I.

Introduction
Power System Control and Operation  In actual power system, the active power (P) and the
reactive power (Q) demand varies continuously.
Topic: Frequency Control and AGC  Steam input to generators must be regulated
continuously to meet the active power (P) demand,
Dr C
C.Y.
Y Chung so that the frequency can be kept constant. ( P-f
Tel: 27666165 control)
Email: eecychun@polyu.edu.hk  While
Whil the
th excitation
it ti fi
field
ld off the
th generator
t is
i
controlled to match the reactive power (Q) demand
Room CF610,, EE Department,
p , PolyU
y in order to maintain a constant voltage.
voltage (Q-
(Q V
(ftp://www.ee.polyu.edu.hk/cychung/ee505/fre control)
q
quency_control.pdf)
y p )  Nowadays, power system are kept in normal
(Reference Book: “Power System Stability and Control” operating state by means of continuous, automatic
by Prabha Kundur, McGraw Hill Inc., 1993) closed-loop control.
1 2

Control of a Generator Turbine Speed Governing System

turbine
governor
Pm system
potential
+
transformer fspec

voltage V t
TPUT

reactive power Q
active power Pe
OUT

frequency f
Vref  excitation Efd rotor speed 
+ system

power
system
Epss stabilizer 3 4
 Turbine Speed Governing System Load Frequency Control
Fly ball speed governor: This is the heart of the system which senses • For satisfactory operation of a power system, the frequency should
the change in speed (frequency). As the speed increases the fly remain nearly constant.
balls move outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism moves • Constancy of speed of motor drives is particularly important for
downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases. satisfactory performance of generating units as they are highly
dependent on the performance of all the auxiliary drives
Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston associated with the fuel,, the feed-water and the combustion air
arrangement. t LLow power level
l l pilot
il t valve
l movementt is i converted
t d supply systems.
into high power level piston valve movement. This is necessary in • As frequency is a common factor throughout the system, a change
order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure in active power demand at one point is reflected throughout the
system.
system system
t b
by a change
h in
i frequency.
f Because
B there
th are many
Linkage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another generators supplying power into the system, some means must be
rigid link pivoted at D. This link mechanism provides a movement provided to allocate change in demand to the generators.
to the control
cont ol valve
al e in p
proportion
opo tion to change in speed
speed. It also • A speed governor on each generating unit provides the primary
provides a feedback from the steam valve movement (link 4). speed control function, while supplementary control originating at
a central control centre allocates generation.
Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the • In an interconnected system with two or more independently
t bi
turbine. It d
downward d movementt opens th the upper pilot
il t valve
l so controlled areas, in addition to control of frequency, the
that more steam is admitted to the turbine under steady generation within each area has to be controlled so as to maintain
conditions (hence more steady power output). The reverse scheduled power interchange.
happens for upward movement of speed changer. changer • The
h controll off generation and
d frequency
f is commonly l referred
f d to
5 as Load Frequency Control (LFC). 6

1. Generator Model
II Modeling of power system
II.
The relationship between rotor speed, electrical and
Valve/gate Generator
Tm
Pm Pe
q
mechanical torques.
Steam Turbine G d ( )
or water Ta  2 H  Tm  Te  2 H  Ms
Te dt
Speed Load PL Where H = inertia constant, M = 2H
Governor  = angular
g acceleration

Generator supplying isolated load For load-frequency

load frequency studies, it is preferable to express the
When there is a load change, it is reflected instantaneously relationship in terms of power instead of torques.
as a change in the electrical torque (Te) of the generator.
Thi causes a mismatch
This i h between
b the
h mechanical
h i l torque P  T
(Tm) and the electrical torque (Te) which in turn results in
p
speed variations as determined byy the equation
q of motion.
7 8
By considering a small deviation and with higher-order 2. Load Model
terms neglected, Power system loads are a composite of different
P0  P  (0   )(T0  T )  P  0 T  T0  electrical devices. For resistive loads, such as lighting
g g
Pm  Pe  0 (Tm  Te )  (Tm 0  Te 0 ) and heating loads, the electrical power is independent
of frequency. However, in the case of motor loads,
Tm 0  Te 0
Since, in the steadyy state, such as fans and pumps,
pumps the electrical power changes
with frequency due to changes in motor speed.
With speed expressed in pu, 0  1

Therefore, Pm  Pe  Tm  Te The frequency-dependent load change can be denoted
Pm  Pe  Ms by:
PL ( freq )  D
+ 1
 Pm  
–
Ms where D is the percent change in load divided by
percent change on frequency
 Pe 9 10

Thus changes in electrical load have 2 component:

component:-  Pm
+

1

Ms

Pe  PL  D

–
–
 PL D

Non-frequency Frequency 1
= sensitive From the block diagram:
g   (Pm  PL  D  )
iti load
l d + sensitive
iti load
l d
change change
Ms
( Ms  D)  (Pm  PL )
IIncorporating
ti thi
this into
i t the
th previous
i block
bl k
1
diagram, we get:-   (Pm  PL )
M sD
+ 1
 Pm  Ms

 Pm
+

1

– MsD
–
–
 PL D
11  PL 12
Example 1 Answer
A small system consists of 4 identical 500MVA
500
H  5 .0  ( )  4  5 .0
generating units feeding a total load of 2000
1020MW. The inertia constant H of each unit M  2 H  10 . 0
is 55.0
0 on 500 MVA base
base. The load varies by
1.5% for a 1% change in frequency. When Expressing D for the remaining load (1020-20
there is a sudden dropp in load byy 20MW. =1000MW) on 2000MVA
(a) Determine the system block diagram with D  1.5 
1000
 0.75
constant H and D expressed
p on 2000MVA 2000
base. The equivalent block diagram is:-
((b)) Find the frequency
q y deviation,, assuming
g + 1
that there is no speed-governing action.  Pm  10 s  0.75

–
13  PL 14

A load decreases by 20 MW = 0.01

0 01 p.u
pu 3. Governor Model
 0.01 An isochronous governor adjusts the turbine value/gate to bring the
PL ( s )  and Pm  0 for a sudden change
g q y back to the nominal or scheduled value.
frequency
s Generator
Valve/gate
 0.01 1
then ( s )   ( ) Steam Turbine G
s 10 s  0.75 or water
and taking inverse Laplace transform, r
Y + Load PL
(t )   (0.01/0.75)e -(0.75/10) t
 (0.01 / 0.75) Integrator K  ref
r –
  0.0133-0.075 t
0 0133 e  0.0133
The measured rotor speed (r) is compared with the reference
the final value   0.0133 (at t  infinity) speed (ref ) . The error signal (speed deviation) is amplified and
andd a increase
i off 0.667
0 667 Hz
H for
f a 50 Hz
H system (e.g.
( HK) integrated to produce a control signal
signal, which actuates the main
steam supply valves.
0.8Hz for a 60Hz system (e.g. USA) Because of the reset action of this integral controller,
YY will
ill reach
h a new steady
d state onlyl when
h theh speed d error (
( r) is
i
15 zero. 16
Response of generating unit with isochronous governor
r Governors with speed-droop
speed droop characteristic
ref Time The isochronous governors cannot be used when there are two or
more units connected to the same systemy since each ggenerator
would have to have precisely the same speed setting.
Otherwise, they would fight each other, each trying to control
y
system frequency
q y to its own setting.
g
Pm For stable load division between two or more units operating in
parallel, the governors are provided with a characteristic so that the
P
Pm  PL speed drops as the load is increased.
Pm 0 Time Shaft
Turbine To generator
Steam r
An isochronous governor works satisfactorily when a generator is Y +
supplying an isolated load or when only one generator in a or water
–
multigenerator system is required to respond to changes in load. I
Integrator K   ref
–
For power load sharing between generators connected to the – r
system speed regulation or droop characteristic must be
system,
provided. R
17 18

Block diagram of a speed governor with droop Percent speed regulation or droop
The value of R (droop) determines the steady-state speed versus load
Y characteristic of the generating unit.
 r – 1
 K s
The ratio of speed deviation (r) or frequency (f) to change in
value/gate position (Y) or power output (P) is equal to R.
–
It can be expressed in percent as
R R
percentt speed
d or frequency
f change
h
percent power output change
100
f
R
f f Frequency (Hz ) P
 NL FL
 100 f  f  f 0
1 f0
TG  fNL
 KR f0 f
For example, a 5% droop or fFL
+ 1 1 regulation means that a 5%
 Y P
ref R 1  s TG frequency deviation causes
–  r 100% change in value position 100
or power output
output.
19 Percent power output 20
 Load sharing by parallel units Time response
If two or more generators with drooping governor characteristics Because of the droop characteristic, the increase in power output is
are connected to a ppower system,
y , there will be a unique
q frequency
q y p
accompanied byy a steady-state
y speed
p or frequency
q y deviation.;;
at which they will share a load change.
f f  P1 R r
R1  ; R2    2 ref Time
 P1  P2  P2 R1
 ss
Frequency (Hz ) Frequency (Hz )
Unit 1 Unit 2 Pm
f0
f
f’ Pm
Pm 0 Time
P1 P2
Power output Power output
Response of a generating unit with a governor having
P1 P1’ P2 P2’ 21 speed-droop characteristic 22

Control of Generating Unit Power Output Frequency (Hz )

63
The relationship between speed and load can be adjusted by changing C
the load reference setpoint. The adjustment of load reference setpoint 3Hz = 5%
B
is accomplished by operating the “speed-changer
speed changer motor”.
motor . 60
A
Shaft
Turbine 57
Steam r
Y + 50 100
or water Percent power output
– Effect of speed-changer
speed changer setting on governor characteristic (60Hz system
Integrator K   ref
– and 5% droop of the governors in this case)
+ – r Characteristic A, B and C result in zero, 50% and 100% output
Load – respectively.
respectively
reference  R
When two or more generators are operating in parallel, the speed-droop
 characteristic of each generating unit merely establishes the proportion
of the load picked up by the unit when a sudden change in system load
ref + 1 – 1 occurs.

1  s TG
Y
–  R The output of each unit at any given system frequency can be varied
r
+ only by changing its load reference,
reference which in effect moves the speed
speed-
23 droop characteristic up and down. 24
Load reference
 Actual speed
speed-droop
droop characteristic 4 Prime-mover Model
4.
Frequency(Hz ) Curve 3 : Actual characteristic for
Generator can be driven by steam turbine or
y
hydraulic units
Curve 2 : Actual characteristic
hydro-turbine. Here non-reheat turbine is
for steam units considered.
For non-reheat turbine, the block diagram is:-
Curve 1: Ideal linear characteristic 1
 Pvalve 1  s TCH  Pmech
Percent power output 100

Steam turbines have a number of control valves, each

having nonlinear flow area versus position characteristic.  Pvalve = per unit change in valve position
E h section
Each ti off th
the curve 2 represents
t off th
the effect
ff t off f
from nominal
i l
one control valve.
Hydraulic turbines,
turbines which have a single gate,
gate tend to
TCH = “Charging time” time constant
have the characteristic similar to curve 3. 25 26

Combingg the governor,

g prime
p mover, generator
g
and load model, we obtain:- St change
Step h tto a single
i l generator
t
Suppose a step increase in load is experienced
1
R
by the generator model above.
Generator  PL
–
Governor Prime mover and load  PL (s) 
1
 Pmech s
1 1
1  s TG 1  s TCH MsD The transfer function for  PL to   is :-
 Pvalve +
+ – 
 1 
Load reference
 PL  
 PL  MsD 
set ppoint
 (s) 
Equivalent block diagram for a single generator s  1 1  1  1 
1     
 R  1  s TG  1  s TCH  M s  D  
27 28
 For several g
generators connecting
g in parallel,
p ,
The steady-state
Th l off  (s)
t d t t value ( ) can be
b
found by:-  Pmech1
+
 steady li s (s)
t t  lim
t d state
s 0
( )
 Pmech2 + 1

M eq s  D
1
  PL  
... +
–
  D     PL  Pmechn
 1  1  1  D  PL
1    
 R  D  R Where D is a composite load damping constant and Meq
is the inertia constant of the equivalent generator.
Note: If D=0, the change of speed is:- The steady-state frequency deviation following a step
increase in load is g
given byy
  = -R  PL   PL   PL
  
1 1 1 1
  ......  D D
29 R1 R 2 Rn R eq 30

The stiffness of the system (the composite frequency

response characteristic and normally expressed in MW/Hz) is Example 2
  PL 1 A power system has a total load of 1,260MW at
   D 60Hz The load varies 1.5%
60Hz. 1 5% for every 1% change in
 R eq
frequency (D=1.5). Find the steady-state frequency
The composite regulating characteristic of the system is deviates when a 60MW load is suddenlyy tripped,
pp , if
equal to . The effort of governor speed droop and the
(a) There is no speed control.
frequency sensitivity of load frequency change can be
illustrated by (b) The system has 240MW of spinning reserve
PL evenly spread among 500MW of generation capacity
PD An increase of system load
f0 PG with 5% regulation based on this capacity. All other
results in a total generation
generators are operating with valves wide open.
increase due to governor
f Assume that the effect of governor dead bands is
action and a total system
y
such that only 80% of the governors respond to the
load reduction due to its
PD reduction in system load.
 D frequency-sensitive
PG 1 f
 characteristic.
h t i ti
f R 31 32
 Total Spinning generation capacity
Expressing D for the remaining load (1260-60
(1260 60 =1200MW)
= Load + Reserve = 1260 + 240 = 1500MW
1.5 1 60 Generation contributing to regulation
D( 1200) /(( )  30MW/Hz
100 100 = 0.8  1500 = 1200MW
(a) With no speed control,
control the steady
steady-state
state frequency A regulation of 5% means that a 5% change in frequency
increase, causes a 100% change in power generation. Therefore
1 5
 PL  ((60)MW  1200 /((  60)  400MW/Hz
W
f    2.0Hz R 100
D 30MW/Hz The composite system frequency response characteristic
(stiffness)
(b) Since there is a reduction in system load and an 1
increase in frequency, all generating units (not just   D  400  30  430MW/Hz
those on spinning reserve)
ese e) respond.
espond However,
Ho e e dued e to
R
Steady-state increase in frequency
the effects of dead band, only 80% of the total
generation contributes to speed regulation.  PL  ((60)MW
f    0.1395Hz
H
33  430MW/Hz 34

Two area system Electrical equivalent

5 Tie-line
5. Ti li Model
M d l P12

Interconnection between power plant is P12

E11 X1 Xtie X2 E22
common. Tie-line is the transmission line A 1
Area Area 2
Xtie
that connects two power plant together. XT=X1+Xtie+X2

The power flow on the tieline from area 1 to area 2 is

The most simplest case is two areas each E1 E2
Ptie  P12  sin(1   2 )
having a single generator and connected by a XT
single transmission line. Power will flow from Linearizing
g about an initial operating
p g point
p represented
p
one area to another, and the direction of flow by 1 = 10 and 2 = 20, we have
T
depends on the phase angle between the ti  P12  T (  1   2 ) 
Ptie (1  2 )
s
areas. EE
where T  1 2 cos(10   20 )
XT
35 36
 Block Diagram of interconnected areas   and  Ptie calculation from  PL
1

–
R1 Consider an interconnected system as in the
Prime
 Pmech1
1 previous block diagram:
Governor
mover + M1 s  D1
+ –  1
 PL1
–
+ Assume a load change of  PL1 in area 1,
 Ptie
Load reference T hile  PL2 = 0
while
Load reference s
 PL2 – –
 2 At stead
steady-state,
state the ffrequency
eq enc will
ill be
+ +
Prime 1 constant and same for both areas.
Governor
mover + M 2 s  D2  1 =  2 =  
 Pmech2
–
1
R2 37 38

And  Pmech1 -  Ptie -  PL1 =   D1 (1) (5) + (6) and

d re-arranging,
i we obtain:-
bt i
 Pmech2 +  Ptie =   D2 (2)   PL1   PL1
   (7)
  1

1
 D1  D 2   
 Pmech1  (3) R1 R 2
1 2

R1
Then substitute   into (6), we get:-
 
 Pmech2  (4)  1 
R2   PL1   D 2 
 Ptie  R2     PL1 2 (8)
 1  ti 
(1)  (3), we have : -   Ptie   PL1     D1  (5) 1

1
 D1  D 2 1   2
 R1  R1 R 2
 1  Equations (1) to (8) are for new steady-state
(2)  (4), we have : -   Ptie     D 2  (6)
 R2  conditions
co dto s a after
te load
oad cchange.
a ge
39 40
An increase in area 1 load by PL1 results in a
frequency reduction in both areas and a tieline Frequency error for
f step change
h in load
l d
flow of P12. A negative
g P12 is indicative of flow Load
from area 2 to area 1.  PL1 Step load change
Ti
Time
Similarly, for a change in area 2 load by PL2, we Frequency
error
have
Response with no governor action
  PL2   PL2 +
   (9)   PL1
1

1
 D1  D 2 1   2 –  
D1  D 2
R1 R 2
Frequency
 1 
 PL2   D1  error + Response with governor action
 R1   PL2 1
 Ptie  P12  P21   (10) –   PL1
1

1
 D1  D 2  1   2
 
1 1
  D1  D 2
R1 R 2 41
R1 R 2 42

III. Fundamentals of Automatic Generation Control

• With primary speed control action, a change in system Objectives of Automatic Generation
load will result in a steady-state frequency deviation,
d
depending
di on theth governor droop
d characteristic
h t i ti and
d
Control
frequency sensitivity of load. 1. To regulate system frequency to the
• All generating units on speed governing will contribute
to the overall change in generation, irrespective of the specified
ifi d nominal
i l valve
l (e.g.
( 50 Hz).
H )
location of the load change. 2. To maintain the interchange power between
• Restoration of system frequency to nominal value
requires supplementary control action which adjusts control areas at the scheduled values.
the load reference setpoint (through the speed-changer 3. To ensure each g generator unit at the most
motor)
• Therefore, the basic means of controlling prime-mover economic value.
power to match variations in system load in a desired
manner isi through
h h controll off the
h load
l d reference
f
setpoints of selected generating units.
• As system load is continually changing, it is necessary
to change the output of generators automatically. 43 44
 Block Diagram of interconnected areas with
Frequency bias tie line control supplementary control
• A control signal made up of tieline flow deviation 1
added to frequency
q y deviation weighted
g byy a bias  1
R1
factor would accomplish the desired objectives (1) –  Pmech1
B1 1
and (2). Governor Prime
mover + M1 s  D1
+ACE
ACE1  P12  B1f ACE2  P21  B2 f 1

K1 + – –  1
+ s  PL1  Ptie +
1 1 ti
B1  1   D1
T
B2   2   D2 – ACE AGC on selected units s
R1 R2 2 K  PL2 –
 2
s + –  2
• The Area Control Error (ACE) represents the required + +
1
change in area generation,
generation and its unit is MW.
MW The Governor Prime
B2 mover M 2 s  D2
unit normally used for expressing the frequency bias +
 Pmech2
factor B is MW/0.1Hz.  2
– 1
45 R2 46

Basis for selection of bias factor Basis for selection of bias factor
• From steady-state performance considerations, • From dynamic performance considerations,
the choice of bias factor is not important
important. the choice of bias factor is more important
important.
• Any combination of the area control errors • For example, a sudden increase in load will
containing components of tieline power result
lt in
i a decrease
d in
i system
t frequency,
f
deviation and frequency deviation will result in
steady-state
y restoration of the tie flow and followed by governor response which limits
frequency since the integral control action th maximum
the i frequency
f excursion
i andd
ensures that ACE is reduced to zero. subsequently (typically on the order of 10s)
bi
brings the
th frequency
f deviation
d i ti backb k to
t a
ACE1  P12  B1f  0 value, which determined by the regulation
ACE2  P21  B2 f  0 characteristics
h t i ti off both
b th systems:
t
 PL1
 P12  0 and f  0 f R 
47 1   2 48
• At this p
point,, there is a deviation of tieline flow Performance of AGC under normal and
from the scheduled value. The supplementary abnormal conditions
control ((which is much slower than the primary
p y • Under normal conditions,
conditions with each area able to carry
speed control) will now commence responding. out its control obligations, steady-state corrective
action of AGC is confined to the area where the
• With B1 = 1 and B2 = 2 : deficit or excess of generation occurs
occurs. Interarea
 PL1 power transfers are maintained at scheduled levels
ACE1  P12  B1f R  (  2  1 )  PL1 and system frequency is held constant.
1   2
• U d abnormal
Under b l conditions,
diti one or more areas may
 PL1 be unable to correct for the generation-load
ACE2   P12  B2 f R  ( 2   2 )  0
1   2 mismatch due to insufficient g generation reserve on
• Only the supplementary control in area 1 will AGC. In such h an event, other
h areas assist by b
permitting the interarea power transfers to deviate
respond
p to the load change
g and changeg from scheduled values and byy allowing g system
y
generation so as to bring ACE1 to zero. The frequency to depart from its pre-disturbance value.
Each area participates in frequency regulation in
load change
g in area 1 is unobservable to the proportion
p p to its available regulating
g g capacity
p y relative
supplementary control in area 2. 49
to that of the overall system. 50

Economic allocation of generation Example

p 3: For a two areas interconnected system,
y , the
• This
h function
f is referred
f d to as economic ddispatch
h connected load at 60Hz is 20,000 MW in area 1 and
control (EDC). For control of tieline power and 40,000MW in area 2. The load in each area varies 1% for
frequency, it is necessary to send signals to
every 1% change
h in
i frequency.
f Area
A 1 is
i importing
i ti
generating plants to control generation. It is possible
to use these signals to control generation to satisfy 1,000MW from area 2. The speed regulation, R, is 5% for
economic dispatch criteria
criteria. Thus,
Thus the requirements all units.
units
for EDC can be handled as part of the AGC function. Area 1 is operating with a spinning reserve of 1,000MW
• Since system load is continually changing, economic spread uniformly over a generation of 4,000MW capacity,
dispatch calculations have to be made at frequent and area 2 is operating with a spinning reserve of 1,000MW
intervals. The allocation of individual generation spread uniformly over a generation of 10,000MW.
output is accomplished by using base points and
participation factors (PFs). The base point represents 1,000MW
the most economic output p for each generating
g g unit Area 1 Area 2
and the participation factor is the rate of change of Load = 20,000MW Load = 40,000MW
the unit output with respect to a change in total Gen = 19,000MW Gen = 41,000MW
generation Desired output of each generatior:
generation.
Pdesired = Pbase point + PF (Ptotal) and  PF = 1 51 52
 (a) With no supplementary control and Loss of 1,000MW load in area 1 (All generating units
Determine the steady-state frequency, generation and load in the two areas respond to the loss of load.
off each h area, andd tieline
l power for
f the
h following
f ll cases.
A 5% regulation on 20,000 MW generating capacity in area 1 corresponds to
(a) Loss of 1,000MW load in area 1, assuming that there are 1 1 20,000
no supplementary controls.    6,666.67MW/Hz
R1 0.05 60
(b) Each of the following contingencies, when the generation Similarly, a 5% regulation on 42,000MW generating capacity in area 2
carrying spinning reserve in each area is on corresponds to 1 1 42,000
supplementary control with frequency bias factor settings    14,000MW/Hz
MW/H
of 250MW/0.1Hz for area 1 and 500MW/0.1 Hz for area 2. R2 0.05 60
Total regulation due to 62,000MW generating capacity in the two areas is
(i) Loss of 1,000MW load in area 1
1 1 1
(ii) Loss of 500MW generation, carrying part of the    20,666.67 MW/Hz
spinning reserve, in area 1. R R1 R2
Load damping due to 19,000MW load (remaining after loss of 1,000MW load) in
(iii) Loss of 2,000MW
2 000MW generation,
generation not carrying spinning area 1 is
i 19,000 100
reserve, in area 1 D1  1   316.67MW/Hz
100 60
(iv) Tripping of the tieline, assuming that there is no Load damping due to 40,000MW load in area 2 is
change
h to
t th
the iinterchange
t h schedule
h d l off the
th supplementary
l t 40,000 100
control D2  1   666.67MW/Hz
100 60
((v)) Tripping
pp g of the tieline,, assuming
g that the interchange
g T t l effective
Total ff ti lload
d damping
d i off the
th two
t areas iis
schedule is switched to zero when the ties are lost. 53 D  D1  D2  983.33MW/Hz 54

Change in system frequency due to loss of 1,000MW load in area 1 is (b) (i) Loss of 1,000MW load in area 1
 PL  ((1000)
f    0.04619Hz Area 1 has
h a generating capacity off 4,000MW on
1 / R  D 20,666,67  983.33
Load changes in the two areas due to increase in frequency are supplementary control, and this will reduce generation so
PD1  D1f  316.67  0.04619  14.63MW as to
t b bring
i ACE1 tot zero. Si
Similarly,
il l area 2 generation
ti on
PD 2  D2 f  666.67  0.04619  30.79MW supplementary control will keep ACE2 at zero:
ACE1  B1f  P12  0
Generation changes in the two areas due to speed regulation are
1
PG1   f  6,666.67  0.04619  307.93MW
ACE2  B2 f  P12  0
R1
1
PG 2   f  14,000.00  0.04619  646.65MW
R2
Total effective load damping of the two areas is
Hence,
A
Area
Load
1
= 20,000-1,000+14.63
A
Area
Load
2
= 40,000+30.79
f  0 P12  0
= 19,014.63MW = 40,030.79MW Area 1 ggeneration and load are reduced byy 1,000MW.
,
Generation= 19,000-307.93 Generation= 41,000-646.64
= 18,692.07MW = 40,353.35MW There is no steady-state change in area 2 generation and load,
Tieline power flow from area 2 to area 1 is 322.56MW or the tieline flow.
Steady-state frequency is 60.04619 Hz
55 56
(b) (ii) Loss of 500MW generation, carrying part of the (b) (iii) Loss of 2,000MW generation, not carrying spinning reserve, in
spinning reserve,
reserve in area 1.
1 area 1
Area 1 has a spinning reserve of 1,000MW spread uniformly Half of the generation loss will be made up by the 1,000MW spinning
over a generation of 44,000MW
000MW capacity (3
(3,000MW
000MW reserve on supplementary
pp y control in area 1. When this limit is reached,,
area 1 is no longer able to control ACE. Supplementary control in area
generation + 1,000MW reserve).
2, however, is able to control its ACE. Hence,
Spinning reserve lost with generation loss is
500 ACE2  B2 f  P12  0  P12  B2 f  5,000f
1,000  166.67MW
3,000 There is thus a net reduction in system frequency.
frequency This causes a
Spinning reserve remaining is 1,000-166.67=833.33MW. reduction in loads due to frequency sensitivity.
which is sufficient to make up
p for 500MW generation
g loss. Area 1 load damping:
p g 20,000 100
Hence, the generation and load in two areas are restored to
D1  1   333.33MW/Hz
MW/H
100 60
their pre-disturbance values. The balance of generation loss in area 1 is made up by a reduction in
There is no change in tieline flow or system frequency load and tieline flow from area 2. Hence,
(However, spinning reserve is reduced from 1,000MW to  1,000  D1f  P12  333.33f  5,000f
333.33MW) 57  f  0.1875Hz 58

Change in area 1 load is (b) (iv) Tripping of the tieline, (no change in interchange schedule)
The supplementary control in area 1 attempts to maintain interchange
PD1  D1f  333.33  (0.1875)  62.5MW
schedule at 1,000MW. Hence,
The tieline flow change is
AC 1  B1f1  P12  2,500
ACE 00f1  1,000  0  f1  0.4Hz
P12  5,000  (0.1875)  937.5MW Change
g in area 1 load is
Change in area 2 load is
PD1  D1f  333.33(0.4)  133.33MW
PD 2  D2 f  666.67  (0.1875)  125MW Similarly for area 2:
Area 1 Area 2 1,000
Load = 20,000
20 000-62
62.5
5 Load = 40,000
40 000-125
125.0
0
f 2   0.2Hz PD 2  666.67  0.2  133.33MW
5,000
= 19,937.5MW = 39,875.0MW Area 1 Area 2
Generation= 19,000-1,000 Generation= 41,000-125+937.5 Load = 20,000-133.33 Load = 40,000+133.33
= 18,000.0MW = 41,812.5MW = 19,866.67MW = 40,133.33MW
Tieline power flow from area 2 to area 1 is 1,937.5MW Generation= 19,866.67MW Generation= 40,133.33MW
St d
Steady-state
t t frequency
f is
i 60-0.1875=59.8125Hz
60 0 1875 59 8125H f1= 59.6Hz
59 6H f2 = 60.2Hz
60 2H
59 60
(b) (v) Tripping of the tieline, with interchange schedule
switched to zero
With interchange schedule switched to zero, area 1
supplementary control will pick up 1,000MW generation
to make up for loss of import power.
power
IV. Implementation of AGC
• The control actions are determined for each control area at a
central location called the dispatch centre.
• The tieline flows,
flows system frequency and unit MW loadings is
telemetered to the central location.
• Control actions are determined by digital computer and transmitted
through the same telemetry channels to the generators.

Similarly,
Si il l area 2 supplementary
l t control
t l reduces
d
generation by 1,000MW to compensate for loss of
export The generation in each area is equal to the
export.
respective loads and the area frequencies are equal to
60Hz.

61 62

(iii) Control performance criteria (example)

(i) Filtering of ACE • Under normal conditions, the following criteria apply:
• Much of the change in ACE is usually due to fast
1) The ACE must return to zero within 10 minutes of
random variations in load to which g generating
g units
previously reaching zero.
zero
need not respond.
2) The average ACE for each of the six 10-minute
• Control action in response to these random
periods during the hour must be within specific limits.
components merely
me el causes
ca ses unnecessary
nnecessa wearea and
Ld = 5 + 0.025L MW
tear on governor motors and turbine valves.
where L is the greatest hourly change in the net
• AGC filters out random variations
variations, and smoothed ACE
system
t lload
d off a control
t l area on th
the d
day off it
its
(SACE) is used to control generation.
maximum summer or winter peak load).
(ii) Rate limits • Under disturbance conditions,
conditions the following criteria
apply: (sudden loss of generation/increase of load;
• In establishing AGC signals, it should be recognized sampled ACE > 3Ld)
that there is a limit to the rate at which generating
1) The ACE must return to zero within 10 minutes
unit outputs can be changed.
following the start of the disturbance.
2) The
h ACE C must start to return to zero within
h 1
63 64
minute following the start of the disturbance.
((iv)) Time deviation correction
• Through designated communication channels,
information on the status of the system time
deviation is relayed to all control areas,
areas and certain
periods are designated as time-correction periods.
During such periods, all areas are expected to
simultaneously offset their frequency schedules by an
amount related to accumulated system time
deviation.
deviation
(v) Frequency of AGC execution
• The stability of an AGC system and its ability to react
to changing inputs are influenced by phase lags in the
input system quantities and in the transmission of its
control signals
signals. (The execution of AGC once every 2 to
4 seconds in good performance  ACE is computed
/
and the raise/lower control signals
g are transmitted to
the generator once every 2 to 4 seconds.) 65 Functional diagram of a typical AGC system 66

(vi) Frequency bias setting (viii) AGC tuning and performance

• To establish
bli h frequency
f bias
bi ini each
h controll area once • The characteristics of power plants vary widely and a
a year based on the area’s natural regulation number of physical constraints exist with regard to
characteristic ((1/R+D)) corresponding
p g to the
forecasted peak load of the coming year. thei mane
their maneuverability.
e abilit A simple system
s stem that results
es lts in
• The average frequency bias setting employed is smooth control and a fairly well-damped system is
about 2% per 0.1 0 1 Hz based on the estimated peak preferable to a rapid control that attempts to bring
load and spinning reserve. ACE to zero rapidly.
• The bias factor remains fixed through the year for all • The stabilityy of the control system
y and its abilityy to
load levels.
levels
respond to the ACE signals are influenced by the
(vii) Emergency mode operation
phase lags associated with the measurement and
• For major system upsets causing splitting of the
interconnected system into separate islands or transmission off controll signals.
l The
h ideal
d l way to
opening of tielines, AGC is suspended. determine the AGC system parameters is by means of
• This
h may be
b based
b d on detection
d off very large
l simulations An important parameter that has an
simulations.
changes in frequency or ACE. influence on the stability of AGC system is the overall
• AGC may be suspended for intentional tripping of loopp gain;
g ; its value should be finalized based on field
load/generation so that AGC may not defeat the 67 tests. 68

purpose of such tripping.

(ix) Effect of speed-governor dead band
• The dead band is defined as “the total magnitude of • The effect of the dead band on the speed
the change in steady-state speed within which there governor response depends on the magnitude
is no resulting
es lting measurable
meas able change in the position of off th
the ffrequency d deviation.
i ti
the governor-controlled valves or gates. • If the deviation is small, it may remain
• The speed-droop
speed droop characteristic appears as a band entirely
ti l withinithi the
th dead
d d band
b d the
th speed d
rather than a line. control will be inactive.
Frequency(Hz ) Dead band • Th position
The iti off each h governor would ld be
b
randomly distributed within its dead band.
• H
Hence, ffor smallll changes
h in
i input
i t signal,
i l the
th
response of the individual generating units
will tend to be random
random.
• Speed governor dead bands result in random
frequency fluctuations
fluctuations.
Valve/gate position 100% 69 70

V. Underfrequency Load Shedding Two main hazards of underfrequency operation

• Disturbances can result in cascading outages and
isolation of areas,, causing
g formation of electrical islands. • The vibratory stress on the long low-pressure turbine
• An islanded area is undergenerated  frequency decline blades: Operation of steam turbine below certain
frequency (such as 58.5Hz) is severely restricted.
• Unless sufficient generation with ability to rapidly
increase output is available, the decline in frequency will
be largely determined by frequency sensitive • The performance of plant auxiliaries driven by
characteristics of loads.
loads induction motors: At low frequency (such as below 57
• Frequency decline may reach levels that could lead to Hz), the plant capability may be severely reduced
tripping
pp g of steam turbine generating
g g units byy because of the reduced output of boiler feed pumps
underfrequency protective relays, thus aggravating the or fans supplying combustion air. (Nuclear power
situation further. plants: The reactors may be overheat due to reduced
• L d h ddi schemes
Load-shedding h are employed
l d to
t reduce
d the
th flow of coolant). Generator may be tripped off by
connected load to a level that can be safely supplied by underfrequency relay to guard against this condition.
available g
generation.
71 72
Limitations of prime mover systems to control Factors influencing frequency delay
frequency decay
The following expression for frequency decay
• The generation can be increased only to the limits of
available spinning reserve within each affected area. f   L(1 - e -(t / T ) ) K where K  1/D and T  M/D
• The load picked up by a generator is limited due to With D  1.0 and M  10s :
th
thermal l stress
t iin th
the tturbine.
bi (10% off turbine
t bi rated
t d f   L(1 - e -(t /10) )pu   L(1 - e -(t /10) )  60 Hz
output initially and then with slow increase of about Frequency decay for four values of overload L
2% per minute
minute.))
• Limited ability of a boiler to pick up a significant
amount of load. (An increase in steam flow when the
turbine values open  pressure drop. An increase in
fuel input to the boiler is required to restore pressure
(takes several minutes))
• The speed governors have a time delay of 3 to 5
seconds.
d
73 74

Basis for selection of load-shedding

load shedding schemes Frequency trend relay (FTR)
• A scheme based on frequency drop alone is generally
• Maximum generation deficiency
acceptable for generation deficiencies up to 25%.
• Mi i
Minimum permissible
i ibl frequency
f
• For greater deficiencies, both frequency drop and rate
• Range of inertia constant of change of frequency should be considered to
• L dd
Load-damping
i constant
t t provide increased selectivity by preventing
unnecessary tripping of load in the system.
A typical
t i l scheme
h for
f shedding
h ddi load
l d • U this
Use thi scheme
h to
t trip
t i appropriate
i t amounts
t off lload
d in
i
an area (maintain its integrity).
• 10% load is shed when frequency drops to 59.2Hz
• 15% additional load is shed when frequency drops to
58.8 Hz
• 20% additional load is shed when frequency reaches
58.0 Hz
75 76
Load frequency
q y stages:
g loss of generation
g or load VI. AGC in Restructured Power Systems
Stage 1 (Conditions immediately after the disturbance):
• The world moves toward competitive markets in
Generator output change in approximately inverse
proportion to the reactance between the generators and
electric power systems  shift of ownership and
the point where generation or load is lost. operational control of generation from the
St
Stage 2 (0
(0.5s
5 tto 2
2s):
) GGenerators
t accelerate/decelerate
l t /d l t d due tto vertically integrated utilities to independent, for
for-
imbalance between mechanical power input and electrical profit generation owners.
power output. • Some modifications to account for some issues
Stage 3 (2s to 20s): Governors respond and change the such as bilateral contracts and deregulation
turbine outputs. At the end of this stage, generators share policyy among
p g the control areas.
the power change in proportion to their capacity, available
• AGC as an ancillary service provides essential
reserve, and the droop setting. Loads change depending
on their frequency and voltage sensitivity
sensitivity. role
o e for
o e
ensuring
su g reliable
e ab e ope
operation
at o by adjust
adjustingg
Stage 4 (tens of seconds to several minutes): AGC attempts to
generation to minimize frequency deviations and
correct for deviations in tieline flows and frequency. regulate tieline follows.
(Restored depending amount of generation reserve on 77 78
AGC  or followed by manual action by operators)

Control Area in New Environment

• Market operators such as independent system
operators (ISOs): independent of individual market
participants such as transmission owners, generators,
distribution companies and end-users.
• To
T ensure a ffair i and
d non-discriminatory
di i i t access to
t
transmission services and ancillary services, maintain
the real-time
real time operation of the system and facilitate its
reliability requirements.
• Load frequency control: responsible for maintaining
the real-time balance of generation and load for
minimizing frequency deviations and regulating tieline
flows, which would facilities bilateral contracts A (virtual ) control area determined by pooling
spanning over various control area. arrangements and contract agreements of AGC
79
participating utilities. 80
AGC configuration in a deregulated environment Arrangement:
– Gencos send the bid regulating reserves.
– Bids are sorted by a prespecified time period and price.
– Sorted regulating reserves with the demanded load
from Discos, tie-line data from Transco, and the area
f
frequency to provide
id controll commandsd to trackk the
h
area load changes.
– Bids are checked and resorted according to the
received congestion information (from Transco) and
screening of available capacity (collected from
Gencos).
– Control signal
g transmitted to the Gencos once everyy
one to few seconds, while the results of computing
participation factors and load generation scheduling by
81 the
h market
k operator are executed d daily
d l or every few
f 82
hours.

AGC participants in a deregulated environment

• Market objective
Market operator: to minimize AGC payments to Gencos
while encourage Gencos to provide sufficient regulation
power.
p A synchronous area in AGC frameworks
Gencos: maximize their profits as allocations are made. 83 84
AGC model and bilateral contracts New information signals
g due to possible
p various contracts
For a system with N control areas (Discos) and n Gencos: between Disco i and other Discos and Gencos:
Generation p participation
p factor of the generator
g of Genco  Ptie -i,i scheduled  Export power  Import power
k in area j following the load change i is gpfkj,i Area i
 
((based on a specified
p bilateral contract).
) N  n  n  N 
 
Generator owned by
Gencos 1…k,…n   gpf ki , j PLj -  gpf kj ,i PLi
Generation participation matrix (GPM):    
Disco i j 1  k 1  k 1  j 1 
 gpf11,i gpf12,i gpf1( N 1),i gpf1N ,i 
j i  j i 
 gpf gpf 2 N ,i 
 21,i gpf 22,i gpf 2( N 1),i Change
g of Pm ((Genco k):
) N
GPM  


 gpf ( n 1)1,i gpf ( n 1) 2,i gpf ( n 1)( N 1),i


gpf ( n 1) N ,i 
For load change in area i only Pmk   gpf
j 1
j1
kj ,i PLi

 gpf n1,i gpf n1,i gpf n ( N 1),i gpf nN ,i 

 N N
n N For load change
g in all areas Pmk   gpf kj ,i PLi
where 
k 1 j 1
gpf kj ,i  1 for load change i 85 i 1 j 1 86

Area 1 gpf11,2 Area 2 Genco 2

Genco 1
gpf11,1 gpf22,2 VII. AGC Systems Concerning Renewable
Disco 1 gpff22,1 Disco 2 Energy Sources (RES)
1 • The use of RESs increase worldwide.
 1
R1
–  Pmech1 • High RES penetration in power systems may
B1
Governor Prime + 1 increase uncertainties.
mover M1 s  D1 • Integration of RESs into power system grids has
+ACE
1 K + – –  1 impacts on optimal power flow, power quality,
 1
+ s +  PL1  Ptie + voltage and frequency control, system economics,
T
and load dispatch.
– ACE – s
2

K2
gpf11,2 PL2 - gpf22,1PL1 PL2 – • Th iimpactt off power fl
The fluctuation
t ti produced
d dbby RES
RESs
+
s – +  2 may produce significant frequency deviation.
+
Governor Prime
P i 1 • The conventional AGC system should be extended to
B2 mover + M 2 s  D2 consider the integration of RESs.
–  Pmech2
 2 1
88
R2 87
An updated AGC model Frequency control of RES
• Area Control Error ACE  Ptie  Bf
• High
g penetration
p of wind power
p greater amount of
g
• Two new signals, representing the dynamic impacts of power reserve.
RESs on • Solution: Usingg demand side control and intelligent
g
Local load: PL  PRES  PL
'
power price management through intelligent meters
Tieline power change: and communications.
Ptie'  Ptie C  Ptie  RES • Solution: Battery Energy Storage Systems; Electric
Vehicle.
  P ti C , actt
tie  Ptie h d 
ti C , sched  P ti  RES , actt
tie  Ptie h d
ti  RES , sched • C
Consideration
id ti off RES ini AGC is
i an ultimate
lti t solution
l ti
where Ptie C , act , Ptie C , sched , Ptie  RES ,act , Ptie  RES , sched i) Advanced forecasting techniques
are actual conventional tieline power, scheduled ii) RESS with
i h modern
d automatic
i response controll to
conventional tieline power, actual RES tie-line power frequency
and scheduled RES tieline power respectively. respectively
89 90

Nine-bus
Nine bus system

Conventional generation:
567.5 MW total
PV unit: 2MW Wind velocityy and output
p power
p of RES units
Wind farm: 30MW total 91 92
Dashed line shows response with PV unit only

(a) Frequency deviation following a 0.05pu step load disturbance

of 50S with (dotted) and without (solid) RES units
93
(b) A zoomed view around 50s 94