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TERMS
ATOM: An atom is the smallest particle of matter consisting of a
positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons.
DALTON’S ATOMIC MODEL: This model suggest that atoms are
indivisible.
J.J. THOMSON’S MODEL: An atom is a solid sphere of positively
charged particles in which electrons
are embedded like seeds in watermelon fruit.
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL. The protons and neutrons are present in a
small dense positively charged
core called nucleus and all the electrons revolve around the nucleus in
circular paths like planetary model.
BOHR’S MODEL. The protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus
and all the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in definite orbits.
SOMMERFIELD MODEL: According to this, the electron moving
around the nucleus must describe an
elliptical orbit in addition to circular orbits as suggested by Bohr.
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM: According to this,
electrons are considered as
three dimensional wave in electric field of the positively charged
nucleus.
ELECTRON: It is a negatively charged particle which occupies the
space outside the nucleus in an atom.
PROTON: It is a positively charged particles present in the nucleus of
an atom.
NEUTRON: It is a neutral particle of mass equal to the mass of proton.
ORBIT: It is a definite circular path in which the electron is supposed
to revolve around the nucleus.
ORBITAL: It is the three dimensional region around the nucleus in
which the probability of finding the
electron is maximum.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION: Distribution of electron in different
orbitals of the atom of an
element.
s-ORBITAL: s orbital is spherically symmetric around the nucleus.
p-OTBITAL: p orbital is dumb-bell shaped and consists of two lobes of
electron cloud.
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n): It describes the energy of the
energy level in which the
electron revolving around the nucleus. It also describes the distance
between the nucleus and the electron.
AZIMUTHAL OR ORBITAL QUANTUM NUMBER (l): It represents the
sub energy level which is
present in main energy level.
MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (m): It gives how many orientations
are possible for a sub energy
level in space, when an electron present in a sub shell.
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (s): It describes the direction of the spin of
the electron (either clock wise
or anticlock wise).
HUND’S RULE: “Among the orbitals of same energy, electrons do not
start pairing, until all these orbitals
are singly occupied”. Hund’s rule is also called as the principle of
minimum pairing and the principle of
maximum multiplicity.
AUFBAU’S PRINCIPLE: “Electrons are filled in the increasing order of
energy level” According to this
principle first the electrons occupy the orbitals with lowest energy. This
is decided by the sum of the
principle quantum number and azimuthal quantum number. This is
called (n + l) rule.
PAULI PRINCIPLE: “In an atom no two electrons can have the same set of
four quantum numbers”.
OXIDATION: Removal of one or more electron from an atom or
molecule or ion is called oxidation
REDUCTION: Addition of one or more electrons to an atom or
molecule or ion is called reduction.
REDUCING AGENT: A substance which gives one or more electrons to
the other is called a reducing
agent.
OXIDISING AGENT: A substance which accepts one or more electrons
from the other is called an
oxidizing agent.
Avogadro number (N): It is defined as the number of atoms present in
exactly 12 grams of 6C12 isotope. It is
denoted by N. It has a value of 6.023 × 1023.
Atomicity. The number of atoms contained in one molecule of the element
is called its atomicity.
Avogadro’s hypothesis. Equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules.
Vapour density. Vapour Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of a
certain volume of the gas or vapour to
the mass of the same volume of hydrogen at the same temperature and
pressure.
Atomic weight. The relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of one
atom of the element compared with
the mass of one atom of hydrogen taken as one unit.
Gram atomic weight of an atom. The atomic weight of an element
expressed in grams is known as the gram
atomic weight (or gram atom) of the element.
For example, Gram atomic weight of carbon = 12 g
Gram atomic weight of oxygen = 16 g.
Molecular mass. The relative molecular mass of an element or a compound
is the mass of one molecule of the
element or compound compared with the mass of one atom of hydrogen
taken as one unit.
Mole concept.
Definition 1: The mole is the amount of substance, which contains as many
particles (atoms, molecules, ions,
etc.) as there are carbon atoms in 12 grams of the 6C12 isotope.
Definition 2: A mole is defined as the amount of substance which contains
Avogadro number (6.023x1023) of
particles.
Gram molecular weight. The molecular weight of a substance expressed in
grams is known as gram molecular
weight of the substance. The gram molecular weight of oxygen is 32g and
that of sulphuric acid is 98g.
Molar volume. Volume occupied by one mole of any gas is called molar
volume or gram molecular volume. It
is 22.4L (or) 2.24 × 10-2 m3at S.T.P. It contains 6.023 × 1023 molecules.
Equivalent mass of an element. Equivalent mass of an element is defined
as the number of parts by mass of
that element which can displace or combine with 1.008 parts by mass of
hydrogen or 8 parts by mass of oxygen
or 35.46 parts by mass of chlorine or one equivalent mass of any other
element. It is only a relative number and
hence it does not have any units. When equivalent mass is expressed in
gram, it is called gram equivalent mass.
Equivalent mass of an acid. Equivalent mass of an acid is the number of
parts by mass of the acids which
contains 1.008 parts by mass of replaceable hydrogen.
Basicity: Basicity of mineral acid is defined as the number of Replaceable
hydrogen atoms present in one mole
of the acid. Basicity of organic acid is defined as the number of carboxylic
groups present in the acid.
Equivalent weight of base. Equivalent mass of the base is the number of
parts by mass of the base required to
neutralize one equivalent mass of an acid.
Acidity of a base. Acidity of hydroxide base is defined as the number of
replaceable hydroxyl ions present in
one mole of the base.
Equivalent mass of salt. Equivalent mass of a salt is the number of parts
by mass of salt which reacts with one
equivalent of mass of any other substance.
Equivalent weight of an oxidising agent. Equivalent weight of oxidizing
agent is the number of parts by mass
of it, which contains 8 parts by mass of available oxygen. Available oxygen
means, oxygen capable of being
utilised for oxidation.
Equivalent mass of a reducing agent. Equivalent weight of reducing
agent is the number of parts by mass of it,
which can be oxidized by 8 parts by mass of oxygen.
Normality of a solution. Normal solution is a solution, which contains one
gram equivalent mass of the
substance dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Law of volumetric analysis: When two solutions completely react with
each other, the product of volume and
normality of one solution will be equal to the product of volume and normality
of the other solution.
Standard solution. In a titration, concentration of either the solution in the
burette or in the conical flask should
be exactly known. The solution whose concentration is exactly known is
called the standard solution. A standard
solution can be prepared by dissolving a known mass of the substance in a
known volume of the solution.
No of moles
Atomic mass = -------------------------------------
Volume of the containing vessel
Photochemical reaction: A few chemical reactions take place only when
the reacting substances after mixing is
exposed to light.
Chemical equilibrium: When the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to
the rate of backward reaction. This
state is called chemical equilibrium.
Thermo chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of
heat change during various physical
and chemical transformations.
Endothermic reaction: A reaction which takes place with the absorption of
heat is called endothermic reaction.
For an endothermic reaction, Hp > HR. Hence ∆ H = +ve.
‘Active mass’ means effective molar concentration and in a dilute
solution, it can be considered to be
equal to molar concentration expressed in mol/dm3 or partial pressure
expressed in (N/m2) in the case
of gases.
Exothermic reaction: A reaction which takes place with the evolution of
heat is known as exothermic reaction.
For an exothermic reaction, Hp < HR. Hence, ∆ H = – ve. eg. (i) C(s) + O2
(g) CO2
(g); ∆ H = – 393.5 kJ
Reasons for difference in rates: A chemical reaction involves the breaking
and making of bonds. A strong
bond requires more energy to break, than a weak bond. A reaction which
involves breaking of strong bonds, will
be slow or impossible to occur at room temperature. On the other hand, a
reaction which involves breaking of
only weak bonds will be fast under similar conditions.
Irreversible reaction: A reaction in which the products formed do not
recombine to produce the original
reactants is called an irreversible reaction.
Reactions involving liberation of a gas or those in which a precipitate is
formed are generally irreversible
reactions. eg.: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 ↑
Conditions for reversible reaction: 1. The reaction should be done in a
closed vessel. 2.None of the products
should be removed from the vessel. 3. Temperature and pressure should be
kept constant.
Reversible reaction: A reaction in which the products formed react to give
back the original substances is
called a reversible reaction. Example: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 .In a reversible reaction,
the reaction proceeding
from left to right is called a forward reaction. The reaction proceeding from
right to left is called a backward
reaction or reverse reaction.
Factors influencing the rate of a reaction: 1. Concentration of the
reactants 2. Temperature: 3. Presence of a
Catalyst 4. Nature of reactants 5. Nature of the solvent 6. Exposure to
radiations 7. Surface area
Classification of the reactions:
(a) Instantaneous (or) fast reactions: These reaction occur at once, for
example, ionic reactions such as acidbase
neutralization reaction and precipitation reaction NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
Reactions of this type proceed so quickly and their rates cannot be
determined by common methods.
(b) Extremely slow reactions: Some reactions proceed at extremely slow
rates. For example, rusting of iron,
combination of hydrogen and oxygen at room temperature etc., are few such
reactions, which takes months, or
even years before any observable change occur.
(c) Reactions with moderate speeds: In between the two extremes
discussed above, there are a large number of
reactions, which proceeds at moderate rates. A few examples of this type are
given below.
(i) Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide 2H2O2 (liq) → 2H2O(liq) + O2
(g)
Non-Metals: Non –metals are the elements which form negative ions
by gaining electrons. Hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon, Sulphur, silicon and phosphorus are some of the
common non –metals.
Inert Gases: Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon are the
inert gases which are also non –
metals.
Position in the periodic table: The most metallic elements are on
the extreme left side of the periodic
table whereas non –metallic elements are on the extreme right side in
the periodic table.
Electronic configuration: Non –metals have usually 4 to 8 electrons
in the outermost shells of their
atoms.
Physical Properties of Non Metals
Nature: Non –metals are brittle and bas conductor of heat and
electricity (except graphite).
Melting and Boiling points: Non – metals have low melting and
boiling points except graphite and
diamond.
Silicon: It is the second most abundant element occurring in the
earth’s crust; the first being oxygen.
Silica: The simplest compound of silicon and oxygen is silicon dioxide.
Types of silica: Sand, quartz and opal.
Ferrosilicon: It is an alloy of silicon. It is used in the manufacture of
apparatus for redistilling nitric
acid.
Silico Bronze: It is used in the manufacture of telegraph and
telephone wires.
Sodium Silicate: It is used for preserving eggs and for making
chemical garden.
Silicones: They are polymeric organo silicon compounds having C –Si
and Si –O – Si bonds.
Position in the periodic table: Silicon is an element of group IV (14
in modern periodic table) and
occurs below the carbon in the periodic table.
Phosphorus
Electronic configuration: The electronic configuration of phosphorus
is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3.
Position in the periodic table: Phosphorus is placed in group V of
the periodic table below nitrogen.
Allotropic forms of phosphorus: White P, red P, scarlet p, metallic
black P, violet P.
Phosphorescence: The property of glowing of white phosphorous in
the dark.
Allotropy: Allotropy is a phenomenon in which the same element can
exist in more than one
crystalline or structural modification with change in physical
properties.
Sulphur
Electronic configuration: The electronic configuration of Sulphur is
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p4.
Position in the periodic table: Sulphur is placed in-group VI (16 in
modern periodic table) below
oxygen.
Allotropes of Sulphur: (i) Rhombic Sulphur, (ii) Monoclinic or
Prismatic Sulphur, (iii) Plastic or
Amorphous Sulphur.
Alcohols: Alcohols are organic compounds with general formula R –
OH where R is an alkyl group.
Hydroxy derivatives: Alcohols may be considered as hydroxy
derivatives of hydrocarbons in which
one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by hydroxyl (-OH) group.
Aliphatic alcohols: The open chain alcohols are called aliphatic
alcohols where R is an alkyl group.
Classification: Alcohols are classified as mono, di, tri and polyhydric
alcohols.
Nomenclature: There are two methods for naming alcohols. (a)
Common Name (b) IUPAC name
Fermentation: It is a slow anaerobic decomposition of big organic
molecules into simpler ones under
the catalytic influence of non-living complex substances called
ferments. In many causes enzymes acts
as ferments.
Molasses: It is the mother liquor left over after the crystallization of
sugar from the sugarcane juice. It
is a dark colored syrupy liquid containing 50 – 55 % total sugars (such
as sucrose, glucose and
fructose).
Wash: The filtrate collected in fermentation contains almost 10% of
ethyl alcohol, called wash.
Azeotropic mixture: It is a mixture, which boils at a constant
temperature and distills over completely
at the same temperature without change in composition.
Denatured alcohol: Rectified spirit is made unfit for drinking
purpose, by adding 5% methyl alcohol
(poison), 0.5% pyridine (unpleasant odour) and some colouring matter
(methyl violet dye). It is called
denatured alcohol or methylated spirit.
Power alcohol: Rectified spirit does not mix properly with petrol.
Hence, it is mixed with ether or
benzene. One part of this mixture is added to four parts of petrol. This
is called power alcohol or
gasohol.
Esterification: The process of the formation of an ester (ethyl
ethanoate) by the combination of ethanol
with ethanoic acid is known as esterification.
Detection of Alcohol: Alcohol can be detected by the following tests.
Sodium metal test: when a small piece of sodium is added to an
alcohol, hydrogen gas is evolved
with effervescence.
Phosphorous pentachloride test: On treatment with phosphorous
pentachloride, alcohols become
warm and hydrogen chloride gas is evolved.
Ethers: They are organic compounds with the general formula (R-O-R1)
where R and R1 are alkyl or aryl
groups. The groups R and R1 may be either the same or different.
Types of Ethers: There are two types of ethers:(i) Simple ethers
or symmetrical ethers, (ii) Mixed
ethers or unsymmetrical ethers. If Rand R1 are the same the ethers are
called ‘simple ethers’. and if R
and R1 are different these are called ‘mixed ethers’.
Nomenclature: (a) Common name (b) IUPAC name
(a) Common system: In the Common system the ethers are named
according to the alkyl group
bonded to the oxygen atoms. The two-alkyl groups bonded to the
functional group
(-O-) are written alphabetically followed by the word ether For
example CH3 - O - C2H5
i.e. Ethyl methyl ether ( arranged alphabetically)
If both the groups are similar prefix like ‘–di’ is attached.
For example CH3 - O - CH3 i.e Dimethyl ether
(b) IUPAC System: In IUPAC System, the ethers are named as alkoxy
alkanes. The oxygen atom is
takes with the smaller alkyl group while the larger alkyl group forms
the parent chain
123
For example CH3 - O - C2H5 CH3 - O - CH2-CH2-CH3
i.e.1- Methoxy ethane i.e. Methoxy propane
Williamson’s ether synthesis: When an alkyl halide is heated with
sodium or potassium alkoxide, an
ether is obtained. Both symmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers can be
prepared by this method.
1. Physical state: Dimethyl ether and ethyl methyl ether are gases at
room temperatures. Other lower
members are colourless liquids, which are highly volatile.
2. Boiling points: Ethers have much lower boiling points compared to
isomeric alcohols as they are
not associated with hydrogen bonds. Their boiling points are
comparable to the corresponding
alkanes.
3.Volatility and flammability: Due to low boiling points, the lower
members are highly volatile and
thus catch fire immediately. So lower ethers are highly inflammable.
4.Solubility: Ethers are soluble in hydrocarbons and other non-polar
solvents. Ethers are generally
insoluble in water, but their solubility in water is not negligible.
5. Inertness: Owing to the absence of active groups and multiple
bonds, ethers are comparatively inert
substances. They are not easily attacked by alkalies, dilute acids, PCl5.
metallic sodium etc.
They undergo chemical reactions under specific conditions. Some of
the reactions of ethers are
due to:
P,V,T and mass are the measurable properties of gas. They obey
Boyle's and Charle's law. The equation of state for an ideal gas in PV =
nRT.
• Different units of R :0.0821 it atm K-1mol-1;
8.314 x 107 erg K-1 mol-1;
8.314 joule K-1 mol-1;
1.987 cal K-1 mol-1.
• Equation of state of gaseous mixture is PV = (nA + nB + nC) RT.
• By Graham's law, (diffusion rate1/diffusion rate2) = (M2/M1)½ (or)
(effusion rate1/ effusion rate2) = (M2/M1)½
• Real gases deviate from Videal and Pideal. The equation of state of real gas
= Vanderwaal equation
a
P + __ (V-b) = RT for n = 1.
V2
• Critical temperature, critical pressure, critical volume represent the
critical state of the gas. Andrew's isotherm describes critical
temperature of carbondioxide. Thomson's experiment describes
continuity of state.
Pc, Vc, Tc are related to Vanderwaal's constants a and b as Vc = 3b;
a 8a
Pc = ____; Tc = ____
27b2 27Rb
• Joule Thomson effect predicts adiabatic expansion of a compressed gas
through an orifice to cause a fall in temperature. Inversion temperature
= 2a/Rb is the temperature below which Joule Thomson effect is
obeyed.
• Liquefaction of gases is carried out by Linde's and Claude's processes
adopting Joule-Thomson effect. Liquefaction of Helium and zero
kelvin are achieved by adopting adiabatic demagnetisation.
Solids form an important part of the world around us, providing
materials with a definite shape and predictable properties.
Crystalline solids are made of ordered arrays of atoms, ions or
molecules.
Amorphous solids have no long-range ordering in their structures.
The unit cell is the basic repeating unit of the arrangement of atoms,
ions or molecules in a crystalline solid.
Lattice refers to the three dimensional array of particles in a
crystalline solid. Each particle occupies a lattice point in the array.
A simple cubic unit cell has lattice points only at the eight corners of
a cube.
A body-centred cubic unit cell has lattice points at the eight corners
of a cube and at the centre of the cube.
A face-centred cubic unit cell has the same kind of particles (lattice
paints) at the eight corners of a cube and at the centre of each face.
The geometry of the crystal may be completely defined with the help
of coordinate axes meeting at a point.
The miller indices of a face of a crystal are inversely proportional to
the intercepts of that face on the various axes.
The study of crystal is known as crystallography.
System
Thermodynamically a system is defined as any portion of matter under
consideration which is separated from the rest of the universe by real or
imaginary boundaries.
Surroundings
Everything in the universe that is not the part of system and can interact
with it is called as surroundings.
Boundary
Anything (fixed or moving) which separates the system from its
surroundings is called boundary.
For example, if the reaction between A and B substances are studied,
the mixture A and B, forms the system. All the rest, that includes beaker, its
walls, air, room etc. form the surroundings. The boundaries may be
considered as part of the system or surroundings depending upon
convenience. The surroundings can affect the system by the exchange of
matter or energy across the boundaries.
Types of systems
In thermodynamics different types of systems are considered, which
depends on the different kinds of interactions between the system and
surroundings.
Isolated system
A system which can exchange neither energy nor matter with its
surroundings is called an isolated system. For example, a sample in a sealed
thermos flask with walls made of insulating materials represents an isolated
Closed system
A system which permits the exchange of energy but not mass, across
the boundary with its surroundings is called a closed system.
For example: A liquid in equilibrium with its vapours in a sealed tube
represents a closed system since the sealed container may be heated or
cooled to add or remove energy from its contents while no matter (liquid or
vapour) can be added or removed.
Open system
A system is said to be open if it can exchange both energy and matter
with its surroundings.
For eg. a open beaker containing an aqueous salt solution represents
open system. Here, matter and heat can be added or removed
simultaneously or separately from the system to its surroundings.
All living things (or systems) are open systems because they
continuously exchange matter and energy with the surroundings.
When the products of a chemical reaction do not react back to give the
reactants, then the reaction is called as irreversible reaction.
• In reversible reactions in a closed system, when the rate of forward
reaction equals the backward reaction, equilibrium state is reached. The
equilibrium concentrations do not change with time.
• For a general equilibrium reaction,
aA + bB cC + dD,
the equilibrium content, Keq is given by [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b.
• For gaseous reaction Keq can be expressed in partial pressures also
which is `Kp' value.
• Keq value depend on Temperature, pressure, and equilibria
concentrations and does not depend on catalyst and initial
concentrations.
• Concepts of chemical equilibrium also applies to physical equilibria
like solid to liquid, liquid to vapour and solid to solid physical state
transformations which take place at constant temperature.
• When the places of the reactants and products in the equilibrium
reaction are different like in solid (or) in liquid state then heterogeneous
equilibrium is formed. In the equilibrium constant expression, the
activities of pure solid and pure liquid form of reactants (or) products
are taken as unity.