City

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see City (disambiguation).
A city is a large human settlement.[1][2] Cities generally have extensive systems
for housing, tranportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, and communication.
Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organizations and
businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process.

Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but

following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, roughly half of
the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for
global sustainability.[3] Present-day cities usually form the core of larger
metropolitan areas and urban areas - creating numerous commuters traveling towards
city centers for employment, entertainment, and edification. However, in a world of
intensifying globalization, all cities are in different degree also connected
globally beyond these regions.

The most populated city proper is Shanghai[4] while the largest metropolitan areas
also include the Greater Tokyo Area and Jabodetabek (Jakarta).[5] The cities of
Faiyum,[6] Damascus,[7] and Varanasi[8] are among those laying claim to longest
continual inhabitation.

Contents [hide]
1 Meaning
2 Geography
2.1 Site
2.2 Center
2.3 Public space
2.4 Internal structure
2.5 Urban areas
3 History
3.1 Ancient times
3.2 Middle Ages
3.3 Early modern
3.4 Industrial age
3.5 Post-industrial age
4 Urbanization
5 Government
5.1 Municipal services
5.2 Finance
5.3 Governance
5.4 Urban planning
6 Society
6.1 Social structure
6.2 Economics
6.3 Culture and communications
6.4 Warfare
7 Infrastructure
7.1 Utilities
7.2 Transportation
7.3 Housing
8 Ecology
9 World city system
9.1 Global city
9.2 Transnational activity
9.3 Global governance
9.4 United Nations System
10 Representation in culture
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links
Meaning[edit]

Palitana represents the city's symbolic function in the extreme, devoted as it is

to Jain temples.[9]
A city is distinguished from other human settlements by its relatively great size,
but also by its functions and its special symbolic status, which may be conferred
by a central authority. The term can also refer either to the physical streets and
buildings of the city or to the collection of people who dwell there, and can be
used in a general sense to mean urban rather than rural territory.[10][11]

A variety of definitions, invoking population, population density, number of

dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure, are used in national censuses to
classify populations as urban. Common population definitions for a city range
between 1,500 and 50,000 people, with most states using a minimum between 1,500 and
5000 inhabitants.[12][13] However, some jurisdictions set no such minimums.[14] In
others, such as in the United Kingdom, city status is awarded on local criteria.
According to the "functional definition" a city is not distinguished by size alone,
but also by the role it plays within a larger political context. Cities serve as
administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for their larger
surrounding areas.[15][16]

The presence of a literate elite is sometimes included in the definition.[17] A

typical city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of
taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to feed the
government workers. (This arrangement contrasts with the more typically horizontal
relationships in a tribe or village accomplishing common goals through informal
agreements between neighbors, or through leadership of a chief.) The governments
may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work projects such as canal
building, food distribution, land ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing,
finance, or a combination of these. Societies that live in cities are often called
civilizations.

The word city and the related civilization come, via Old French, from the Latin
root civitas, originally meaning citizenship or community member and eventually
coming to correspond with urbs, meaning city in a more physical sense.[10] The
Roman civitas was closely linked with the Greek "polis" � another common root
appearing in English words such as metropolis.[18]

Geography[edit]

Hillside housing and graveyard in Kabul.

Panoramic view of Tirana, Albania from Mount Dajt in 2004.

Downtown Pittsburgh sits at the confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers,
which become the Ohio.

Kinshasa ends and fields begin.

The L'Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C., inspired by the design of Versailles,
combines a utilitarian grid pattern with diagonal avenues and a symbolic focus on
monumental architecture.[19]

This aerial view of the Gush Dan metropolitan area in Israel shows the
geometrically planned[20] city of Tel Aviv proper (upper left) as well as Givatayim
to the east and some of Bat Yam to the south. Tel Aviv's population is 433,000; the
total population of its metropolitan area is 3,785,000.[21]
Urban geography deals both with cities in their larger context and with their
internal structure.[22]

Site[edit]
Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological,
economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in
city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of rail
transport in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban
population lives near the coast or on a river.[23]

Urban areas as a rule cannot produce their own food and therefore must develop some
relationship with a hinterland which sustains them.[24] Only in special cases such
as mining towns which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities
disconnected from the countryside which feeds them.[25] Thus, centrality within a
productive region influences siting, as economic forces would in theory favor the
creation of market places in optimal mutually reachable locations.[26]

Center[edit]
Main article: City centre
The vast majority of cities have a central area containing buildings with special
economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area
by the Greek term temenos or if fortified as a citadel.[27] These spaces
historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider
sphere of influence.[26] Today cities have a city center or downtown, sometimes
coincident with a central business district.

Public space[edit]
Cities typically have public spaces where anyone can go. These include privately
owned spaces open to the public as well as forms of public land such as public
domain and the commons. Western philosophy since the time of the Greek agora has
considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic public sphere.
[28][29] Public art adorns (or disfigures) public spaces. Parks and other natural
sites within cities provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity
of typical built environments.

Internal structure[edit]
Urban structure generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial,
concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. Physical environment generally constrains
the form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, it may rely on
terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its means of subsistence (e.g.
agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the
surrounding landscape.[30] Beyond these "geomorphic" features, cities can develop
internal patterns, due to natural growth or to city planning.

In a radial structure, main roads converge on a central point. This form could
evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town
walls and citadels marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such
forms were supplemented by ring roads moving traffic around the outskirts of a
town. Dutch cities such as Amsterdam and Haarlem are structured as a central square
surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as and also
Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.

A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the grid plan, has
been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The Indus Valley
Civilisation built Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and other cities on a grid pattern, using
ancient principles described by Kautilya, and aligned with the compass points.[31]
[15][32][33] The ancient Greek city of Priene exemplifies a grid plan with
specialized districts used across the Hellenistic Mediterranean.

Urban areas[edit]
Urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the city
proper[34] in a form of development sometimes described critically as urban sprawl.
[35] Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial,
residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of the term and
has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-
rural binary.[13]

Metropolitan areas include suburbs and exurbs organized around the needs of
commuters, and sometimes edge cities characterized by a degree of economic and
political independence. (In the USA these are grouped into metropolitan statistical
areas for purposes of demography and marketing.) Some cities are now part of a
continuous urban landscape called urban agglomeration, conurbation, or megalopolis
(exemplified by the BosWash corridor of the Northeastern United States.)[36]

History[edit]
Main article: History of the city
Further information: Urban history, Historical urban community sizes, and List of
largest cities throughout history

An arch from the ancient Sumerian city Ur, which flourished in the third millennium
BC, can be seen at present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in Iraq

Mohenjo-daro, a city of the Indus Valley Civilization, which was rebuilt six or
more times, using bricks of standard size, and adhering to the same grid
layout�also in the third millennium BC.

This aerial view of what was once downtown Teotihuacan shows the Pyramid of the
Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and the processional avenue serving as the spine of the
city's street system.
Cities, characterized by population density, symbolic function, and urban planning,
have existed for thousands of years. In the conventional view, civilization and the
city both followed from the development of agriculture, which enabled production of
surplus food, and thus a social division of labour (with concomitant social
stratification) and trade.[37][38] Early cities often featured granaries, sometimes
within a temple.[39] A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen
without agriculture, due to alternate means of subsistence (fishing),[40] to use as
communal seasonal shelters,[41] to their value as bases for defensive and offensive
military organization,[42][43] or to their inherent economic function.[44][45][46]
Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area,
and ancient leaders such as Alexander the Great founded and created them with zeal.
[47]

Ancient times[edit]
Further information: Cities of the Ancient Near East, Polis, City-state, and Late
Antiquity � Cities
Jericho and �atalh�y�k, dated to the eighth millennium BC, are among the earliest
cities known to archaeologists.[41][48]

In the fourth and third millennium BC, complex civilizations flourished in the
river valleys of Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt. Excavations in these areas
have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or
religion. Some had large, dense populations, but others carried out urban
activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated
populations. Among the early Old World cities, Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley
Civilization in present-day Pakistan, existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the
largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a sophisticated sanitation system.
[49] China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act
as celestial microcosms.[50] The Ancient Egyptian cities known physically by
archaeologists are not extensive.[15] They include (known by their Arab names) El
Lahun, a workers' town associated with the pyramid of Senusret II, and the
religious city Amarna built by Akhenaten and abandoned. These sites appear planned
in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms
for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher
classes.[51]

In Mesopotamia, the civilization of Sumer, followed by Assyria and Babylon, gave

rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostering multiple languages written
in cuneiform.[52] The Phoenician trading empire, flourishing around the turn of the
first millennium BC, encompassed numerous cities extending from Tyre, Cydon, and
Byblos to Carthage and C�diz.

In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece developed the polis,

an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city.
[53] The agora, meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of
athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the polis.[54] Rome's rise to
power brought its population to one million. Under the authority of its empire,
Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its
principles of urban architecture, design, and society.[55]

In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and
Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico
civilization, Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari,
Chimu and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major
population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal
Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the
30th century BC and the 18th century BC.[56] Mesoamerica saw the rise of early
urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the
Preclassic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later
cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier urban traditions.

Jenn�-Jeno, located in present-day Mali and dating to the third century BC, lacked
monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class�but nevertheless had
specialized production and relations with a hinterland.[57] Pre-Arabic trade
contacts probably existed between Jenn�-Jeno and North Africa.[58] Other early
urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust,
Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade
route between Egypt and Gao.[59]

In the first millennium AD, Angkor in the Khmer Empire grew into one of the most
extensive cities in the world[60][61] and may have supported up to one million
people.[62]

Middle Ages[edit]

The Ming Dynasty of China oversaw the creation of the Forbidden City and the
expansion of Beijing to become the largest city in the world.

This map of Haarlem, the Netherlands, created around 1550, shows the city
completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal, with its square shape
inspired by Jerusalem.
In the remnants of the Roman Empire, cities of late antiquity gained independence
but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to
Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities
Baghdad, Cairo, and C�rdoba.[63] From the 9th through the end of the 12th century,
Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, was the largest and wealthiest
city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million.[64][65] The Ottoman Empire
gradually gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including
Constantinople in 1453.

By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states,
taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime
empires. In Italy medieval communes developed into city-states including the
Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. In Northern Europe, cities including
L�beck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce.
Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of
Ghent, Ypres, and Amsterdam.[66] Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the
case of Sakai, which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.

Early modern[edit]
In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization
following the Peace of Westphalia in the seventeenth century.[67][68] Western
Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce
following the emergence of an Atlantic trade. However, most towns remained small.

During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept was
extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered
territories, and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances and
urbanism.

Industrial age[edit]
The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive
urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other
regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural
communities into urban areas.

19th-century London as capital of the world, crowded and thick with its own variety
of smog.
England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities
across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing.[69] In the United
States from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation
costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from
rural to city areas.

Industrialized cities became deadly places to live, due to health problems

resulting from overcrowding, occupational hazards of industry, contaminated water
and air, poor sanitation, and communicable diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
Factories and slums emerged as regular features of the urban landscape.[70]

Post-industrial age[edit]
In the second half of the twentieth century, deindustrialization (or "economic
restructuring") in the West led to poverty, homelessness, and urban decay in
formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a "Rust Belt" and cities
such as Detroit, Michigan, and Gary, Indiana began to shrink, contrary to the
global trend of massive urban expansion.[71] Such cities have shifted with varying
success into the service economy and public-private partnerships, with concomitant
gentrification, uneven revitalization efforts, and selective cultural development.
[72] Under the Great Leap Forward and subsequent five-year plans continuing today,
the People's Republic of China has undergone concomitant urbanization and
industrialization and to become the world's leading manufacturer.[73][74]

Amidst these economic changes, high technology and instantaneous telecommunication

enable select cities to become centers of the knowledge economy.[75][76][77] A new
smart city paradigm, supported by institutions such as the RAND Corporation and
IBM, is bringing computerized surveillance, data analysis, and governance to bear
on cities and city-dwellers.[78] Some companies are building brand new
masterplanned cities from scratch on greenfield sites.

Urbanization[edit]
Main article: Urbanization

Clothes hang neatly and visibly in these Jakarta dwellings on the water near a
dump.
Urbanization is the process of migration from rural into urban areas, driven by
various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until the 18th century, an
equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring
markets and small-scale manufacturing.[79][80] With the agricultural and industrial
revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration
and through demographic expansion. In England the proportion of the population
living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891.[81] In 1900, 15% of the
world population lived in cities.[82] The cultural appeal of cities also plays a
role in attracting residents.[83]

Urbanization rapidly spread across the Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s
has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, reported in 2014 that for the
first time more than half of the world population lives in cities.[84][a]

Graph showing urbanization from 1950 projected to 2050.[91]

Latin America is the most urban continent, with four fifths of its population
living in cities, including one fifth of the population said to live in shantytowns
(favelas, villas miserias, etc.).[92] Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen,
China and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities,
with annual growth rates of 5�8%.[93] In general, the more developed countries of
the "Global North" remain more urbanized than the less developed countries of the
"Global South"�but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is
happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute
number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting.[80] The UN predicts an
additional 2.5 billion citydwellers (and 300 million fewer countrydwellers)
worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and
Africa.[84][94]

Megacities, cities with population in the multi-millions, have proliferated into

the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.[95][96] Economic
globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign capital
arrange for rapid industrialization, as well as relocation of major businesses from
Europe and North America, attracting immigrants from near and far.[97] A deep gulf
divides rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite
living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard
housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.[98]

Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with
increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for
residential and commercial use, and with development underground.[99][100]

Urbanization can create rapid demand for water resources management, as formerly
good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and the volume of sewage
begins to exceed manageable levels.[101]

Government[edit]
Further information: Local government
The city council of Tehran meets in September 2015.
Local government of cities takes different forms including prominently the
municipality (especially in England, in the United States, in India, and in other
British colonies; legally, the municipal corporation;[102] municipio in Spain and
in Portugal, and, along with municipalidad, in most former parts of the Spanish and
Portuguese empires) and the commune (in France and in Chile; or comune in Italy).

The chief official of the city has the title of mayor. Whatever their true degree
of political authority, the mayor typically acts as the figurehead or
personification of their city.[103]

The city hall in George Town, Malaysia, today serves as the seat of the City
Council of Penang Island.[104]
City governments have authority to make laws governing activity within cities,
while its jurisdiction is generally considered subordinate (in ascending order) to
state/provincial, national, and perhaps international law. This hierarchy of law is
not enforced rigidly in practice�for example in conflicts between municipal
regulations and national principles such as constitutional rights and property
rights.[68] Legal conflicts and issues arise more frequently in cities than
elsewhere due to the bare fact of their greater density.[105] Modern city
governments thoroughly regulate everyday life in many dimensions, including public
and personal health, transport, burial, resource use and extraction, recreation,
and the nature and use of buildings. Technologies, techniques, and laws governing
these areas�developed in cities�have become ubiquitous in many areas.[106]
Municipal officials may be appointed from a higher level of government or elected
locally.[107]

Municipal services[edit]

The Dublin Fire Brigade pictured in April 1970, quenching a severe fire at a
hardware store.
Cities typically provide municipal services such as education, through school
systems; policing, through police departments; and firefighting, through fire
departments; as well as the city's basic infrastructure. These are provided more or
less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion.[108][109] Responsibility for
administration usually falls on the city government, though some services may be
operated by a higher level of government,[110] while others may be privately run.
[111] Armies may assume responsibility for policing cities in states of domestic
turmoil such as America's King assassination riots of 1968.

Finance[edit]
The traditional basis for municipal finance is local property tax levied on real
estate within the city. Local government can also collect revenue for services, or
by leasing land that it owns.[112] However, financing municipal services, as well
as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which
cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private
sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services to into the private
sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned
corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradable financial
instruments and derivatives). This situation has become acute in deindustrialized
cities and in cases where businesses and wealthier citizens have moved outside of
city limits and therefore beyond the reach of taxation.[113][114][115][116] Cities
in search of ready cash increasingly resort to the municipal bond, essentially a
loan with interest and a repayment date.[117] City governments have also begun to
use tax increment financing, in which a development project is financed by loans
based on future tax revenues which it is expected to yield.[116] Under these
circumstances, creditors and consequently city governments place a high importance
on city credit ratings.[118]
Governance[edit]
Governance includes government but refers to a wider domain of social control
functions implemented by many actors including nongovernmental organizations.[119]
The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local
governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away
from the "urban regime theory" in which a coalition of local interests functionally
govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics
with the philosophy of neoliberalism.[120] In the neoliberal model of governance,
public utilities are privatized, industry is deregulated, and corporations gain the
status of governing actors�as indicated by the power they wield in public-private
partnerships and over business improvement districts, and in the expectation of
self-regulation through corporate social responsibility. The biggest investors and
real estate developers act as the city's de facto urban planners.[121]

The related concept of good governance places more emphasis on the state, with the
purpose of assessing urban governments for their suitability for development
assistance.[122] The concepts of governance and good governance are especially
invoked in the emergent megacities, where international organizations consider
existing governments inadequate for their large populations.[123]

Urban planning[edit]

La Plata, Argentina, based on a perfect square with 5196-meter sides, was designed
in the 1880s as the new capital of Buenos Aires Province.[124]
Main articles: Urban planning and Urban design
Urban planning, the application of forethought to city design, involves optimizing
land use, transportation, utilities, and other basic systems, in order to achieve
certain objectives. Urban planners and scholars have proposed overlapping theories
as ideals for how plans should be formed. Planning tools, beyond the original
design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and
land-use controls such as zoning. The continuous process of comprehensive planning
involves identifying general objectives as well as collecting data to evaluate
progress and inform future decisions.[125][126]

Government, as the ultimate wielder of force is legally the final authority on

planning but in practice the process involves both public and private elements. The
legal principle of eminent domain is used by government to divest citizens of their
property in cases where its use is required for a project.[126] Planning often
involves tradeoffs�decisions in which some stand to gain and some to lose�and thus
is closely connected to the prevailing political situation.[127]

The history of urban planning dates to some of the earliest known cities,
especially in the Indus Valley and Mesoamerican civilizations, which built their
cities on grids and apparently zoned different areas for different purposes.[15]
[128] The effects of planning, ubiquitous in today's world, can be seen most
clearly in the layout of planned communities, fully designed prior to construction,
often with consideration for interlocking physical, economic, and cultural systems.

Society[edit]
Social structure[edit]
Urban society is typically stratified. Spatially, cities are formally or informally
segregated along ethnic, economic and racial lines. People living relatively close
together may live, work, and play, in separate areas, and associate with different
people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty,
ghettoes. While in the USA and elsewhere poverty became associated with the inner
city, in France it has become associated with the banlieues, areas of urban
development which surround the city proper. Meanwhile, across Europe and North
America, the racially white majority is empirically the most segregated group.
Suburbs in the west, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of
"privatopia" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and
exclusive neighborhoods.[129]

Landless urban workers, contrasted with peasants and known as the proletariat, form
a growing stratum of society in the age of urbanization. In Marxist doctrine, the
proletariat will inevitably revolt against the bourgeoisie as their ranks swell
with disenfranchised and disaffected people lacking all stake in the status quo.
[130] The global urban proletariat of today, however, generally lacks the status as
factory workers which in the nineteenth century provided access to the means of
production.[131]

Economics[edit]
Historically, cities rely on rural areas for intensive farming to yield surplus
crops, in exchange for which they provide money, political administration,
manufactured goods, and culture.[24][25] Urban economics tends to analyze larger
agglomerations, stretching beyond city limits, in order to reach a more complete
understanding of the local labor market.[132]

People shopping for food at a marketplace in Taipei City.

As hubs of trade cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption
through the interface of shopping. In the 20th century, department stores using new
techniques of advertising, public relations, decoration, and design, transformed
urban shopping areas into fantasy worlds encouraging self-expression and escape
through consumerism.[133][134]

In general, the density of cities expedites commerce and facilitates knowledge

spillovers, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas.
[135][136] A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms
and individuals. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure
and production facilities, however in very dense cities, increased crowding and
waiting times may lead to some negative effects.[137]

Although manufacturing fueled the growth of cities, many now rely on a tertiary or
service economy. The services in question range from tourism, hospitality,
entertainment, housekeeping and prostitution to grey-collar work in law, finance,
and administration.[72][138]

Culture and communications[edit]

Cities are typically hubs for education and the arts, supporting universities,
museums, temples, and other cultural institutions.[16] They feature impressive
displays of architecture ranging from small to enormous and ornate to brutal;
skyscrapers, providing thousands of offices or homes within a small footprint, and
visible from miles away, have become iconic urban features.[139] Cultural elites
tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves
playing some role in governance.[140] By virtue of their status as centers of
culture and literacy, cities can be described as the locus of civilization, world
history, and social change.[141][142]

Density makes for effective mass communication and transmission of news, through
heralds, printed proclamations, newspapers, and digital media. These communication
networks, though still using cities as hubs, penetrate extensively into all
populated areas. In the age of rapid communication and transportation, commentators
have described urban culture as nearly ubiquitous[13][143][144] or as no longer
meaningful.[145] At the same time hallmarks of rural life may appear in the midst
of the city, as in the case of urban agriculture.[citation needed]

Today, a city's promotion of its cultural activities dovetails with place branding
and city marketing, public diplomacy techniques used to inform development
strategy; to attract businesses, investors, residents, and tourists; and to create
a shared identity and sense of place within the metropolitan area.[146][147][148]
[149] Physical inscriptions, plaques, and monuments on display physically transmit
a historical context for urban places.[150] Some cities, such as Jerusalem, Mecca,
and Rome have indelible religious status and for hundreds of years have attracted
pilgrims. Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to
visit the World Trade Center. Elvis lovers visit Memphis to pay their respects at
Graceland.[151] Place brands (which include place satisfaction and place loyalty)
have great economic value (comparable to the value of commodity brands) because of
their influence on the decision-making process of people thinking about doing
business in�"purchasing" (the brand of)�a city.[149]

Bread and circuses among other forms of cultural appeal, attract and entertain the
masses.[83][152] Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity
formation.[153] Cities go to considerable lengths in competing to host the Olympic
Games, which bring global attention and tourism.[154]

Warfare[edit]

Atomic bombing on August 6, 1945, devastated the Japanese city of Hiroshima.

Cities play a crucial strategic role in warfare due to their economic, demographic,
symbolic, and political centrality. For the same reasons, they are targets in
asymmetric warfare. Many cities throughout history were founded under military
auspices, a great many have incorporated fortifications, and military principles
continue to influence urban design.[155] Indeed, war may have served as the social
rationale and economic basis for the very earliest cities.[42][43]

Powers engaged in geopolitical conflict have established fortified settlements as

part of military strategies, as in the case of garrison towns, America's Strategic
Hamlet Program during the Vietnam War, and Israeli settlements in Palestine.[156]
While occupying the Philippines, the US Army ordered local people concentrated into
cities and towns, in order to isolate committed insurgents and battle freely
against them in the countryside.[157][158]

During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open,
effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and
bloodshed. Urban warfare proved decisive, however, in the Battle of Stalingrad,
where Soviet forces repulsed German occupiers, with extreme casualties and
destruction. In an era of low-intensity conflict and rapid urbanization, cities
have become sites of long-term conflict waged both by foreign occupiers and by
local governments against insurgency.[131][159] Such warfare, known as
counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as
well as close combat,[160] functionally extends modern urban crime prevention,
which already uses concepts such as defensible space.[161]

Although capture is the more common objective, warfare has in some cases spelt
complete destruction for a city. Mesopotamian tablets and ruins attest to such
destruction,[162] as does the Latin motto Carthago delenda est.[163][164] Since the
atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and throughout the Cold War, nuclear
strategists continued to contemplate the use of "countervalue" targeting: crippling
an enemy by annihilating its valuable cities, rather than aiming primarily at its
military forces.[165][166]

Infrastructure[edit]
Urban infrastructure involves various physical networks and spaces necessary for
transportation, water use, energy, recreation, and public functions.[167]
Infrastructure carries a high initial cost in fixed capital (pipes, wires, plants,
vehicles, etc.) but lower marginal costs and thus positive economies of scale.[168]
Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as
natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a
single organization, public or private.[101][169][b]

Infrastructure in general (if not every infrastructure project) plays a vital role
in a city's capacity for economic activity and expansion, underpinning the very
survival of the city�s inhabitants, as well as technological, commercial,
industrial, and social activities.[167][168] Structurally, many infrastructure
systems take the form of networks with redundant links and multiple pathways, so
that the system as a whole continue to operate even if parts of it fail.[169] The
particulars of a city�s infrastructure systems have historical path dependence
because new development must build from what exists already.[168]

Megaprojects such as the construction of airports, power plants, and railways

require large upfront investments and thus tend to require funding from national
government or the private sector.[172][169] Privatization may also extend to all
levels of infrastructure construction and maintenance.[173]

Urban infrastructure ideally serves all residents equally but in practice may prove
uneven�with, in some cities, clear first-class and second-class alternatives.[109]
[174][101]

Utilities[edit]
Public utilities (literally, useful things with general availability) include basic
and essential infrastructure networks, chiefly concerned with the supply of water,
electricity, and telecommunications capability to the populace.[175]

Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply
and waste management as well as individual hygiene. Urban water systems include
principally a water supply network and a network for wastewater including sewage
and stormwater. Historically, either local governments or private companies have
administered urban water supply, with a tendency toward government water supply in
the 20th century and a tendency toward private operation at the turn of the twenty-
first.[101][c] The market for private water services is dominated by two French
companies, Veolia Water (formerly Vivendi) and Engie (formerly Suez), said to hold
70% of all water contracts worldwide.[101][177]

Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for
the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial
machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and
government) and for traffic lights, streetlights and indoor lighting. Cities rely
to a lesser extent on hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and natural gas for
transportation, heating, and cooking. Telecommunications infrastructure such as
telephone lines and coaxial cables also traverse cities, forming dense networks for
mass and point-to-point communications.[178]

Transportation[edit]
See also: Public transport
Because cities rely on specialization and an economic system based on wage labour,
their inhabitants must have the ability to regularly travel between home, work,
commerce, and entertainment.[179] Citydwellers travel foot or by wheel on roads and
walkways, or use special rapid transit systems based on underground, overground,
and elevated rail. Cities also rely on long-distance transportation (truck, rail,
and airplane) for economic connections with other cities and rural areas.[180]

Train stopped at the Dnipro stop of the Kiev Metro.

Historically, city streets were the domain of horses and their riders and
pedestrians, who only sometimes had sidewalks and special walking areas reserved
for them.[181] In the west, bicycles or (velocipedes), efficient human-powered
machines for short- and medium-distance travel,[182] enjoyed a period of popularity
at the beginning of the twentieth century before the rise of automobiles.[183] Soon
after, they gained a more lasting foothold in Asian and African cities under
European influence.[184] In western cities, industrializing, expanding, and
electrifying at this time, public transit systems and especially streetcars enabled
urban expansion as new residential neighborhoods sprung up along transit lines and
workers rode to and from work downtown.[180][185]

Since the mid-twentieth century, cities have relied heavily on motor vehicle
transportation, with major implications for their layout, environment, and
aesthetics.[186] (This transformation occurred most dramatically in the USA�where
corporate and governmental policies favored automobile transport systems�and to a
lesser extent in Europe.)[180][185] The rise of personal cars accompanied the
expansion of urban economic areas into much larger metropolises, subsequently
creating ubiquitous traffic issues with accompanying construction of new highways,
wider streets, and alternative walkways for pedestrians.[187][188][189][147]

People walk, drive, and cycle through a street in Cairo.

However, severe traffic jams still occur regularly in cities around the world, as
private car ownership and urbanization continue to increase, overwhelming existing
urban street networks.[112]

The urban bus system, the world's most common form of public transport, uses a
network of scheduled routes to move people through the city, alongside cars, on the
roads.[190] Economic function itself also became more decentralized as
concentration became impractical and employers relocated to more car-friendly
locations (including edge cities).[180] Some cities have introduced bus rapid
transit systems which include exclusive bus lanes and other methods for
prioritizing bus traffic over private cars.[112][191] Many big American cities
still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-
popular New York City Subway system. Rapid transit is widely used in Europe and has
increased in Latin America and Asia.[112]

Walking and cycling ("non-motorized transport") enjoy increasing favor (more

pedestrian zones and bike lanes) in American and Asian urban transportation
planning, under the influence of such trends as the Healthy Cities movement, the
drive for sustainable development, and the idea of a carfree city.[112][192][193]
Techniques such as road space rationing and road use charges have been introduced
to limit urban car traffic.[112]

Housing[edit]
Housing of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face.
Adequate housing entails not only physical shelters but also the physical systems
necessary to sustain life and economic activity.[194] Home ownership represents
status and a modicum of economic security, compared to renting which may consume
much of the income of low-wage urban workers. Homelessness, or lack of housing, is
a challenged currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor.[195]

Ecology[edit]

This urban scene in Paramaribo features a few plants growing amidst solid waste and
rubble behind some houses.
Main article: Urban ecology
Urban ecosystems, influenced as they are by the density of human buildings and
activities differ considerably from those of their rural surroundings.
Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create
physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in wilderness, in some
cases enabling exceptional biodiversity. They provide homes not only for immigrant
humans but also for immigrant plants, bringing about interactions between species
which never previously encountered each other. They introduce frequent disturbances
(construction, walking) to plant and animal habitats, creating opportunities for
recolonization and thus favoring young ecosystems with r-selected species dominant.
On the whole, urban ecosystems are less complex and productive than others, due to
the diminished absolute amount of biological interactions.[196][197][198][199]

Typical urban fauna include insects (especially ants), rodents (mice, rats), and
birds, as well as cats and dogs (domesticated and feral). Large predators are
scarce.[198]

Profile of an urban heat island.

Cities generate considerable ecological footprints, locally and at longer
distances, due to concentrated populations and technological activities. From one
perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs.
From another, proper management may be able to ameliorate a city's ill effects.
[200][201] Air pollution arises from various forms of combustion,[202] including
fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems,[203] and internal
combustion engines. Industrialized cities, and today third-world megacities, are
notorious for veils of smog (industrial haze) which envelop them, posing a chronic
threat to the health of their millions of inhabitants.[204] Urban soil contains
higher concentrations of heavy metals (especially lead, copper, and nickel) and has
lower pH than soil in comparable wilderness.[198]

Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete,
asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel
rainwater into underground ducts. The temperature in New York City exceeds nearby
rural temperatures by an average of 2�3 �C and at times 5�10 �C differences have
been recorded. This effect varies nonlinearly with population changes
(independently of the city's physical size).[198][205] Aerial particulates increase
rainfall by 5�10%. Thus, urban areas experience unique climates, with earlier
flowering and later leaf dropping than in nearby country.[198]

Poor and working-class people face disproportionate exposure to environmental risks

(known as environmental racism when intersecting also with racial segregation). For
example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more
of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).[206]

World city system[edit]

As the world becomes more closely linked through economics, politics, technology,
and culture (a process called globalization), cities have come to play a leading
role in transnational affairs, exceeding the limitations of international relations
conducted by national governments.[207][208][209] This phenomenon, resurgent today,
can be traced back to the Silk Road, Phoenicia, and the Greek city-states, through
the Hanseatic League and other alliances of cities.[210][136][211] Today the
information economy based on high-speed internet infrastructure enables
instantaneous telecommunication around the world, effectively eliminating the
distance between cities for the purposes of stock markets and other high-level
elements of the world economy, as well as personal communications and mass media.
[212]

Global city[edit]

Stock exchanges, characteristic features of the top global cities, are

interconnected hubs for capital. Here, a delegation from Australia is shown
visiting the London Stock Exchange.
A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking,
finance, innovation, and markets. Saskia Sassen used the term "global city" in 1991
to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size.
Following this view of cities, it is possible to rank the world's cities
hierarchically.[213] London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo form the capstone of
the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and
political influence. Global cities may have reached their status due to early
transition to post-industrialism[214] or through inertia which has enabled them to
maintain their dominance from the industrial era.[215] This type of ranking
exemplifies an emerging discourse in which cities, considered variations on the
same ideal type, must compete with each other globally to achieve prosperity.[154]
[147]

Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange. The
term "global city" is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not
account for places that are otherwise significant. Paul James, for example argues
that the term is "reductive and skewed" in its focus on financial systems.[216]

Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and
conduct much of their business within this context.[217] American firms dominate
the international markets for law and engineering and maintain branches in the
biggest foreign global cities.[218]

Global cities feature concentrations of extremely wealthy and extremely poor

people.[219] Their economies are lubricated by their capacity (limited by the
national government's immigration policy, which functionally defines the supply
side of the labor market) to recruit low- and high-skilled immigrant workers from
poorer areas.[220][221][222] More and more cities today draw on this globally
available labor force.[223]

Modern global cities, like New York City, often include large central business
districts that serve as hubs for economic activity.
Modern global cities, like New York City, often include large central business
districts that serve as hubs for economic activity.
Transnational activity[edit]
Cities increasingly participate in world political activities independently of
their enclosing nation-states. Early examples of this phenomenon are the sister
city relationship and the promotion of multi-level governance within the European
Union as a technique for European integration.[208][224][225] Cities including
Hamburg, Prague, Amsterdam, The Hague, and City of London maintain their own
embassies to the European Union at Brussels.[226][227][228]

New urban dwellers may increasingly not simply as immigrants but as transmigrants,
keeping one foot each (through telecommunications if not travel) in their old and
their new homes.[229]

Global governance[edit]
Cities participate in global governance by various means including membership in
global networks which transmit norms and regulations. At the general, global level,
United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) is a significant umbrella organization
for cities; regionally and nationally, Eurocities, Asian Network of Major Cities
21, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities the National League of Cities, and
the United States Conference of Mayors play similar roles.[230][231] UCLG took
responsibility for creating Agenda 21 for culture, a program for cultural policies
promoting sustainable development, and has organized various conferences and
reports for its furtherance.[232]

Networks have become especially prevalent in the arena of environmentalism and

specifically climate change following the adoption of Agenda 21. Environmental city
networks include the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, World Association of
Major Metropolises ("Metropolis"), the United Nations Global Compact Cities
Programme, the Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance (CNCA), the Covenant of Mayors and
the Compact of Mayors,[233] ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability, and the
Transition Towns network.[230][231]

Cities with world political status as meeting places for advocacy groups, non-
governmental organizations, lobbyists, educational institutions, intelligence
agencies, military contractors, information technology firms, and other groups with
a stake in world policymaking. They are consequently also sites for symbolic
protest.[136][d]

United Nations System[edit]

The United Nations System has been involved in a series of events and declarations
dealing with the development of cities during this period of rapid urbanization.

The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the "Vancouver Declaration on Human

Settlements" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of
development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats.[234]
Citing the Vancouver Declaration, the UN General Assembly in December 1977
authorized the United Nations Commission Human Settlements and the HABITAT Centre
for Human Settlements, intended to coordinate UN activities related to housing and
settlements.[235]
The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in a set of international
agreements including Agenda 21 which establishes principles and plans for
sustainable development.[236]

World Assembly of Mayors at Habitat III conference in Quito.

The Habitat II conference in 1996 called for cities to play a leading role in this
program, which subsequently advanced the Millennium Development Goals and
Sustainable Development Goals.[237]
In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency
called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of
the United Nations Development Group.[235]
The Habitat III conference of 2016 focused on implementing these goals under the
banner of a "New Urban Agenda". The four mechanisms envisio 14ned for effecting the
New Urban Agenda are (1) national policies promoting integrated sustainable
development, (2) stronger urban governance, (3) long-term integrated urban and
territorial planning, and (4) effective financing frameworks.[238][239] Just before
this conference, the European Union concurrently approved an "Urban Agenda for the
European Union" known as the Pact of Amsterdam.[238]
UN-Habitat coordinates the UN urban agenda, working with the UN Environmental
Programme, the UN Development Programme, the Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank.[235]

World Bank headquarters in Washington, DC.

The World Bank, a United Nations specialized agency, has been a primary force in
promoting the Habitat conferences, and since the first Habitat conference has used
their declarations as a framework for issuing loans for urban infrastructure.[237]
The bank's structural adjustment programs contributed to urbanization in the Third
World by creating incentives to move to cities.[240][241] The World Bank and UN-
Habitat in 1999 jointly established the Cities Alliance (based at the World Bank
headquarters in Washington, D.C.) to guide policymaking, knowledge sharing, and
grant distribution around the issue of urban poverty.[242] (UN-Habitat plays an
advisory role in evaluating the quality of a locality's governance.)[122] The
Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through
credit and technical assistance.[243]

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO has
increasingly focused on cities as key sites for influencing cultural governance. It
has developed various city networks including the International Coalition of Cities
against Racism and the Creative Cities Network. UNESCO's capacity to select World
Heritage Sites and maintain them through Public/social/private partnerships gives
the organization significant influence over cultural capital, tourism, and historic
preservation funding.[232]

Representation in culture[edit]

John Martin's The Fall of Babylon (1831), depicting chaos as the Persian army
occupies Babylon, also symbolizes the ruin of decadent civilization in modern
times. Lightning striking the Babylonian ziggurat (also representing the Tower of
Babel) indicates God's judgment against the city.
Cities figure prominently in traditional Western mythology, appearing in the Bible
in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem.[244] Cain and
Nimrod are the first city builders in the Book of Genesis. In Sumerian mythology
Gilgamesh built the walls of Uruk.

Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and

oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic.[245] The name anti-urbanism
refers to various types of ideological opposition to cities, whether because of
their culture or their political relationship with the country. Such opposition may
result from identification of cities with oppression and the ruling elite.[246]
This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in
discourse about cities.[11] In turn, cities symbolize their home societies.[247]

Writers, painters, and filmmakers have produced innumerable works of art concerning
the urban experience. Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of
descriptiones which treat of city features and history. Modern authors such as
Charles Dickens and James Joyce are famous for evocative descriptions of their home
cities.[248] Fritz Lang conceived the idea for his influential 1927 film Metropolis
while visiting Times Square and marveling at the nighttime neon lighting.[249]
Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally
depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems
of automobile transport. By the 1960s, however, traffic congestion began to appear
in such films as The Fast Lady (1962) and Playtime (1967).[186]

Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of
future cities both utopian and dystopian. The prospect of expanding, communicating,
and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as
Nylonkong (NY, London, Hong Kong)[250] and visions of a single world-encompassing
ecumenopolis.[251]

See also[edit]
Bibliography of suburbs
Ekistics
Ghost town
List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities
Lists of cities
Lost city
Nation
Principles of intelligent urbanism
Primate city
Urban sociology
Free city (antiquity)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Intellectuals such as H. G. Wells, Patrick Geddes and Kingsley Davis
foretold the coming of a mostly urban world throughout the twentieth century.[85]
[86] The United Nations has long anticipated a half-urban world, earlier predicting
the year 2000 as the turning point[87][88] and in 2007 writing that it would occur
in 2008.[89] Other researchers had also estimated that the halfway point was
reached in 2007.[90] Although the trend is undeniable, the precision of this
statistic is dubious, due to reliance on national censuses and to the ambiguities
of defining an area as urban.[85][13]
Jump up ^ In practice, utility companies and agencies do secure monopolies over
local service provision. Critics within the economics field have contested the
inevitability of this outcome.[170][171]
Jump up ^ Water resources in rapidly urbanizing areas are not merely privatized as
they are in western countries; since the systems don't exist to begin with, private
contracts also entail water industrialization and enclosure.[101] Also, there is a
countervailing trend: 100 cities have re-municipalized their water supply since the
1990s.[176]
Jump up ^ One important global political city, described at one time as a world
capital, is Washington, D.C. and its metropolitan area (including Tysons Corner and
Reston in the Dulles Technology Corridor and the various federal agencies found
along the Baltimore-Washington Parkway). Beyond the prominent institutions of U.S.
government on the national mall, this area contains 177 embassies, The Pentagon,
the Central Intelligence Agency headquarters, the World Bank headquarters, myriad
think tanks and lobbying groups, and corporate headquarters for Booz Allen
Hamilton, General Dynamics, Capital One, Verisign, Mortgage Electronic Registration
Systems, Gannett Company etc.[136]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London:
Penguin.
Jump up ^ Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) The Social Science Encyclopedia. 2nd
edition. London: Routledge.
Jump up ^ James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015).
Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London:
Routledge..
Jump up ^ The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2007, Jennifer Blanke, World
Economic Forum
Jump up ^ Demographia World Urban Areas 13th Annual Edition, April 2017.
Jump up ^ Nick Compton, "What is the oldest city in the world?", The Guardian, 16
February 2015.
Jump up ^ Ring, Trudy (2014). Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of
Historic Places. p. 204.
Jump up ^ Jhimli Mukherjee Pandeyl, "Varanasi is as old as Indus valley
civilization, finds IIT-KGP study", Times of India 25 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Moholy-Nagy (1968), p. 45.
^ Jump up to: a b "city, n.", Oxford English Dictionary, June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Kevin A. Lynch, "What Is the Form of a City, and How is It
Made?"; in Marzluff et al. (2008), p. 678. "The city may be looked on as a story, a
pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a
field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict. Values
are embedded in these metaphors: historic continuity, stable equilibrium,
productive efficiency, capable decision and management, maximum interaction, or the
progress of political struggle. Certain actors become the decisive elements of
transformation in each view: political leaders, families and ethnic groups, major
investors, the technicians of transport, the decision elite, the revolutionary
classes."
Jump up ^ "Table 6" in United Nations Demographic Yearbook (2015), the 1988 version
of which is quoted in Carter (1995), pp. 10�12.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Graeme Hugo, Anthony Champion, & Alfredo Lattes, "Toward a
New Conceptualization of Settlements for Demography", Population and Development
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Smith, "Earliest Cities", in Gmelch & Zenner (2002).
^ Jump up to: a b Marshall (1989), pp. 14�15.
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 23�24.
Jump up ^ Yi Jianping, "'Civilization' and 'State': An Etymological Perspective";
Social Sciences in China 33(2), 2012; doi:10.1080/02529203.2012.677292.
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Jump up ^ Volker M. Welter, "The 1925 Master Plan for Tel-Aviv by Patrick Geddes";
Israel Studies 14(3), Fall 2009.
Jump up ^ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, "Locations, Population and Density
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Jump up ^ Carter (1995), p. 5�7. "[...] the two main themes of study introduced at
the outset: the town as a distributed feature and the town as a feature with
internal structure, or in other words, the town in area and the town as area."
Jump up ^ Marshall (1989), pp. 11�14.
^ Jump up to: a b Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 155�156.
^ Jump up to: a b Marshall (1989), p. 15. "The mutual interdependence of town and
country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global
scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent
agricultural population. Moreover, within any area possessing a broadly uniform
level of agricultural productivity, there is a rough but definite association
between the density of the rural population and the average spacing of cities above
any chosen minimum size."
^ Jump up to: a b Latham et al. (2009), p. 18. "From the simplest forms of
exchange, when peasant farmers literally brought their produce from the fields into
the densest point of interaction � giving us market towns � the significance of
central places to surrounding territories began to be asserted. As cities grew in
complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious
buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence. Large central
squares or open spaces reflected the importance of collective gatherings in city
life, such as Tiananmen Square in Beijing, the Z�calo in Mexico City, the Piazza
Navona in Rome and Trafalgar Square in London.
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 34�35. "In the center of the city, an elite
compound or temenos was situated. Study of the very earliest cities show this
compound to be largely composed of a temple and supporting structures. The temple
rose some 40 feet above the ground and would have presented a formidable profile to
those far away. The temple contained the priestly class, scribes, and record
keepers, as well as granaries, schools, crafts�almost all non-agricultural aspects
of society.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 177�179.
Jump up ^ Don Mitchell, "The End of Public Space? People's Park, Definitions of the
Public, and Democracy";[dead link] Annals of the Association of American
Geographers 85(1), March 1995.
Jump up ^ Moholy-Nagy (1968), 21�33.
Jump up ^ Mohan Pant and Shjui Fumo, "The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town
Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley: A Study on Modular Measures in Block
and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjodaro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi
(Kathmandu Valley)"; Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 59, May
2005.
Jump up ^ Michel Danino, "New Insights into Harappan Town-Planning, Proportions and
Units, with Special Reference to Dholavira", "Man and Environment 33(1), 2008.
Jump up ^ Jane McIntosh, The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives ; ABC-CLIO,
2008; ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2 ; pp. 231, 346.
Jump up ^ Carter (1995), p. 15. "In the underbound city the administratively
defined area is smaller than the physical extent of settlement. In the overbound
city the administrative area is greater than the physical extent. The 'truebound'
city is one where the administrative bound is nearly coincidental with the physical
extent."
Jump up ^ Paul James; Meg Holden; Mary Lewin; Lyndsay Neilson; Christine Oakley;
Art Truter; David Wilmoth (2013). "Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban
Growth". In Harald Mieg; Klaus T�pfer. Institutional and Social Innovation for
Sustainable Urban Development. Routledge.
Jump up ^ Chaunglin Fang & Danlin Yu, "Urban agglomeration: An evolving concept of
an emerging phenomenon"; Landscape and Urban Planning 162, 2017.
Jump up ^ (Bairoch 1988, pp. 3�4)
Jump up ^ (Pacione 2001, p. 16)
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 26. "Early cities also reflected these
preconditions in that they served as places where agricultural surpluses were
stored and distributed. Cities functioned economically as centers of extraction and
redistribution from countryside to granaries to the urban population. One of the
main functions of this central authority was to extract, store, and redistribute
the grain. It is no accident that granaries�storage areas for grain�were often
found within the temples of early cities."
Jump up ^ Jennifer R. Pournelle, "KLM to CORONA: A Bird's Eye View of Cultural
Ecology and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization"; in Settlement and Society: Essays
Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams ed. Elizabeth C. Stone; Cotsen Institute of
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^ Jump up to: a b Fredy Perlman, Against His-Story, Against Leviathan, Detroit:
Black & Red, 1983; p. 16.
^ Jump up to: a b Mumford (1961), pp. 39�46. "As the physical means increased, this
one-sided power mythology, sterile, indeed hostile to life, pushed its way into
every corner of the urban scene and found, in the new institution of organized war,
its completest expression. [�] Thus both the physical form and the institutional
life of the city, from the very beginning to the urban implosion, were shaped in no
small measure by the irrational and magical purposes of war. From this source
sprang the elaborate system of fortifications, with walls, ramparts, towers,
canals, ditches, that continued to characterize the chief historic cities, apart
from certain special cases�as during the Pax Romana�down to the eighteenth century.
[�] War brought concentration of social leadership and political power in the hands
of a weapons-bearing minority, abetted by a priesthood exercising sacred powers and
possessing secret but valuable scientific and magical knowledge."
^ Jump up to: a b Ashworth (1991), pp. 12�13.
Jump up ^ (Jacobs 1969, p. 23)
Jump up ^ P. J. Taylor, "Extraordinary Cities I: Early 'City-ness' and the
Invention of Agriculture"; International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
36(3), 2012; doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2011.01101.x; see also GaWC Research Bulletins
359 and 360.
Jump up ^ Michael E. Smith, Jason Ur, & Gary M. Feinman, "Jane Jacobs' 'Cities
First' Model and Archaeological Reality", International Journal of Urban and
Regional Research 38, 2014; doi:10.1111/1468-2427.12138.
Jump up ^ McQuillan (1937/1987), �1.03. "The ancients fostered the spread of urban
culture; their efforts were constant to bring their people within the complete
influence of municipal life. The desire to create cities was the most striking
characteristic of the people of antiquity, and ancient rulers and statesmen vied
with one another in satisfying that desire."
Jump up ^ Southall (1998), p. 23.
Jump up ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Oxford University Press, Karachi and New York.
Jump up ^ Southall (1998), pp. 38�43.
Jump up ^ Moholy-Nagy (1968), pp. 158�161.
Jump up ^ Robert McCormick Adams Jr., Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient
Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates; University of
Chicago Press, 1981; ISBN 0-226-00544-5; p. 2. "Southern Mesopotamia was a land of
cities. It became one precociously, before the end of the fourth millennium B.C.
Urban traditions remained strong and virtually continuous through the vicissitudes
of conquest, internal upheaval accompanied by widespread economic breakdown, and
massive linguistic and population replacement. The symbolic and material content of
civilization obviously changed, but its cultural ambience remained tied to cities."
Jump up ^ Pocock, J. G. A. (1998). The Citizenship Debates. Chapter 2 -- The Ideal
of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in Queen's Quarterly 99,
no. 1). Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota. p. 31. ISBN 0-8166-2880-7.
Jump up ^ Ring, Salkin, Boda, Trudy, Robert, Sharon (January 1, 1996).
International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. Routledge. p. 66.
ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2.
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 41�42. "Rome created an elaborate urban system.
Roman colonies were organized as a means of securing Roman territory. The first
thing that Romans did when they conquered new territories was to establish cities."
Jump up ^ Shady Sol�s, Ruth Martha (1997). La ciudad sagrada de Caral-Supe en los
albores de la civilizaci�n en el Per� (in Spanish). Lima: UNMSM, Fondo Editorial.
Retrieved 2007-03-03.
Jump up ^ McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. "Early Urban Configurations
on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities and Landscapes of Power," Chapter 5.
Jump up ^ Magnavita, Sonja (2013). "Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient
trade connections between West Africa and the wider world". Afriques. Retrieved
December 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ History of African Cities South of the Sahara Archived 2008-01-24 at the
Wayback Machine. By Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch. 2005. ISBN 1-55876-303-1
Jump up ^ Evans et al., A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest
preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia, Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the USA, August 23, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Map reveals ancient urban sprawl", BBC News, 14 August 2007.
Jump up ^ Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city, The Independent, August
15, 2007
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 43. "Capitals like C�rdoba and Cairo had
populations of about 500,000; Baghdad probably had a population of more than 1
million. This urban heritage would continue despite the conquests of the Seljuk
Turks and the later Crusades. China, the longest standing civilization, was in the
midst of a golden age as the Tang dynasty gave way�after a short period of
fragmentation�to the Song dynasty. This dynasty ruled two of the most impressive
cities on the planet, Xian and Hangzhou. / In contrast, poor Western Europe had not
recovered from the sacking of Rome and the collapse of the western half of the
Roman Empire. For more than five centuries a steady process of
deurbanization�whereby the population living in cities and the number of cities
declined precipitously�had converted a prosperous landscape into a scary
wilderness, overrun with bandits, warlords, and rude settlements."
Jump up ^ Cameron, Averil (2009). The Byzantines. John Wiley and Sons. p. 47. ISBN
978-1-4051-9833-2. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). "Writing the Economic History of Byzantium".
In Angeliki E. Laiou. The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1). Washington, DC:
Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 130�131.
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 47�50.
Jump up ^ Curtis (2016), pp. 5�6. "In the modern international system, cities were
subjugated and internalized by the state, and, with industrialization, became the
great growth engines of national economies."
^ Jump up to: a b Nicholas Blomley, "What Sort of a Legal Space is a City?" in
Brighenti (2013), pp. 1�20.
Municipalities, within this frame, are understood as nested within the
jurisdictional space of the provinces. Indeed, rather than freestanding legal
sites, they are imagined as products (or 'creatures') of the provinces who may
bring them into being or dissolve them as they choose. As with the provinces their
powers are of a delegated form: they may only exercise jurisdiction over areas that
have been expressly identified by enabling legislation. Municipal law may not
conflict with provincial law, and may only be exercised within its defined
territory. [�]
Yet we are [in] danger [of] missing the reach of municipal law: '[e]ven in highly
constitutionalized regimes, it has remained possible for municipalities to micro-
manage space, time, and activities through police regulations that infringe both on
constitutional rights and private property in often extreme ways' (Vaverde 2009:
150). While liberalism fears the encroachments of the state, it seems less worried
about those of the municipality. Thus if a national government proposed a statute
forbidding public gatherings or sporting events, a revolution would occur. Yet
municipalities routinely enact sweeping by-laws directed at open ended (and ill-
defined) offences such as loitering and obstruction, requiring permits for protests
or requiring residents and homeowners to remove snow from the city's sidewalks.

Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 53�54. "England was clearly at the center of
these changes. London became the first truly global city by placing itself within
the new global economy. English colonialism in North America, the Caribbean, South
Asia, and later Africa and China helped to further fatten the wallets of many of
its merchants. These colonies would later provide many of the raw materials for
industrial production. England's hinterland was no longer confined to a portion of
the world; it effectively became a global hinterland."
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 54�55.
Jump up ^ Steven High, Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt,
1969-1984; University of Toronto Press, 2003; ISBN 0-8020-8528-8. "It is now clear
that the deindustrialization thesis is part myth and part fact. Robert Z. Lawrence,
for example, uses aggregate economic data to show that manufacturing employment in
the United States did not decline but actually increased from 16.8 million in 1960,
to 20.1 million in 1973, and 20.3 million in 1980. However, manufacturing
employment was in relative decline. Barry Bluestone noted that manufacturing
represented a decreasing proportion of the U.S. labour force, from 26.2 per cent in
1973 to 22.1 per cent in 1980. Studies in Canada have likewise shown that
manufacturing employment was only in relative decline during these years. Yet mills
and factories did close, and towns and cities lost their industries. John Cumbler
submitted that 'depressions do not manifest themselves only at moments of national
economic collapse' such as in the 1930s, but 'also recur in scattered sites across
the nation in regions, in industries, and in communities.'"
^ Jump up to: a b Kaplan (2004), p. 160�165. "Entrepreneurial leadership became
manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the
media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations. For example, in
St. Louis, Anheuser-Busch, Monsanto, and Ralston Purina played prominent roles. The
leadership involved cooperation between public and private interests. The results
were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the
transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entetainment, museums,
and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and
waterfront development."
Jump up ^ James Xiaohe Zhang, "Rapid urbanization in China and its impact on the
world economy"; 16th Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, "New Challenges
for Global Trade in a Rapidly Changing World", Shanhai Institute of Foreign Trade,
June 12�14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ian Johnson, "China's Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities";
New York Times, 15 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Castells, M. (ed) (2004). The network society: a cross-cultural
perspective. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)
Jump up ^ Flew, T. (2008). New media: an introduction, 3rd edn, South Melbourne:
Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ Harford, T. (2008) The Logic of Life. London: Little, Brown.
Jump up ^ Taylor Shelton, Matthew Zook, & Alan Wiig, "The 'actually existing smart
city'", Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy, and Society 8, 2015;
doi:10.1093/cjres/rsu026.
Jump up ^ The Urbanization and Political Development of the World System:A
comparative quantitative analysis. History & Mathematics 2 (2006): 115-153.
^ Jump up to: a b William H. Frey & Zachary Zimmer, "Defining the City"; in
Paddison (2001).
Jump up ^ Christopher Watson, "Trends in urbanisation", Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Urban Pests, ed. K.B. Wildey and William H. Robinson,
1993.
Jump up ^ Annez, Patricia Clarke; Buckley, Robert M. "Urbanization and Growth:
Setting the Context" (PDF). In Spence, Michael; Annez, Patricia Clarke; Buckley,
Robert M. Urbanization and Growth. ISBN 978-0-8213-7573-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Moholy-Nagy (1968), pp. 136�137.
Why do anonymous people�the poor, the underprivileged, the unconnected�frequently
prefer life under miserable conditions in tenements to the healthy order and
tranquility of small towns or the sanitary subdivisions of semirural developments?
The imperial planners and architects knew the answer, which is as valid today as it
was 2,000 years ago. Big cities were created as power images of a competitive
society, conscious of its achievement potential. Those who came to live in them did
so in order to participate and compete on any attainable level. Their aim was to
share in public life, and they were willing to pay for this share with personal
discomfort. 'Bread and games' was a cry for opportunity and entertainment still
ranking foremost among urban objectives.

^ Jump up to: a b Somini Sengupta, "U.N. Finds Most People Now Live in Cities"; New
York Times, 10 July 2014. Referring to: United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, Population Division; World Urbanization Prospects: 2014 Revision;
New York: United Nations, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Neil Brenner & Christian Schmid, "The 'Urban Age' in Question";
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 38(3), 2013; doi:10.1111/1468-
2427.12115.
Jump up ^ McQuillin (1937/1987), �1.55.
Jump up ^ "Patterns of Urban and Rural Population Growth", Department of
International Economic and Social Affairs, Population Studies No. 68; New York,
United Nations, 1980; p. 15. "If the projections prove to be accurate, the next
century will begin just after the world population achieves an urban majority; in
2000, the world is projected to be 51.3 per cent urban."
Jump up ^ Edouart Glissant (Editor-in-Chief), UNESCO "Courier" ("The Urban
Explosion"), March 1985.
Jump up ^ "World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Mike Hanlon, "World Population Becomes More Urban Than Rural"; New Atlas,
28 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division (2014). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, CD-ROM Edition".
Jump up ^ Paulo A. Paranagua, "Latin America struggles to cope with record urban
growth" (archive), The Guardian, 11 September 2012. Referring to UN-Habitat, The
State of Latin American and Caribbean Cities 2012: Towards a new urban transition;
Nairobi: United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2012.
Jump up ^ Helen Massy-Beresford, "Where is the fastest growing city in the world?";
The Guardian, 18 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Mark Anderson & Achilleas Galatsidas, "Urban population boom poses
massive challenges for Africa and Asia" The Guardian (Development data: Datablog),
10 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 15. "Global cities need to be distinguished from
megacities, defined here as cities with more than 8 million people. [�] Only New
York and London qualified as megacities 50 years ago. By 1990, just over 10 years
ago, 20 megacities existed, 15 of which were in less economically developed regions
of the world. In 2000, the number of megacities had increased to 26, again all
except 6 are located in the less developed world regions."
Jump up ^ Frauke Kraas & G�nter Mertins, "Megacities and Global Change"; in Kraas
et al. (2014), p. 2. "While seven megacities (with more than five million
inhabitants) existed in 1950 and 24 in 1990, by 2010 there were 55 and by 2025
there will be � according to estimations � 87 megacities (UN 2012; Fig. 1). "
Jump up ^ Frauke Kraas & G�nter Mertins, "Megacities and Global Change"; in Kraas
et al. (2014), pp. 2�3.
Above all, globalisation processes were and are the motors that drive these
enormous changes and are also the driving forces, together with transformation and
liberalisation policies, behind the economic developments of the last ca. 25 years
(in China, especially the so-called socialism with Chinese characteristics that
started under Deng Xiaoping in 1978/1979, in India essentially during the course of
the economic reform policies of the so-called New Economic Policy as of 1991;
Cartier 2001; Nissel 1999). Especially in megacities, these reforms led to enormous
influx of foreign direct investments, to intensive industrialization processes
through international relocation of production locations and depending upon the
location, partially to considerable expansion of the services sector with
increasing demand for office space as well as to a reorientation of national
support policies � with a not to be mistaken influence of transnationally acting
conglomerates but also considerable transfer payments from overseas communities. In
turn, these processes are flanked and intensified through, at times, massive
migration movements of national and international migrants into the megacities
(Baur et al. 2006).

Jump up ^ Shipra Narang Suri & G�nther Taube, "Governance in Megacities:

Experiences, Challenges and Implications for International Cooperation"; in Kraas
et al. (2014), p. 196.
Jump up ^ Stephen Graham & Lucy Hewitt, "Getting off the ground: On the politics of
urban verticality; Progress in Human Geography 37(1), 2012;
doi:1177/0309132512443147.
Jump up ^ Eduardo F.J. de Mulder, Jacques Besner, & Brian Marker, "Underground
Cities"; in Kraas et al. (2014), pp. 26�29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Karen Bakker, "Archipelagos and networks: urbanization
and water privatization in the South"; The Geographical Journal 169(4), December
2003; doi:10.1111/j.0016-7398.2003.00097.x. "The diversity of water supply
management systems worldwide � which operate along a continuum between fully public
and fully private � bear witness to repeated shifts back and forth between private
and public ownership and management of water systems."
Jump up ^ Joan C. Williams, "The Invention of the Municipal Corporation: A Case
Study in Legal Change"; American University Law Review 34, 1985; pp. 369�438.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 146. "The figurehead of city leadership is, of
course, the mayor. As 'first citizen', mayors are often associated with political
parties, yet many of the most successful mayors are often those whoare able to
speak 'for' their city. Rudy Giuliani, for example, while pursuing a neo-liberal
political agenda, was often seen as being outside the mainstream of the national
Republican party. Furthermore, mayors are often crucial in articulating the
interests of their cities to external agents, be they national governments or major
public and private investors."
Jump up ^ Penang Island was incorporated as a single municipality in 1976 and
gained city status in 2015. See: Royce Tan, "Penang island gets city status", The
Star, 18 December 2014.
Jump up ^ McQuillan (1937/1987), �1.63. "The problem of achieving equitable balance
between the two freedoms is infinitely greater in urban, metropolitan and
megalopolitan situations than in sparsely settled districts and rural areas. / In
the latter, sheer intervening space acts as a buffer between the privacy and well-
being of one resident and the potential encroachments thereon by his neighbors in
the form of noise, air or water pollution, absence of sanitation, or whatever. In a
congested urban situation, the individual is powerless to protect himself from the
"free" (i.e., inconsiderate or invasionary) acts of others without himself being
guilty of a form of encroachment."
Jump up ^ McQuillan (1937/1987), �1.08.
Jump up ^ McQuillan (1937/1987), �1.33.
Jump up ^ Bryan D. Jones, Saadia R. Greenbeg, Clifford Kaufman, & Joseph Drew,
"Service Delivery Rules and the Distribution of Local Government Services: Three
Detroit Bureaucracies"; in Hahn & Levine (1980). "Local government bureaucracies
more or less explicitly accept the goal of implementing rational criteria for the
delivery of services to citizens, even though compromises may have to be made in
the establishment of these criteria. These production oriented criteria often give
rise to "service deliver rules", regularized procedures for the delivery of
services, which are attempts to codify the productivity goals of urban service
bureaucracies. These rules have distinct, definable distributional consequences
which often go unrecognized. That is, the decisions of governments to adopt
rational service delivery rules can (and usually do) differentially benefit
citizens."
^ Jump up to: a b Robert L. Lineberry, "Mandating Urban Equality: The Distribution
of Municipal Public Services"; in Hahn & Levine (1980). See: Hawkins v. Town of
Shaw (1971).
Jump up ^ George Nilson, "Baltimore police under state control for good reason",
Baltimore Sun 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Robert Jay Dilger, Randolph R. Moffett, & Linda Stuyk, "Privatization of
Municipal Services in America's Largest Cities", Public Administration Review
57(1), 1997; doi:10.2307/976688.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kenneth Gwilliam, "Cities on the move � Ten years after",
Research in Transportation Economics 40, 2013; doi:10.1016/j.retrec.2012.06.032.
Jump up ^ McQuillan (1937/1987), ��1.65�1.66.
Jump up ^ David Walker, "The New System of Intergovernmental Relations: Fiscal
Relief and More Governmental Intrusions"; in Hahn & Levine (1980).
Jump up ^ Bart Voorn, Marieke L. van Genugten, & Sandra van Thiel, "The efficiency
and effectiveness of municipally owned corporations: a systematic review", Local
Government Studies, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Rachel Weber, "Selling City Futures: The Financialization of
Urban Redevelopment Policy"; Economic Geography 86(3), 2010; doi:10.1111/j.1944-
8287.2010.01077.x. "TIF is an increasingly popular local redevelopment policy that
allows municipalities to designate a 'blighted' area for redevelopment and use the
expected increase in property (and occasionally sales) taxes there to pay for
initial and ongoing redevelopment expenditures, such as land acquisition,
demolition, construction, and project financing. Because developers require cash
up-front, cities transform promises of future tax revenues into securities that
far-flung buyers and sellers exchange through local markets."
Jump up ^ Rachel Weber, "Extracting Value from the City: Neoliberalism and Urban
Redevelopment",[dead link] Antipode, July 2002; doi:10.1111/1467-8330.00253.
Jump up ^ Josh Pacewicz, "Tax increment financing, economic development
professionals and the financialization of urban politics"; Socio-Economic Review
11, 2013; doi:10.1093/ser/mws019. "A city's credit rating not only influences its
ability to sell bonds, but has become a general signal of fiscal health. Detroit's
partial recovery in the early 1990s, for example, was reversed when Moody's
downgraded the rating of the city's general obligation bonds, precipitating new
rounds of capital flight (Hackworth, 2007). The need to maintain a high credit
rating constrains municipal actors by making it difficult to finance discretionary
projects in traditional ways."
Jump up ^ Gupta et al. (2015), pp. 4, 29. "We thereby understand urban governance
as the multiple ways through which city governments, businesses and residents
interact in managing their urban space and life, nested within the context of other
government levels and actors who are managing their space, resulting in a variety
of urban governance configurations (Peyroux et al. 2014)."
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 142�143.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Verrest, and Jaffe, "Theorizing Governance", in Gupta et al.
(2015), pp. 30�31.
^ Jump up to: a b Gupta, Verrest, and Jaffe, "Theorizing Governance", in Gupta et
al. (2015), pp. 31�33. "The concept of good governance itself was developed in the
1980s, primarily to guide donors in development aid (Doonbos 2001:93). It has been
used both as a condition for aid and a development goal in its own right. Key terms
in definitions of good governance include participation, accountability,
transparency, equity, efficiency, effectiveness, responsiveness, and rule of law
(e.g. Ginther and de Waart 1995; UNDP 1997; Woods 1999; Weiss 2000). [�] At the
urban level, this normative model has been articulated through the idea of good
urban governance, promoted by agencies such as UN Habitat. The Colombian city of
Bogot� has sometimes been presented as a model city, given its rapid improvements
in fiscal responsibility, provision of public services and infrastructure, public
behavior, honesty of the administration, and civic pride."
Jump up ^ Shipra Narang Suri & G�nther Taube, "Governance in Megacities:
Experiences, Challenges and Implications for International Cooperation"; in Kraas
et al. (2014), pp. 197�198.
Jump up ^ Alain Garnier, "La Plata: la visionnaire trahie"; Architecture &
Comportment 4(1), 1988, pp. 59�79.
Jump up ^ Levy (2017), pp. 193�235.
^ Jump up to: a b McQuillin (1937/1987), ��1.75�179. "Zoning, a relatively recent
development in the administration of local governmental units, concerns itself with
the control of the use of land and structures, the size of buildings, and the use-
intensity of building sites. Zoning being an exercise of the police power, it must
be justified by such considerations as the protection of public health and safety,
the preservation of taxable property values, and the enhancement of community
welfare. [�] Municipal powers to implement and effectuate city plans are usually
ample. Among these is the power of eminent domain, which has been used effectively
in connection with slum clearance and the rehabilitation of blighted areas. Also
available to cities in their implementation of planning objectives are municipal
powers of zoning, subdivision control and the regulation of building, housing and
sanitation principles."
Jump up ^ Levy (2017), p. 10. "Planning is a highly political activity. It is
immersed in politics and inseparable from the law. [...] Planning decisions often
involve large sums of money, both public and private. Even when little public
expenditure is involved, planning decisions can deliver large benefits to some and
large losses at others."
Jump up ^ Jorge Hardoy, Urban Planning in Pre-Columbian America; New York: George
Braziller, 1968.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 131�140.
Jump up ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party
(online), February 1848; translated from German to English by Samuel Moore. "But
with the development of industry, the proletariat not only increases in number; it
becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that
strength more. The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the
proletariat are more and more equalised, in proportion as machinery obliterates all
distinctions of labour, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level."
^ Jump up to: a b Mike Davis, "The Urbanization of Empire: Megacities and the Laws
of Chaos"; Social Text 22(4), Winter 2004.
Although studies of the so-called urban informal economy have shown myriad secret
liaisons with outsourced multinational production systems, the larger fact is that
hundreds of millions of new urbanites must further subdivide the peripheral
economic niches of personal service, casual labor, street vending, rag picking,
begging, and crime.
This outcast proletariat�perhaps 1.5 billion people today, 2.5 billion by 2030�is
the fastest-growing and most novel social class on the planet. By and large, the
urban informal working class is not a labor reserve army in the nineteenth-century
sense: a backlog of strikebreakers during booms; to be expelled during busts; then
reabsorbed again in the next expansion. On the contrary, this is a mass of humanity
structurally and biologically redundant to the global accumulation and the
corporate matrix.
It is ontologically both similar and dissimilar to the historical agency described
in the Communist Manifesto. Like the traditional working classes, it has radical
chains in the sense of having little vested interest in the reproduction of private
property. But it is not a socialized collectivity of labor and it lacks significant
power to disrupt or seize the means of production. It does possess, however, yet
unmeasured powers of subverting urban order.

Jump up ^ Marshall (1989), pp. 5�6.

Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 160�164. "Indeed, the design of the buildings
often revolves around the consumable fantasy experience, seen most markedly in the
likes of Universal CityWalk, Disneyland and Las Vegas. Architecture critic Ada
Louise Huxtable (1997) names architectural structures built specifically as
entertainment spaces as �Architainment�. These places are, of course, places to
make money, but they are also stages of performance for an interactive consumer.
Jump up ^ Leach (1993), pp. 173�176 and passim.
Jump up ^ "Knowledge Spillovers" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kent E. Calder & Mariko de Freytas, "Global Political Cities
as Actors in Twenty-First Century International Affairs; "SAIS Review of
International Affairs" 29(1), Winter-Spring 2009; doi: 10.1353/sais.0.0036.
"Beneath state-to-state dealings, a flurry of activity occurs, with interpersonal
networks forming policy communities involving embassies, think tanks, academic
institutions, lobbying firms, politicians, congressional staff, research centers,
NGOs, and intelligence agencies. This interaction at the level of
'technostructure'�heavily oriented toward information gathering and incremental
policy modification�is too complex and voluminous to be monitored by top
leadership, yet nevertheless often has important implications for policy."
Jump up ^ Borowiecki, Karol J. (2015). "Agglomeration Economies in Classical
Music". Papers in Regional Science. 94 (3): 443�68.
Jump up ^ Saskia Sassen, "Global Cities and Survival Circuits"; in Global Woman:
Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy ed. Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie
Russell Hochschild; New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2002.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009) 84�85.
Jump up ^ Jane Zheng, "Toward a new concept of the 'cultural elite state': Cultural
capital and the urban sculpture planning authority in elite coalition in Shanghai";
Journal of Urban Affairs 39(4), 2017; doi:10.1080/07352166.2016.1255531.
Jump up ^ McQuillan (1937/1987), ��1.04�1.05. "Almost by definition, cities have
always provided the setting for great events and have been the focal points for
social change and human development. All great cultures have been city-born. World
history is basically the history of city dwellers."
Jump up ^ Robert Redfield & Milton B. Singer, "The Cultural Role of Cities";
Economic Development and Cultural Change 3(1), October 1954.
Jump up ^ Magnusson (2011), p. 21. "These statistics probably underestimate the
degree to which the world has been urbanized, since they obscure the fact that
rural areas have become so much more urban as a result of modern transportation and
communication. A farmer in Europe or California who checks the markets every
morning on the computer, negotiates with product brokers in distant cities, buys
food at a supermarket, watches television every night, and takes vacations half a
continent away is not exactly living a traditional rural life. In most respects
such a farmer is an urbanite living in the countryside, albeit an urbanite who has
many good reasons for perceiving himself or herself as a rural person."
Jump up ^ Mumford (1961), p. 563�567. "Many of the original functions of the city,
once natural monopolies, demanding the physical presence of all participants, have
now been transposed into forms capable of swift transportation, mechanical
manifolding, electronic transmission, worldwide distribution."
Jump up ^ Donald Theall, The Virtual Marshall McLuhan; McGill-Queen's University
Press, 2001; ISBN 0-7735-2119-4; p. 11. Quoting Marshall McLuhan: "The CITY no
longer exists, except as a cultural ghost [...] The INSTANTANEOUS global coverage
of radio-tv makes the city form meaningless, functionless."
Jump up ^ Ashworth, Kavaratzis, & Warnaby, "The Need to Rethink Place Branding"; in
Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015), p. 15.
^ Jump up to: a b c David Wachsmuth, "City as ideology: reconciling the explosion
of the city form with the tenacity of the city concept", Environment and planning
D: Society and Space 31, 2014; doi:10.1068/d21911.
Jump up ^ Adriana Campelo, "Rethinking Sense of Place: Sense of One and Sense of
Many"; in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).
^ Jump up to: a b Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, "Rethinking Place Identities", in
Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), 186�189.
Jump up ^ Latham, et al. (2009), pp. 41, 189�192.
Jump up ^ Fred Coalter, "The FIFA World Cup and Social Cohesion: Bread and Circuses
or Bread and Butter?"; International Council of Sport Science and Physical
Education Bulletin 53, May 2008 (Feature: Feature: "Mega Sport Events in Developing
Countries").
Jump up ^ Kimberly S Schimmel, "Assessing the sociology of sport: On sport and the
city"; International Review for the Sociology for Sport 50(4-5), 2015;
doi:10.1177/1012690214539484.
^ Jump up to: a b Stephen V. Ward, "Promoting the Olympic City"; in John R. Gold &
Margaret M. Gold, eds., Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World's
Games, 1896�2016; London & New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis), 2008/2011; ISBN
978-0-203-84074-0.
All this media exposure, provided it is reasonably positive, influences many
tourist decisions at the time of the Games. This tourism impact will focus on, but
extend beyond, the city to the country and the wider global region. More
importantly, there is also huge long term potential for both tourism and investment
(Kasimati, 2003).
No other city marketing opportunity achieves this global exposure. At the same
time, provided it is carefully managed at the local level, it also gives a
tremendous opportunity to heighten and mobilize the commitment of citizens to their
own city. The competitive nature of sport and its unrivalled capacity to be enjoyed
as a mass cultural activity gives it many advantages from the marketing point of
view (S.V. Ward, 1998, pp.231�232). In a more subtle way it also becomes a metaphor
for the notion of cities having to compete in a global marketplace, a way of
reconciling citizens and local institutions to the wider economic realities of the
world.

Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 127�128.

Jump up ^ Ashworth (1991). "In more recent years, planned networks of defended
settlements as part of military strategies can be found in the pacification
programmes of what has become the conventional wisdom of anti-insurgency
operations. Connected networks of protected settlements are inserted as islands of
government control into insurgent areas�either defensively to separate existing
populations from insurgents or aggressively as a means of extending control over
areas�as used by the British in South Africa (1899�1902) and Malaya (1950�3) and by
the Americans in Cuba (1898) and Vietnam (1965�75). These were generally small
settlements and intended as much for local security as offensive operations. / The
planned settlement policy of the State of Israel, however, has been both more
comprehensive and has longer-term objectives. [...] These settlements provide a
source of armed manpower, a defence in depth of a vulnerable frontier area and
islands of cultural and political control in the midst of a potentially hostile
population, thus continuing a tradition of the use of such settlements as part of
similar policies in that area which is over 2,000 years old."
Jump up ^ See Brigadier General J. Franklin Bell's telegraphic circular to all
station commanders, 8 December 1901, in Robert D. Ramsey III, A Masterpiece of
Counterguerrilla Warfare: BG J. Franklin Bell in the Philippines, 1901�1902, Long
War Series, Occasion Paper 25; Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute
Press, US Army Combined Arms Center; pp. 45�46. "Commanding officers will also see
that orders are at once given and distributed to all the inhabitants within the
jurisdiction of towns over which they exercise supervision, informing them of the
danger of remaining outside of these limits and that unless they move by December
25th from outlying barrios and districts with all their movable food supplies,
including rice, palay, chickens, live stock, etc., to within the limits of the zone
established at their own or nearest town, their property (found outside of said
zone at said date) will become liable to confiscation or destruction."
Jump up ^ Maj. Eric Weyenberg, U.S. Army, Population Isolation in the Philippine
War: A Case Study; School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command
and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; January 2015.
Jump up ^ Ashworth (1991), p. 3. Citing L.C. Peltier and G.E. Pearcy, Military
Geography (1966).
Jump up ^ R. D. McLaurin & R. Miller. Urban Counterinsurgency: Case Studies and
Implications for U.S. Military Forces. Springfield, VA: Abbott Associates, October
1989. Produced for U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory at Aberdeen Proving
Ground.
Jump up ^ Ashworth (1991), pp. 91�93. "However, some specific sorts of crime,
together with those antisocial activities which may or may not be treated as crime
(such as vandalism, graffiti daubing, littering and even noisy or boisterous
behavior), do play various roles in the process of insurgency. This leads in
consequence to defensive reactions on the part of those responsible for public
security, and by individual citizens concerned for their personal safety. The
authorities react with situational crime prevention as part of the armoury of urban
defense, and individuals fashion their behavior according to an 'urban geography of
fear'."
Jump up ^ Adams (1981), p. 132 "Physical destruction and ensuing decline of
population were certain to be particularly severe in the case of cities that joined
unsuccessful rebellions, or whose ruling dynasts were overcome by others in abbtle.
The traditional lamentations provide eloquently stylized literary accounts of this,
while in other cases the combinations of archaeological evidence with the testimony
of a city's like Ur's victorious opponent as to its destruction grounds the world
of metaphor in harsh reality (Brinkman 1969, pp. 311�12)."
Jump up ^ Fabien Limonier, "Rome et la destruction de Carthage: un crime gratuit?"
Revue des �tudes Anciennes 101(3).
Jump up ^ Ben Kiernan, "The First Genocide: Carthage, 146 BC"; Diogenes 203, 2004;
doi:1177/0392192104043648.
Jump up ^ Burns H. Westou, "Nuclear Weapons Versus International Law: A Contextual
Reassessment"; McGill Law Journal 28, p. 577. "As noted above, nulcear weapons
designed for countervalue or city-killing purposes tend to be of the strategic
class, with known yields of deployed warheads averaging somewhere between two and
three times and 1500 times the firepower of the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki."
Jump up ^ Dallas Boyd, "Revealed Preference and the Minimum Requirements of Nuclear
Deterrence"; Strategic Studies Quarterly, Spring 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Joel A. Tarr, "The Evolution of the Urban Infrastructure in the
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries"; in Hanson (1984).
^ Jump up to: a b c Wellman & Spiller, "Introduction", in Wellman & Spiller (2012).
^ Jump up to: a b c Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Urban Infrastructure:
Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance"; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).
Jump up ^ Thomas DiLorenzo, "The Myth of Natural Monopoly"; Review of Australian
Economics 9(2), 1996.
Jump up ^ Jean-Michel Guldmann, "Economies of Scale and Natural Monopoly in Urban
Utilities: The Case of Natural Gas Distribution"; Geographical Analysis 17(4),
October 1985; doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1985.tb00852.x.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 70.
Jump up ^ Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Urban Infrastructure: Productivity,
Project Evaluation, and Finance"; in Wellman & Spiller (2012), pp. 73�74. "The NCP
established a legislative regime at Federal and State levels to facilitate third-
party access to provision and operation of infrastructure facilities, including
electricity and telecommunications networks, gas and water pipelines, railroad
terminals and networks, airports, and ports. Following these reforms, few countries
embarked on a larger scale initiative than Australia to privatize delivery and
management of public infrastructure at all levels of government."
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 75.
By the 1960s, however, this 'integrated ideal' was being challenged, public
infrastructure entering into crisis. There is now a new orthodoxy in many branches
of urban planning: 'The logic is now for planners to fight for the best possible
networked infrastructures for their specialized district, in partnership with
(often privatised and internationalised network) operators, rather than seeking to
orchestrate how networks roll out through the city as a whole' (Graham and Marvin,
2001: 113).
In the context of development theory, these 'secessionary' infrastructures
physically by-pass sectors of cities unable to afford the necessary cabling, pipe-
laying, or streetscaping that underpins service provision. Cities such as Manila,
Lagos or Mumbai are thus increasingly characterized by a two-speed mode of
urbanisation.

Jump up ^ "public, adj. and n.", Oxford English Dictionary, September 2007.
Jump up ^ Emanuele Lobina, David Hall, & Vladimir Popov, "List of water
remunicipalisations in Asia and worldwide - As of April 2014"; Public Services
International Research Unit, University of Greenwich.
Jump up ^ Michael Goldman, "How 'Water for All!' policy became hegemonic: The power
of the World Bank and its transnational policy networks"; Geoforum 38(5), September
2007; doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2005.10.008.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 169�170.
Jump up ^ Grava (2003), pp. 1�2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tom Hart, "Transport and the City"; in Paddison (2001).
Jump up ^ Grava (2003), pp. 15�18.
Jump up ^ Grava (2003),
Jump up ^ Smethurst pp. 67�71.
Jump up ^ Smethurst pp. 105�71.
^ Jump up to: a b J. Allen Whitt & Glenn Yago, "Corporate Strategies and the
Decline of Transit in U.S. Cities"; Urban Affairs Quarterly 21(1), September 1985.
^ Jump up to: a b Iain Borden, "Automobile Interstices: Driving and the In-Between
Spaces of the City"; in Brighenti (2013).
Jump up ^ Moshe Safdie with Wendy Kohn, The City After the Automobile; BasicBooks
(Harper Collins), 1997; ISBN 0-465-09836-3; pp. 3�6.
Jump up ^ Grava (2003), pp. 128�132; 152�157.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 30�32.
Jump up ^ Grava (2003), 301�305. "There are a great many places where [buses] are
the only public service mode offered; to the best of the author's knowledge, no
city that has transit operates without a bus component. Leaving aside private cars,
all indicators�passengers carried, vehicle kilometers accumulated, size of fleet,
accidents recorded, pollution caused, workers employed, or whatever else�show the
dominance of buses among all transit modes, in this country as well as anywhere
else around the world. [�] At the global scale, there are probably 8000 to 10,000
communities and cities that provide organized bus transit. The larger places have
other modes as well, but the bulk of these cities offers buses as their sole public
means of mobility."
Jump up ^ Herbert S. Levinson, Samuel Zimmerman, Jennifer Clinger, & C. Scott
Rutherford, "Bus Rapid Transit: An Overview"; Journal of Public Transportation
5(2), 2002.
Jump up ^ Yvonne Rydin et al., "Shaping cities for health: complexity and the
planning of urban environments in the 21st century"; The Lancet 379(9831), 2012;
PMID 3428861.
Jump up ^ Anthony Walmsley, "Greenways: multiplying and diversifying in the 21st
century"; Landscape and Urban Planning 76, 2006;
doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.09.036.
Jump up ^ McQuillin (1937/1987), �1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that
no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The
problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation,
sufficient sewers, clean, well lighted streets, rehabilitation of slum areas, and
health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food.
Jump up ^ Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in
Paddison (2001).
Jump up ^ Franz Rebele, "Urban Ecology and Special Features of Urban Ecosystems",
Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 4(6), November 1994.
Jump up ^ Herbert Sukopp, "On the Early History of Urban Ecology in Europe"; in
Marzluff et al. (2008).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon,
R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, & R. Costanza, "Urban Ecological Systems: Linking
Terrestrial Ecological, Physical, and Socioeconomic Components of Metropolitan
Areas"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).
Jump up ^ Ingo Kowarik, "On the Role of Alien Species in Urban Flora and
Vegetation"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).
Jump up ^ Robert Campagni, Roberta Capello, & Peter Nijamp, "Managing Sustainable
Urban Environments"; in Paddison (2001).
Jump up ^ "National Geographic Magazine; Special report 2008: Changing Climate:
Village Green". Michelle Nijhuis. 2008-08-26. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Indoor Air Quality � American Lung Association of Alaska". Aklung.org.
Retrieved 2009-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Newsminer.com; EPA to put Fairbanks on air pollution problem list".
Newsminer.com. 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2009-02-07.[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Peter Adey, "Coming up for Air: Comfort, Conflict and the Air of the
Megacity"; in Brighenti (2013), p. 103.
Jump up ^ Anthony Brazel, Nancy Selover, Russel Vose, & Gordon Heisler, "The tale
of two climates�Baltimore and Phoenix urban LTER sites"; Climate Research 15, 2000.
Jump up ^ Sharon L. Harlan, Anthony J. Brazel, G. Darrel Jenerette, Nancy S. Jones,
Larissa Larsen, Lela Prashad, & William L. Stefanov, "In the Shade of Affluence:
The Inequitable Distribution of the Urban Heat Island"; in Robert C. Wilkinson &
William R. Freudenburg, eds., Equity and the Environment (Research in Social
Problems and Public Policy, Volume 15); Oxford: JAI Press (Elsevier); ISBN 978-0-
7623-1417-1.
Jump up ^ Abrahamson (2004), p. 2�4. "The linkages among cities cutting across
nations became a global network. It is important to note here that the key nodes in
the international system are (global) cities, not nations. [...] Once the linkages
among cities became a global network, nations became dependent upon their major
cities for connections to the rest of the world."
^ Jump up to: a b Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 3�4. "Instead, the picture is
becoming more detailed and differentiated, with a growing number of sub-national
entities, cities, city-regions and regions, becoming more visible in their own
right, either individually, or collectively as networks, by, more or less
tentatively, stepping out of the territorial canvas and hierarchical institutional
hegemony of the state. Prominent and well-known cities, and those regions with a
strong sense of identity and often a quest for more autonomy, have been the most
enthusiastic, as they began to be represented beyond state borders by high-profile
city mayors and some regional leaders with political courage and agency. [�] This,
then, became part of the much bigger political project of the European Union (EU),
which has offered a particularly supportive environment for international
engagement by�and among�subnational governments as part of its inherent
integrationist agenda."
Jump up ^ Gupta et al. (2015), 5�11. "Current globalization, characterized by hyper
capitalism and technological revolutions, is understood as the growing intensity of
economic, demographic, social, political, cultural and environmental interactions
worldwide, leading to increasing interdependence and homogenization of ideologies,
production and consumption patterns and lifestyles (Pieterse 1994; Sassen 1998).
[�] Decentralization processes have increased city-level capacities of city
authorities to develop and implement local social and developmental policies.
Cities as homes of the rich, and of powerful businesses, banks, stock markets, UN
agencies and NGOs, are the location from which global to local decision-making
occurs (e.g. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Hong Kong, Sao Paulo)."
Jump up ^ Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 9�10. "The merchants of the Hanseatic
League, for instance, enjoyed substantial trading privileges as a result of inter-
city diplomacy and collective agreements within the networks (Lloyd 2002), as well
as with larger powers, such as states. That way, the League could negotiate 'extra-
territorial' legal spaces with special privileges, such as the 'German Steelyard'
in the port of London (Schofield 2012). This special status was granted and
guaranteed by the English king as part of an agreement between the state and a
foreign city association."
Jump up ^ Curtis (2016), p. 5.
Jump up ^ Kaplan (2004), pp. 115�133.
Jump up ^ John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, "World City Formation: An Agenda for
Research and Action," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 6, no.
3 (1982): 319
Jump up ^ Abrahamson (2004), p. 4. "The formerly major industrial cities that were
most able quickly and thoroughly to transform themselves into the new
postindustrial mode became the leading global cities�the centers of the new global
system."
Jump up ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 88.
Jump up ^ James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015).
Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London:
Routledge. pp. 28, 30. "Against those writers who, by emphasizing the importance of
financial exchange systems, distinguish a few special cities as 'global
cities'�commonly London, Paris, New York and Tokyo�we recognize the uneven global
dimensions of all the cities that we study. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is
a globalizing city, though perhaps more significantly in cultural than economic
terms. And so is Dili globalizing, the small and 'insignificant' capital of Timor
Leste�except this time it is predominantly in political terms..."
Jump up ^ Kaplan (2004), 99�106.
Jump up ^ Kaplan (2004), pp. 91�95. "The United States is also dominant in
providing high-quality, global engineering-design services, accounting for
approximately 50 percent of the world's total exports. The disproportionate
presence of these U.S.-headquartered firms is attributable to the U.S. role in
overseas automobile production, the electronics and petroleum industries, and
various kinds of construction, including work on the country's numerous overseas
air and navy military bases."
Jump up ^ Kaplan (2004), p. 90�92.
Jump up ^ Michael Samers, "Immigration and the Global City Hypothesis: Towards an
Alternative Research Agenda"; International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
26(2), June 2002. "And not withstanding some major world cities that do not have
comparatively high levels of immigration, like Tokyo, it may in fact be the
presence of such large-scale immigrant economic 'communities' (with their attendant
global financial remittances and their ability to incubate small business growth,
rather than simply their complementarity to producer services employment) which
partially distinguishes mega-cities from other more nationally oriented urban
centres."
Jump up ^ Jane Willis, Kavita Datta, Yara Evans, Joanna Herbert, Jon May, & Cathy
McIlwane, Global Cities at Work: New Migrant Divisions of Labour; London: Pluto
Press, 2010; ISBN 978 0 7453 2799 0; p. 29: "These apparently rather different
takes on London's 'global city' status are of course not so far removed from one
another as they may first appear. Holding them together is the figure of the
migrant worker. The reliance of London's financial institutions and business
services industries on the continuing flow of highly skilled labour from overseas
is now well known (Beaverstock and Smith 1996). Less well known is the extent to
which London's economy as a whole is now dependent upon the labour power of low-
paid workers from across the world."
Jump up ^ Mattthew R. Sanderson, Ben Derudder, Michael Timberlake, & Frank Witlox,
"Are world cities also world immigrant cities? An international, cross-city
analysis of global centrality and immigration"; International Journal of
Comparative Sociology 56(3�4), 2015; doi:10.1177/0020715215604350.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 49�50.
Jump up ^ Charlie Jeffery, "Sub-National Authorities and European Integration:
Moving Beyond the Nation-State?" Presented at the Fifth Biennial International
Conference of the European Community Studies Association, 29 May�1 June 1997,
Seattle, USA.
Jump up ^ Jing Pan, "The Role of Local Government in Shaping and Influencing
International Policy Frameworks", PhD thesis accepted at De Montfort University,
April 2014.
Jump up ^ Herrschel & Newman (2017), p. "In Europe, the EU provides incentives and
institutional frameworks for multiple new forms of city and regional networking and
lobbying, including at the international EU level. But a growing number of cities
and regions also seek to 'go it alone' by establishing their own representations in
Brussels, either individually or in shared accommodation, as the base for European
lobbying."
Jump up ^ Gary Marks, Richard Haesly, Heather A. D. Mbaye, "What Do Subnational
Offices Think They're Doing in Brussels?"; Regional and Federal Studies 12(3),
Autumn 2002.
Jump up ^ Carola Hein, "Cities (and regions) within a city: subnational
representations and the creation of European imaginaries in Brussels";
International Journal of the Urban Sciences 19(1), 2015. See also websites of
individual city embassies cited therein, including Hanse Office (Hamburg and
Schleswig-Holstein) and City of London "City Office in Brussels"; and CoR's
[cor.europa.eu/en/regions/Documents/regional-offices.xls spreadsheet of regional
offices] in Brussels.
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), pp. 45�47.
^ Jump up to: a b Sofie Bouteligier, "Inequality in new global governance
arrangements: the North�South divide in transnational municipal networks";
Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research 26(3), 2013;
doi:10.1080/13511610.2013.771890. "City networks are not a new phenomenon, but it
was the 1990s that saw an explosion of such initiatives, especially in the
environmental domain. This is mostly ascribed to (chapter 28 of) Agenda 21, which
recognizes the role of local authorities in the promotion of sustainable
development and stimulates exchange and cooperation between them."
^ Jump up to: a b Herrschel & Newman (2017), p. 82.
^ Jump up to: a b Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, "Global Cultural Governance
Policy"; Chapter 21 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture;
London: Ashgate, 2013.
Jump up ^ Now the Global Covenant of Mayors; see: "Global Covenant of Mayors -
Compact of Mayors". Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Vancouver Action Plan"; Approved at Habitat: United Nations
Conference on Human Settlements, Vancouver, Canada; 31 May to 11 June 1976.
^ Jump up to: a b c Peter R. Walker, "Human Settlements and Urban Life: A United
Nations Perspective"; Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 14, 2005;
doi:10.1179/105307805807066329.
Jump up ^ David Satterthwaite, "Editorial: A new urban agenda?"; Environment &
Urbanization, 2016; doi:10.1177/0956247816637501.
^ Jump up to: a b Susan Parnell, "Defining a Global Urban Development Agenda";
World Development 78, 2015; doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.028; pp. 531�532:
"Garnered by its interest in the urban poor the Bank, along with other
international donors, became an active and influential participant in the Habitat
deliberations, confirming both Habitat I and Habitat II's focus on 'development in
cities' instead of the role of 'cities in development'."
^ Jump up to: a b Vanessa Watson, "Locating planning in the New Urban Agenda of the
urban sustainable development goal"; Planning Theory 15(4), 2016;
doi:10.1177/1473095216660786.
Jump up ^ New Urban Agenda, Habitat III Secretariat, 2017; A/RES/71/256*; ISBN 978-
92-1-132731-1; p. 15.
Jump up ^ Akin L. Mabogunje, "A New Paradigm for Urban Development"; Proceedings of
the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1991. "Irrespective of
the economic outcome, the regime of structural adjustment being adopted in most
developing countries today is likely to spur urbanization. If structural adjustment
actually succeeds in turning around economic performance, the enhanced gross
domestic product is bound to attract more migrants to the cities; if it fails, the
deepening misery�especially in the rural areas�is certain to push more migrants to
the city."
Jump up ^ John Briggs and Ian E. A. Yeboah, "Structural adjustment and the
contemporary sub-Saharan African city"; Area 33(1), 2001.
Jump up ^ Claire Wanjiru Ngare, "Supporting Learning Cities: A Case Study of the
Cities Alliance"; master's thesis accepted at the University of Ottawa, April 2012.
Jump up ^ Alexandre Apsan Frediani, "Amartya Sen, the World Bank, and the Redress
of Urban Poverty: A Brazilian Case Study"; in Journal of Human Development 8(1),
March 2007.
Jump up ^ Ellul (1970).
Jump up ^ Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson, "City Imaginaries", in Bridge & Watson,
eds. (2000).
Jump up ^ Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 7�8. "Growing inequalities as a result of
neo-liberal globalism, such as between the successful cities and the less
successful, struggling, often peripheral, cities and regions, produce rising
political discontent, such as we are now facing across Europe and in the United
States as populist accusations of self-serving metropolitan elitism."
Jump up ^ J.E. Cirlot, "City"; A Dictionary of Symbols, Second Edition, translated
from Spanish to English by Jack Read; New York: Philosophical Library, 1971; pp.
48�49 (online).
Jump up ^ Latham et al. (2009), p. 115.
Jump up ^ Leach (1993), p. 345. "The German film director Fritz Lang was inspired
to 'make a film' about 'the sensations' he felt when he first saw Times Square in
1923; a place 'lit as if in full daylight by neon lights and topping them oversized
luminous advertisements moving, turning, flashing on and off . . . something
completely new and nearly fairly-tale-like for a European . . . a luxurious cloth
hung from a dark sky to dazzle, distract, and hypnotize.' The film Lang made turned
out to be The Metropolis, an unremittingly dark vision of a modern industrial city.
Jump up ^ Curtis (2016), p. vii�x, 1.
Jump up ^ Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis, Ecumenopolis: Tomorrow's City;
Brittanica Book of the Year, 1968. Chapter V: Ecumenopolis, the Real City of Man.
"Ecumenopolis, which mankind will have built 150 years from now, can be the real
city of man because, for the first time in history, man will have one city rather
than many cities belonging to different national, racial, religious, or local
groups, each ready to protect its own members but also ready to fight those from
other cities, large and small, interconnected into a system of cities.
Ecumenopolis, the unique city of man, will form a continuous, differentiated, but
also unified texture consisting of many cells, the human communities. "
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Bairoch, Paul (1988). Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to
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Further reading

Berger, Alan S., The City: Urban Communities and Their Problems, Dubuque, Iowa :
William C. Brown, 1978.
Chandler, T. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston,
NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987.
Geddes, Patrick, City Development (1904)
Glaeser, Edward (2011), Triumph of the City: How Our Best Invention Makes Us
Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier, New York: Penguin Press, ISBN
978-1-59420-277-3
Kemp, Roger L. Managing America's Cities: A Handbook for Local Government
Productivity, McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson, North Carolina,
USA, and London, England, UK, 2007. (ISBN 978-0-7864-3151-9).
Kemp, Roger L. How American Governments Work: A Handbook of City, County, Regional,
State, and Federal Operations, McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson,
North Carolina, USA, and London, England, UK. (ISBN 978-0-7864-3152-6).
Kemp, Roger L. "City and Gown Relations: A Handbook of Best Practices," McFarland
and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson, North Carolina, USA, and London, England,
UK, (2013). (ISBN 978-0-7864-6399-2).
Monti, Daniel J., Jr., The American City: A Social and Cultural History. Oxford,
England and Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. 391 pp. ISBN 978-1-
55786-918-0.
Reader, John (2005) Cities. Vintage, New York.
Robson, W.A., and Regan, D.E., ed., Great Cities of the World, (3d ed., 2 vol.,
1972)
Smethurst, Paul (2015). The Bicycle � Towards a Global History. Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 978-1-137-49951-6.
Thernstrom, S., and Sennett, R., ed., Nineteenth-Century Cities (1969)
Toynbee, Arnold J. (ed), Cities of Destiny, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Pan
historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with "Athens", ends with "The
Coming World City-Ecumenopolis".
Weber, Max, The City, 1921. (tr. 1958)
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