Advanced Production Process 1 Module IV

ROBOTS AND ROBOTICS

INTRODUCTION:
Robot is a programmable work handling device. A technology comprised of a mechanical manipulator,
sensors, software, and computer control which provides programmable automation capabilities is called
Robotics.

Definition:
According to Robotic Industries Association, 'An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed
motions to accomplish a variety of tasks'. A machine formed by mechanisms including several degrees of
freedom, often having one or several arms ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool, a work piece, or an
inspection device.

Robots Capabilities : The greatest advantage of robots is their suitability for application in tasks diverse in
nature They have the ability to adopt to many different kinds of jobs in many different industries and to
perform these jobs with same degree of dexterity and flexibility in motion. Some of robot capabilities are
 Excellent Repeatability: Positional tolerance permitted in sending the Robot arm back to a previously
taught in its work envelope.
 High speed operation
 Straight line accuracy: Position tolerance permitted in sending a robot to a newly taught point defined
in the Cartesian plane by its Cartesian coordinates
 Large pay load: The amount of weight that the robot arm can carry. It includes the weight of the end
effector
 Increased work envelope: All the points in space that the robot arm and the end effector can reach.
 Rugged construction. The arm and the different joints should be rigid to achieve accuracy, speed and
other characteristics.

REASONS FOR USING ROBOTS:

 It replaces human operators in dangerous workplace environments.
 It strengthens and reaches requirements which are beyond the capacity of human operators.
 It eliminates errors due to tiredness and lack of concentration of human operators cannot be tolerated.
 It has flexibility, the ability to be reprogrammed to perform a different task.
 It achieves unmanned operations during nightshifts and at weekends

BASIC ELEMENTS OF ROBOTS:

Although industrial robots may vary widely, they are all made up of the following components (elements).
1 Manipulator
2. Controller
3. Sensors
4. End effector, and
5. Power source
These, components may be assembled in one integral unit or separated into individual components
connected by pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical umbilical cords.
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1. Manipulator: The manipulator is an assembly of axes capable of motion in various directions. The wrist
located at the end of the robot arm has three degrees of freedom. These degrees of freedom are termed as
pitch, yaw and roll. Besides these, the arm has three basic motions.
a. Shoulder swivel - allows vertical motion
b. Elbow extension - allows in / out motion
c. Arm sweep - provides rotational motion
The combinations of these six motions will orient the tool and position it at the required point in the space
2. Controller: The robot controller commands and manipulates the robot arm to perform desired tasks.
The robot controller houses the computer system, the motor drive system and the integrated peripherals.
3. Sensors: Sensors are feedback devices that sense and measure the position and, in some cases, the
velocity of each of the various axes of motion and send this information to the control systems for use in
coordinating the robot motions.
4. End effector: The end effector is the end of arm tooling which is mounted on the face plate of the
robot arm End effectors are specially designed for special applications such as grippers, weld torch etc.
5. Power source (Energy source): The power supply is the source of energy to move and regulate the
robot’s drive mechanism. The power supply may be electric, hydraulic and pneumatic.
Electric drives are clean and quiet with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. They also offer a wide
range of pay load capacity. Hydraulic drives are relatively easy to maintain and also have high pay load
capacity. However, they are expensive and not as accurate as either the electric or pneumatic drives.
Pneumatic drives are relatively inexpensive, fast and reliable. But they are limited to smaller pay loads.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF ROBOTS:

The robots must satisfy the following requirements
1 A robot must not harm a human being either due to its action or inaction (first law).
2 A robot must always obey a human being unless it comes into conflict with the first law (second law).
3 A robot must protect itself from harm unless it is in conflict with either the first or second law (third
law)

CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS:
1. According to the type of control (motion characteristics)
(i) Point-to-point robots,
(ii) Continuous point robots,
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(iii) Computed trajectory robots, and

(iv) Servo-controlled robots.
 The Point-to-point robots move from one point to another but cannot stop at arbitrary intermediate
points.
 The continuous path rotors can move to a prescribed number of points along a path and can stop at
arbitrary intermediate point.
 Computed trajectory robots can move along a path specified algebraically.
 Servo-controlled robots have some means of sensing the current position and feeding this sensed
position back or that a prescribed path can be followed then.
2. According to capability
(i) Sequence controlled robots
(ii) Adaptive robots
(iii) Intelligent robots
 Sequence controlled robots will go through a fixed sequence of actions according to the instructions
 Adaptive robots can mean to their environment using their sensors. The performance is optimized by
adjusting controls to changing parameters
 Intelligent robots are provided with sensors to study and model the environment, thereby generating a
knowledge base. The knowledge base is constantly updated so as to improve the performance with the
passage of time.
3. According to the configuration (coordinate system)
(i) Cartesian robot - three linear arms
(ii) Cylindrical robot - two linear and one rotary axis
(iii) Spherical robot - one linear and two rotary axes
(iv) Articulated robot - three rotary axes.

4. Based on manipulation function they are classified as

(i) Pick and place robots - Simple robots which provide pick and place motion.
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(ii) Special purpose robots - Designed and produced for a limited range of applications such as welding,
painting, material handling etc.
(iii) Universal robots - General purpose robots designed and produced to perform a wide range of
applications. These may be non-servo 4 controlled, servo-controlled (sensory type) depending on
sophistication
Robots can also be classified as
(i) First generation robots
- Simple programmable robots
(ii) Second generation robots
- Capable to understand the environment by acquiring data
(iii) Third generation robots
- Basically intelligent robots which can explore the environment and evaluate them in real time
- Executes the motor functions matching the action of their sensory inputs

TYPES OF JOINTS
A joint permits relative motion between two links or arms of a robot. Various types of mechanical joints are.
(i) Linear joint (L-joint): Permits linear sliding motion between two links whose arms are parallel.
(ii) Orthogonal joint (O-joint): Permits linear sliding motion between two links which are perpendicular
to each other
(iii) Rotational joint (R-joint) : Provides rotational relative motion of the joint, with the axis of rotation
being parallel to the axes of the two links.
(iv) Twisting joint (T-joint): Permits rotary motion between two links, the axis of rotation being parallel to
the axes of the two links.
(v) Revolving joint (V-joint): Provides rotary motion; the axis of the input link is parallel to the axis of
rotation, and the axis of output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Grippers are used to hold either work pieces or tools. Tools are directly attached to the robot wrist and
become the end effectors The devices i e tools attached to wrist include welding torch, spray painting guns,
wire brushes and drill spindles.

ROBOT ARM
The simple robot arm (pick and place type) is used to move the parts from one location to another
without considering the way by which the part is picked up or put down In practice, the robot arms are
designed to manipulate fragile objects having complicated shapes. These may be used to assemble parts or fit
the parts into clamps and fixtures
Robot Hands:
Robot hands comprise the controlled arms with improved grippers backed up by passive wrist. They
are designed to provide sufficient manipulating abilities without unduly sacrificing power.

ROBOT SPECIFICATION:
Robot is generally specified by the following factors
♦ Space within which the robot can manipulate the end of effector (wrist). This is called work envelope:
♦ Capability to transmit force and torque to the end effector in the wrist i e load carrying capacity
♦ The maximum speed that can be achieved
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♦ Repeatability, and
♦ Control resolution.

ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS:
1 Consistency in production eliminating the human error.
2. Sustained production level in hazardous working conditions maintaining overall safety
3. Serves to improve the overall performance and to reduce rejects.
4 Elimination of production losses due to operator fatigue.
5. Ability to change over to a new technology.
6. System is flexible and its life expectancy is longer than that of hard automation.

APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS:
Robots are employed where working conditions are hazardous or uncomfortable and are likely to affect the
health of the workers.
1. Material handling: Robot moves the work pieces from one location to another.
2. Machine loading applications: Robot loads the machine with work piece and unloads the finished part.
3. Spray painting applications.
4. Welding applications, mainly spot welding and arc welding.
5. Machining operations such as drilling, grinding, polishing etc.
6. Assembly of parts.
7. Inspection purposes.
8. Automotive and Air space Industry.

SELECTION OF ROBOTS:
Factors that influence the selection of robots in manufacturing plant are:
(1) Load carrying capacity
(2) Speed movement.
(3) Reliability.
(4) Repeatability
(5) Arm configuration.
(6) Degree of freedom.
(7) Control system.
(8) Program memory.
(9) Work envelops.
 Advanced Production Process 6 Module IV

FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:
Changing demands, technological development and competition led to formulate new product design
and manufacturing system. One of the important developments in manufacturing is the introduction of
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). In this system machines, materials, money and man power are
coordinated to manufacture of desired parts at the minimum cost.
A flexible manufacturing system is an automated machine cell, consisting of a group of processing
workstations, interconnected with automated material handling and storage system.
Definition; FMS is a production system in which machines are capable of manufacturing different products
without any change over such as tools etc. It is the provision of a total facility (all the resources being used to
convert raw material into saleable product) which can serve a volatile market (market which is subjected to
frequent and unpredictable changes) with minimum response time from order input to saleable product using
the minimum working capital According to U.K. department of trade and industry. 'Flexibility in manufacturing
is a system which combines micro-electronics and mechanical engineering to bring economics, scale to batch-
work. A central on line computer controls the machine tools, other work stations and the transfer of
components and tooling'.
FMS Is capable to align Itself with the change in design without any delay. Flexible manufacturing
system consists of two or more computer controlled machines linked by handling devices such as automated
guided vehicle and conveyers

FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION:
Automation involves automatic handling between machines and continuous automatic processing at
the machines. It exists only when a group of related operations are tied together mechanically or
electronically or with the assistance of computers or with robots. Flexible automation can be applied for
flexible transfer lines which are suitable for large scale production. The material flow takes place cyclically in
fixed machine sequence.
Flexible manufacturing cells (FMC) are another field of flexible automation FMC aim at completing all
operations on one machine tool having the highest flexibility of automated manufacturing system It involves
automated tool change and automated work loading facilities
FLEXIBLE MACHINING CELL:
The flexible machining cell (FMC) has more than one machine tool with some form of pallet changing
equipment, such as a robot or other specialized material handling device The FMC generally has a fixed
process, and parts flow sequentially between operations. The cell locks central computer control with real
 Advanced Production Process 7 Module IV

time routing, load balancing, and production scheduling logic. The use of machining cells reduces the cycle
time of the parts produced and subsequently minimizes in-process Inventory.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF FMS:
1. Machine tools and related equipment
2 Material handling equipment
3. Computer control system.
1. Machine tools and related equipment: These include CNC and special purpose machine tools along
with required tooling system.
2. Material handling equipment: The functions of material handling system are to move the parts
between the machines and to locate these parts for processing at the machines. The work pieces are mounted
on the fixtures or pallets and moved through the system by automatically guided vehicle or conveyers.
3. Computer control system : The functions of this system are to control machine tools, material handling
system to monitor the performance of the system and to schedule the production.
Besides the above basic components, FMS requires man power (system manager, tool and fixture
setter and technicians) to run the system.
PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTING FMS:
FMS has many unpredictable disturbances, such as work piece variation, irregularities of stock, random
breakage, uneven tool wear, variable in work and cutter location, and so on. Before adoption of FMS, the
following problems associated with implementing FMS should be considered.
 Suitability of FMS for long term manufacturing and marketing strategy
 Justification of heavy investment forgiven product.
 Optimization of design and operation of FMS
 Risks and costs associated with development of software
 Selection of components and processes.
The use of following technologies may be great help in implementing FMS.
 Computer simulation
 Group technology
 Broad-based long term planning
 Integration of devices
 Control software
TRANSPORT MECHANISM:
Flexible manufacturing system consists of processing machines, a means of physical transport, a
communication system, and a control system.
MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS (MHS):
Material handling systems have an important role in the operation of flexible manufacturing system
MHS integrates the subsystems and the connected systems of the FMS. The analysis and the design of
material handling of a flexible manufacturing system is a complex process MHS requirements include the
transport of raw material, finished product, fixtures, tools, pallets and auxiliary materials.
The main components of material handling systems are:
(i) Automated guided vehicle
(ii) Stacker cranes
(iii) Conveyors, etc.
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) TOOLS FOR MHS PLANNING:

Artificial intelligence uses symbolic processing, knowledge base and special engineering techniques. It
facilitates easy description of various complex relations among various symbolic objects. Al techniques deal
with models. Al models are constructive ones and can solve real problems automatically

AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE SYSTEM (AGVS):

Automated guided vehicle systems offer a viable solution when the conventional systems are
inadequate to satisfy the requirements of plants. They are employed where the product is carried out through
interconnected work cells and where flexibility and rapid change-over times are of primary importance.
AGVS possess intrinsic flexibility and capability to integrate with other automatic devices such as robots, CNC,
automatic storage system. These systems find application for distribution, assembly and manufacturing.
FMS COMMUNICATION INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:
Communication system is one of the major components of FMS. It comprises software (instructions
that guide the hardware which is physical equipment in a system), communication medium, and interface
hardware between computer and process devices.
The information technology refers to the creation, gathering, processing, storage, and delivering of
information and the processes and devices that make all this possible
Information technology can do at least three things.
(i) Can process raw data into useful information
(ii) Can recycle processed information and use it as data in another processing step.
(iii) Can package information in a new form so it’s easier to understand, more attractive or more useful.
The manager in a modem business environment must be in possession of accurate, up-to-date
information to enable them to respond to new situations. The key to successful information systems is their
integration across the whole business, with appropriate controls of strategic areas such as data, processing,
and communications The ability to integrate data and its processing and communication in both (horizontally
and vertically) directions is essential The right information technology need to be adopted to achieve both
horizontal and vertical integration.

OPERATION OF FMS:
In FMS, a number of work-stations (NC machines) are connected together by a work handling system
controlled by a central computer The FMS is capable of processing a range of different parts randomly and
simultaneously. Work pieces are transported between work stations automatically and each work station is
numerically controlled. Each work-station usually consists of three or four machining centers, and special
shuttle mechanism is provided to accept transfer of work pieces from and to the work handling system.
Flexibility is incorporated in each work station so that it can process a wide variety of work pieces and
accommodate corresponding tooling. Similar operations can be performed on several work stations.
The following controls are used in FMS.
 CNC of machine tools
 DNC for loading part programme to machine tool
 Supervisory controls to direct the flow of workpieces as per schedule.
The flexible manufacturing system is also called as computer integrated manufacturing system.
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FEATURES OF FMS:
FMS is incorporated with the adaptive feed rate controls, tool breakage detectors and tool life
monitoring system It is capable of handling of a variety of products and is best suited where production has to
match exactly with the demand. It represents a total approach to machining parts in random order.
The system provides
Manufacture of a wide range of parts: Parts selected to be manufactured need not be similar The machine
tools in the system are determined by the expected variety of parts to be machined
Totally integrated process, starting with raw materials to finished parts. The work pieces move from machine
to machine in random sequence on an integral handling system
Major reduction in process time. The system is controlled by a supervisory computers, which manages the
processing all parts in the system and optimize all the machine tools within the system As long as parts are
available, no machine should be idle more than a few minutes.
The computer is also programmed to provide management information.
PRINCIPLE OF FLEXIBILITY:
Flexibility is defined as the ability of respond effectively to changing circumstances. The term flexibility
applied to manufacture system includes state-flexibility and action flexibility.
State flexibility is defined as the system to produce a wide variety of parts or assemblies without
external source to change the system.
Action flexibility introduces new products or Increase the existing product volume as per the market
demand
Changes in Manufacturing System:
The flexibility is introduced in the manufacturing by making changes in the system. These changes may be
(a) External changes, and (b) Internal changes
External changes may include the type and quantity of work allocated, processing requirements and
improving the skills of operators assigned to the system.
Internal changes may include machine and material handling system; inconsistency of quality;
variability in processing time, etc.
Achieving Flexibility in the System :
The flexibility in the system can be achieved through job-flexibility and machine-flexibility.
Job-Flexibility: Job flexibility is the ability of the system to cope with the changes in the specification of jobs to
be processed by the system. It can be achieved by increasing the capabilities of machine by providing with
more sophisticated controls. It can also be achieved at system level by distributing the required tasks among
the work stations which are specialized to perform such operations. Material handling system must be
provided to reduce the idle-time i e to minimize the time to move the job between the work stations
Machine - Flexibility: It is the ability of the system to cope with changes and disturbances at the machine and
work centers. It is achieved by providing in-process inventories so that breakdown of one machine does not
keep the other machine idle.
High machine flexibility requires
♦ Availability of jobs with different process requirements at different routes
♦ Central storage of work in process to avoid the blocking of machines
♦ Control over the release of product, and monitoring the machining break downs.
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ADVANTAGES OF FMS
♦ All parts with specified size can be manufactured
♦ Production rate can be adjusted to market demand without additional man power
♦ Set-up time is virtually eliminated, and complete group of parts will go to assembly at one time
♦ High flexibility, and capable of making a different products without retooling.
♦ The system is adoptable to CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacture)
♦ Better predictability, and easy control of operations and scheduling
LIMITATIONS OF FMS
♦ Design is complicated and costly to build.
♦ High degree of planning is required
♦ Longer time is required to reach peak production
♦ Consistency of raw material becomes important.
♦ Tool performance and condition monitoring is also expensive.
♦ Fixtures can sometimes cost more with FMS.
 Advanced Production Process 11 Module IV

N.C MACHINE TOOLS

In conventional machine tools, the operator controls the motion of tool and the work piece and checks
the dimensions and surface finish of the work piece. This increases the production time. Moreover, the
operator tires, and starts making mistakes which result the product rejection. In order to decrease the labor
cost and to increase the productivity, semi-automatic or fully automatic machines are developed. Automation
implies doing something without operator assistance.
Automatic position control and measurement:
Electrical controls and transducers are used for sensing the position. Basically transducers are extensively used
because they can sense a physical quantity and convert it into electrical values for measurement.
Automatic assembly machines:
Most of the production time is devoted to assembly of the parts. Automatic assembly machines minimize
the time of production. The major activities in automatic assembly machine are:
1. Work piece orientation
2. Part-transfer and their placement.
Transfer - line automation:
In transfer-line automation, identical machines arc arranged in line and are fed by conveyers. Parts
feeding along the conveyer are automatically loaded at a required lime.
The purpose of automation is to make products faster and low cost.
Numerical control:
NC machine tools represent one of the most advance lines of development of automation in metal cutting,
which provides a three to six fold or even more growth in productivity. These machines have the capability of
complete processing of work pieces without their relocation and with automatic change of cutting tools.
Numerical control (NC) is a system of controlling a machine or process by instructions in the form of
numbers and letters. The term NC machines is used to describe the machine tools in which the control system
uses punched tape to feed the coded information to perform the required sequence of operations.
Numerical control has been applied to milling, turning, grinding, drilling, boring, tapping and contouring.

CLASSIFICATION OF N.C. MACHINES:

1. Based on feedback system, NC machines are classified as:
(a) Open loop system
(b) Closed loop system
2. Based on control system, NC machines are classified as:
(a) Point to point system
(b) Straight line system
(c) Contour system
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Open-loop system: In open loop system the input signal (command) is given to machine slide to move to a
certain position, the slide will move to its ordered position and then stop. The actual motion and the specified
motion are not monitored since the components of an open loop system are not tied up by feedbac.
The open loop system should be applied where there is no change in conditions. These machines carry
a circuit to control the functions such as to start or to stop the flow of cuffing fluids, rotation of spindle etc.
and feedback is not required.
Closed loop system: In closed loop system the feedback is built into the system. The term feedback is used to
describe various methods of transmitting the positional information of machine slide from position measuring
unit to control unit. The closed loop system monitors the actual motion of slide. Feedback signal to control
unit indicates whether the slide moved correctly to its new position or not. If not, its position is automatically
corrected; and if the error is zero, no correction action takes place. So closed loop system is an error-actuated
system.
The uses of closed loop system enable to achieve high degree of accuracy due to presence of feedback.
This system is applied to fully automatic machine tools.

Comparison between open loop and closed loop systems:

1. In open loop system, actual motion of slider is not monitored (i.e. not provided with feedback)
whereas in closed loop system the actual motion of slider is monitored by the feedback signal; and if any error
detected it is automatically corrected.
2. Open loop system is less expensive than closed loop system.
3. Open loop system is less accurate than closed loop system.
4. Open loop system is applied to machines where there is no change in conditions, i.e., where the
feedback is not required whereas closed loop system is applied to fully automatic machines.

Point-to-point system: This system determines the relative position of cutting tool and work before machining
operation takes place. It is the simple system in which work piece is stationary and tool moves from one
position to the next. This system is also referred as positioning system.
A drilling operation is the best example of point-to-point system Fig 14.4 shows a part drawing of a
component to be drilled on a NC point-to-point vertical machine. The object of point-to-point process is to
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successively move the drill (tool) to the programmed positions where the machining (drilling) takes place. For
drilling the datum point will be the start point of the drill axis, and stop point will be the centre of the hole to
be drilled.
After drilling the hole at A, the drill moves to position B, along the dotted line. The rectangular
ordinates for the point-to-point movements must be calculated for the appropriate axes of movement, i.e.,
X,Y or Z. Point-to- point NC is used for drilling, reaming and boring.

Straight line system:

It is an extension of point-to-point system. In this system the tool moves in one direction at a time. The
stepped turning on lathe is the best example of straight line system.
Contour system:
Contour or continuous system is more complex than point-to-point system and requires vast amount
of positional data. It needs a computer for programming the sequence of operation. In continuous system the
slide motion in more than one axis is controlled continuously and simultaneously i.e., in this system, there are
continuous, simultaneous and coordinated motions of the tool and work piece along different coordinate
axes. Contour NC system is used for machining profiles, contours and curved surfaces

ELEMENTS OF NC MACHINE TOOLS:

1. The control unit (NC Console or Director)
2 The drive unit
3 Magnetic box
4 The position feedback package
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5. Manual control
6. Machine tool
The instructions written for manufacturing the components are undergo electronic processing and the
control unit sends command signals to the drive unit and magnetic box which is electrically controlled. The
command signals sent to drive unit through servomotor control the length of travel and feed rate, while the
command signals to magnetic box controls the functions such as starting or stopping of motor, selecting
spindle speed, actuation of tool changes, coolant supply etc.
The position feedback package sends the information about the actual position achieved to the control unit. If
there is any difference between the position desired and the actual position achieved, the drive unit is
actuated by suitable amplifier from the error signal.
Manual control helps the operator to perform some functions such as motor star-stop, coolant supply control,
axes movements, speed change, feed change etc.

WORKING OF NC MACHINE TOOL:

The production of component involves various stages. The first two stages i.e., component drawing
and process planning are similar in both operator controlled and NC machine tools In operator controlled
machine tool the operator controls the cutter position and makes necessary adjustments and corrections to
ensure suitable output.
In NC machine tools the operator functions are under taken by data processing unit of the system and the
control unit In data processing unit, the component drawings are translated into a form acceptable to the
control unit. Here, the coordinate information is recorded on a tape, and the tape is fed to control unit. The
control unit feeds the position command information to slide way transmission elements of the machine, and
the command signal is constantly compared with the actual position achieved. The difference in two signals, if
any, is corrected to get the desired product.
FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF CONTROL:
♦ Displacement of machine slides
♦ Rotate circular table
♦ Rotate tool turret
♦ Start / stop or reverse spindle speed
♦ Select desired speeds and feeds
♦ Start / stop cutting fluid flow
♦ Lock or unlock slides.
A fully automatic NC machine will have all the machine functions controlled by means of a tape.
A semi-automatic NC machine will have some functions under the control of an operator.
Types of Control:
The most important functions include slide displacement and its position.
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1. Adaptive control, and

2. Direct numerical, control (DNC)
The adaptive control aims to adjust cutting conditions to satisfy metal removal rate to be maximum.
Cutting parameters are also controlled.
In direct numerical control the machining programmed (information related to component drawing) is
obtained from the computer memory.

PROCRAMMING FOR NC MACHINES:

Programme: The programme is the sequence of operations which a numerically controlled machine
tool must perform in order to complete machining operation.
Programming: The programming is the process of communicating with the machine and coding the
necessary operating instructions in the correct form.
The successful operation of NC machine tool depends on the correct programming of the controls. The
complete- information for producing component on an NC machine is punched on a paper tape.
This information includes
(i) x, y and z coordinates with certain codes indicating the type of movement of the tool from one
coordinate to the next
(ii) feed rates, spindle speeds, tool type and sizes and
(iii) miscellaneous instructions such as starting and stopping of the machine, cutting fluid flow etc.
Before making the part programme, the programmer first study the part drawing and decide upon the process
sequence and machining parameters, and other related information such as starting and stopping of the
machine etc.
The basic procedure for part programme and preparation of tape
♦ Study the drawing and prepare the most economical sequence of operations in a prescribed format.
♦ Choose the NC machine tool and identify the type of material being processed.
♦ Decide feed, speed and depth of cut.
♦ Decide the type of fixtures and cutters to be used,
♦ Prepare the programmed sheet,
♦ Prepare the punched tape on the teleprinter.
Programming to get punched tape can be obtained manually or with a help of computer. Simple point-
to point programs can be easily developed manually, but more complex ones and all contouring programme
are developed with the help of computers.
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Absolute Programming
In absolute programming, the origin or datum has to be selected first for each axis, and all motions
have to be specified with respect to this origin.
Incremental Programming:
In incremental programming, an origin need not be selected, and all motions are started from
immediate last position of the tool.
Block: A block is a group of words containing all the instructions for one operation. In a positioning system, a
block will include the coordinates of the position, together with all instructions for auxiliary functions
necessary to complete an operation. One block is separated from the next by ertd-of-block (EOB) character.
The following is the list of codes usually adopted in NC system.
N = Sequence number
G = Preparatory function (command to machine to carry out a particular operation)
X = Required slide position on X-axis
Y = Required slide position on Y-axis
F = Feed rate; (mm/min.)
S = Spindle speed (rev/min.)
M = Miscellaneous functions number.
STORAGE MEDIA:
The following storage media is used in NC operations
1 Punched Cards
2 Punched Tape
3 Magnetic Tape
4 Magnetic Drum
5 Magnetic Disc, and
6. Films
1. Punched Cards: It is a rectangular card on which information is recorded by punching holes at the
points of respective digits. They are cheap and easy to punch and store They are made with cardboard or
plastic sheet, and are widely used in production control system
2. Punched Tape: Punched tape is durable, and is made of paper or vinyl plastic. A programme is recorded
in binary system by means of sets of holes in respective digital position. A punched hole can represent 1 and
absence of hole can represent 0. The punched tape is cheap and convenient means of transmitting drawing
information to the computer.
3. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is usually 6 or 25 mm wide and is similar to that of punched tape, but
instead of a punched hole (1) and no punched hole (0) magnetised spots on the tape surface are used.
The polarisation of the magnetic spots, either + ve or- ve indicates the binary digit 1 and 0 respectively.
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The tape can be made of magnetised metal or non-magnetic metal (paper or plastic) coated with a layer of
magnetic material (ferric oxide). More Information can be recorded on magnetic tape, and they can read at a
speed faster than is possible with punched tape or card It is also more durable but more expensive than paper
tape.
4. Magnetic Drum: Magnetic drum (cylinder) is made of non-magnetic material and is coated with a thin
layer of magnetic materials such as ferric oxide or nickel. Modern magnetic drums have helical winding of wire
on their cylinder, and can have several tracks.
5. Magnetic Disc: Magnetic discs are made with paper, plastic or aluminium, and coated with a magnetic
layer
6. Films : In the films the information is recorded by the photographic method and is sensed by the
photoelectric method Tim recorded data is expressed by two conditions 'spot' or 'no spot'.
APPLICATION OF NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEM:
Numerical control has been used on various machine tools (lathe, milling machine, drilling machining etc.),
welding equipment and ancillary operations such as material handling.
♦ For making complex parts which is not possible to manufacture them accurately on conventional
machines.
♦ For repetitive parts which are to be produced in low and medium batch production.
♦ For manufacturing of parts which are frequently subjected to design change.
♦ To manufacture the parts whose cost is high if they are made on conventional machine tools
ADVANTAGES OF NC MACHINES:
♦ NC machines are capable of uninterrupted machining, and does not stop at the end of cut to plan its
next move
♦ Complex contour shapes can be machined economically.
♦ Produce parts with high accuracy and close tolerances without taking any special precautions.
♦ Required less operator skills
♦ Expensive jigs and fixtures are not required
♦ High flexibility, change in part design can be incorporated by simply changing part of tape programme.
♦ Setup and tool layout time is reduced; higher machine utilization and more time is available for
machining.
♦ Human errors are eliminated and therefore, inspection cost is reduced.
♦ Uniformity in duplicating is assured
♦ Programmed tapes can be stored and reused whenever a repeat order is received.
DISADVANTAGES OF NC MACHINES:
♦ The initial cost of machine is higher than conventional machine tools
♦ Trained engineers are required to prepare the programme.
♦ The machine should be fully utilized to justify the investment.
CNC AND DNC SYSTEMS;
CNC system: NC is an early form of machine control using number and letters in the form of punched tope CNC
(Computer Numerical Control) stores and processes machining information directly in a machines built in
computer i,e NC machine provided with a dedicated minicomputer is called CNC machine. If there is a
computer failure only one machine is affected.
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CNC machine tools do not necessarily need the programme in the form of punched tape. Input data may be
dialed straight into the memory by means of keyboard which is similar to that of a typewriter.

Advantages of CNC system: CNC arc more flexible, and possess storage (memory) facilities. CNC machines are
faster than NC machines, and errors due to damaged +app are eliminated. The other advantages of CNC
system
♦ Suitable for small batch quantities as well as for complex jobs with multiple operations
♦ Reduction in time for launching a new product by reducing jigs, fixtures and special tooling’s
♦ Requires less inspection and production of better quality products.
♦ Editing of programs at floor level is very conveniently done
Disadvantages of CNC system: The disadvantages associated with CNC system are:
♦ Costly investment
♦ High setup time due to complex operation
♦ Requires more engineers for programming, maintenance etc.
Applications of CNC system: CNC system is employed for turning, grinding, boring, milling, electrical discharge
etc machining CNC machine tools are more appropriate for production of parts with the following
characteristics.
♦ Parts whose geometry is complex which require a number of operations
♦ Parts needing close tolerances and requiring 100% inspection,
DNC system: In DNC (Direct Numerical Control) machine control information (bank of complete machining
data) is stored in a computer away from the machine tool One or more machine tools can be operated directly
from this distant computer.
The computer is connected directly to the machine tool and directs the operations and movements of the
tools without the intermediate step of programming a punched tape. DNC is the first system to use a
computer to run the machine tools and to move the parts automatically from one tool to another without the
operator touching either the tool or the parts It can also collect the data back from the machine tool and
provide instructions to each machine tool on demand.
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A DNC system consists the following basic components.

1. A control computer
2 Large memory to store the NC part programms
3. Data communication lines
4. Machine tools.
The computer receives the information (part programme instructions) from the memory storage and
transmits them to the individual machines. It can also receive data back from the machines so that
requirement of each machine is satisfied
Advantages of DNC system:
♦ Eliminate the tape and tape reader
♦ Provide flexibility and increased capabilities in machining programms
♦ Remote control of a large number of machines
♦ Collect the performance data from machine tool, and provide a report to the management
The only limitation of DNC system is that the initial cost of this system is high and a highly skilled software
knowledge is needed to operate the system To make it economically feasible, the system must be expanded to
include process management and control..
The basic differences between NC, CNC and DNC systems.

Differences between NC and CNC:

The end function is same in both NC and CNC to operate and control the machine tools.
1. NC is of hardwired based system in which functions are determined only by the fixed circuit inter
connections of decision elements and storage devices.
CNC system is a software base system in which dedicated stored program computer is used to perform the
basic functions.
2. Changes in any operation of a hardwired NC require physical changes of wiring, and additional feature is
feasible only if it was planned and incorporated at the time of original design.
The executive program in CNC makes the system flexible to adopt any additional features without any physical
change of wiring
3. NCs are not provided with additional features like part program storage, editing etc., which are available
with CNCs.
CAD/CAM:
CAD (Computer Aided Design) means use of computers for designing products, processes or systems. It has
the capacity to experiment with a large number of design parameters and usual view of different designs, on
the screen.
Applications of CAD include designing aircraft, engine parts, printed circuit boards, casting moulds etc.
Advantages cad / cam.
(i) Improved productivity
(ii) More standardised design
(iii) Fewer errors in NC part programming
(iv) Lead time can be reduced
(v) Cost saving in tool design.
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) implies the use of computers to monitor and control the
manufacturing process as a whole.
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CAD/CAM can prove to be cost-effective if both are properly integrated.

CAD/CAM functions arc tied together by a common data base CAD-system offers the opportunity to
develop database to manufacture the designed product The system creates NC instructions for machine tools
and produces process plans for complete manufacture and assembly
CAM-Function:
1 Numerical control.
2 Process planning.
3 Robotics, and
4 Factory management
1. Numerical Control:
The computer can generate an NC program from a geometric model or part Design data is transferred to
manufacture through a database.
2. Process Planning:
In CAM, system is able to produce process plans directly from the geometric model data base with almost no
human assistance.
3. Robots:
A robot is a mechanical device that can be programmed to perform a wide variety of manufacturing tasks
using human-like capabilities. Integration of robots in the manufacturing system results many advantages.
Robots will be discussed in more details in the next chapter
4. Factory Management:
Factory management uses interactive factory data collection to get timely information from the factory floor.
At the same time it uses these data to ensure that the master production schedule is being properly executed.
The system can also be directly modified to safety need without calling in computer programming experts.

CAM-Features:
CAM uses the computer system to plan, manage and control the operations of manufacturing industry. The
two distinct features of CAM are
1. Use of computers to monitoring and control the process
 Computer is directly connected to manufacturing process to monitor and control process parameters
 Advanced Production Process
2. Use of computers to manufacturing
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 No direct interaction between the computers and manufacturing process.

 The important manufacturing, support, applications include NC part programming, computer aided
process planning, shop floor process report by computer etc.
CAM provides the benefits such as improved flexibility, product quality, product safety and optional use of
production facilities etc.
APPLICATIONS OF CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM has a major impact on manufacturing the standard products. It reduces the design effort and
prototype works, thus resulting in significantly reduced cost and improves productivity.
CAD/CAM include:
 Programming for NC, CNC and industrial robots.
 Design of dies and moulds for casting, and complex dies for sheet metal operations.
 Design of tool and fixtures.
 Quality control and process planning.
 Inspection and scheduling, and
 Plant layout.
NUMERICAL SYSTEMS:
In NC machine tools, the instructions are given to control machine in a suitable code expressed by
different numbers only. The numbers may be expressed in the following system.