Nouns

A noun is a word for a person, place, or thing. (You might like to think of nouns as naming words.)

Everything we can see or talk about is represented by a word which names it. That "naming word" is
called a noun.

Sometimes a noun will be the name for something we can touch (e.g., lion, cake, computer), and
sometimes a noun will be the name for something we cannot touch (e.g., bravery, mile, joy).

Everything is represented by a word that lets us talk about it. This includes people (e.g., man,
scientist), animals (e.g., dog, lizard), places (e.g., town, street), objects (e.g., vase, pencil),
substances (e.g., copper, glass), qualities (e.g., heroism, sorrow), actions (e.g., swimming, dancing),
and measures (e.g., inch, ounce).

Here are some more examples:

 soldier - Alan - cousin - Frenchman (< names for people)

 rat - zebra - lion - aardvark (< names for animals)

 house - London - factory - shelter (< names for places)

 table - frame - printer - chisel (< names for objects)

 lead - nitrogen - water - ice (< names for substances)

 kindness - beauty - bravery - wealth - faith (< names for qualities)

 rowing - cooking - barking - reading - listening (< names for actions)

 month - inch - day - pound - ounce (< names for measures)

Definition

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Whatever exists, we assume, can be
named, and that name is a noun. A proper noun, which names a specific person, place, or thing
(Carlos, Queen Marguerite, Middle East, Jerusalem, Malaysia, Presbyterianism, God, Spanish,
Buddhism, the Republican Party), is almost always capitalized. A proper noun used as an addressed
person's name is called a noun of address. Common nouns name everything else, things that
usually are not capitalized.

A group of related words can act as a single noun-like entity within a sentence. A Noun
Clause contains a subject and verb and can do anything that a noun can do:

What he does for this town is a blessing.

A Noun Phrase, frequently a noun accompanied by modifiers, is a group of related words acting as
a noun: the oil depletion allowance; the abnormal, hideously enlarged nose.

There is a separate section on word combinations that become Compound Nouns — such as
daughter-in-law, half-moon, and stick-in-the-mud.

Categories of Nouns

Nouns can be classified further as count nouns, which name anything that can be counted
(four books, two continents, a few dishes, a dozen buildings); mass nouns(or non-count nouns),
which name something that can't be counted (water, air, energy, blood); and collective nouns,
which can take a singular form but are composed ofmore than one individual person or items
(jury, team, class, committee, herd). We should note that some words can be either a count
noun or a non-count noun depending on how they're being used in a sentence:
 a. He got into trouble. (non-count)
b. He had many troubles. (countable)
c. Experience (non-count) is the best teacher.
d. We had many exciting experiences (countable) in college.

Whether these words are count or non-count will determine whether they can be used
with articles and determiners or not. (We would not write "He got into thetroubles," but we could
write about "The troubles of Ireland."

Some texts will include the category of abstract nouns, by which we mean the kind of word that
is not tangible, such as warmth, justice, grief, and peace. Abstract nouns are sometimes troublesome
for non-native writers because they can appear with determiners or without: "Peace settled over the
countryside." "The skirmish disruptedthe peace that had settled over the countryside." See the
section on Plurals for additional help with collective nouns, words that can be singular or plural,
depending on context.

Forms of Nouns

Nouns can be in the subjective, possessive, and objective case. The word case defines the role of
the noun in the sentence. Is it a subject, an object, or does it show possession?

 The English professor [subject] is tall.

 He chose the English professor [object].
 The English professor's [possessive] car is green.

Nouns in the subject and object role are identical in form; nouns that show the possessive, however,
take a different form. Usually an apostrophe is added followed by the letter s (except for plurals,
which take the plural "-s" ending first, and then add the apostrophe). See the section
on Possessives for help with possessive forms. There is also a table outlining the cases of nouns
and pronouns.

Almost all nouns change form when they become plural, usually with the simple addition of an -
s or -es. Unfortunately, it's not always that easy, and a separate section on Plurals offers advice on
the formation of plural noun forms.

Assaying for Nouns*

Back in the gold rush days, every little town in the American Old West had an assayer's office, a
place where wild-eyed prospectors could take their bags of ore for official testing, to make sure the
shiny stuff they'd found was the real thing, not "fool's gold." We offer here some assay tests for
nouns. There are two kinds of tests: formal and functional — what a word looks like (the endings it
takes) and how a word behaves in a sentence.

 Formal Tests
1. Does the word contain a noun-making morpheme? organization,
misconception, weirdness, statehood, government, democracy, philistinism,
realtor, tenacity, violinist
2. Can the word take a plural-making morpheme? pencils, boxes
3. Can the word take a possessive-making morpheme? today's, boys'
 Function Tests

4. Without modifiers, can the word directly follow an article and create a
grammatical unit (subject, object, etc.)? the state, an apple, a crate
5. Can it fill the slot in the following sentence: "(The) _________ seem(s) all
right." (or substitute other predicates such as unacceptable, short, dark,
depending on the word's meaning)?

PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.
Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).
KINDS OF PRONOUNS\
 A. Personal Pronouns:

SINGULAR PLURAL
subjective objective possessive subjective objective possessive

1st person I me my, mine we us our, ours

2nd person you you your, yours you you your, yours

3rd person he him his they them their, theirs

she her her, hers

it it its

Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:

Examples - possessive case

Examples - objective case

NOTE: Because of pronoun case, the pronoun's form changes with its function in the sentence. Follow this
link to pronoun case for moreinformation.
B. Demonstrative Pronouns:

Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners.

Example:

Hand me that hammer. (that describes the noun hammer)

Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as qualifiers:

Example:

She wanted that much money? (that describes the adjective much)

C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns

These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there in the sentence.

Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns.

Examples:

I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecting the pronoun I.)

I’ll do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I.)

Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used:

theirselves theirself hisself ourself

D. Indefinite Pronouns:

Singular:

one someone anyone no one everyone

each somebody anybody nobody everybody
(n)either something anything nothing everything

Examples:

Somebody is coming to dinner.

Neither of us believes a word Harry says.
Plural:

Examples:

Both are expected at the airport at the same time.

Several have suggested canceling the meeting.
Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:
 Examples:

Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.

Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.
Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.
Examples:

The accident is nobody’s fault.

How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.
one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most
Note the differences:

Each person has a chance.

(Each is a determiner describing person.)

Each has a chance.

(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

Both lawyers pled their cases well.

(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)

Both were in the room.

(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

E. Interrogative Pronouns:

Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require more than a “yes” or “no” answer.
Examples:
What do you want?

Who is there?
F. Relative Pronouns:

Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.

 Note: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.
Use that and which to refer to things.

VERB
Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that show action or state of being.

Verbs can also sometimes be recognized by their position in a sentence.

In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put into the empty slot.
NOUN __________ THERE ________ NOUN
(verb) (verb)

Often, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) will signify that a word is a verb. For example, the suffixes -ify, -
ize, -ate, or -en usually signify that a word is a verb, as in typify, characterize,
irrigate, andsweeten. Prefixes such as be-, de-, or en- may signify that a word is a verb, as
in bestow, dethrone, and encourage.
These affixes, often inconsistent from verb to verb, are called derivational affixes. Added to a word, they
either change the word's part of speech
Example:

or change the word's meaning

Example:

The base form of a verb is derived from the verb’s infinitive: to + verb

Four suffixes consistently added to a verb’s base create all forms of a verb used in all tenses:
1. -s creates 3rd person singular / present tense (He talks.)
2. -ing creates the present participle / used with be (He is talking.)
3. -ed creates the simple past (He talked.)
4. -en creates the past participle / used with have (He has talked.)
Note: The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary is generally written -ed,
as in has talked.

Unlike the derivational affixes, these inflectional suffixes are consistently used with all verbs, even
though their form may look different from verb to verb.
Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their –ed and/or –en endings may not follow any
obvious pattern.

Examples:
Smith writes short stories at home. (-s ending)
(to write) Smith is writing short stories at home. (-ing ending)
Smith wrote short stories at home. (-ed ending)
 Smith has written short stories at home. (-en ending)
*
Jones buys a newspaper each day. (-s ending)
Jones is buying a newspaper today. (-ing ending)
(to buy) Jones bought a newspaper yesterday. (-ed ending)
Jones has bought newspapers every day. (-en ending)
*
Students go to the library often. (-s ending)
Students are going to the library often. (-ing ending)
(to go)
Students went to the library often. (-ed ending)
Students have gone to the library often. (-en ending)

The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use -ed and -en to form their simple past tense and past
participles. (e.g. talked, has talked)
Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent pattern in creating their -ed and/or -en forms. A
list of the major irregular verbs is shown below.

Present Past (-ed form) Past Participle (-en form)

arise arose arisen
ask asked asked
attack attacked attacked
awaken awakened OR awoke awakened
bear bore borne/born
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
dive dived OR dove dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got got OR gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (things) hung hung
hang (people) hanged hanged
happen happened happened
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lie lay lain
loosen loosened loosened
lose lost lost
pay paid paid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
 run ran run
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shrink shrank OR shrunk shrunk OR shrunken
sing sang sung
sink sank OR sunk sunk
sit sat sat
speak spoke spoken
spin spun spun
spit spat spat
spring sprang OR sprung sprung
steal stole stolen
sting stung stung
stink stank OR stunk stunk
strive strove striven
study studied studied
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke OR waked woken OR waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

A verb phrase is defined as the main verb together with all its auxiliaries (helping verbs).

Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.

There are two types of auxiliary verbs:
1. Inflected auxiliary verbs:

be have do
2. Modal auxiliaries (considered more fully under (auxiliary verbs)

present past no tense

will would must
shall should
can could
may might

Examples of verb phrases:

He has taken the test. (auxiliary has + main verb take.)

He is taking the test. (auxiliary is + main verb take)
He did take the test. (auxiliary do + main verb take)
He has been taking the test. (auxiliaries has been + main verb take)

Verbs may be divided into three types:

A. Action verbs - show an action -- either physical or mental

 B. Verbs of being (forms of be - is, are, was, were, has/have/had been, will be) - show a state
of existence:

C. **Linking verbs - link a subject with its complement

(A subjective complement "completes" / "equals" the subject.)

Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound, grow, seem, remain, become

NOTE: Most linking verbs can also be used as action verbs.

Action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

A. A transitive verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
Example:
B. An intransitive verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct object.
Example:

Caution: An intransitive verb may be followed by adjectives, adverbs, and/or prepositional phrases. As
long as the verb is not followed by a noun or pronoun functioning as the direct object,the verb
is intransitive.
Example:

NOTE: Some action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

Example: (left)

Another example (read):

 Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

A. The indicative mood states a fact, asks a question, or exclaims.

B. The imperative mood gives a command. The subject is always "you" understood.

C. The subjunctive mood occurs in two instances:

1. The sentence indicates a situation contrary to fact.

2. The sentence
 shows a wish, desire, or demand
 in a nominal clause beginning with that
 following verbs such as desire, demand, request, suggest

ADJECTIVES
Kata Sifat-Kata Sifat
Adjective (kata sifat) adalah kata yang digunakan untuk memberi sifat pada kata benda. Tiap kata
sifat mempunyai kekuatan yang bersifat membatasi, dan kata sifat itu boleh diberikan definisi
sebagai kata yang digunakan untuk mebatasi pemakaian kata benda.
Ada enam jenis kata sifat :
 Proper adjective (kata sifat nama diri)
 Descriptive adjective (kata sifat deskriptif)
 Quantitative adjective (kata sifat kuantitatif)
 Numeral adjective (kata sifat numeral)
 Demonstrative adjective (kata sifat demonstratif)
 Distributive adjective (kata sifat distributif)

A. Proper adjective
Kata sifat yang melukiskan suatu benda dengan suatu kata benda nama diri tertentu. Proper adjective
harus dimulai dengan huruf besar.

Contoh: An Indonesian pilgrim. Pejiarah Indonesia

Pembentukan kata sifat dari kata benda nama diri:
a) Dengan menambahkan n
Kata Kata sifat
benda Austrian (yang berhubungan dgn Austria)
Austria Sumatran (yang berhubungan dgn
Sumatra Sumatra)
Africa African (yang berhubungan dgn Afrika)
b) Dengan menambahkan an
Kata benda Kata sifat
Europe European (mengenai Eropa)
Troy Troyan (mengenai Troya)
c) Dengan menambahkan ian
Kata benda Kata sifat
Mongol Mongolian (mengenai Mongolia)
Paris Parisian (mengenai Paris)
d) Dengan menghilangkan e atau y dan menambahkan ian
Kata benda Kata sifat
Aristotle Aristotlian (mengenai Aristotle)
Italy Italian (mengenai Itali)
e) Dengan menghilangkan s dan menambahkan tian
Kata benda Kata sifat
Mars Martian (mengenai Planet Mars)
f) Dengan menambahkan i
Kata benda Kata sifat
Iraq Iraqi (mengenai Irak)

B. Descriptive Adjective
Kata sifat yang melukiskan sifat dan keadaan seseorang, hewan atau benda.
 a brave girl. Seorang gadis yang berani
 a beautiful woman. Seorang wanita yang cantik
 a sick dog. Seekor anjing yang sakit

C. Quantitative Adjective
Kata sifat yang menunjukkan berapa banyak (how much) sesuatu benda yang dimaksudkan. Kata-
kata sifat utama yang termasuk kategori ini :
 much (= a large quantity of) banyak
 little (= a small quantity of) sedikit
 no (= not any) tak ada sesuatu apapun
 some (= a certain quantity of) sejumlah tertentu
 any ( = any quiantity of) sejumlah sedikit
 enough (= sufficient) cukup
 whole seluruh
 half setengah
Adjective of quantity selalu diikuti oleh kata benda tunggal, dan kata benda ini harus selalu
merupakan kata benda material atau kata benda abstrak, misalnya much bread, much butter, much
sugar (material), much pain (= a high degree of pain) rasa sakit yang sangat (kata benda abstrak).
Oleh karena itu ajective of quantity disebut juga adjective of degree.

D. Numeral Adjective
Kata sifat yang menunjukkan berapa banyak (how many) benda atau dalam urutan berapa. Numeral
adjective dibagi kedalam dua golongan :
a) Definite numeral (bilangan tertentu)
Bilangan-bilangan yang menunjukkan berapa banyak benda yang ada yaitu bilangan cardinal (one,
two, three), bilangan ordinal (first, second, third) dan bilangan multiplicative (one only, twofold,
threefold).
b) Indefinite numeral (bilangan tak tentu)
Menunjukkan bilangan jenis tertentu tanpa mengatakan secara tepat berapa jumlahnya. Seperti
all, some, enough, no, many, few, several, dan sundry.
Definite numeral dapat dijadikan indefinite dengan meletakkan kata some atau about di depannya,
Some ten men were absent. Kurang lebih sepuluh orang tidak hadir
catatan :
many a dan a many
Many a adalah ungkapan yang diikuti oleh kata-kata benda bentuk tunggal.
Contoh: Many a youth and many a maid, dancing neath the greenwood shade. Banyak pemuda dan
banyak pemudi, menari di bawah naungan pohon-pohon hijau
A many adalah ungkapan yang diilkuti oleh kata-kata benda bentuk jamak, a many disini
mempunyai kekuatan suatu kata benda kolektif.
Contoh: They have nopt shed a many tears. Mereka tidak menitikkan banyak air mata
Dalam prosa, lebih umum diselipkan kata great antara a dan many.
Contoh: A great many woman berarti banyak sekali wanita.
E. Demonstrative Adjective
Kata sifat ini membatasi pemakaian kata benda pada orang atau benda itu diharapkan supaya
ditunjukkan oleh kata sifat itu. Kata-kata sifat jenis ini dibagi lagi dalam dua golongan utama:
a) Definite demonstrative (kata sifat penunjuk tertentu)
b) Indefinite demonstrative (kata sifat penunjuk tak tertentu)
Apabila orang atau benda ditunjukkan secara tepat, misalnya this woman, kata sifat itu disebut
definite demostrative. Apabila orang atau benda ditunjukkan dalam suatu pengertian umum/tidak
secara tepat, kata sifat itu disebut indefinite demonstrative.

Definite
Tunggal Jamak
the the (ini/itu)
this these (ini)
that those (itu)
yon, yonder yon, yonder (disana)
such such (seperti ini/itu, semacam ini/itu)
the same the same (yang sama)
self-same self-same (yang itu-itu saja)
the other the other (yang lain)
Indefinite
Tunggal Jamak
a,an _ (sebuah, seekor, seorang, dsb)
one any (suatu)
any any (yang mana saja, apa saja)
a certain certain (yang tertentu)
such such (suatu, anu)
some some (suatu, beberapa)
another other (yang lain)
any other any other (yang lain)
Kata sifat the umumnya disebut definite article (kata sandang tertentu) dan a atau an disebut
indefinite article (kata sandang tak tertentu).
Cara pemakaian kata sifat penunjuk tertentu (definite demonstrative):
a) This, these
Sesuatu yang dekat sekali (dapat disentuh atau dijangkau dengan tangan) ditunjukkan oleh
kata-kata sifat ini, seperti this book, these books.
b) That, those, yon, yonder
Kata-kata sifat ini menunjukkan sesuatu pada jarak yang lebih jauh (tidak dapat disentuh atau
dijangkau dengan tangan).
c) Such
 Kata sifat ini berarti yang semacam ini atau semacam itu, menunjukkan kepada sesuatu yang baru
saja disebutkan atau kepada sesuatu yang baru saja (akan) sedang disebutkan.
Contoh: Her praise of me was not sincere, I don’t like such a woman. Pujiannya padaku tidak tulus
hati, aku tidak menyukai wanita semacam itu
Such juga dipakai sebagai indefinite demonstrative, dalam hal ini such tidak menunjukkan kepada
sesuatu yang disebutkan sebelumnya, tetapi yang samar-samar (tidak jelas) atau tidak tentu.
d) The same, self-same, very same
Kata-kata sifat ini semuanya menunjuk kepada sesuatu yang disebutkan sebelumnya. Self-same dan
very same lebih bersifat menegaskan atau menekankan daripada same.
Contoh: You told her to come here as soon as possible and I gave her the same answer. Anda
menyuruh dia datang ke sini secepat mungkin dan saya memberikan jawaban yang sama kepadanya
e) The other (yang lain)
Kata sifat ini menunjukkan yang kedua dari dua orang atau benda yang disebutkan sebelumnya,
sedang the one (yang satu) menunjukkan yang pertama.
Cara pemakaian kata sifat penunjuk tak tentu (indefinite demonstrative) adalah sebagai berikut:
 A, an, a certain
A, an dan a certain dipakai dengan kata-kata benda bentuk tunggal, untuk menunjukkan bahwa tidak
ada orang atau benda khusus yang dimaksudkan atau ditentukan, seperti a woman (seorang wanita),
an egg (sebutir telur), a certain person (seseorang yang tertentu). Certain dipakai dengan kata-kata
benda bentuk jamak dalam pengertian yang sama, seperti certain people (sekelompok orang
tertentu).
 One
Kata ini umumnya adalah kata sifat bilangan (numeral adjective). Akan tetapi one juga boleh dipakai
sebagai kata sifat penunjuk tak tentu (indefinite demonstrative) dalam kalimat ini:
Contoh: She came one day to see me. Pada suatu hari ia datang menemui saya one day = on a certain
day which I cannot remember
 Any
Kata ini lebih bersifat menegaskan atau menekankan daripada a atau an. Any dapat dipakai dengan
kata-kata benda bentuk tunggal dan juga bentuk jamak.
Contoh: Any man could do that. Setiap orang/siapa saja dapat melakukan itu
 Some
Ini dipakai dalam dua pengertian: Untuk menunjukkan bahwa tiada orang atau benda khusus yang
ditentukan. Untuk membuat bilangan tertentu menjadi tak tentu.
Contoh: Some man called here this morning. Seseorang singgah ke sini tadi pagi
 Another, any other, other
Another dipakai dengan kata-kata benda bentuk tunggal dan other dengan kata-kata benda bentuk
jamak.
Another dan other dipakai dalam kalimat-kalimat berita (affirmative sentences). Any other (dengan
kata-kata benda bentuk tunggal atau jamak) dipakai dalam kalimat-kalimat menyangkal (negative
sentences).
Contoh:
 I have read another book. Saya telah membaca buku yang lain
 I have read other books. Saya telah membaca buku-buku yang lain

F. Distributive Adjective
Membatasi pemakaian kata benda dengan menunjukkan bahwa orang atau benda yang ditunjukkan
oleh kata benda digunakan satu demi satu, atau dalam bagian-bagian yang terpisah. Kata sifat
golongan ini ada empat buah : each, every, either dan neither.
a) Each
Each berarti salah satu dari dua benda, atau salah satu dari dua bilangan apa saja yang melebihi dua.
The two students had each a pen. Dua orang siswa ini masing-masing mempunyai sebuah pena
b) Every
Every tidak dipakai untuk salah satu dari dua, melainkan untuk bilangan tertentu yang melebihi
dua.
Contoh: Every man (out of the fifteen present) had a gun. Tiap orang (dari lima belas orang yang
hadir) mempunyai sebuah senapan
Catatan :
 Every adalah kata yang lebih kuat daripada each dan berarti ” tiap-tiap tanpa kekecualian “.
 Every five hours berarti setiap jangka waktu lima jam, lima jam diambil secara kolektif sebagai satu
periode/jangka waktu.
 Every other berarti setiap yang kedua, setiap dua … sekali atau berselang, seperti every
 other day (dua hari sekali), every other week (dua minggu sekali).
 c) Either
Ini mempunyai dua arti: salah satu dari dua, atau setiap dari dua, yaitu keduanya
Contoh: You can take either side, that is, one side or the other. Anda boleh mengambil salah satu
sisi, yaitu sisi yang satu atau sisi yang lain
d) Neither
Ini adalah bentuk negatif dari either dan berarti yang satu tidak, yang lain juga tidak (kedua-duanya
tidak).
Contoh: You should take neither side, that is, neither this side nor that, neither the one side nor the
other. Anda seharusnya tidak mengambil salah satu sisi, yaitu sisi yang ini tidak, sisi yang itu juga
tidak, sisi yang satu tidak, sisi yang lain juga tidak
The two uses of adjectives and subtitutes for adjectives (Dua Cara Pemakaian Kata Sifat):
1) The attributive (atributif, kata sifat yang terletak langsung di depan kata benda)
2) The predicative (predikatif, kata sifat yang merupakan predikat)
Penjelasan :
1) Attributive use (pemakaian atributif)
Suatu kata sifat dipakai secara atributif, apabila kata sifat itu memberi sifat kata bendanya secara
langsung.
Contoh:
 A noble deed suatu perbuatan yang mulia
 A lame cat seekor kucing yang pincang
Semua kata sifat asli dapat dipakai secara atributif, kecuali glad lazimnya hanya dipakai secara
predikatif, misalnya I am glad to meet you. Saya senang bertemu dengan anda
2) Predicative use (pemakaian predikatif)
Suatu kata sifat dipakai secara predikatif, apabila kata sifat itu dijadikan bagian predikat
(sebutan) suatu kalimat. Lalu kata sifat itu memberi sifat kata bendanya secara tidak langsung
melalui kata kerjanya.
Contoh:
 Her character is noble. Wataknya mulia
 That cat went lame. Kucing itu berjalan dalam keadaan pincang
Kata atau kata-kata apa saja yang membatasi kata benda sejalan seperti suatu kata sifat akan
membatasinya, boleh dianggap menjadi pengganti untuk kata sifat :
a) Suatu participle (partisip) atau verbal adjective (kata kerja partisip yang dapat dipakai sebagai
kata sifat)
Contoh:
 A retired president. Seorang presiden purnawirawan
 Retired pay. Uang pensiun
b) Suatu adverb (kata tambahan) dengan participle (partisip) tertentu yang dimengerti :
Comtoh: The then King. Raja pada waktu itu
c) Kata benda atau gerund (kata kerja bentuk ing yang berfungsi sebagai kata benda) dipakai
sebagai kata sifat:
Contoh:
 A river fish. Ikan yang hidup di sungai
 A bathing place. Suatu tempat yang digunakan untuk mandi
d) Suatu kata benda atau kata ganti dalam kasus kepunyaan:
Contoh: Your son’s teacher. Guru anak anda
e) Suatu kata kerja dalam modus infinitif (infinitive mood)
Contoh: Water to drink. Air yang diminum
f) Suatu kata depan dengan objeknya:
Contoh: A man of virtue. Seorang yang baik/bijak
g) Suatu adjective clause (anak kalimat kata sifat) yaitu suatu anak kalimat yang
melakukan tugas kata sifat, misalnya:
Contoh: The cassette that you lent me will not be lost. Kaset yang anda pinjamkan kepadaku itu
tidak akan hilang

ADVERBS

Adverbs are used to modify verbs. They tell us when, where, how, in what manner, or to what extent
an action is performed. Some examples:
 When: He ran yesterday.
 Where: He ran here.
 How: He ran quickly.
 In what manner: He ran barefoot.
 To what extent: He ran fastest.
In these examples, the adverbs are all just one word, but they can be made up of more than one
word. (See: adverbial phrases and clauses.)

Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives and other adverbs. For example:
 He's an extremely nice chap.
 She can run extremely quickly.
What Is an Adverb?
An adverb can be added to a verb to modify its meaning. Usually, an adverb tells you when, where,
how, in what manner, or to what extent an action is performed.

Many adverbs end in ly — particularly those that are used to express how an action is performed.

Although many adverbs end ly, lots do not, e.g., fast, never, well, very, most, least, more, less, now,
far, and there.

Examples:
 Anita placed the vase carefully on the shelf.
(The word carefully is an adverb. It shows how the vase was placed.)

 Tara walks gracefully.

(The word gracefully is an adverb. It modifies the verb to walk.)

 He runs fast.
(The word fast is an adverb. It modifies the verb to run.)

 You can set your watch by him. He always leaves at 5 o'clock.

(The word always is an adverb. It modifies the verb to leave.)

 The dinner guests arrived early.

(early modifies to arrive)

 She sometimes helps us.

(sometimes modifies to help)

 I am the only person in the world I should like to know thoroughly. (Oscar Wilde)
(thoroughly modifies to know)
on the adverbs:

The witches gathered quickly near the caveentrance. Prefect Witch Gillian glided importantlythroug
h the crowd. She stopped abruptly,turned sharply to the Grand Witch, who wasdressed from head to
toe in a dark red gown,and shrieked: 'The coven are present, yourGrandness.'

Types of Adverbs
Although there are thousands of adverbs, each adverb can usually be categorized in one of the
following groupings:
Adverbs of Time
 Press the button now.
(now - adverb of time)

 I have never been.

(never - adverb of time)

 I tell him daily.

(daily - adverb of time)
Adverbs of Place
 Daisies grow everywhere.
(everywhere - adverb of place)
 I did not put it there.
(there - adverb of place)
Adverbs of Manner
 He passed the re-sit easily.
(easily - adverb of manner)

 The lion crawled stealthily.

(stealthily - adverb of manner)

Adverbs of Degree
 That is the farthest I have ever jumped.
(farthest - adverb of degree)

 He boxed more cleverly.

(more cleverly - adverb of degree and manner.)
Read more about comparatives of adverbs (like more cleverly).
Adverbs Can Modify Adjectives and Other Adverbs
Although the term adverb implies that they are only used with verbs, adverbs can also modify
adjectives and other adverbs. For example:

 The horridly grotesque gargoyle was undamaged by the debris.

(The adverb horridly modifies the adjective grotesque .)

 Peter had an extremely ashen face.

(The adverb extremely modifies the adjective ashen.)

 Badly trained dogs that fail the test will become pets.
(The adverb badly modifies the adjective trained.)
(Note: The adjective trained is an adjective formed from the verb to train. It is called a participle.)

 She wore a beautifully designed dress.

(The adverb beautifully modifies the adjective designed.)

 Peter Jackson finished h

CONJUNCTIONS

What Are Conjunctions?

Conjunctions are used to join words or groups of words together. The most common ones
are and, or, and but. (There are many others.)

Read more about conjuctions in the glossary of terms.

Types of Conjunctions
Conjunctions can be categorized into one of three groupings:
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are the ones that spring to mind when people think about conjunctions.
They include and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join individual words, phrases, andindependent clauses.

Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Individual Words:

 Jamie, Adam, and Lee arranged to meet by The Bull at 7 o'clock.

 It is a small but practical kitchen.

 Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Individual Phrases:
 The finance manager or his new deputy from Holland will notify you when the report is ready to
send.

 John or his new deputy from Holland will notify you when the report is ready to send.
(You can join a mix of words and phrases with a coordinating conjunction. Here, the
conjunction or groups the word John and the phrase his new deputy from Holland.)
Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Individual Clauses:

 A little sincerity is a dangerous thing, and a great deal of it is absolutely

fatal. (Oscar Wilde)
(Here, the conjunction and joins two independent clauses.)

 We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. (Oscar Wilde)

 History will be kind to me, for I intend to write it. (Winston Churchill)
The word coordinating means of equal rank. Usually, the elements joined by a coordinating
conjunction are of equal rank. It is unusual, but possible, to see a mix of these groups joined by a
coordinating conjunction.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs. For example, either...or, neither...nor,whether...or, and not
only...but also.

 This man is either dead or my watch has stopped. (Groucho Marx)

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
include: after, although, as, because, before, if,once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where
, whether, and while.

They are used to show the relationship between an independent clause adependent clause.

 Keep your hand on the wound until the nurse asks you to take it off.

 Personally I'm always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught. Sir Winston
Churchill (1874-1965)

 We can't all be heroes because somebody has to sit on the curb and clap as they go by. Will Rogers
(1879-1935)

Errors with Conjunctions

Conjunctions do not normally cause serious errors, but writers are sometimes confused about when
to place a comma before a conjunction. Unfortunately, there is no simple rule, such as: Never put a
comma before and.

The guidelines are explained in the lesson Conjunctions and Commas.

Comma before And in a List?

Most lists look like this:

 Thing, another thing, another thing, and the final thing.

The conjunction sits before the final thing. In this case, it's the word and. The big question is
whether the comma before the and is right or wrong.

When there are just two list items, there is no need for a comma before the conjunction. For
 example:

 Thing and the final thing.

(No comma is required because it is a list containing just two list items.)
Here's a real example:

 I know George and Toby.

(No comma required before the and.)
The whole world is agreed on not needing a comma with just two list items.

However, when there are more than two list items, the world is divided on whether there should be a
comma. There is no right answer. You have to pick a convention and stick with it.

The comma before the conjunction is called an Oxford Comma. Some people consider the Oxford
Comma to be a waste of ink, while others strongly campaign for its inclusion. In general terms, the
Oxford Comma is more common in the US than it is in the UK (despite it being called the Oxford
Comma).

Followers of the Oxford Comma Avoiders of the Oxford Comma

(generally Americans) (generally Brits)

 I went to the shop for eggs and butter.  I went to the shop for eggs and butter.
(There is no need for a comma with just two list (There is no need for a comma with just two list
items.) items.)
 She went to the shop for eggs, milk, and  She went to the shop for eggs, milk, and
butter. butter.
 She went to the shop for eggs, milk and  She went to the shop for eggs, milk and
butter. butter.
 Carl, David, and Sarah were all there.  Carl, David, and Sarah were all there.
 Carl, David and Sarah were all there.  Carl, David and Sarah were all there.

There is another quirk. On occasion, it may be appropriate to use a comma with the conjunction in a
simple list (even a list with just two list items). This could be for the sake of tidiness or to eliminate
ambiguity. For example:

 The news will be shown after Dangermouse, and Rug Rats.

(Without the comma, people could think that Dangermouse and Rug Rats is one programme.)

 The train will stop at Watford, Harrow, Pinner, Watford, and Bushey.
(Watford and Bushey could be one place, like Bath and Wells.)

 The emblem is an amalgamation of the British and Irish flags, the Stars andStripes, and the
Hammer and Sickle.
(The word and appears lots of times in this example. The comma before theand makes it easier for
the reader to identify the list items.

PREPOSITIONS
Preposition (kata depan) adalah kata yang tidak dapat berubah bentuknya dan biasanya diletakkan di
depan kata benda atau pada kata benda (noun-equivalent, termasuk kata ganti) untuk
memperlihatkan hubungannya tertentu dengan katakata lain dalam kalimat.
Kata benda atau padan kata benda itu disebut objek :
 I put the book on the table. Saya menaruh buku di atas meja itu
 Kata on dalam kalimat tersebut ialah kata depan (preposisi).
A. Kata keterangan, ungkapan, atau anak kalimat kata benda yang dapat dipakai sebagai objek
untuk preposisi.
 1. Kata keterangan sebagai objek
Beberapa kata keterangan waktu atau tempat dapat dipakai sebagai objek untuk
preposisi yang menunjukkan hubungan waktu atau tempat :
Contoh: He has studied hard from then till now. Ia telah belajar giat dari waktu itu
sampai sekarang
2. Ungkapan sebagai objek
Ungkapan yang bersifat kata keterangan (yaitu ungkapan yang tidak berakhir dengan
kata depan atau kata sambung) dapat dipakai sebagai objek untuk preposisi :
Contoh: She didn’t return till about a week afterwards. Ia tidak kembali sampai kira-
kira seminggu kemudian
3. Anak kalimat kata benda (noun clause) sebagai objek
Noun clause (anak kalimat yang melakukan pekerjaan kata benda) dapat menjadi
objek untuk preposisi dengan cara yang sama seperti kata benda dan kata ganti :
Contoh: My departure will depend upon whether I get leave or not. Keberangkatanku
akan tergantung pada apakah aku mendapat izin cuti atau tidak
B. Bentuk preposisi
1) Simple preposition (preposisi tunggal) after (sesudah), at (di, pada), by (oleh, pada,
dengan, di dekat), for (untuk, selama, bagi, karena), from (dari), of (dari, tentang,
karena), over (di atas), on (di atas, pada), in (di, di dalam), through (melalui), to (ke,
kepada), off (lepas dari, jauh), till/until (sampai, hingga), under (di bawah), up (ke atas,
ke), with (dengan, pada) dan sebagainya.
2) Double preposition (preposisi ganda)
Preposisi ganda dipakai bilamana preposisi tunggal tidak cukup untuk menyatakan
pengertian.
into (ke dalam), onto (di atas), from under (dari bawah), from among (dari antara), from
off (lepas dari), from within (dari dalam), over against (bersandar di/kepada), dan
sebagainya.
3) Compound preposition (preposisi gabungan)
Ini dibentuk dari noun, adjective atau adverb yang digabungkan dengan preposisi “be”(=
by) atau “a” (=on) across (on cross = di seberang), long (sepanjang), amidst (on middle =
di tengah-tengah), behind (di belakang), about (di sekitar, tentang), above (di atas),
before (di muka), amongst (di antara lebih dari dua), below (di bawah), beneath (di
bawah), beside (di sebelah, di samping), besides (selain), between (di antara dua), beyond
(di luar), but (kecuali), within (dalam), without (tanpa).
4) Participal preposition (preposisi partisip)
 pending = seraya menantikan
 during = selama, pada waktu
 notwithstanding = meskipun
 past = lewat
 except = kecuali
 save = kecuali
 considering = mengingat
 touching = concerning = regarding = mengenai
 owing to = karena
5) Phrase preposition (preposisi phrase)
Dua atau lebih kata yang biasanya disusun dalam rangkaian kata dan yang berakhir
dengan preposisi tunggal boleh disebut phrase preposition.
 because of = disebabkan oleh, karena
 by means of = dengan memakai
 by reason of = karena, berhubungan dengan
 for the purpose of = dengan maksud
 for the sake of = demi
 in consequence of = karena
 in lieu of = sebagai pengganti
 in place of = sebagai pengganti
 in point of = tentang
 in behalf of = untuk kepentingan
 in the event of = kalau (sekiranya), dalam hal, bila
 in the place of = sebagai pengganti
 in view of = karena, mengingat
 in front of = di muka
 in opposition to = berlawanan dengan
  in spite of = meskipun
 instead of = sebagai pengganti, daripada
 on account of = karena
 on behalf of = atas nama
 on the score of = karena
 upon the subject of = tentang
 with a view to = dengan maksud untuk
 with reference to = berkenaan dengan
 with regard to = berkenaan dengan, mengenai
 with relation to = berkenaan dengan
 with respect to = berkenaan dengan, mengenai
 with the pupose of = dengan maksud
6) Disquised preposition (preposisi tersembunyi)
He has gone a-hunting. Ia telah pergi berburu
C. Pemakaian preposisi
1) Perbedaan pemakaian khusus preposisi yang sering membingungkan
At, in (place = tempat)
In biasanya dipakai di depan nama negeri dan kota besar, atau didepan nama tempat di
mana seseorang pada waktu berbicara. Sedangkan at dipakai di depan nama kota kecil
dan desa, atau pada waktu membicarakan suatu tempat yang jauh.
 I passed my holidays at Puncak. Aku melewatkan hari-hari liburku di Puncak
 He lives in London. Ia tinggal di London
At, in, on (time = waktu)
At dipakai dengan waktu yang tepat, misalnya at two o’clock, at dawn, at noon, at
sunset, at midnight dan sebagainya. In dipakai dengan suatu bagian waktu, misalnya in the
morning, in June, in summer, in 1997, in the year 1997 dan sebagainya. On dipakai dengan
nama hari atau tanggal, misalnya on Saturday, on August 10, on New Year’s Day, dan
sebagainya.
 I usually get up at six o’clock. Saya biasanya bangun pada pukul enam
 He takes a walk in the afternoon. Ia berjalan-jalan pada sore hari
 The ship will arrive on Monday. Kapal itu akan tiba pada hari senin
At, for (price = harga)
At dipakai jika jumlah uang yang sebenarnya tidak diberikan. Sedangkan for dipakai jika
jumlah uang yang sebenarnya disebutkan.
 I can not buy the goods at such a high price. Saya tak dapat membeli barang itu dengan
harga yang begitu tinggi
 He bought a book for ten dollars. Ia membeli buku dengan harga sepuluh dolar
Beside, besides
Beside berarti disamping, disebelah. Sedangkan besides berarti di samping itu, selain.
 He came and sat beside me. Ia datang dan duduk di sebelah saya
 We study German besides English. Kami mempelajari bahasa Jerman selain Inggris
Between, among
Between dipakai untuk diantara dua orang, sedangkan among lebih dari dua
 I sat between the two of them. Saya duduk diantara mereka berdua
 Devide the apple among you three. Bagilah buah apel itu diantara kalian bertiga
By, with
1. when we USE something TO DO something: I paint the wall with brush
2. When we JOIN someone TO DO something: Jimmy goes to school with his sister
3. We may also use “with” to meand “against”: I quarrelled with my best friend.
By berhubungan dengan pelaku, sedangkan with dengan alat yang dipakai
 This book was written by me. Buku ini kutulis
 This letter was written with a fountain pen. Surat ini ditulis dengan sebuah pena
By, before, since
Semua ini dipakai untuk suatu batas tertentu.
 You must be back by five o’clock. Anda harus kembali menjelang pukul lima
 She didn’t get back before five o’clock. Ia tidak kembali sebelum pukul lima
 She has been here since five o’clock. Ia berada disini sejak pukul lima
In, after
 I will finish it in three hours. Saya akan menyelesaikannya dalam waktu tiga jam
 He died after a few days. Setelah beberapa hari ia meninggal
In, into
 She spent all the afternoon in her room. Ia melewatkan waktu sepanjang sore di dalam
kamarnya
 She came into the room and sat down. Ia masuk kedalam kamar dan duduk
To, at
To dipakai untuk menyatakan gerak dari satu tempat ke tempat lain, sedangkan at dipakai
untuk menunjukkan posisi atau ketidakadaan gerak.
 We come to school every morning. Kami datang ke sekolah tiap pagi
 Somebody is standing at the door. Seseorang sedang berdiri di pintu itu
To, till
To dipakai dengan jarak dan till dengan waktu.
 We walked to the the tennis court and back. Kami berjalan ke lapangan tenis dan kembali
 I shall stay here till next week. Saya akan tinggal disini sampai minggu depan
2) Perbedaan pemakaian umum preposisi menurut apa yang dinyatakan
Sebab atau alasan dinyatakan oleh of, from, through, for, because of, in consequence
of atau owing to.
Contoh:
 He died of cancer. Ia mati karena kanker
 He almost died from fatigue. Ia hampir mati karena keletihan
 She couldn’t speak for grief. Ia tak dapat berbicara karena kesedihan
 Owing to bad health, be couldn’t work. Karena kesehatan buruk, ia tidak dapat bekerja
Akibat dinyatakan oleh preposisi to.
Contoh:
 To our surprise, he wasn’t successful. Mengherankan bagi kita, ia tidak berhasil
 The king has engaged in war to his ruin. Raja itu telah berperang sehingga
mengakibatkan kejatuhannya
Kepunyaan dinyatakan oleh preposisi of, kecuali kalau akhiran kasus genetif dipakai
untuk maksud ini.
Contoh: The house of my uncle is very big. Rumah paman saya sangat besar
Pertukaran, atau fakta satu benda/makhluk yang disalahkirakan/dikira
benda/makhluk yang lain, dinyatakan oleh for.
Contoh: She gave me two dollars for that book. Ia memberi kepadaku dua dolar sebagai
pengganti buku itu
Subtitusi/pengganti dinyatakan oleh ungkapan yang berpreposisi instead of, in lieu of,
in the place of, dan kadang-kadang oleh preposisi for.
Contoh: You had better work instead of idling away your time. Lebih baik anda bekerja
daripada membuang-buang waktu anda
Pronouns are words used instead of nouns. Kata ganti adalah kata yang dipakai sebagai
pengganti kata benda
Pertentangan atau perlawanan dinyatakan oleh with atau against, sedangkan tindakan
setuju dinyatakan oleh for.
Contoh:
 He was deeply offended with me. Ia sangat marah terhadapku
 I did it against my better judgment. Kulakukan itu bertentangan dengan pertimbanganku
yang lebih baik
 They acted for the public interest. Mereka berbuat demi kepentingan umum
Perbedaan atau kontras dinyatakan oleh with, for, after, notwithstanding, dan kadang-
kadang oleh ungkapan seperti in spite of.
Contoh:
 With all his weight he isn’t a strong man. Walaupun ia begitu berat ia bukanlah orang
kuat
 He is a good man, for all that. Sekalipun begitu ia adalah orang baik
 After all his labour, he has failed. Meskipun ia bekerja sekeras-kerasnya, ia masih tetap
gagal
Penyesuaian atau persesuaian dinyatakan oleh after atau to.
Contoh:
 He’s a man after my own heart. Ia seorang laki-laki yang cocok dengan perasaan hatiku
 This coffee is quite to my taste. Kopi ini cocok benar dengan seleraku
Kekecualian dinyatakan oleh except, but, save.
Contoh:
 All failed except him. Kecuali dia semuanya gagal
 All but you three may go. Semua boleh pergi kecuali kau bertiga
 All save one were successful. Semua berhasil kecuali seorang
 Gambaran aposisi dinyatakan oleh of.
Contoh:
 The city of Jakarta. Kota Jakarta
 The island of Bali. Pulau Bali
Material, isi dan sifat dinyatakan oleh preposisi of.
Contoh:
 Tables are usually made of wood. Meja biasanya dibuat dari kayu
 He drinks a cup of coffe every morning. Ia minum secangkir kopi tiap pagi
 He is a man of good character. Ia seorang yang berwatak baik
Penilaian sesuatu atau suku (bunga) dinyatakan oleh preposisi at.
Contoh:
 This must be done at any rate. Bagaimanapun juga hal ini harus dilakukan
 He lends out money at three per cent. Ia meminjamkan uang dengan bungan tiga persen
Takaran atau ukuran dinyatakan oleh preposisi by.
Contoh: Don’t judge of a man by his words or by his looks. Jangan menilai orang
menurut kata-katanya atau rupanya
Batas atau taraf dinyatakan oleh preposisi to atau up to.
Contoh:
 He paid his debts to the last cent. Ia membayar hutangnya sampai lunas sama sekali
 He remained faithful to the last. Ia tetap setia sampai saat terakhir
Pokok persoalan, perihal dinyatakan oleh of, on, about, concerning, as to, regarding,
in regard to, with regard to, in respect to.
Contoh:
 This is a book about proverbs. Inilah buku tentang peribahasa
 I have no preference as to color. Tentang warna bagiku tak menjadi soal
 I have something to say in respect to our business. Ada sesuatu yang hendak kukatakan
tentang bisnis kita
Kesimpulan, alasan (motive), dan sumber dinyatakan oleh preposisi from.
Contoh:
 From what I have seen of him, he seems to be a good man. Menurut pengamatan saya
terhadapnya, rupanya ia seorang yang baik
 He did it from ignorance. Ia melakukannya karena ketidaktahuan
 He is sprung from a noble ancestry. Ia berasal dari keturunan bangsawan
Arah atau tujuan dinyatakan oleh preposisi at, on, upon, for dan to.
Contoh:
 The troops marched on the town. Pasukan itu berbaris menuju kota
 He aimed his gun at the wild boar. Ia membidikkan senapannya kepada babi hutan itu
Penunjukkan kepada maksud, pokok atau hal khusus tertentu dinyatakan oleh of dan
in, dan preposisi ini biasanya didahului oleh kata sifat tertentu.
Contoh:
 He’s free of responsibility. Ia bebas dari tanggung jawab
 He’s honest in word and deed. Ia jujur dalam ucapan dan perbuatan
Perimbangan dinyatakan oleh to, dan perbandingan dinyatakan oleh than.
Contoh:
 I will bet you five to one on his success. Saya berani bertaruh lima lawan satu atas
keberhasilannya
 He did nothing else than laugh. Selain tertawa ia tidak melakukan sesuatu hal yang lain
Pekerjaan atau jabatan dinyatakan oleh at, in atau about.
Contoh:
 He is at his old tricks again. Ia mulai lagi dengan tipu muslihatnya seperti dulu
 He engaged himself in business. Ia melakukan usaha dagang
 You may go about your business. Kamu boleh melakukan pekerjaan sendiri
Pengangkatan sumpah dinyatakan oleh preposisi by.
Contoh: I swear by the name of God. Saya bersumpah demi nama Tuhan
Persiapan untuk menghadapi peristiwa tertentu yang akan segera datang dinyatakan
oleh against.
Contoh: Get all the men together against the arrival of the chief. Panggillah semua anak
buah bersama-sama untuk menyambut kedatangan sang kepala
Penyebutan sebagian tertentu seperti ternyata dari keseluruhan dinyatakan oleh of.
Contoh: Many of the wounded did not recover. Banyak diantara para orang yang luka
tidak sembuh
Pembedaan orang atau benda yang satu dari yang lain, dinyatakan dengan from.
 Contoh: He can tell apples from peaches. Ia dapat membedakan buah apel dari buah
persik
Pemisahan atau kenyataan bahwa benda yang satu berada di luar atau terlepas dari
yang lain, dinyatakan kadang-kadang oleh from, of atau off dan kadang-kadang oleh
out of.
Contoh:
 He’s away from home. Ia berada jauh dari rumah
 He was within an inch of being killed by a random shot. Ia hampir saja terbunuh oleh
tembakan yang membabi buta
 We are off duty today, but shall on duty again tomorrow. Hari ini kami bebas tugas,
tetapi besok akan bertugas lagi
Keunggulan dinyatakan oleh above dan sifat yang rendah atau ketidakpatuhan
dinyatakan oleh beneath.
Contoh:
 He is above suspicion. Ia bebas dari kerugian
 His conduct is beneath contempt. Kelakuannya terlalu hina
Wibawa atau kekuasaan dinyatakan oleh over dan penaklukan atau keadaan di bawah
kekuasaan atau pengaruh dinyatakan oleh under.
Contoh:
 Since you have been placed over me, I must obey. Sejak kedudukan anda berada di atas
saya, saya harus patuh
She is quite under your thumb. Ia betul-betul di bawah kekuasaan anda

ARTICLES
What Are Articles? (with Examples)
There are two types of articles:

 The Definite Article (the)

 The Indefinite Article (a and an).
The articles are classified as adjectives.

The is called the definite article because it is used to indicate something specific.

A and An are called the indefinite articles because they are used to indicate something unspecific.

Examples of the Definite and Indefinite Articles

Here are some examples of the articles in use:

 I fell over the chair again.

(The chair is specific. It is known to the audience.)

 Can you pass me a chair?

(This means an unspecific chair, i.e., any chair.)

 I loved the apple pie after the meal.

(In this example, the audience knows which apple pie is being praised, e.g., the one at last night's
dinner.)

 I love an apple pie after dinner.

(The audience understands that the speaker likes to eat an apple pie after dinner (any apple pie will
do).)

 I'm not a troublemaker. I'm the troublemaker!

(This means "I'm not any old troublemaker. I'm the one you all know about.")
When Do You Use An and A?
The main question regarding articles is when to use an instead of a.

An is used instead of a to make speaking easier. An is used when the first sound of the next word is
a vowel sound. Note: Consonants can create a vowel sound, and vowels can create a consonant
sound. The use of an is determined by the sound not the letter. Look at these examples:
 A house
 An hour
(House and hour start with the same three letters; however, house attracts a, and hour attracts an.
This is because house starts with a consonant sound, but hour starts with a vowel sound.)

 A uniform row
 An unidentified man
(Uniform and unidentified start with the same three letters; however,uniform attracts a,
and unidentified attracts an. This is because uniformstarts with a consonant sound (yoo),
but unidentified starts with a vowel sound.)