
4
= moment of inertia. in. (Articles 10.34.4, I 0.48.8, I 0.54.2.1, and 10.50.1.1.2)
I 0.34.5, 10.38.5.1.I, 10.48.5.3, and M1 =smaller moment at the end of the unbraced
10.48.6.3) length of the member (Article 10.48.1.1 (c))
= moment of inertia of stiffener (Articles M1 & M2 =moments at two adjacent braced points (Ta-
10.37.2, 10.39.4.4.1, and 10.51.5.4) bles 10.32.1 A and I 0.36A and Articles
= moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners 10.48.4.1 and 10.50.2.2)
(Article 10.39.4.4.2) Me = column moment (Article I 0.56.3.2)
= moment of inertia of member about the ver- Mp = full plastic moment of the section (Articles
tical axis in the plane of the web, in4 (Article 10.50.I.1.2 and 10.54.2.1)
10.48.4.1) Mr = lateral torsional buckling moment or yield
= moment of inertia of compression flange moment (Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1,
about the vertical axis in the plane of the web, 10.50.1.2.1, 10.50.2.2, and 10.53.1.3)
4
in (Table I 0.32.1 A and Article I 0.48.4.1) Ms = elastic pier moment for loading producing
J = required ratio of rigidity of one transverse maximum positive moment in adjacent span
stiffener to that of the web plate (Articles (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3) Mu = maximum bending strength (Articles
J = St. Venant torsional constant, in4 (Table 10.18.2.2.1, I 0.48, I 0.49, I 0.50.1, I 0.50.2,
10.32.1 A and Article 10.48.4.1) 10.51.1, I 0.53.1, I 0.54.2.1, and 10.61.3)
Mv = design moment due to the eccentricity of the = allowable slip resistance (Article I 0.32.3.2.1)
design shear at a point of splice (Articles = maximum axial compression capacity (Arti-
10.18.2.3.7 and 10.18.2.3.9) cle I 0.54.1.1)
Mvo = overload design moment due to the eccentric- = design force for checking the strength of a
ity of the overload design shear at a point of bolted splice in a tension member (Article
splice (Article 10.18.2.3.5) 10.18.4.1)
Mvu = design moment due to the eccentricity of the p = allowable bearing (Article I 0.32.4.2)
design shear at a point of splice (Articles Q = prying tension per bolt (Articles 10.32.3.3.2
10.18.2.3.3 and I 0.18.2.3.5) and 10.56.2)
Mw = design moment at a point of splice represent- Q =statical moment about the neutral axis (Arti-
ing the portion of the flexural moment as- cle 10.38.5.1.1)
sumed to be resisted by the web (Articles R = radius (Article I 0.15.2.1)
10.18.2.3.8 and 10.18.2.3.9) R = number of design lanes per box girder (Arti-
Mwo = overload design moment at a point of splice cle 10.39.2.1)
representing the portion of the flexural mo- R = reduction factor for hybrid girders (Articles
ment assumed to be resisted by the web (Ar- I 0.18.2.2.1, I 0.18.2.2.2, 10.18.2.2.3,
ticle I O.I8.2.3.5) I 0.18.2.3.4, I 0.18.2.3.8, 10.40.2. J. J,
Mwu = design moment at a point of splice represent- I 0.53.I.2, and 10.53.1.3)
ing the portion of the flexural moment as- R = reduction factor applied to the design shear
sumed to be resisted by the web (Articles strength of fasteners passing through fillers
10.18.2.3.4 and 10.18.2.3.5) (Article I 0.18.1.2.1)
My = moment capacity at first yield (Articles = bending capacity reduction factor (Articles
10.18.2.2.1, 10.50.1.1.2, and 10.61.3) I 0.48.2, I 0.48.4.1, I 0.50.1.2.1, I 0.50.2.2,
N, & N2 =number of shear connectors (Article I 0.53.1.2, 10.53. J .3, and I 0.61.4)
I 0.38.5.1.2) R:r = absolute value of the ratio of Fer to fer for the
Ne = number of additional connectors for each controlling flange at a point of splice (Articles
beam at point of contraflexure (Article I 0.18.2.2.3 and I 0. J8.2.3.8)
I 0.38.5.I.3) = the absolute value of the ratio of Fc:u to feu for
N~ = number of slip planes in a slip-critical con- the controlling flange at a point of splice
nection (Articles 10.32.3.2.1 and 10.57.3.1) (Articles 10.18.2.2.I and I 0.18.2.3.4)'
Rev =a range of stress involving both tension and
Nw = number of roadway design lanes (Article
10.39.2) compression during a stress cycle (Table
I0.3.1B)
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that
of concrete (Article I 0.38.1) = vertical force at connections of vertical stiff-
n = number of longitudinal stiffeners (Articles .eners to longitudinal stiffeners (Article
10.39.4.4.8)
I0.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and 10.51.5.4)
P =allowable compressive axial load on mem-
= vertical web force (Article I 0.39.4.4.7)
bers (Article I 0.35.1)
= radius of gyration, in (Articles 10.35.I,
I 0.37 .I. 10.41.4.6, I 0.48.6.3, I 0.54.1.1,
P = axial compression on the member (Articles
I 0.54.2.1, and I 0.55.I)
10.48.I.I, I 0.48 .2.1, and I 0.54.2.I)
= radius of gyration in plane of bending, in.
P, P., P2, = force in the slab (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
(Article I 0.36)
&P3
= radius of gyration with respect to the Y-Y
Per =design force in the controlling flange at a point axis, in. (Article I0.48.1.1)
of splice (Article I0.18.2.2.3) r' = radius of gyration of the compression flange
Pc:u = design force for the controlling flange at a
about the axis in the plane of the web, in.
point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.1) (Table 10.32.1 A and Article I 0.48.4.1)
Pro = overload design force in the flange at a point of s = allowable rivet or bolt unit stress in shear
splice (Article I 0.18.2.2.2) (Article 10.32.3.3.4)
Pncr = design force for the noncontrolling flange at a s = section modulus, in. 3 (Articles 10.48.2,
point of splice (Article I 0.18.2.2.3) l 0.51.1, I 0.53.1.2, and I 0.53.1.3)
Pncu = design force in the noncontrolling flange at a s = pitch of any two successive holes in the chain
point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.1) (Article 10.16.14.2)
Po = design force for checking slip of a bolted splice = range of horizontal shear (Article
in a tension member (Article I0.18.4.2) 10.38.5.1.1)
= section modulus of transverse stiffener, in. 3 10.37.2, 10.48, 10.49.2, I0.49.3, 10.55.2,
(Articles 10.39.4.4 and 10.48.6.3) 10.56.3, and 10.61.1)
S, = section modulus oflongitudinal or transverse = thickness of top flange (Article 10.50.1. I. I)
3
stiffener, in. (Article 10.48.6.3) = thickness of outstanding stiffener element
= ultimate strength of the shear connector (Ar- (Articles 10.39.4.5.1 and I 0.51.5.5)
ticle 10.38.5.1.2) v =shearing force (Articles 10.35.1, 10.48.5.3,
= section modulus with respect to the com- 10.48.8, and 10.51.3)
3
pression flange, in. (Table 10.32.1 A and v = maximum shear in the web at a point of
Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1, 10.50.1.2.1, splice due to the factored loads (Article
I 0.50.2.2 and 10.53.1.2) I 0.18.2.3.2)
= section modulus with respect to the tension = maximum shear in the web at the point of splice
3
flange, in. (Articles 10.48.2 and 10.53.1.2) due to D + ~L (L + I) (Article 10. I 8.2.3.5)
s = computed rivet or bolt unit stress in shear = shear yielding strength of the web (Articles
(Article 10.32.3.3.4) 10.48.8 and 10.53.1.4)
T =range in tensile stress (Table 10.3.1B) = range of shear due to live loads and impact,
T = direct tension per bolt due to external load kips (Article I 0.38.5.1.1)
(Articles 10.32.3 and 10.56.2) = maximum shear force (Articles 10.18.2.3.2,
T = arch rib thrust at the quarter point from 10.34.4, I0.48.5.3, 10.48.8, and 10.53.3)
dead+ live+impact loading (Articles = vertical shear (Article 10.39.3.1)
10.37.1 and 10.55.1) = design shear for a web (Articles 10.39.3.1
t = thickness of the thinner outside plate or and 10.51.3)
shape (Article 10.35.2)
= design shear in the web at a point of splice
= thickness of members in compression (Arti-
(Articles I 0.18.2.3.2, 10.18.2.3.3, and
cle 10.35.2)
10.18.2.3.5)
= thickness of thinnest part connected, in (Ar- = overload design shear in the web at a point
ticles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
of splice (Article I 0.18.2.3.5)
= computed rivet or bolt unit stress in tension,
= design shear in the web at a point of splice
including any stress due to prying action (Ar-
(Articles 10.18.2.3.2, 10.18.2.3.3, and
ticle 10.32.3.3.4)
I 0.18.2.3.5)
t = thickness of the wearing surface, in. (Article w =length of a channel shear connector, in. (Ar-
10.41.2)
ticle 10.38.5.1.2)
t = flange thickness, in. (Articles 10.18.2.2.4,
= roadway width between curbs in feet or bar-
10.34.2.1, 10.34.2.2, 10.39.4.2, 10.48,
riers if curbs are not used (Article 10.39.2.1)
10.48.I.1, I 0.48.2, 10.48.2. I, I 0.5 I .5.1, and
I0.61.4) = least net width of a flange (Article 10.18.2.2.4)
= thickness of a flange angle (Article 10.34.2.2) =fraction of a wheel load (Article 10.39.2)
= thickness of the web of a channel, in. (Arti- = length of a channel shear connector in inches
cle·10.38.5.1.2) measured in a transverse direction on the
t =thickness of stiffener (Articles 10.34.4.7 and flange of a girder (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
10.48.5.3) w = unit weight of concrete, lb per cu ft (Article
= thickness of flange delivering concentrated 10.38.5.1.2)
force (Article 10.56.3.2) w = width of flange between longitudinal stiffen-
= thickness of flange of member to be stiffened ers (Articles 10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and
(Article 10.56.3.2) 10.51.5.4)
tr =thickness of the flange (Articles 10.37.3, = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
10.55.3, and 10.39.4.3) outer fiber, in. (Article 10.15.3)
= thickness of the concrete haunch above the y = location of steel sections from neutral axis
beam or girder top flange (Article 10.50.1.1.2) (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
=thickness of stiffener (Article 10.37.2 and z = plastic section modulus (Articles I 0.48.1,
10.55.2) 10.53.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
=slab thickness (Articles 10.38.5.1.2, = allowable range of horizontal shear, in
10.50.1.1.1, and 10.50.1.1.2) pounds on an individual connector (Article
= web thickness, in. (Articles 10.15.2.1, 10.38.5.1)
10.18.2.3.4, I0.18.2.3.7, 10.18.2.3.8, a = constant based on the number of stress cycles
10.18.2.3.9, 10.34.3, 10.34.4, 10.34.5, (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
= minimum specified yield strength of the web pounds per square inch.) The modulus of elasticity of all
divided by the minimum specified yield grades of structural steel shall be assumed to be
strength of the tension flange (Articles 29,000,000 psi and the coefficient of linear expansion
I0.40.2 and I 0.40.4) 0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit.
= factor for flange splice design equal to 1.0,
except that a lower value equal to (MufMy) 10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion
may be used for flanges subject to com- Rockers
pression at sections where Mu does not ex-
ceed My (Article 10.18.2.2.1) Steels for pins, rollers, and expansion rockers shall
a = constant equal to 1.3 for members without a conform to one of the designations listed in Tables: 10.2A
longitudinal stiffener and 1.0 for members and 10.2B, or shall be stainless steel conforming toASTM
with a longitudinal stiffener (Article I 0.61.1) A 240 or ASTM A 276 HNS 21800.
= area of the web divided by the area of the ten-
sion flange (Articles 10.40.2 and 10.53.1.2) 10.2.4 Fasteners-Rivets and Bolts
= factor applied to gross area of flange, splice
plate or tension member in computing the Fasteners may be carbon steel bolts (ASTM A 307);
I
effective area (Articles I 0.18.2.2.4 and power-driven rivets. AASHTO M 228 Grades 1 or 2
10.18.4.1) (ASTM A 502 Grades 1 or 2); or high-strength bolts,
'Y = the ratio of Ar to Ap (Article I 0.18.1.2.1) AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M 253
'Y = load factor equal to 1.3 (Article I 0.61) (ASTMA490).
p = Fyw!Fyr(Article 10.53.1.2)
6 = angle of inclination of the web plate to the
10.2.5 Weld Metal
vertical (Articles 10.39.3.1 and 10.51.3)
til = ratio of total cross-sectional area to the cross-
Weld metal shall conform to the current require-
sectional area of both flanges (Article 10.15.2)
ments of the ANSI/AASHTOIAWS Dl.5 Bridge Welding
til = distance from the outer edge of the tension
~
Code. I
flange to the neutral axis divided by the depth

of the steel section (Articles 10.40.2 and
10.53.1.2) 10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable
A = amount of camber, in. (Article I 0.15.3) Castings, and Cast Iron
AoL = dead load camber in inches at any point (Ar-
ticle 10.15.3) 10.2.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
Am =maximum value of AoL• in. (Article 10.15.3)
 = reduction factor (Articles 10.38.5.1.2, Cast steel shall conform to specifications for Steel
10.56.1.1, and 10.56.1.3) Castings for Highway Bridges. AASHTO M 192 (ASTM
 = longitudinal stiffener coefficient (Articles A 486); Mild-to-Medium-Strength Carbon-Steel Cast-
10.39.4.3 and 10.51.5.4) ings for General Application. AASHTO M 103 (ASTM
f.l = slip coefficient in a slip-critical joint (Article A 27); and Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium.
10.57.3) Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings
for General Application. AASHTO M 163 (ASTM A
10.2 MATERIALS 743). Ductile iron castings shall conform to ASTM A
536.
10.2.1 General
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings
These specifications recognize steels listed in the fol-
lowing subparagraphs. Other steels may be used; how- Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for
ever, their properties, strengths, allowable stresses, and Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A47, Grade 35018 (min-
workability must be established and specified. imum yield point 35,000 psi).
10.2.2 Structural Steels 10.2.6.3 Cast Iron
Structural steels shall conform to the material desig- Cast iron castings shall conform to specifications for
nated in Table I 0.2A. (The stresses in this table are in Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M I 05, Class 30.
TABLE10.2A
Minimum Material Properties

Structural Steel
AASHTO Designationa,b M270 M270 M270 M270 M270
0
Grade 36 Grade SO Grade SOW Grade HPS70W Grades 100/lOOW
Equivalent ASTM
Designationb A709 A709 A709 A709 A709
Grade36 Grade SO Grade SOW Grade HPS70W Grades 100/100W4
Thickness of Plates Upto4in. Up to4 in. Up to4 in. Upto4 in. Up to 2Vl in. Over 2V2 in. to
incl. 0 incl. incl. incl. incl. 4 in. incl.
Shapesr All groups0 All groups All groups Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
Minimum Tensile
Strength, Fu 58,000 65,000 70,000 90,000 110,000 100,000
Minimum Yield Point
or Minimum Yield
Strength, Fy 36,000 50,000 50,000 70,000 100,000 90,000
a Except for the mandatory notch toughness and weldability requirements, the ASTM designations are similar to the AASHTO designations. Steels
meeting the AASHTO requirements are prequalified for use in welded bridges.
b M 270 Gr. 36 and A 709 Gr. 36 are equivalent to M 183 and A 36.
M 270 Gr. SO and A 709 Gr. SO are equivalent to M 223 Gr. SO and A S12 Gr. 50.
M 270 Gr. SOW and A 709 Gr. SOW are equivalent toM 222 and A 588.
M 270 Gr. 70W and A 709 Gr. 70W are equivalent to A 852.
M 270 Gr. 100/100W and A 709 Gr. 1001100W are equivalent toM 244 and A 514.
cAASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W replaces AASHTO M 270 Grade 70W. The intent of this replacement is to encourage the use ofhigh-perfonnance
steel (HPS) over conventional bridge steels due to its enhanced properties. AASHTO M 270 Grade 70W steel is still available, but should be used
only with the owners approval.
4
Quenched and tempered alloy steel structural shapes and seamless mechanical tubing meeting all mechanical and chemical requirements of A 709
Grades 100/lOOW, except that the specified maximum tensile strength may be 140,000 psi for structural shapes and 14S,OOO psi for seamless mecllan-
ical tubing, sball be considered as A 709 Grades 100/100W.
0
For nonstructural applications or bearing assembly components over 4" thick, use AASHTO M 270 Gr. 36 (ASTM A 709 Gr. 36).
r Groups 1 and 2 include all sbapes except those in Groups 3, 4, and S. Group 3 includes L-shapes over 3/4 inch in thickness. HP shapes over 102
pounds/foot, and the following W shapes:
Designation:
W36 x 230 to 300 incl.
W33 x 200 to 240 incl.
W14 x 142 to 211 incl.
W12 x 120 to 190 incl.
Group 4 includes the following W sbapes: W14 x 219 to 550 incl.
Group 5 includes the following W shapes: W14 x 60S to 730 incl.
For breakdown of Groups 1 and 2,see ASTM A 6.
TABLE 10.28
Minimum Material Properties
Pins, Rollers, and Rockers
Expansion Rollers Shall be Not less 'Jban 4 Inches in Diameter
AASHTO Designation M 169 M 102 M 102 M 102 M 102
with Size Limitations 4 in. in dia. or to 20 in. in dia. to 20 in. in dia. to 10 in. in dia. to 20 in. in dia.
less
ASTM Designation A 108 A668 A668 A668 A668•
Grade or Class Grades 1016 to
1030 incl. ClassC Class D ClassF Class G
Minimum Yield Point, psi
Fy 36,000b 33,000 37,500 50,000 50,000
a May substitute rolled material of the same properties.
bfor design purpose only. Not a part of the A 108 specifications. Supplementary material requirements should provide guarantee that material will
meet these values.
PartB
DESIGN DETAILS
10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS except for structures where other considerations indicate
CONSIDERATIONS a substantially different number of cycles, shall be
100,000 cycles.
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress Ranges
Members and fasteners subject to repeated variations 10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
or reversals of stress sha11 be designed so that the maxi-
mum stress does not exceed the basic allowable stresses 10.3.3.1 Main load carrying member component~)
given in Article 10.32 and that the actual range of stress subjected to tensile stress require supplemental impact
does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range given properties as described in the Material Specifications.*
in Table 10.3.1 A for the appropriate type and location
of material given in Table 10.3.1 B and shown in Fig- 10.3.3.2 These impact requirements vary depending
ure l 0.3.1 C. For members with shear connectors provided on the type of steel, type of construction, welded or me-
throughout their entire length that also satisfy the provi- chanicaliy fastened, and the average minimum service
sions of Article I 0.38.4.3, the range of stress may be com- temperature to which the structure may be subjected.**
puted using the composite section assuming the concrete Table I 0.3.3A contains the temperature zone designations.
deck to be fully effective for both positive and negative
moment. 10.3.3.3 Components requiring mandatory impact
For unpainted weathering steel, A709, all grades, the properties shall be designated on the drawings and the ap-
values of allowable fatigue stress range, Table 10.3.1 A, as propriate zone shall be designated in the contract docu-
modified by footnote d, are valid only when the design ments.
and details are in accordance with the FHWA Technical
Adl'isory orz Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures,
dated October 3, 1989. 10.3.4 Shear
Main load carrying components subjected to tensile
stresses that may be considered nonredundant load path 10.3.4.1 When longitudinal beam or girder members
members-that is. where failure of a single element could in bridges designed for Case I roadways are investigated
cause collapse-shall be designed for the allowable stress for "over 2 million" stress cycles produced by placing a
ranges indicated in Table I 0.3.1 A for Nonredundant Load single truck on the bridge (see footnote c of Table
Path Structures. Examples of nonredundant load path I 0.3.2A), the total shear force in the beam or girder under
members are flange and web plates in one or two girder this single-truck loading shall be limited to 0.58 FyDtwC.
bridges. main one-element truss members. hanger plates, The constant C. the ratio of the buckling shear stress to the
and caps at single or two-column bents. shear yield stress is defined in Article I 0.34.4.2 or Article
I0.48.8.1.
10.3.2 Load Cycles
10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN

10.3.2.1 The number of cycles of maximum stress
range to be considered in the design shall be selected from
For the calculation of stresses, span lengths shall be as-
Table 10.3.2A unless traffic and loadometer surveys or
sumed as the distance between centers of bearings or other
other considerations indicate otherwise. The fatigue live
points of support.
load preferably shall not exceed HS 20 loading.
10.3.2.2 Allowable fatigue stress ranges shall apply

*AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and
to those Group Loadings that include live load or wind Methods of Sampling and Testing.
load. **The basis and philosophy used to develop these requirements are
given in a paper entitled 'The Development of AASHTO Fracture-
Toughness Requirements for Bridge Steels.. by John M. Barsom. Feb-
10.3.2.3 The number of cycles of stress range to be ruary 1975, available from the American Iron and Steel Institute, Wash-
considered for wind loads in combination with dead loads, ington. D.C.
TABLE 10.3.1A Allowable Fatigue Stress Range 10.5.3 For trusses the ratio of depth to length of span
Redundant Load Path Structures4 preferably should not be less than Yso.
Allowable Range of Stress, Fsr (ksi)b
10.5.4 For continuous span depth ratios the span length
Category For For For For over shall be considered as the distance between the dead load
(See 'Thble 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 2,000,000
10.3.1B) Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles points of contraflexure.
A 63 (49)c 37 (29t 24 (18)C 24 (16)C 10.5.5 The foregoing requirements as they relate to
B 49 29 18 16
beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion
B' 39 23 14.5 12
c 35.5 21 13 10 of the designer.*
12d
D 28 16 10 7
E 22 13 8 4.5 10.6 DEFLECTION
E' 16 9.2 5.8 2.6
F 15 12 9 8 10.6.1 The term "deflection" as used herein shall be
the deflection computed in accordance with the assump-
tion made for loading when computing the stress in the
Nonredundant Load Path Structures member.
Allowable Range of Stress, Fsr (ksi)b
10.6.2 Members having simple or continuous spans
Category For For For For over preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to
(See Table 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 2,000,000
10.3.18) Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles service live load plus impact shall not exceed Y1100 of the
span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part by
A 50 (39t 29 (23t 24 (16)c 24 (16)c pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed
8 39 23 16 16
8' 31 18 11 11
Ysooo. For checking deflection, the service live load prefer-
c 28 16 10 9 ably shall not exceed HS 20 loading.
12d lld
D 22 13 8 5 10.6.3 The deflection of cantilever arms due to service
Ec 17 10 6 2.3 live load plus impact preferably should be limited to Y.'IIO
E' 12 7 4 1.3
F 12 9 7 6 of the cantilever arm except for the case including pedes-
trian use, where the ratio preferably should be Y37S.
a Structure types with multi-load paths where a single fracture in a
member cannot lead to the collapse. For example, a simply supported
single span multi-beam bridge or a multi-element eye bar truss member 10.6.4 When spans have cross-bracing or diaphragms
bas redundant load paths. sufficient in depth or strength to ensure lateral distribu-
l»nte range of stress is defined as the algebraic difference between tion of loads, the deflection may be computed for the
the maximum stress and the minimum stress. 'Thnsion stress is
considered to have the opposite algebraic sign from compression standard H or HS loading (M or MS) considering all
stress. beams or stringers as acting together and having equal
cFor unpainted weathering steel, A 709, all grades, when used in
conformance with the FHWA Technical Advisory on Uncoated deflection.
WetJihmng Steel in Structures, dated October 3, 1989.
dFor transverse stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges. 10.6.5 The moment of inertia of the gross cross-sec-
e Partial length welded cover plates sball not be used on flanges more
than 0.8 inches thick for nonredundant load path structures. tional area shall be used for computing the deflections of
beams and girders. When the beam or girder is a part of a
composite member, the service live load may be consid-
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS ered as acting upon the composite section.
10.5.1 For beams or girders, the ratio of depth to length 10.6.6 The gross area of each truss member shall
of span preferably should not be less than Y2S. be used in computing deflections of trusses. If per-
forated plates are used, the effective area shall be the net
10.5.2 For composite girders, the ratio of the overall
depth of girder (concrete slab plus steel girder) to the
length of span preferably should not be less than YH, and *For considerations to be taken into account when exceeding these
limitations, reference is made to "Bulletin No. 19, Criteria for the De-
the ratio of depth of steel girder alone to length of span flection of Steel Bridges... available from the American Iron and Steel
preferably should not be less than %o. Institute, Washington, D.C.
TABLE 10.3.18
r) Stress
Category
Dlustrative
Example
Kind of (See Table (See Figure
General Condition Situation Stress 10.3.1A) 10.3.IC)
Plain Member Base metal with rolled or cleaned surface. Flame-cut edges TorRev11 A 1,2
with ANSI smoothness of 1,000 or less.
Built-Up Members Base metal and weld metal in members of built-up plates or Tor Rev B 3,4.5,7
shapes (without attachments) connected by continuous full
penetration groove welds (with backing bars removed) or by
continuous fillet welds parallel to the direction of applied
stress.
Base metal and weld metal in members of built-up plates or Tor Rev B' 3,4.5,7
shapes (without attachments) connected by continuous full
penetration groove welds with backing bars not removed. or
by continuous partial penetration groove welds parallel to the
direction of applied stress.
Calculated flexural stress at the toe of transverse stiffener Tor Rev c 6
welds on girder webs or flanges.
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates with Tor Rev B 22
high-strength bolted slip-critical end connections. (See Note b)
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates
narrower than the flange having square or tapered ends, with
or without welds across the ends. or wider than flange with
welds across the ends:
(a) Flange thickness ::;; 0.8 in. Tor Rev E 7
(b) Flange thickness > 0. 8 in. Tor Rev E' 7
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates wider Tor Rev E' 7
t)
'
Groove Welded
than the flange without welds across the ends.
Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to full penetration Tor Rev B 8,10
Connections groove weld splices of rolled or welded sections having similar
profiles when welds are ground flush with grinding in.the
direction of applied stress and weld soundness established by
nondestructive inspection.
Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to full penetration Tor Rev B 13
groove weld splices with 2 ft radius transitions in width.
when welds are ground flush with grinding in the direction
of applied stress and weld soundness established by
nondestructive inspection.
Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to full penetration
groove weld splices at transitions in width or thickness, with
welds ground to provide slopes no steeper than 1 to 2Y2, with
grinding in the direction of the applied stress, and weld
soundness established by nondestructive inspection:
(a) AASHTO M 270 Grades I00/100W (ASTM A 709) Tor Rev B' ll,12
base metal
(b) Other base metals Tor Rev B 11,12
. Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to full penetration Tor Rev c 8,10~11.12
groove weld splices, with or without transitions having slopes
no greater than 1 to 2%, when the reinforcement is not
removed and weld soundness is established by nondestructive
inspection.
Groove Welded Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or partial Tor Rev c 6,15
Attachments- penetration groove welds when the detail length, L, in the
Longitudinally direction of stress, is less than 2 in.
Loadedc Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or partial Tor Rev D 15
penetration groove welds when the detail length, L, in the
~ direction of stress, is between 2 in. and 12 times the plate

thickness but less than 4 in.
TABLE 10.3.1B (Continued)

Stress lllustrative
Category Example
General Condition Situation Stress 10.3.1A) 10.3.1C)
Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or partial
penetration groove welds when the detail length, L, in the
direction of stress, is greater than 12 times the plate thickness
or greater than 4 in.:
(a) Detail thickness< 1.0 in. Tor Rev E 15
(b) Detail thickness 2: 1.0 in. Tor Rev E' 15
Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or partial
penetration groove welds with a transition radius, R,
regardless of the detail length:
-With the end welds ground smooth Tor Rev 16
(a) 'li'ansition radius 2: 24 in. B
(b) 24 in. > 'li'ansition radius 2: 6 in. c
(c) 6 in. > 'li'ansition radius 2: 2 in. D
(d) 2 in. > 'li'ansition radius 2: 0 in. E
-For all transition radii without end welds ground smooth. Tor Rev E 16
Groove welded Detail base metal attached by full penetration groove welds
Attachments- with a transition radius, R, regardless of the detail length and
Transversely with weld soundness transverse to the direction of stress
Loadedc,d established by nondestructive inspection:
-With equal pl~e thickness and reinforcement removed Tor Rev 16
(a) Transition radius 2: 24 in. B
(b) 24 in. > 'li'ansition radius 2: 6 in. c
(c) 6 in. > 'li'ansition radius 2: 2 in. D
(d) 2 in. > 'li'ansition radius ~ 0 in. E
-With equal plate thickness and reinforcement not removed Tor Rev 16
(a) Transition radius 2: 6 in. c
(b) 6 in. > 'li'ansition radius 2: 2 in. D
(c) 2 in. > 'Itansition radius 2: 0 in. E
-With unequal plate thickness and reinforcement removed Tor Rev 16
(a) 'Itansition radius ~ 2 in. D
(b) 2 in. > 'Itansition radius 2: 0 in. E
-For all transition radii with unequal plate thickness and Tor Rev E 16
reinforcement not removed.
Fillet Welded Base metal at details connected with transversely loaded
Connections welds, with the welds perpendicular to the direction of stress:
(a) Detail thickness s 0.5 in. Tor Rev c 14
(b) Detail thickness> 0.5 in. Tor Rev See Notec
Base metal at intermittent fillet welds. Tor Rev E
Shear stress on throat of fillet welds. Shear F 9
Fillet Welded Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds with Tor Rev c 15,17 18,20
t
Attachments- length, L, in the direction of stress, is less than 2 in. and

Longitudinally stud-type shear connectors.
Loadedc.d .
Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds with Tor Rev D 15,17
length, L, in the direction of stress, between 2 in. and 12
times the plate thickness but less than 4 in.
Base metal adjacent to details attached by flllet welds with
length, L, in the direction of stress greater than 12 times the
plate thickness or greater than 4 in.:
(a) Detail thickness < 1.0 in. Tor Rev E 7,9,15,17
(b) Detail thickness 2: 1.0 in. Tor Rev E' 7,9,15
TABLE 10.3.18 (Continued)
Stress Illustrative
Category Example
General Condition Situation Stress 10.3.1A) 10.3.1C)
Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds with a
transition radius, R, regardless of the detail length:
-With the end welds ground smooth Tor Rev 16
(a) 'Ihmsition radius ~ 2 in. D
(b) 2 in. > Transition radius ~ 0 in. E
-For all transition radii without the end welds Tor Rev E 16
ground smooth.
Fillet Welded Detail base metal attached by fillet welds with a transition
Attachments- radius, R, regardless of the detail length (shear stress on the
Transversely Loaded throat of fillet welds governed by Category F):
with the Weld in
the Direction of -With the end welds ground smooth Tor Rev 16
Principal Stressc.r (a) 'Ii'ansition radius ~ 2 in. D
(b) 2 in. > Transition radius ~ 0 in. E
-For all transition radii without the end welds Tor Rev E 16
ground smooth.
MechanicaJly Base metal at gross section of high-strength bolted slip Tor Rev B 21
Fastened resistant connections, except axially loaded joints which
Connections induce out-of-plane bending in connecting materials.
Base metal at net section of high-strength bolted Tor Rev B 21
bearing-type connections.
Base metal at net section of riveted connections. Tor Rev D 21
Eyebar or Pin Plates Base metal at the net section of eyebar head, or pin T E 23,24
plate
Base metal in the shank of eyebars, or through the gross
section of pin plates with:
(a) rolled or smoothly ground surfaces T A 23,24
(b) flame-cut edges T B 23,24
a "T" signifies range in tensile stress only, "Rev" signifies a range of stress involving both tension and compression during a stress cycle.
bSee Wattar, Albrecht and Sahli, Journal ofStructural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. m, No. 6, June 1985, pp. 1235-1249.
c "Longitudinally Loaded" signifies direction of applied stress is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the weld. "li"ansversely Loaded" signifies
direction of applied stress is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the weld.
dThmsversely loaded partial penetration groove welds are prohibited.
e Allowable fatigue stress range on throat of fillet welds transversely loaded is a function of the effective throat and plate thickness. (See Frank and
FISher, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 105, No. ST9, Sept. 1979.) ~ ~
'" L
- c ( 0.06+0.79H/tp) ~ :\.----·
s,- s, 1.1tl''6 .,_. --·
where Sf is equal to the allowable stress range for Category C given in Table 10.3.1A. This assumes no penetration at the weld root.
'Gusset plates attached to girder flange surfaces with only transverse fillet welds are prohibited.
volume divided by the length from center to center of 10.7 I..IMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS
perforations.
10.7.1 For compression members, the slenderness
10.6.7 The foregoing requirements as they relate to ratio, KL/r. shall not exceed 120 for main members, or
beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion those in which the major stresses result from dead or Jive
of the designer.* load, or both; and shall not exceed 140 for secondary
members, or those whose primary purpose is to brace the
*For considerations to be taken into account when exceeding these structure against lateral or longitudinal force, or to brace
limitations, reference is made to ••Bulletin No. 19, Criteria for the De-
flection of Steel Bridges," available from the American Iron and Steel or reduce the unbraced length of other members, main or
Institute, Washington. D.C. secondary.
4Q::J- 12
14
WI!LD CONDmONtl' CAT.
D~ph.:~) Squared End, Tapered

Ca •-
ovgo:y 8 or Wider than Flange
Category E '•
~ 18
~
23
- 19
-~-
9
• At End of Weld, Has No Length
-ClttJJ~
24
21
22
FIGURE 10.3.1C Illustrative Examples

TABLE 10.3.2A Stress Cycles TABLE 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designations for
Main (Longitudinal) Load Carrying Members Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
'lhlck Lane Minimum Thmperature
'JYpe of Road Case ADTr Loading l..oadingb Service Thmperature Zone Designation
Freeways, Expressways, 2,500 or 2,000,000C 500,000 oop and above 1
Major Highways, and more -l°F to -30°F 2
Streets -310f to -600f 3
Freeways, Expressways, n less than 500,000 100,000
Major Highways, and 2,500
Streets
length between panel point intersections or centers of
braced points or centers of end connections; for sec-
Other Highways and Ill 100,000 100,000
Streets not included in ondary members, the length between the centers of the
Case I orll end connections of such members or centers of braced
points.
'lhlnsverse Members and Details Subjected to Wheel Loads
1hlck 10.7.5 For tension members, except rods, eyebars. ca-
'JYpe of Road Case ADT'I"' Loading
bles, and plates, the ratio of unbraced length to radius of
Freeways, Expressways, 2,500or over gyration shall not exceed 200 for main members, shall not
Major Highways, and more 2,000,000
Streets exceed 240 for bracing members. and shall not exceed
140 for main members subject to a reversal of stress.
Freeways, Expressways, II less than 2,000,000
MajorHighways,and 2,500
Streets 10.8 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL
Other Highways and III 500,000
Streets 10.8.1 Structural steel (including bracing, cross frames,
11
Average Daily 'lhlck Thlffic (one direction). and all types of gusset plates), except for webs of certain
bLongitudinal members should also be checked for truck loading. rolled shapes, closed ribs in orthotropic decks. filler~, and
cMembers shall also be investigated for "over 2 million" stress in railings, shall be not less than y,6 inch in thickness. The
cycles produced by placing a single truck on the bridge distributed to
the girders as designated in Article 3.23.2 for one traffic lane loadiruz. web thickness of rolled beams or channels shall not be
The shear in steel girder webs shall not exceed 0.58 F,.DtwC for this less than 0.23 inches. The thickness of closed ribs in or-
single truck loading. thotropic decks shall not be less than Y,tt inch.
10.7.2 In determining the radius of gyration, r, for the 10.8.2 Where the metal wi11 be exposed to marked cor-
purpose of applying the limitations of the KUr ratio, the rosive influences, it shall be increased in thickness dr spe-
area of any portion of a member may be neglected pro- cially protected against corrosion.
vided that the strength of the member as calculated with-
out using the area thus neglected and the strength of the 10.8.3 It should be noted that there are other provisions
member as computed for the entire section with the KUr in this section pertaining to thickness for fillers, segments
ratio applicable thereto, both equal or exceed the com- of compression members, gusset plates, etc. As stated
puted total force that the member must sustain. above, fillers need not be Y,tt inch minimum.
10.7.3 The radius of gyration and the effective area for 10.8.4 For compression members, refer to '"Trusses"
carrying stress of a member containing perforated cover (Article 10.16).
plates shall be computed for a transverse section through
the maximum width of perforation. When perforations are 10.8.5 For stiffeners and other plates, refer to "Plate
staggered in opposite cover plates, the cross-sectional Girders" (Article I0.34 ).
area of the member shall be considered the same as for a
section having perforations in the same transverse plane. 10.8.6 For stiffeners and outstanding legs of angles, etc.,
refer to Article 10.1 0.
10.7.4 Actual unbraced length, L, shall be assumed as
follows: 10.9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES AND
TEE SECTIONS IN TENSION
For the top chords of half-through trusses, the length
between panel points laterally supported as indicated 10.9.1 The effective area of a single angle tension mem-
under Article 10.16.12; for other main members, the ber, a tee section tension member, or each angle of a dou-
ble angle tension member in which the shapes are con- under Strength Design as specified in Articles 10.48.1,
nected back to back on the same side of a gusset plate shall 10.50.1.1, and 10.50.2.1. When computing the strength of
be assumed as the net area of the connected leg or flange a flexural member at a section with holes in the tension
plus one-half of the area of the outstanding leg. flange, an effective flange area, Ac. specified by Equation
(I 0-4g) shall be used for that flange in computing the elas-
10.9.2 If a double angle or tee section tension member tic section properties. The diameter of the holes shall be
is connected with the angles or flanges back to back on op- taken as specified in Article I 0.16.14.6. In the case of the
posite sides of a gusset plate, the full net area of the shapes strength design method, the strength of compact sections
shall be considered effective. with holes in the tension flange shall not be taken greater
than the moment capacity at first yield.
10.9.3 When angles connect to separate gusset plates, as
in the case of a double-webbed truss, and the angles are
connected by stay plates located as near the gusset as prac- 10.13 COVER PLATES
ticable, or by other adequate means, the full net area of the
angles shall be considered effective. If the angles are not 10.13.1 The length of any cover plate added to a rolled
so connected, only 80% of the net areas shall be consid- beam shall be not less than (2d+ 3) feet, where (d) is the
ered effective. dep.th of the beam in feet. .
10.9.4 Lug angles may be considered as effective in 10.13.2 Partial length welded cover plates shall not be
transmitting stress, provided they are connected with at used on flanges more than 0.8 inches thick for nonredun-
least one-third more fasteners than required by the stress dant load path structures subjected to repetitive loadings
to be carried by the lug angle. that produce tension or reversal of stress in the member.
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES 10.13.3 The maximum thickness of a single cover plate
on a flange shall not be greater than two times the thick-
The widths of outstanding legs of angles in compres- ness of the flange to which the cover plate is attached. The
sion (except where reinforced by plates) shall not exceed total thickness of all cover plates should not be greater
the following: than 2Yl times the flange thickness.
In main members carrying axial stress, 12 times the 10.13.4 Any partial length welded cover plate shall ex-
thickness. tend beyond the theoretical end by the terminal distance,
In bracing and other secondary members, 16 times the and it shall extend to a section where the stress range in
thickness. the beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress
range for base metal adjacent to or connected by fillet
For other limitations, see Article I 0.35.2. welds. The theoretical end of the cover plate, when using
service load design methods, is the section at which the
stress in the flange without that cover plate equals the al-
10.11 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION lowable service load stress, exclusive of fatigue consider-
ations. When using strength design methods, the theoret-
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to ical end of the cover plate is the section at which the flange
resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided strength without that cover plate equals the required
for movement caused by temperature changes. Provisions strength for the design loads, exclusive of fatigue require-
shall be made for changes in length of span resulting from ments. The terminal distance is two times the nominal
live load stresses. In spans more than 300 feet long, al- cover plate width for cover plates not welded across their
lowance shall be made for expansion and contraction in ends, and 1Y2 times for cover plates welded across their
the floor. The expansion end shall be secured against lat- ends. The width at ends of tapered cover plates shall be
eral movement. not less than 3 inches. The weld connecting the cover
plate to the flange in its tenninal distance shall be contin-
uous and of sufficient size to develop a total stress of not
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS less than the computed stress in the cover plate at its the-
oretical end. All welds connecting cover plates to beam
Flexural members shall be designed using the elastic flanges shall be continuous and shall not be smaller than
section modulus except when utilizing compact sections the minimum size permitted by Article I 0.23.2.
10.13.5 Any partial length end-bolted cover plate shall

R= 14bD (10 -1)
extend beyond the theoretical end by a terminal distance
equal to the length of the end-bolted portion, and the cover ~'Vtw
plate shall extend to a section where the stress range in the
R= 7,500b (10-2}
beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress range
for base metal at ends of partial length welded cover plates Fy'V
with high-strength bolted, slip-critical end connections
In these equations, Fy is the specified minimum ,yield
(Table I 0.3 .I B}. Beams with end-bolted cover plates shall point in kips per square inch of steel in the girder web, \jl
be fabricated in the following sequence: drill holes; clean is the ratio of the total cross-sectional area to the cross-
faying surfaces; install bolts; weld. The theoretical end of sectional area of both flanges, b is the widest flange width
the end-bolted cover plate is determined in the same man- in inches, D is the clear distance between flanges in
ner as that of a welded cover plate, as is specified in Arti- inches, tw is the web thickness in inches, and R is the ra-
cle I 0.13.4. The bolts in the slip-critical connections of dius in inches.
the cover plate ends to the flange, shall be of sufficient
numbers to develop a total force of not less than the com- 10.15.2.2 In addition to the above requirements, the
puted force in the cover plate at the theoretical end. The radius shall not be less than I ,000 feet when the flange
slip resistance of the end-bolted connection shall be de- thickness exceeds 3 inches or the flange width exceeds
termined in accordance with Article I 0.32.3.2 for service 30 inches.
load design, and Article I 0.56.1.4 for load factor design.
The longitudinal welds connecting the cover plate to the
10.15.3 Camber
beam flange shall be continuous and stop a distance equal
to one bolt spacing before the first row of bolts in the end-
To compensate for possible loss of camber of heat-
bolted portion.
curved girders in service as residual stresses dissipat~, the
amount of camber in inches, .d at any section along the
10.14 CAMBER length L of the girder shaH be equal to:
Girders should be cambered to compensate for dead .doL

~ =-(~M +.dR) (10 -3}
load deflections and vertical curvature required by profile ~M
grade.
~ = 0.02 LFy ( 1,000- R)
2
R EYO 850
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND ~R = 0 for radii greater than I, 000
WELDED PLATE GIRDERS
where AoL is the camber in inches at any point along the
10.15.1 Scope length L calculated by usual procedures to compensate for
deflection due to dead loads or any other specified loads;
This section pertains to rolled beams and welded 1-sec- .dM is the maximum value of AoL in inches within the
tion plate girders heat-curved to obtain a horizontal cur- length L; E is the modulus of elasticity in ksi; Fy is the
vature. Steels that are manufactured to a specified mini- specified minimum yield point in ksi of the girder flange;
mum yield point greater than 50,000 psi, except for Grade Y11 is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
HPS70W steel, shall not be heat-curved. outer fiber in inches (maximum distance for nonsymmet-
rical sections); R is the radius of curvature in feet; and L
is the span length for simple spans or for continuous
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature spans, the distance between a simple end support and the
dead load contraflexure point, or the distance between
10.15.2.1 For heat-curved beams and girders, the points of dead load contraflexure. (L is measurcid in
horizontal radius of curvature measured to the center line inches.) Camber loss between dead load contraflexure
of the girder web shall not be less than I 50 feet and shall points adjacent to piers is small and may be neglected.
not be less than the larger of the values calculated (at any
and alJ cross sections throughout the length of the girder) Note: Part of the camber loss is attributable to construc-
from the following two equations: tion loads and will occur during construction of the
bridge; total camber loss will be complete after cover plates and at the bottom with perforated plates or
several months of in-service loads. Therefore, a stay plates and lacing.
portion of the camber increase (approximately Double Box sections, made with side channels, beams,
50%) should be included in the bridge profile. angles and plates or side segments of plates only, con-
Camber losses of this nature (but generally smaller nected with a conventional solid web, together. with top
in magnitude) are also known to occur in straight and bottom perforated cover plates or stay plates and
beams and girders. lacing.
10.16 TRUSSES 10.16.2.2 If the shape of the truss permits, compres-

sion chords shall be continuous.
10.16.1 General
10.16.2.3 In chords composed of angles in channel-
10.16.1.1 Component parts of individual truss mem- shaped members, the vertical legs of the angles preferably
bers may be connected by welds, rivets, or high-strength
shall extend downward.
bolts.
10.16.2.4 If web members are subject to reversal of
10.16.1.2 Preference should be given to trusses with
stress, their end connections shall not be pinned. Counters
single intersection web systems. Members shall be sym-
preferably shall be rigid. Adjustable counters, if used,
metrical about the central plane of the truss.
shall have open turnbuckles, and in the design of these
10.16.1.3 Trusses preferably shall have inclined end members an allowance of 10,000 pounds per square inch
posts. Laterally unsupported hip joints shall be avoided. shall be made for initial stress. Only one set of diagonals
in any panel shall be adjustable. Sleeve nuts and loop bars
10.16.1.4 Main trusses shall be spaced a sufficient shall not be used.
distance apart, center to center, to be secure against over-
turning by the assumed lateral forces. 10.16.3 Secondary Stresses
10.16.1.5 For the calculation of stresses, effective The design and details shall be such that secondary
depths shall be assumed as follows: stresses will be as small as practicable. Secondary stresses
due to truss distortion or floor beam deflection usually
Riveted and bolted trusses, distmice between centers of need not be considered in any member, the width of
gravity of the chords. which, measured parallel to the plane of distortion, is less
Pin-connected trusses, distance between centers of than one-tenth of its length. If the secondary stress ex-
chord pins.
ceeds 4,000 pounds per square inch for tension members
10.16.2 Truss Members and 3,000 for compression members, the excess shall be
treated as a primary stress. Stresses due to the flexural
10.16.2.1 Chord and web truss members shall usu- dead load moment of the member shall be considered as
ally be made in the following· shapes: additional secondary stress.
"H" sections, made with two side segments (composed 10.16.4 Diaphragms
of angles or plates) with solid web, perforated web, or
web of stay plates and lacing. 10.16.4.1 There shall be diaphragms in the trusses at
Channel sections, made with two angle segments, with the end connections of floor beams.
solid web, perforated web, o~ web of stay plates and
lacing. 10.16.4.2 The gusset plates engaging the pedestal pin
Single Box sections, made with side channels, beams, at the end of the truss shall be connected by a. diaphragm.
angles, and plates or side segments of plates only, con- Similarly, the webs of the pedestal shall, if practicable, be
nected top and bottom with perforated plates or stay connected by a diaphragm.
plates and lacing.
10.16.4.3 There shall be a diaphragm between gusset
Single Box sections, made with side channels, beams, plates engaging main members if the end tie plate is 4 feet
angles and plates only, connected at top with solid or more from the point of intersection of the members.
10.16.5 Camber 10.16.8.1 The ratio of length, in direction of stress, to

width of perforation, shall not exceed two.
The length of the truss members shall be such that the
camber will be equal to or greater than the deflection pro- 10.16.8.2 The clear distance between perforations in
duced by the dead load. the direction of stress shall not be less than the distance
between points of support.
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes
10.16.8.3 The clear distance between the end perfo-
10.16.6.1 Main members shall be proportioned so ration and the end of the cover plate shall not be less than
that their gravity axes will be as nearly as practicable in 1.25 times the distance between points of support.
the center of the section.
10.16.8.4 The point of support shall be the inner line
10.16.6.2 In compression members of unsymmetri- of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the perforated plate
cal section, such as chord sections formed of side seg- to the flanges. For plates butt welded to the flange edge of
ments and a cover plate, the gravity axis of the section rolled segments, the point of support may be taken ,as the
shan coincide as nearly as practicable with the working weld whenever the ratio of the outstanding flange width
line, except that eccentricity may be introduced to coun- to flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than
teract dead load bending. In two-angle bottom chord or di- seven. Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of
agonal members, the working line may be taken as the the flange of the rolled segment.
gage line nearest the back of the angle or at the center of
gravity for welded trusses. 10.16.8.5 The periphery of the perforation at all 1
points shan have a minimum radius of 1Y2 inches.

10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing
10.16.8.6 For thickness of metal, see Article I 0.35 .2.
10.16.7.1 Through truss spans shall have portal brac-
ing, preferably, of the two-plane or box type, rigidly con-
10.16.9 Stay Plates
nected to the end post and the top chord flanges, and as
deep as the clearance will allow. If a single plane portal is
10.16.9.1 Where the open sides of compression
used, it shall be located, preferably, in the central trans-
members are not connected by perforated plates, such
verse plane of the end posts, with diaphragms between the
members shall be provided with lacing bars and shall have
webs of the posts to provide for a distribution of the por-
stay plates as near each end as practicable. Stay plates
tal stresses. The portal bracing shall be designed to take
shall be provided at intermediate points where the lacing
the full end reaction of the top chord lateral system, and
is interrupted. In main members, the length of the end stay
the end posts shall be designed to transfer this reaction to
plates between end fasteners shall be not less than I %
the truss bearings.
times the distance between points of support and
the length of intermediate stay plates not less than Y.. of
10.16.7.2 Through truss spans shall have sway brac-
that distance. In lateral struts and other secondary. mem-
ing 5 feet or more deep at each intermediate panel point. bers, the overall length of end and intermediate stay plates
Top lateral struts shall be at least as deep as the top chord. shall be not less than % of the distance between p~ints of
support.
10.16.7.3 Deck truss spans shall have sway bracing
in the plane of the end posts and at an intermediate panel 10.16.9.2 The point of support shall be the im1er line
points. This bracing shall extend the full depth of the of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the stay plates to
trusses below the floor system. The end sway bracing shall the flanges. For stay plates butt welded to the flange edge
be proportioned to carry the entire upper lateral stress to of rolled segments, the point of support may be taken as
the supports through the end posts of the truss. the weld whenever the ratio of outstanding flang~ width
to flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates seven. Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of
flange of rolled segment. When stay plates are butt
I
When perforated cover plates are used, the following welded to rolled segments of a member, the allowable
provisions shall govern their design. stress in the member shall be determined in accordance
with Article I 0.3. Terminations of butt welds shall be 10.16.10.6 The diameter of fasteners in lacing bars
ground smooth. shall not exceed one-third the width of the bar. There shall
be at least two fasteners in each end of lacing bars con-
10.16.9.3 The separate segments of tension members nected to flanges more than 5 inches in width.
composed of shapes may be connected by perforated
plates or by stay plates or end stay plates and lacing.
End stay plates shall have the same minimum length as 10.16.11 Gusset Plates
specified for end stay plates on main compression mem-
10.16.11.1 Gusset or connection plates preferably
bers, and intermediate stay plates shall have a minimum
shall be used for connecting main members, except when
length of Y.a of that specified for intermediate stay plates on
the members are pin-connected. The fasteners connecting
main compression members. The clear distance between
each member shall be symmetrical with the axis of the
stay plates on tension members shall not exceed 3 feet.
member, so far as practicable, and the full development of
the elements of the member shall be given consideration.
10.16.9.4 The thickness of stay plates shall be not
The gusset plates shall be of ample thickness to resist
less than Yso of the distance between points of support for
shear, direct stress, and flexure acting on the weakest or
main members, and Yt10 of that distance for bracing mem-
critical section of maximum stress.
bers. Stay plates shall be connected by not less than three
fasteners on each side, and in members having lacing bars
10.16.11.2 Re-entrant cuts. except curves made for
the last fastener in the stay plates preferably shall also pass
appearance, shall be avoided as far as practicable.
through the end of the adjacent bar.
10.16.11.3 If the length of unsupported edge of
10.16.10 Lacing Bars a gusset plate exceeds the value of the expres-
sion II ,000/VF; times its thickness, the edge shall be
When lacing bars are used, the following provisions stiffened.
shall govern their design.
10.16.11.4 Listed below are the values of the expres-
10.16.10.1 Lacing bars of compression members sion 11,000/VF; for the following grades of steel:
shall be so spaced that the slenderness ratio of the portion
of the flange included between the lacing bar connections 36,000 psi, Y.P. Min 58
will be not more than 40 or more than 7'J of the slender- 50,000 psi, Y.P. Min 49
ness ratio of the member. 70,000 psi, Y.P. Min 42
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min 37
10.16.10.2 The section of the lacing bars shall be de- 100,000 psi, Y.P. Min 35
termined by the formula for axial compression in which
L is taken as the distance along the bar between its con-
nections to the main segments for single lacing, and as
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans
70% of that distance for double lacing.
10.16.12.1 The vertical truss members and the floor
10.16.10.3 If the distance across the member between beams and their connections in half-through truss spans
fastener lines in the flanges is more than 15 inches and a shall be. proportioned to resist a lateral force of not less
bar with a single fastener in the connection is used, the lac- than 300 pounds per linear foot applied at the top chord
ing shall be double and fastened at the intersections. panel points of each truss.
10.16.10.4 The angle between the lacing bars and the 10.16.12.2 The top chord shall be considered as a
axis of the member shall be approximately 45° for double column with elastic lateral supports at the panel points.
lacing and 60° for single lacing. The critical buckling force of the column, so determined,
shall exceed the maximum force from dead load, live load,
10.16.10.5 Lacing bars may be shapes or flat bars. and impact in any panel of the top chord by not less than
For main members, the minimum thickness of flat bars 50%.*
shall be Y40 of the distance along the bar between its con-
nections for single lacing and YtJO for double lacing. For
*For a discussion of columns with elastic lateral supports. refer to 1im-
bracing members, the limits shall be Yso for single lacing oshenko & Gere. "Theory of Elastic Stability, .. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
and Y1s for double lacing. First Edition, p. 122.
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression shall be considered in determining the unit stress on the
Members net section.
In the ends of compression members. the pitch of fas- 10.16.14.6 The diameter of the hole shall be taken as
teners connecting the component parts of the member Ys inch greater than the nominal diameter of the rivet or
shall not exceed four times the diameter of the fastener high-strength bolt, unless larger holes are permitted in ac-
for a length equal to I Y2 times the maximum width of the cordance with Article I 0.24.
member. Beyond this point, the pitch shaH be increased
gradually for a length equal to 1Y2 times the maximum
width of the member until the maximum pitch is
10.17 BENTSANDTOWERS
reached.
10.17.1 General
10.16.14 Net Section of .Riveted or High-Strength
Bolted Tension Members
Bents preferably shall be composed of two supporting
columns, and the bents usually shall be united in pairs to
10.16.14.1 The net section of a riveted or high-
form towers. The design of members for bents and towers
strength bolted tension member is the sum of the net sec-
is governed by applicable articles. 1
tions of it~ component parts. The net section of a part is

the product of the thickness of the part multiplied by its
least net width.
10.17.2 Single Bents
10.16.14.2 The net width for any chain of holes ex-
tending progressively across the part shaH be obtained by Single bents shall have hinged ends or else shall be de-
deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters signed to resist bending.
of all the holes in the chain and adding, for each gage
space in the chain, the quantity:
10.17.3 Batter
(10- 4) Bent~ preferably shall have a sufficient spread at the

base to prevent uplift under the assumed lateral loadings.
where: In general, the width of a bent at its base shall be not less
than one-third of it'i height.
S =pitch of any two successive holes in the chain;
g = gage of the same holes.
10.17.4 Bracing
The net section of the part is obtained from the chain that
gives the least net width.
10.17.4.1 Towers shall be braced, both transversely
10.16.14.3 For angles, the gross width shall be the and longitudinally, with stiff members having: either
sum of the widths of the legs less the thickness. The gage welded, high-strength bolted or riveted connections. The
for holes in opposite legs shall be the sum of gages from sections of members of longitudinal bracing in each panel
back of angle less the thickness. shall not be less than those of the members in corre- 1
sponding panels of the transverse bracing.

10.16.14.4 At a splice, the total stress in the member
being spliced is transferred by fasteners to the splice 10.17.4.2 The bracing of long columns shall be de-
material. signed to fix the column about both axes at or near the
same point.
10.16.14.5 When determining the unit stress on any
least net width of either splice material or member being 10.17.4.3 Horizontal diagonal bracing shall be
spliced, the amount of the stress previously transferred placed in all towers having more than two vertical panels,
by fasteners adjacent to the section being investigated at alternate intermediate panel points.
10.17.5 Bottom Struts Ar =sum of the area of the fillers on the top and
bottom of the connected plate
The bottom struts of towers shall be strong enough to Ap =smaller of either the connected plate area or
slide the movable shoes with the structure unloaded, the the sum of the splice plate areas on the top
coefficient of friction being assumed at 0.25. Provision for and bottom of the connected plate
expansion of the tower bracing shall be made in the col-
umn bearings. The design slip force, specified in Article 10.57 .3.1 in the
case of the strength design method and in Article
10.18 SPLICES 10.32.3.2.1 in the case of the service load design method,
for slip-critical connections shalJ not be adjusted for the
10.18.1 General effect of the fillers. Fillers X inch or more in thickness
shall consist of not more than two plates, unless special
10.18.1.1 Design Strength permission is given by the Engineer.
Splices may be made by rivets, by high-strength bolts or 10.18.1.2.2 For bolted web splices with thick-
by the use of welding. In general, splices whether in tension, ness differences of Yt" inch or less, no filler plates are
compression, bending, or shear, shall be designed in the case required.
of the service load design or strength design methods for a
capacity based on not less than the average of the required I 0.1 8.1.2.3 Fillers for welded splices shaH conform
design strength at the point of spJice and the design strength to the requirements of the ANS//AASHTOIAWS D1.5
of the member at the same point but, in any event, not less Bridge Welding Code.
than 75% of the design strength of the member, except as
specified herein. Bolted splices in flexural members shall
satisfy the requirements of Article I0.18.2. Bolted splices in 10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates
compression members shall satisfy the requirement~ of Ar-
ticle I 0.18.3. Bolted splices in tension members shall sat- For a flange splice with inner and outer splice plates,
isfy the requirements of Article 10.18.4. Welded splices the flange design force may be assumed to be divided
shall satisfy the requirements of Article I 0.18.5. Where a equally to the inner and outer plates and their connec-
section changes at a splice, the smaller section is to be used tions when the areas of the inner and outer plates do not
to satisfy the above splice requirements. differ by more than I 0%. When the areas of the inner and
outer plates differ by more than 10%, the design force in
10.18.1.2 Fillers each splice plate and its connection shall be determined
by multiplying the flange design force by the ratio of the
10.18.1.2.1 For fillers X inch and thicker in bolted or area of the splice plate under consideration to the total
riveted axially loaded connections, including girder flange area of the inner and outer splice plates. For this case, the
splices. additional fasteners shall be required to distribute shear strength of the connection shall be checked for the
the total stress in the member uniformly over the com- maximum calculated splice plate force acting on a sin-
bined section of the member and the filler. The filler shall gle shear plane. The slip resistance of high-strength
either be extended beyond the splice material and secured bolted connections for a flange splice with inner
by additional bolts, or as an alternate to extending the and outer splice plates shall always be checked for the
filler, an equivalent number of bolts may be included in flange design force divided equally to the two slip
the connection. Fillers X inch and thicker need not be ex- planes.
tended and developed provided that the design shear
strength of the fasteners, specified in Article 10.56.1.3.2 10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns
in the case of the strength design method and in Table
10.32.3B in the case of the service load design method, is Splices in truss chords and columns shall be located
reduced by the following factor R: as near to the panel points as practicable and usually on
the side where the smaller stress occurs. The arrange-
R = [(1 + y) I (I+ 2y)] (10- 4a) ment of plates, angles, or other splice elements shall be
such as to make proper provision for the stresses, both
where: y=~ axial and bending, in the component parts of the mem-
AP bers spliced.
10.18.2 Flexural Members

~ Mu = maximum bending strength of the section in pos-
~-I itive or negative flexure at the point of splice,
10.18.2.1 General whichever causes the maximum compressive
stress due to the factored loads at the mid-thick-
/0.18.2.1.1 In continuous spans, splices shall prefer- ness of the flange under consideration
ably be made at or near points of dead-load contraflexure. My = moment capacity at first yield for the section at
the point of splice used to compute Mu. For com-
/0.18.2.1.2 In both flange and web splices, there posite sections, My shall be calculated in accor-
shall be not less than two rows of bolts on each side of the dance with Article I0.50( c). For hybrid sections,
joint. My shall be computed in accordance with Article
10.53.
10. 18.2.1.3 Oversize or slotted holes shall not be used feu = maximum elastic flexural stress due to the fac-
in either the member or the splice plates at bolted splices. tored loads at the mid-thickness of the control-
ling flange at the point of splice.
I 0. I 82.1.4 In both flange and web splices, high- R = reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
strength bolted connections shall be proportioned to pre- Article I0.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0
vent slip during erection of the steel and during the cast- when fc:u is less than or equal to Fyw• where Fyw is
ing or placing of the deck. equal to the specified minimum yield strength of
the web. For homogeneous girders, R shall al-
I 0. 18.2.1.5 In the case of the strength design ways be taken equal to 1.0.
method, the strength of compact sections at the point of Fyr = specified minimum yield strength of the flange
splice shall not be taken greater than the moment capac-
ity at first yield, computed by accounting for the holes in As a minimum, the splice plates for the noncontrolling
the tension flange as specified in Article I 0.12. flange shall be proportioned for a design force, p nc:u• p ncu
shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fn~-u· times the
10.18.2.1.6 Flange and web splices in areas of stress smaller effective· flange area. Ae, on either side of the
reversal shall be checked for both positive and negative splice. Fncu is defined as follows:
flexure.
10.18.2.1.7 Riveted and bolted flange angle splices (10-4c)

shall include two angles, one on each side of the flexural
member. where:
10.18.2.2 Flange Splices Rc:u = the absolute value of the ratio of Fc:u to feu for the
controlling flange.
I 0.18.2.2. 1 As a minimum, in the case of the strength fncu = flexural stress due to the factored loads ,at the
design method, the splice plates on the controlling flange mid-thickness of the noncontrolling flange at the
shall be proportioned for a design force, Pcu· The control- point of splice concurrent with feu
ling flange shall be taken as the top or bottom flange for
the smaller section at the point of splice, whichever flange In calculating feu• fnc:u• Mu. My and R, holes in the flange
has the maximum ratio of the elastic flexural stress at its subject to tension shall be accounted for as specified in Ar-
mid-thickness due to the factored loads to its maximum ticle I 0.12. For a flange splice with inner and outer splice
strength. Pcu shall be taken equal to a design stress, Feu• plates, the flange design force shall be proportioned to the
times the smaller effective flange area. Ae. on either side inner and outer plates and their connections as specified
of the splice. Ae is defined in Article I 0.18.2.2.4 and Feu is in Article 10.18.1.3. The effective area, Ac, of each splice
defined as follows: plate shall be sufficient to prevent yielding of the splice
plate under its calculated portion of the design force. Ac of
each splice plate shall be taken as defined in Article
(10- 4b) 10. 18.2.2.4. As a minimum, the connections for both the
top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned to de-
where: velop the design force in the flange through shear in the
et = 1.0 except that a lower value equal to (MiMy) bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Article
may be used for flanges in compression at sec- 10.56.1.3.2. Where filler plates are required, the require-
tions where Mu is less than My. ments of Article 10.18.1.2.1 shall also be satisfied.
10.18.2.2.2 As a minimum, in the case of the strength As a minimum, the splice plates for the noncontrolling
design method, high-strength bolted connections for both flange shall be proportioned for a design force, p nef· p ncr
top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned to pre- shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fnc:r• times the
vent slip at an overload design force, Pro· For the flange smaller effective flange area, Ac. on either side of the
under consideration, Pro shall be computed as follows: splice. Fncr is defined as follows:
(10-4f)
(10-4d)
where:
where:
Rcr = the absolute value of the ratio of Fer to fer for the
fo = maximum flexural stress due to D + ~L(L + at n controlling flange
the mid-thickness of the flange under considera- fncr = flexural stress at the mid-thickness of the non-
tion for the smaller section at the point of splice, controlling flange at the point of splice concur-
where ~L is defined in Article 3.22
rent with fer
R = reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
Article I 0.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0 In calculating Fer• fncr and R, holes in the flange subject to
when fo is less than or equal to Fyw• where Fyw is tension shall be accounted for as specified in Article
equal to the specified minimum yield strength of
I 0.12. For a flange splice with inner and outer splice
the web. For homogeneous girders, R shall al-
plates, the flange design force shall be proportioned to the
ways be taken equal to 1.0. .
inner and outer plates and their connections as specified
A, = smaller gross flange area on either side of the
in Article 10.18.1.3. The effective area, Ae. of each splice
splice
plate shall be sufficient to ensure that the stress in. the
splice plate does not exceed the allowable flexural stress
{0and R shall be computed using the gross section of the
under its calculated portion of the design force. Ae of each
member. The slip resistance of the connection shall be
splice plate shall be taken as defined in Article
computed from Equation ( 10-172).
I 0.18.2.2.4. As a minimum, the connections for both the
top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned to de-
J0./8.2.2.3 As a minimum, in the case of the service
velop the design force in the flange through shear in the
load design method, the splice plates on the controlling
bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Table
flange shall be proportioned for a design force, Per. The
10.32.3B. Where filler plates are required, the require-
controlling flange shall be taken as the top or bottom
ments of Article 10.18.1.2.1 shall also be satisfied. As a
flange for the smaller section at the point of splice,
minimum, high-strength bolted connections shall also be
whichever flange has the maximum ratio of the elastic
proportioned to prevent slip at a force equal to the maxi-
flexural stress at its mid-thickness to its allowable stress. Per
mum elastic flexural stress due to D + (L + I) at the mid-
shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fer, times the smaller
thickness of the flange under consideration for the smaller
effective flange area, Ac. on either side of the splice. Ac is
section at the point of splice times the smaller value of the
defined in Article I 0.18.2.2.4 and Fer is defined as follows:
gross flange area on either side of the splice. The slip re-
sistance of the connection shall be determined as specified
(l0-4e) in Article 10.32.3.2.1.
where: 10.18.2.2.4 For checking the strength of flange

splices, an effective area, Ae. shall be used for the flange
fer= maximum elastic flexural stress at the mid-thick- and for the individual splice plates as follows:
ness of the controlling flange at the point of
splice. For flanges and their splice plates subject to tension:
Fb = allowable flexural stress for the flange under con-
sideration at the point of splice
(10-4g)
R = reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in Ar-
ticle I 0.40.2.1. R shall be taken equal to 1.0 when
where:
fer is less than or equal to the allowable flexural
stress for the web steel. For homogeneous girders, Wn = least net width of the flange or splice plate com-
R shall always be taken equal to 1.0. puted as specified in Article I 0.16.14
I 0.18.2.2.4 DIVISION I-DESIGN 275
= flange or splice plate thickness /0.18.2.3.3 As a minimum, in the case of the strength
A8 = gross area of the flange or splice plate design method, web splice plates and their connections
(3 = 0.0 for M 270 Grade I 0011 OOW steels, or when shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mvu• due to the
holes exceed I !4 inch in diameter. eccentricity of the design shear at the point of splice de-
= 0.15 for all other steels and when holes are Jess fined as follows:
than or equal to I !4 inch in diameter.
(10-4k)
The diameter of the holes shall be taken a'i specified in Ar-
ticle I 0.16.14.6. where:
For the flanges and their splice plates subject to

Vwu = design shear in the web at the point of splice de-
fined in Artic1e l 0.18.2.3.2
compression: c = distance from the centerline of the splice to the
centroid of the connection on the side of the
(10- 4h) joint under consideration
/0. 18.2.3.4 As a minimum, in the case of the ~trength

10.18.2.3 Web Splices
design method, web splice plates and their connections
shall be proportioned for a design moment at the point of
/0.18.2.3.1 In general, web splice plates and their
splice, Mwu• representing the portion of the flexural mo-
connections shall be proportioned for shear, a moment
ment that is assumed to be resisted by the web. Mwu shall
due to the eccentricity of the shear at the point of splice, be applied at the mid-depth of the web. For sections where
and a portion of the flexural moment that is assumed to be the neutral axis is not located at mid-depth of the. web, a
resisted by the web at the point of splice.* Webs shaH be horizontal design force resultant in the web at the point of
spliced symmetrically by plates on each side. The web splice, Hwu• shall also be applied at the mid-depth of the
splice plates shall extend as near as practical for the ful1 web. Mwu and Hwu may be computed as follows:
depth between flanges.
I 0.18.2.3.2 As a minimum, in the case of the strength ( 10- 41)

design method, web splice plates and their connections
shaH be proportioned for a design shear in the web at the
point of splice, v uu• defined as follows: (10-4m)
For V < 0.5V u: where:

Feu = design stress for the controlling flange at the
Vwu = 1.5V (10-4i) point of splice defined in Article 10.18.2.2.1
(positive for tension; negative for compression)
R = reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
For V ~ 0.5V u: I
Article I 0.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0

when feu is less than or equal to Fyw• where F}'W is
(10-4j) equal to the specified minimum yield strength of
the web. For homogeneous girders, R shall l
al-
ways be taken equal to 1.0.
where:
R:u =the absolute value of the ratio of Feu to feu for the
V = maximum shear in the web at the point of splice controlling flange
due to the factored loads fncu= flexural stress due to the factored loads at the
V u = shear capacity of the web at the point of splice mid-thickness of the noncontro11ing ftunge at the
point of splice concurrent with feu (positive for
tension; negative for compression)
~~<For an alternative approach for compact steel sections. reference is
made to Firas I. Sheikh-lbrnhim and Karl H. Frank, 'The Ultimate 10./8.2.3.5 As a minimum, in the case of the strength
Strength of Symmetric Beam Bolted Splices," AISC Engineering Jour- design method, web splice plates and their connections
nal. 3rd Quarter, 1998, and 'The Ultimate Strength of Unsymmetric
Beam Bolted Splices," AISC Engineering Jormw/, 2nd Quarter, 2001. shall be proportioned to develop the most critical combi-
nation ofVwu• Mvu• Mwu and Hwu· The connections shall be 10.18.2.3.6 As a minimum, in the case of the service
proportioned as eccentrically loaded connections to de- load design method, web splice plates and their connec-
velop the resultant design force through shear in the bolts tions shall be proportioned for a design shear stress in the
and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Article web at the point of splice, Fw, defined as follows:
10.56.1.3.2. In addition, as a minimum, high-strength
bolted connections for web splices shall be proportioned For fv < 0.5Fv:
as eccentrically loaded connections to prevent slip under
the most critical combination of: I ) an overload design
(10-4r)
shear, V wo• 2) an overload design moment, M~o· due to the
eccentricity of the overload design shear, 3) an overload
For fv ~ 0.5Fv:
design moment, Mwo• applied at mid-depth of the web rep-
resenting the portion of the flexural moment that is as-
sumed to be resisted by the web, and 4) for sections where (10- 4s)
the neutral axis is not located at the mid-depth of the web,
an overload horizontal design force resultant, Hwo• applied where:
at mid-depth of the web, as follows:
fv =maximum shear stress in the web at the point of
splice
(10- 4n)
Fv = allowable shear stress in the web at the point of
splice
where:
V0 = maximum shear in the web due to D + ~L(L+ I) 10.18.2.3. 7 As a minimum, in the case of the service
at the point of the splice, where ~L is defined in load design method, web splice plates and their connec-
Article 3.22 tions shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mv. due
to the eccentricity of the design shear at the point of splice
(10- 4o) defined as follows:
Mwo and Hwo may be computed as follows: (10-4t)
where:
(10-4p)
Fw = design shear stress in the web at the point of
splice defined in Article 10.18.2.3.6
(10-4q) D =web depth
tw = web thickness
where:
I 0.18.2.3.8 As a minimum, in cases of the service
fo = maximum flexural stress due to D + {3 1.(L+ I) at
load design method, web splice plates and their connec-
the mid-thickness of the flange under consider-
tions shall be proportioned for a design moment at the
ation for the smaller section at the point
point of splice, Mw. representing the portion of the flex-
of splice (positive for tension; negative for com-
ural moment that is assumed to be resisted by the web. Mw
pression)
shall be applied at the mid-depth of the web. For sections
for = flexural stress due to D + (3._(L+ I) at the mid-
where the neutral axis is not located at the mid-depth of
thickness of the other flange at the point of splice
the web, a horizontal design force resultant in the web at
concurrent with fo in the flange under considera-
the point of splice, Hw. shall also be applied at the mid-
tion (positive for tension: negative for compres-
sion) depth of the web. Mw and Hw may be computed as follows:
fo and for shall be computed using the gross section of the

member. The maximum resultant force on the eccentri- (10-4u)
cally loaded connection shall not exceed the slip resis-
tance computed from Equation (10-172) with Nh taken
equal to 1.0. (10-4v)

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Standard Specifications

for Highway Bridges

Adopted and Published by the

Code: HB-17 ISBN: 156051-171-Q

President: Brad Mallory, Pennsylvania

Region /: Joseph Boardman, New York, One-Year Term

Region II: Bruce Saltsman, Tennessee, One-Year Term

Region III: Kirk Brown, Illinois, One-Year Term

Region IV: Joseph Perkins, Alaska, One-Year Term

Immediate Past President: E. Dean Carlson, Kansas

0 TOM LULAY, Oregon, Chairman

ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H. SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon, Jeff

Major changes and revisions to this edition are as follows:

0 Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires

Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other

SECTION 5 ........................................................... 111

3.1.3 ................................................................ 433

SECTION 1-GENERAL PROVISIONS

1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL

SECTION 2-GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

2.1 GENERAL ...................................................7

2.6.1 Roadway Width ............................................ I 0

PART A-TYPES OF LOADS

3.1 NOTATIONS ................................................ 17

3.15.1 Superstructure Design ......................................26

PART B-COMBINATIONS OF LOADS

3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS ................................. 30

PART C-DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS

3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL

3.24.5.2 Railing Loads ............................................36

PART A-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS

4.1 GENERAL ..................................................43

PART B-SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS .........................................45

4.4.11.2 Moments ................................................67

4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity ..... 0 •••• 0 70 •••••••••••••••••••

4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity .. 0 0 •••••• 70 0 0 •• 0 •••••••• 0 •• 0

4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils .. 0 •• 0 70

4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils ........................70

4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles .......... o o 0 ••••••• 72 0 •••••• 0 • 0 ••••••••

4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile ...... o o ••••••••• o •••• 0 0 • 0 72••• 0 •• 0 0 0 •••• 0 0 ••••

4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group ............. 0 ••••••••••••••••• 72 0 •••••••••••••

4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction .......... 0 •••••••••••••••••••• 72 0 •••

4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil .........................................72

4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles ...................................77

4.6.5.5.3 Tolerable Movement ..................................... 87

PART C-STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

4.8 SCOPE .....................................................91

4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States ...................97

4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity ............................. 104

SECTION 5-RETAINING WALLS

PART A-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS

5.1 GENERAL ................................................. 111

5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls .............................. 112

5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN ....... 138

PART C-STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

5.10 SCOPE .................................................... 174

5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States .................................. 175

6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY

PART A-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS

7.1 GENERAL ................................................. 183

PART B-sERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

7.3 PmRS ..................................................... 183

7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers .......................................... 183