SESSION -1

NOTES – 1

PASCAL'S LAW
Pascal's law or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure (also Pascal's Principle) is a
principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change occurring anywhere in a
confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change
occurs everywhere.
Pascal's principle is defined as a change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest
is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid.
This principle is stated mathematically as: is the hydrostatic pressure (given in pascals in
the SI system), or the difference in pressure at two points within a fluid column, due to the
weight of the fluid;
ρ is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system);
g is acceleration due to gravity (normally using the sea level acceleration due to Earth's gravity, in
SI in metres per second squared);is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the
difference in elevation between the two points within the fluid column (in metres in SI).
The intuitive explanation of this formula is that the change in pressure between 2 elevations
is due to the weight of the fluid between the elevations. A more correct interpretation, though,
is that the pressure change is caused by the change of potential energy per unit volume of
the liquid due to the existence of the gravitational field. Note that the variation with height
does not depend on any additional pressures.

Overview

Pascal's Law states,

" The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest, is the same in all direction."

Theorem Proof

Consider a very small right angled triangular element ABC of a liquid as shown in figure.
Let:

 = Intensity of horizontal pressure on the

element of the liquid
 = Intensity of vertical pressure on the element
of the liquid
 = Intensity of pressure on the diagonal of the
triangular element of the liquid
 = Angle of the triangular element of the liquid

Now total pressure on the vertical side AC of the liquid,

--------- (1)
Similarly, total pressure on the horizontal side BC of the liquid,
---------- (2)
and total pressure on the diagonal side AB of the liquid,
---------- (3)
Since the element of the liquid is at rest, therefore sum of the horizontal and vertical
components of the liquid pressure must be equal to zero.
Now using eqilibrium condition for horizontal pressure,

From the geometry of the figure, we find that,

----------------- (4)

Now using equilibrium condition for vertical pressure, i.e.,

(where W = Weight of the liquid)

As the triangular element is very small, the weight of the liquid W is neglected, so,

From the geometry of the figure, we find that

---------------------(5)

Now from equation (4) and (5), we find that

Thus the intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid, at rest, is the same in all direction.
Example - Pressure in Hydraulic Cylinder
The pressure of 2000 Pa in an hydraulic cylinder acts equally on all surfaces. The force on a
piston with area 0.1 m2 can be calculated as

F = p A (1)

where

F = force (N)

p = pressure (Pa, N/m2)

A = area (m2)

or with values

F = (2000 Pa) (0.1 m2)

= 200 (N)

Pascal's Principle
Pressure is transmitted undiminished in an enclosed static
fluid.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -1
1. Hydraulic press works on principle of

A. Newton's law C. Pascal's law

B. Avogadro's law D. none of above

2. Which of the following is the best statement of Pascals Law?

A) Pressure on a confined liquid is transmitted equally in all directions

B) a numerical arrangement where each number is the sum of the two numbers above
C) Two electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state at the same time
D) The volume of a gas is directly related to its temperature

3. When submerged under water, the apparent mass of one cubic cm of pure gold is 18.3
g. What would be its mass in air?

A) 16.3 g B) 17.3 g C) 18.3 g D) 19.3 g E) 20.3 g

4. Pressure is defined as " The perpendicular force acting per unit area of a surface."
Units of pressure :
N/m2 or Pascal (IN S.I. system)

5. Pressure in a fluid power system comes from:

A. resistance to flow B. motor horsepower. C. pump volume.

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS - 1

1. State Pascal’s law.

Pascal's law or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure (also Pascal’s Principle)

is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change occurring anywhere
in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the
same change occurs everywhere.

2. Name the devices they work on the basis of Pascal’s law.

Hydraulic brake, Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic press.

3. A hydraulic system is used to lift a 2000-kg vehicle in an auto garage. If the vehicle sits
on a piston of area 0.5 square meter, and a force is applied to a piston of area 0.03 square
meters, what is the minimum force that must be applied to lift the vehicle?
POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION -1

1. State and prove Pascal’s law

SESSION -2
NOTES – 2
HYDROSTATICS
Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies
incompressible fluids at rest. It encompasses the study of the conditions under which fluids
are at rest in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion.
Hydrostatics are categorized as a part of the fluid statics, which is the study of all fluids,
incompressible or not, at rest.
Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for storing,
transporting and using fluids. It is also relevant to geophysics and astrophysics (for
example, in understanding plate tectonics and the anomalies of the Earth's gravitational
field), to meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood pressure), and many other fields.
Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as
why atmospheric pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why
the surface of water is always flat and horizontal whatever the shape of its container.

PASCAL'S CONTRIBUTION IN HYDROSTATICS

Pascal made contributions to developments in both hydrostatics and

hydrodynamics. Pascal's Law is a fundamental principle of fluid mechanics that states that
any pressure applied to the surface of a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the fluid
in all directions, in such a way that initial variations in pressure are not changed

PRESSURE IN FLUID AT REST

Due to the fundamental nature of fluids, a fluid cannot remain at rest under the presence of
a shear stress. However, fluids can exert pressure normal to any contacting surface. If a
point in the fluid is thought of as an infinitesimally small cube, then it follows from the
 principles of equilibrium that the pressure on every side of this unit of fluid must be equal.
If this were not the case, the fluid would move in the direction of the resulting force. Thus,
the pressure on a fluid at rest is isotropic; i.e., it acts with equal magnitude in all
directions. This characteristic allows fluids to transmit force through the length of pipes or
tubes; i.e., a force applied to a fluid in a pipe is transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end
of the pipe. This principle was first formulated, in a slightly extended form, by Blaise
Pascal, and is now called Pascal's law.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
In a fluid at rest, all frictional and inertial stresses vanish and the state of stress of the system
is called hydrostatic. When this condition of (V=0) is applied to the Navier-Stokes equation,
the gradient of pressure becomes a function of body forces only. For a Barotropic fluid in a
conservative force field like a gravitational force field, pressure exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium becomes a function of force exerted by gravity.
The hydrostatic pressure can be determined from a control volume analysis of an
infinitesimally small cube of fluid. Since pressure is defined as the force exerted on a test
area (p = F/A, with p: pressure, F: force normal to area A, A: area), and the only force acting
on any such small cube of fluid is the weight of the fluid column above it, hydrostatic
pressure can be calculated according to the following formula:
where:

 p is the hydrostatic pressure (Pa),

 ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3),
 g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2),
 A is the test area (m2),
 z is the height (parallel to the direction of gravity) of the test area (m),
 z0 is the height of the zero reference point of the pressure (m).

For water and other liquids, this integral can be simplified significantly for many
practical applications, based on the following two assumptions: Since many liquids can
be considered incompressible, a reasonable good estimation can be made from
assuming a constant density throughout the liquid. (The same assumption cannot be
made within a gaseous environment.) Also, since the height h of the fluid column
between z and z0 is often reasonably small compared to the radius of the Earth, one
can neglect the variation of g. Under these circumstances, the integral is simplified into

the formula:
Where h is the height z − z0 of the liquid column between the test volume and the zero
reference point of the pressure. Note that this reference point should lie at or below the surface
of the liquid. Otherwise, one has to split the integral into two (or more) terms with the
constant ρ liquid and ρ (z') above. For example, the absolute pressure compared to vacuum
is:
Where H is the total height of the liquid column above the test area to the surface, and path is
the atmospheric pressure, i.e., the pressure calculated from the remaining integral over the air
column from the liquid surface to infinity. This can easily be visualized using a prism.
Hydrostatic pressure has been used in the preservation of foods in a process
called pascalization.
MEDICINE
In medicine, hydrostatic pressure in blood vessels is the pressure of the blood against the wall.
It is the opposing force to oncotic pressure.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Statistical mechanics shows that, for a gas of constant temperature, T, its pressure, p will vary
with height, h, as:
Where:
 g is the acceleration due to gravity
 T is the absolute temperature
 k is Boltzmann constant
 M is the mass of a single molecule of gas
 p is the pressure
 h is the height
This is known as the barometric formula, and may be derived from assuming the pressure
is hydrostatic.
If there are multiple types of molecules in the gas, the partial pressure of each type will be
given by this equation. Under most conditions, the distribution of each species of gas is
independent of the other species.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -2

1.The hydrostatic law states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal
to
Ans: Specific weight of the fluid

2.Rate of change of pressure in a vertical

branch of fluid mechanics that studies incompressible fluids at rest

Ans : hydrostatics
3.In a fluid at rest, all frictional and inertial stresses vanish and the state of stress of the
system is called

Ans : hydrostatic

4.the pressure pushing the fluid out favouring filtration, which is higher at the arterial end
of the capillary

Ans : hydrostatic pressure

5.In this section we are going to submerge a vertical plate in water and we want to know
the force that is exerted on the plate due to the pressure of the water. This force is often
called

Ans : hydrostatic force

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 2

1.What is fluid statics?

In this section we are going to submerge a vertical plate in water and we want to know
the force that is exerted on the plate due to the pressure of the water. This force is often
called the hydrostatic force.

2.What is Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point
within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to
depth measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of fluid exerting
downward force from above.

3.What is hydrostatic law?

Hydrostatic law is a principle that identifies the amount of pressure exerted at a specific
point in a given area of fluid lying on top of a surface. It can also refer to the overall weight
of this fluid on a surface.

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION -2

1. Derive pressure variation in a fluid at rest

 SESSION -3
NOTES – 3
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE
The horizontal and vertical components of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged
surface are given by the following:
Where:

 pc is the pressure at the centroid of the vertical projection of the submerged

surface
 A is the area of the same vertical projection of the surface
 ρ is the density of the fluid
 g is the acceleration due to gravity
 V the volume of fluid directly above the curved surface

Submerged vertical surface - Pressure diagrams

 For vertical walls of constant width it is usually much easier to find the resultant
force and centre of pressure. This is done graphically by means of a pressure
diagram.
 Consider the tank in the diagram below having vertical walls and holding a liquid
of density to a depth of H. To the right can be seen a graphical representation of
the (gauge) pressure change with depth on one of the vertical walls. Pressure
increases from zero at the surface linearly by , to a maximum at the base
of .

Pressure diagram for vertical wall.

 The area of this triangle represents the resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall, using SI units this would have units of Newtons per metre. So
Resultant force per unit width

The force acts through the centroid of the pressure diagram. For a triangle the
centroid is at 2/3 its height, i.e. in the figure above the resultant force acts

horizontally through the point .

For a vertical plane the depth to the centre of pressure is given by

This can be checked against the previous method:

The resultant force is given by:

and the depth to the centre of pressure by:

and by the parallel axis theorem (with width of 1)

Giving depth to the centre of pressure

These two results are identical to the pressure diagram method.

The same pressure diagram technique can be used when combinations of liquids are
held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water) with position of action found by taking
moments of the individual resultant forces for each fluid. Look at the examples to
examine this area further.
More complex pressure diagrams can be draw for non-rectangular or non-vertical
planes but it is usually far easier to use the moments method.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -3
1. Total pressure equals to
Ans : sum of static pressure and velocity pressure
2. Hydrostatic force is
Ans :force due to the pressure of a fluid at rest
3. Application of hydrostatic force
Ans : force exerted on the wall of storage tanks, dams, and ships
4. Centre of pressure is
Ans: a point on a surface through which the resultant force due to pressure
passes.
5. The total pressure will act
Ans : normal to the surface

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 3

1.what is centre of pressure
The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body,
causing a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of
pressure is the value of the integrated vectorial pressure field.

2.define total pressure

Total pressure is the total of staticpressure p, dynamic pressure q, and gravitational head.

3.What are the Forces acting on a fluid particle .

 Force due to pressure of the fluid normal to the surface
 Force Due to gravity

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION -3

1. A vertical gate of 5 m height and 3 m wide closes a tunnel running full with water. The
pressure at the bottom of the gate is 195 kN/m2 . Determine the total pressure on the gate
and position of the centre of the pressure.
 SESSION -4
NOTES – 4
Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluids

We have seen the following features of statics fluids

 Hydrostatic vertical pressure distribution

 Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous fluid are equal
 Pressure at a point acts equally in all directions (Pascal's law).
 Forces from a fluid on a boundary acts at right angles to that boundary.

1. Fluid pressure on a surface

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. If a pressure p acts on a small area then the
force exerted on that area will be

Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at right-angles to the surface.

General submerged plane

Consider the plane surface shown in the figure below. The total area is made up of many
elemental areas. The force on each elemental area is always normal to the surface but, in
general, each force is of different magnitude as the pressure usually varies.

We can find the total or resultant force, R, on the plane by summing up all of the forces on
the small elements i.e.

This resultant force will act through the centre of pressure, hence we can say

If the surface is a plane the force can be represented by one single resultant force,
acting at right-angles to the plane through the centre of pressure.
Horizontal submerged plane

For a horizontal plane submerged in a liquid (or a plane experiencing uniform pressure
over its surface), the pressure, p, will be equal at all points of the surface. Thus the
resultant force will be given by

Curved submerged surface

If the surface is curved, each elemental force will be a different magnitude and in different
direction but still normal to the surface of that element. The resultant force can be found
by resolving all forces into orthogonal co-ordinate directions to obtain its magnitude and
direction. This will always be less than the sum of the individual forces, .

Resultant Force and Centre of Pressure on a submerged plane surface in a liquid.

This plane surface is totally submerged in a liquid of density and inclined at an angle
of to the horizontal. Taking pressure as zero at the surface and measuring down from
the surface, the pressure on an element , submerged a distance z, is given by

and therefore the force on the element is

The resultant force can be found by summing all of these forces i.e.

(assuming and g as constant).

The term is known as the 1st Moment of Area of the plane PQ about the free
surface. It is equal to i.e.

where A is the area of the plane and is the depth (distance from the free surface) to the
centroid, G. This can also be written in terms of distance from point O ( as )

Thus:

The resultant force on a plane

This resultant force acts at right angles to the plane through the centre of pressure, C, at a
depth D. The moment of R about any point will be equal to the sum of the moments of the
forces on all the elements of the plane about the same point. We use this to find the
position of the centre of pressure.

It is convenient to take moments about the point where a projection of the plane passes
through the surface, point O in the figure.

We can calculate the force on each elemental area:

And the moment of this force is:

are the same for each element, so the total moment is

We know the resultant force from above , which acts through the centre of
pressure at C, so

Equating gives,

Thus the position of the centre of pressure along the plane measure from the point O is:

It look a rather difficult formula to calculate - particularly the summation term. Fortunately
this term is known as the 2nd Moment of Area , , of the plane about the axis through O
and it can be easily calculated for many common shapes. So, we know:

And as we have also seen that 1st Moment of area about a line through O,

Thus the position of the centre of pressure along the plane measure from the point O is:

and depth to the centre of pressure is

How do you calculate the 2nd moment of area?

To calculate the 2nd moment of area of a plane about an axis through O, we use
the parallel axis theorem together with values of the 2nd moment of area about an axis
though the centroid of the shape obtained from tables of geometric properties.

The parallel axis theorem can be written

where is the 2nd moment of area about an axis though the centroid G of the plane.

Using this we get the following expressions for the position of the centre of pressure

(In the examination the parallel axis theorem and the will be given)

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -4
1. Forces from a fluid on a boundary acts at

Ans: right angles to that boundary

2. Pressure which is a scalar quantity whose value is equal in

Ans : all directions

3. Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous fluid are

Ans : equal

4. Force, which is a vector quantity having

Ans : both magnitude and direction

5. If the surface is a plane the force can be represented by one single resultant force,
acting at right-angles to the plane through the
Ans : centre of pressure.
TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 4
1. What is the Fluid pressure on a surface

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. If a pressure p acts on a small area then the
force exerted on that area will be

Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at right-angles to the surface.

2. Application of inclined plane surface submerged in liquid

 Feeder Gates for Canal

 Gate Valves for Spillway Control
 Spillway Drum Gates

3. Why the center of pressure is below the center of gravity fo r an inclined surface?

As the intensity of pressure increases with depth so for an inclined surface CP is

bellow CG

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTIONS-4

1. An opening in a dam is covered with a plate of 1 m square and is hinged on the top
and inclined at 60 0 to the horizontal. If the top edge of the gate is 2 m below the
water level what is the force required to open the gate by pulling a chain set at
45 0 angle with the plate and set to the lower end of the plate. The plate weighs
2200 N.
 SESSION -5 (TUTORIAL)

PROBLEMS ON PASCAL’S LAW AND HYDROSTATIC LAW :

Problem 1
A block with lenght of p = 1.5 m, width l = 1 m, height t = 0.5 m and mass m =
300 kg lays on the table.

What is the pressure at the bottom surface of the block?

Answer
The bottom area of the block:
A=pxl
A = 1.5 x 1 = 1.5 m2

The weight of the block as a force,

F = w = m x g = 300 x 10 = 3000 Newton

So then the pressure

P = F/A = 3000/1.5 = 2000 Pascal

Problem 2
A jar of water with 15 cm of height. Find the pressure of water at the bottom of the
jar, ignore the atmospheric pressure and use the acceleration due to gravity g = 10
m/s2 and the density of water 1000 kg/m3!

Answer
The pressure at the depth of 15 cm:
P=ρxgxh
P = 1000 x 10 x 0,15 = 1500 Pascal
Problem 3
A student measures the pressure of a gas in a tube using below equipment.

If the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm Hg, and h = 3 cm, find the pressure of the gas
in the tube!

Answer
The gas pressure in the tube
P = Po − h
P = 76 cmHg − 3 cm Hg = 73 cm Hg

Problem 4
What is the pressure of the gas in the tube on this experiment below?

Use the atmospheric pressure Po = 76 cm Hg, and given h = 3 cm!

Answer
The gas pressure in the tube
P = Po + h
P = 76 cmHg + 3 cm Hg = 79 cm Hg

The arch of a bridge over a river is in the form of a semi-circle of radius 3 m. The
bridge width is 10 m. Due to a flood the water level raises 1.5 m above the crest
of the arch. Calculate (a) The upward force the arch, (b) the horizontal thrust on
the half of the arch.

Solution :

a. The upward force will be the imaginary volume of water held over the
surface.
Now, the imaginary volume of water =

Total upward force = 128.7 x 9810 = 1.26 MN

b. The horizontal force on each side,

Answer: 1.26 MN; 0.883 MN

A vertical gate of 5 m height and 3 m wide closes a tunnel running full

with water. The pressure at the bottom of the gate is 195 kN/m 2 .
Determine the total pressure on the gate and position of the centre of the
pressure.
Given data: Area of the gate = 5x3 = 15 m 2

The equivalent height of water which gives a

pressure intensity of 195 kN/m2 at the
bottom.

h = P/w =19.87m.

Total force

And

[I G = bd 3 /12]

Answer: 2.56MN and 17.49 m.

 SESSION -6
NOTES – 6
BUOYANCY
Any body of arbitrary shape which is immersed, partly or fully, in a fluid will experience
the action of a net force in the opposite direction of the local pressure gradient. If this
pressure gradient arises from gravity, the net force is in the vertical direction opposite that
of the gravitational force. This vertical force is termed buoyancy or buoyant force and is
equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the weight of the displaced fluid.
Mathematically,
Where ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and V is the volume
of fluid directly above the curved surface.[3] In the case of a ship, for instance, its weight is
balanced by pressure forces from the surrounding water, allowing it to float. If more cargo
is loaded onto the ship, it would sink more into the water – displacing more water and thus
receive a higher buoyant force to balance the increased weight.
Discovery of the principle of buoyancy is attributed to Archimedes.
The Principle of Archimedes proved experimentally in the following manner: Taking a body
hanging in the small dynamometer read the indication of weight. Then keeping the body
hanging on the dynamometer immersed in a glass completely overflowing with water, but
have previously put in a deep dish. Immersing the body in water, the indication of the
dynamometer will be smaller than the previous (outside water). At the same time, we see
that some of the water from the overflowing glass will be poured on the plate. If you weigh
the quantity of water that overflowed will see that this will be equal to the difference in body
weight outside and inside the water. This test is more accurate if successfully used special
"weir tank." After the above experiment simplifying the definition of the Principle of
Archimedes saying that: Each body is immersed in a liquid loses both by weight, as the
weight of the liquid that displaces.
Accordingly, when a body is found inside a liquid will be observed two main forces
(resultants) each. The body weight and the force applied to this buoyancy. Depending to the
value are taking these resultants each time a further three cases are distinguished:
1st case: The body weight is greater that the buoyancy. In this case the body is immersed.
2nd case: The body weight is equal to the buoyancy. In this case the body is suspended in
the liquid, i.e. standstill wherever found in the liquid, and
3rd case: The body weight is less than pursued in this buoyancy. In this case the body is not
immersed, when floating.
It is obvious that all three cases depending on the specific weight of the body (solid or liquid)
which can be respectively greater or less than the specific gravity of the liquid. For example,
wood, cork, the oil floating on the water, while the iron, aluminium, mercury sink.
The Principle of Archimedes finds very wide application in daily life mainly in engineering.
Anything that floats, such as ships, all lighter water bodies, the human body, the floats,
amphibious vehicles etc. obey the principle. But more interested in the Principle is
Shipbuilding, the science which deals in construction of ships. There the principle of
Archimedes studied, analysed and implemented in all its details. Maximum implementation
of the Principle of Archimedes observed in Underwater and Water Tanks constantly change
their buoyancy values (in corresponding cases to negative, zero and positive). The Principle
of Archimedes also apply in aerostatic e.g. in balloons

CENTRE OF BUOYANCY

 Centre of Buoyancy is the centre of the gravity of the volume of water which a hull
displaces

When the hull is upright the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy is on the same
vertical line.

 the hull is stable

For most hulls the centre of buoyancy is below the centre of gravity and the hull is said to
be meta-stable.

When the hull tilts the centre of gravity remains in the same position related to the hull
(the hull is not changed and/or the cargo is not moved). The centre of buoyancy moves to
fit the new centre of gravity of the volume of water replaced by the hull. At first the
gravity force and the buoyancy force creates a

 righting torque

that tries to move the hull back to upright position. If the hull is tilted to much the centre of
buoyancy moves to a position where the buoyancy and gravitation force starts to create a
moment that will

 capsize the hull

THE TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
The fluid flow is classified as :
1. Steady and Unsteady flows.
2. Uniform and Non – uniform flows.
3. Laminar and turbulent flows.
4. Compressible and incompressible flows.
5. Rotational and irrotational flows
6. One, two and three dimensional flows.

Steady flow
Fluid flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid
various characteristics such as velocity, density, pressure,etc do not change
with time.

∂V/∂t = 0 ∂p/∂t = 0 ∂ρ/∂t = 0

Unsteady flow
Fluid flow is said to be unsteady if at any point flowing fluid any
one or all characteristics which describe the behaviour of the fluid in motion
change with time.

∂V/∂t ≠ 0 ∂p/∂t ≠ 0 ∂ρ/∂t ≠ 0

Uniform flow
When the velocity of flow of fluid does not change both in
direction and magnitude from point to point in the flowing fluid for any
given instant of time, the flow is said to be uniform.
∂V/∂s = 0 ∂p/∂s = 0 ∂ρ/∂s = 0

Non-uniform flow
If the velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point in the flowing
fluid at any instant, the flow is said to be non-uniform flow.
∂V/∂s ≠ 0 ∂p/∂s ≠ 0 ∂ρ/∂s ≠ 0

Laminar and Turbulent flow

A flow is said to be laminar if Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe
flow. Laminar flow is possible only at low velocities and high viscous fluids.
In laminar type of flow, fluid particles move in laminas or layers gliding
smoothly over the adjacent layer.
Turbulent flow
In Turbulent flow, the flow is possible at both velocities and low viscous
fluid. The flow is said to be turbulent if Reynolds number is greater than
4000 for pipe flow. In Turbulent type of flow fluid, particles move in a zig
- zag manner.

Compressible flow
The compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the
fluid changes from point to point i.e. The density is not constant for the
fluid. It is expressed in kg/sec.
ρ ≠ constant

Incompressible flow
The incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is
constant for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible. It is
expressed in m3/s.
ρ = constant

Rotational flow
Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along stream lines and also rotate about their own axis.

Ir-rotational flow
If the fluid particles are flowing along stream lines and do not rotate
about their own axis that type of flow is called as ir-rotational flow

One dimensional flow

The flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-
ordinate only. u = f (x), v = 0 & w = 0.

Two dimensional flow

The velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates.
u = f1(x,y),v = f2(x,y)& w =0.

Three dimensional flow

The velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions.
u = f1(x,y,z), v = f2(x,y,z) &w = f3(x,y,z).
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -6
1. Centre of buoyancy always
Ans: coincides with the centroid of the volume of fluid displaced

2. If the weight of a body immersed in a fluid exceeds the buoyant force, then the
body will

Ans: tend to move downward and it may finally sink

3. A floating body is said to be in a state of stable equilibrium

Ans: when the metacentre is above the centre of gravity

4. The increase in meta centric height

Ans: decreases stability

5. Metacentric height for small values of angle of heel is the distance between the

Ans : centre of gravity and metacentre

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 6

1.What Is Buoyancy?

In science, buoyancy also known as up thrust) is an upward force exerted by a fluid that
opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with
depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid

2.What is centre of buoyancy?

The center of buoyancy of an object is located at the point that would be the center of mass
of the displaced fluid that would occupy the volume that is actually occupied by the
buoyed object.

3.A large iceberg floating in sea water is of cubical shape

and its specific gravity is 0.9 If 20 cm proportion of the iceberg
is above the sea surface, determine the volume of the iceberg
if specific gravity of sea water is 1.025.

Let the side of the cubical iceberg be h.

Total volume of the iceberg = h 3

volume of the submerged portion is = ( h -20) x h 2

Now,
For flotation, weight of the iceberg = weight of the displaced water
The side of the iceberg is 164 cm.

Thus the volume of the iceberg is 4.41m3

Answer: 4.41m 3

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTIONS-6

1. A standard basketball (mass = 624 grams; 24.3 cm in diameter) is held fully under
water. Calculate the buoyant force and weight. When released, does the ball sink to
the bottom or float to the surface? If it floats, what percentage of it is sticking out of
the water? If it sinks, what is the normal force, FN with which it sits on the bottom of
the pool?

SESSION -7
NOTES – 7

CONCEPT OF A SYSTEM
A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a
complex/intricate whole.[1] Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal
boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and
purpose and expressed in its functioning.
The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure or behavior.
Alternatively, and usually in the context of complex social systems, the term is used to
describe the set of rules that govern structure or behavior
CONTINUUM CONCEPT
Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of
the kinematics and the mechanical behaviour of materials modelled as a continuous mass
rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the
first to formulate such models in the 19th century. Research in the area continues today.
Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are composed of molecules separated by
"empty" space. On a microscopic scale, materials have cracks and discontinuities. However,
certain physical phenomena can be modelled assuming the materials exist as continuum,
meaning the matter in the body is continuously distributed and fills the entire region of space
it occupies. A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided
into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material.
The validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis, in which
either some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity of
the microstructure exists. More specifically, the continuum hypothesis/assumption hinges
on the concepts of a representative elementary volume and separation of scales based on
the Hill–Mandel condition. This condition provides a link between an experimentalist's and
a theoretician's viewpoint on constitutive equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or
coupled fields) as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure.[1]
When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one wants to establish a continuum of
a finer resolution than that of the RVE size, one employs a statistical volume element (SVE),
which, in turn, leads to random continuum fields. The latter then provide a micromechanics
basis for stochastic finite elements (SFE). The levels of SVE and RVE link continuum
mechanics to statistical mechanics. The RVE may be assessed only in a limited way via
experimental testing: when the constitutive response becomes spatially homogeneous.
Specifically for fluids, the Knudsen number is used to assess to what extent the
approximation of continuity can be made.

CONCEPT OF CONTROL VOLUME

In continuum mechanics and thermodynamics, a control volume is a mathematical
abstraction employed in the process of creating mathematical of physical processes. In
an inertial frame of reference, it is a volume fixed in space or moving with constant
flow through which the continuum (gas, liquid or solid) flows. The surface enclosing the
control volume is referred to as the control surface.
At steady state, a control volume can be thought of as an arbitrary volume in which the mass
of the continuum remains constant. As a continuum moves through the control volume, the
mass entering the control volume is equal to the mass leaving the control volume. At steady
state, and in the absence of work and heat transfer, the energy within the control volume
remains constant. It is analogous to the classical mechanics concept of the free body
diagram.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -7
1. Branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical
behaviour of materials modelled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles is

Ans: continuum mechanics

2. The surface enclosing the control volume is referred to as

Ans : control surface

3. at steady state, and in the absence of work and heat transfer, the energy within
the control volume

Ans: remains constant.

4. The mass entering the control volume is equal to the mass leaving the control volume is

Ans: law of conservation of mass

5. Volume fixed in space or moving with constant velocity through which the fluid is

Ans: control volume

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 7

1. Control volume

In an inertial frame of reference, it is a volume fixed in space or moving with constant

flow velocity through which the continuum (gas, liquid or solid) flows. The surface
enclosing the control volume is referred to as the control surface.

2. Continuum mechanics

Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the
kinematics and the mechanical behaviour of materials modelled as a continuous mass
rather than as discrete particles.
3. Concept of Continuum

The concept of continuum is used in macroscopic approach of thermodynamics and not in

microscopic approach. Matter is supposed to be composed of molecules with
intermolecular spacing in between.

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTIONS-7

1. Explain countinuum concept in detail.

SESSION -8
NOTES – 8
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system
closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant
over time, as system mass cannot change quantity if it is not added or removed.

CONTINUITY EQUATION
A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of some quantity.
It is particularly simple and particularly powerful when applied to a conserved quantity, but
it can be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass,
energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural quantities are conserved under their
respective appropriate conditions, a variety of physical phenomena may be described using
continuity equations.
Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of conservation laws. For example, a weak
version of the law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed—i.e., the total amount of energy is fixed. This statement does not immediately
rule out the possibility that energy could disappear from a field in Canada while
simultaneously appearing in a room in Indonesia. A stronger statement is that energy
is locally conserved: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, nor can it "teleport" from
one place to another—it can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the
mathematical way to express this kind of statement. For example, the continuity equation
for electric charge states that the amount of electric charge at any point can only change by
the amount of electric current flowing into or out of that point.
Continuity equations more generally can include "source" and "sink" terms, which allow
them to describe quantities that are often but not always conserved, such as the density of a
molecular species which can be created or destroyed by chemical reactions. In an everyday
example, there is a continuity equation for the number of people alive; it has a "source term"
to account for people being born, and a "sink term" to account for people dying.
Any continuity equation can be expressed in an "integral form" (in terms of a flux integral),
which applies to any finite region, or in a "differential form" (in terms of the divergence
operator) which applies at a point.
Continuity equations underlie more specific transport equations such as the convection–
diffusion equation, Boltzmann transport equation, and Navier–Stokes equations.
In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that, in any steady state process, the rate at
which mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system.
The differential form of the continuity equation is:
where
ρ is fluid density,
t is time,
u is the flow velocity vector field.
In this context, this equation is also one of the Euler equations (fluid dynamics).
The Navier–Stokes equations form a vector continuity equation describing the conservation
of linear.
If the fluid is an incompressible flow, the mass continuity equation simplifies to a volume
continuity equation.
which means that the divergence of velocity field is zero everywhere. Physically, this is
equivalent to saying that the local volume dilation rate is zero. This formula is also true for
flows that have constant density.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS -8
1. The continuity equation
ρ1A1V1= ρ2V2A2 is based on the following assumption regarding flow of fluid
Ans : steady flow

2. Which of the following velocity potentials satisfies continuity equation ?

a) x2y c) cosx
b) x2-y2 d) x2 + y2

3. Continuity equation is based on the principle of

Ans : mass conservation
4. According to equation of continuity when water falls its speed increases, while its cross
sectional area
Ans : decreases
5. Simplified equation of continuity is represented as
Ans : A1v1 = A2v2

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 8

1.Volumetric flow rate
In physics and engineering, in particular fluid dynamics and hydrometry, the volumetric
flow rate, (also known as volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow or volume velocity) is the
volume of fluid which passes per unit time; usually represented by the symbol Q
(sometimes V̇). The SI unit is m3/s (cubic metres per second).

2.Continuity equation

In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that, in any steady state process, the rate
at which mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system. The
differential form of the continuity equation is: ... ρ is fluid density, t is time, u is the flow
velocity vector field.

3.Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system is neither created
nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations. According to the law of
conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical reaction must equal
the mass of the reactants.
POSSIBLE BIG QUESTIONS-8
The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm respectively.
Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe
section 1 is 5 m/s. determine also the velocity at section 2.

SESSION – 9 (TUTORIAL)
NOTES – 9

Problems on continuity equation

1. The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm

respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water
flowing through the pipe section 1 is 5 m/s. determine also the velocity at
section 2.
Solution. Given:
At section 1. D1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
A1 = (π / 4) X D12 = (π / 4) X (0.1)2 = 0.007854 m2.
V1 = 5 m/s.
At section 2. D2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m.
A2 = (π / 4) X(0.15)2 = 0.01767 m2.
Discharge through pipe is given by equation
Q = A1 X V1
= 0.007544 X 5 = 0.03927 m3/ s.
using equation, We have A1V1 = A2V2..
V2 = ( A1V1 / A1) = ( 0.007854 /0.01767) X 5 = 2.22 m/s.

2. Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2m diameter at 3 m/s and then passes through a pipe
BC 1.5 m diameter at C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8m in diameter and carries
one third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in branch CE is 2.5 m/s. find the volume
rate of flow in AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE.
Solution. Given:
Diameter of Pipe AB, DAB = 1.2 m.
Velocity of flow through AB VAB = 3.0 m/s.
Dia. of Pipe BC, DBC = 1.5m.
Dia. of Branched pipe CD, DCD = 0.8m.
Velocity of flow in pipe CE, VCE = 2.5 m/s.
Let the rate of flow in pipe AB = Q m3/s.
Velocity of flow in pipe BC = VBC m3/s.
Velocity of flow in pipe CD = VCD m3/s.
Diameter of pipe CE = DCE
Then flow rate through CD = Q / 3
And flow rate through CE = Q – Q/3 = 2Q/3
(i). Now the flow rate through AB = Q = VAB X Area of AB
= 3 X (π / 4) X (DAB )2 = 3 X (π / 4) X (1.2)2
= 3.393 m3/s.
(ii). Applying the continuity equation to pipe AB and pipe BC,
VAB X Area of pipe AB = VBC X Area of Pipe BC
3 X (π / 4) X (DAB )2 = VBC X (π / 4) X (DBC )2
3 X (1.2) 2 = VBC X (1.5)2
VBC = ( 3X1.22)/ 1.52 = 1.92 m/s.
(iii). The flow rate through pipe
CD = Q1 = Q/3 = 3.393 /3 = 1.131 m3/s.
Q1 = VCD X Area of pipe CD X (π / 4) (CCD)2
1.131 = VCD X (π / 4) X (0.8)2
VCD = 1.131 / 0.5026 = 2.25 m/s.
(iv). Flow through CE,
Q2 = Q – Q1 = 3.393 – 1.131 = 2.262 m3/s.
Q2 = VCE X Area of pipe CE = VCE X (π / 4) (DCE)2
2.263 = 2.5 X (π / 4) (DCE)2
DCE = (2.263 X4)/ (2.5 X π) = 1.0735 m

Diameter of pipe CE = 1.0735m.

 SESSION - 10
NOTES – 10
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS – 10
1. Bernoulli’s equation cannot be applied when the flow is
(A) rotational (C) unsteady

(B) turbulent (D) all of the above

2. The continuity equation is the result of application of the following law to the flow
field
(A) First law of thermodynamics (C) Newtons second law of motion

(B) Conservation of energy (D) Conservation of mass

 3. According to equation of continuity when water falls its speed increases, while its
cross sectional area

Ans : decreases

4. Constant of equation of continuity is known as

Ans : flow rate

5. Density of water is equal to

Ans : 1000kg/m3

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 10

1. Inflow

The flow that is coming into a system or an elemental volume such as rainfall in y
direction, flow entering into the river or a channel.

2. Outflow

The flow escaping from the system such as evaporation, seepage, water released from a
system.

3. Mass flow in steady and unsteady condition

For unsteady flow the continuity equation is (Mass flow rate into the system) - (Mass flow
rate out of the system) = Rate of change of storage.

For steady state condition (Mass flow rate into the system) - (Mass flow rate out of the
system) = 0.

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTIONS-10

1. Derive continuity equation in three dimensions

SESSION - 11
NOTES – 11

ACCELERATION OF FLUID PARTICLES

The last three terms make up the convective acceleration, which is defined as
the acceleration due to convection or movement of the fluid particle to a different part of the
flow field.

Material Acceleration

Derivation and Review

The material acceleration is defined as the acceleration following a fluid particle. Since
acceleration is the time derivative of velocity, the material acceleration can be derived
from the definition of material derivative as follows:

Note that dt/dt = 1 by definition, and since a fluid particle is being followed, dx/dt = u, i.e.
the x-component of the velocity of the fluid particle. Similarly, dy/dt = v, and dz/dt = w
following a fluid particle.

 Explanation of the material acceleration:

The term on the left is the total acceleration following a fluid particle. It represents
the actual acceleration vector experienced by whatever fluid particle happens to
reside at the location and time of interest. The first term on the right hand side is
called the local acceleration or the unsteady acceleration. It is only non-zero in an
unsteady flow. The last three terms make up the convective acceleration, which is
defined as the acceleration due to convection or movement of the fluid particle to a
different part of the flow field. The convective acceleration can be non-zero even in
a steady flow! In other words, even when the velocity field is not a function of time
(i.e. a steady flow), a fluid particle is still accelerated from one location to another.
 Examples
 Physical example -

Physical example of material acceleration:

Consider steady flow in a converging duct (like at the end of a fireman's

hose). The flow must accelerate through the nozzle in order to conserve
mass. I.e. the u-component of velocity increases as a fluid particle passes
through the nozzle. Thus, the acceleration vector is non-zero, even though
this is a steady-state flow.

Mathematical example of material acceleration:

Given: A steady, 2-D velocity field,

Find: The acceleration field.

Solution: Plug this velocity into the acceleration equation.

Comments: This 2-D steady flow field is described by velocity components u = 3x and v = -
3y. When the derivatives are calculated, as above, the final result is an acceleration vector
that is clearly not zero. Thus, the acceleration vector can be non-zero, even for a steady-state
flow.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS – 11

1. The component of acceleration due to change in the direction of velocity vector is

called as

Ans: normal acceleration

 2. Which acceleration has a nonzero value in uniform flow?

Ans: Local acceleration

3. If stream function (Ψ) satisfies the Laplace equation, it is a possible case of

Ans : an irrotational flow

4. The actual path followed by a fluid particle as it moves during a period of time, is
called as

Ans : path line

5. The rate of increase of velocity with respect to change in the position of fluid
particle in a flow field is called as

Ans : convective acceleration

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS – 11

1. What is the convective acceleration?

Convective acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of
position of fluid particles in a fluid flow. Local acceleration or Temporal acceleration is
defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time at a given point in a flow field.

2. What is acceleration of a fluid particle?

The acceleration of a fluid particle is the rate of change of its velocity. In the Lagrangian
approach the velocity of a fluid particle is a function of time only since we have described
its motion in terms of its position vector.

3. Local Acceleration Fluid Mechanics

From velocity changes with respect to time at a given point. Local acceleration results when
the flow is unsteady. Because it is associated with spatial gradients of velocity in the flow
field. Convective acceleration results when the flow is non-uniform, that is, if the velocity
changes along a streamline.

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTIONS-11

A hydraulic jump is a rather sudden change in depth of a liquid layer as it flows in an open
channel as shown in Figure. If V1=0.4m/s, V2=0.1m/s and , estimate the average
deceleration of the liquid as it flows across the hydraulic jump. How many G’s
deceleration does this represent?

SESSION – 12 (TUTORIAL)

PROBLEM ON ACCELERETION OF FLUID PARTICLE