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Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Notes based

on online course given by Leonard Susskind


- Lecture 6

Quantum Field Theory


Review of Harmonic Oscillator Mathematics
Harmonic oscillators form the central mathematical structure for Quantum Field Theory

Essentially need the algebra of a+ , a- and N operators

Rules for single harmonic oscillator:

a+ is raising operator
a- is lowering operator
a+ and a- are Hermitian conjugates of each other
a- on the ground state to give zero

Will now call a+ and a- creation and annihilation operators as they will create and destroy particles

p + i ωx p - i ωx
a+ = a- = N = a + a-
2ω 2ω

N |n> = n |n> n is integer spaced eigenvalue

[a+ ,a- ] = 1

Now consider any harmonic oscillator eg violin string, spring etc, possibly with different frequencies

1
H = ℏωN (leaving out the ground state ℏω)
2
Determines the energy needed/released for jump up/down

If many harmonic oscillators can label them with an index i which might go to infinity
ai+ ai- = Ni

The i are independent degrees of freedom so [ai- ,a+j ] = δij

All these annihilation operators commute with all the others ie [ai- ,a-j ] = 0 even if i=j

Similarly for creation operators [ai+ ,a+j ] = 0

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ωi ℏ
H = ∑i ωi ℏNi + Will now call i the occupation number
2

Can label a complete basis of states via the occupation number of the oscillation |n>

So for many oscillators can define, in this basis of states, using ni as the occupation number for
each oscillator

| n1 , n2 , n3 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ni > where i might be infinite

Now particular ai+ and ai- increase or decrease the associated occupation number ie increase/de-
crease the number of particles with that oscillation

For example, a+2 | n1 , n2 , n3 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ni > = n2 + 1 | n1 , n2 +1, n3 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ni >

0.17.49 Maths Interlude regarding the n2 + 1 factor


a+ n >= cn |n + 1> then making bra form
<n| a- = cn <n+1| rembering a- is the complex conjugate of a+
<n| a- a+ |n> = cn <n+1| cn |n + 1> =c2n <n+1|n+1> Since < n m >= δ nm (each state is unit length)
- +
<n| a a |n>=c2n
<n| [a- , a ]|n> + a+ a- |n> =c2n
+

<n|n> + <n| N |n> =c2n


1 + n<n|n> =c2n
cn = n+ 1

a+ |n> = n+ 1 n+ 1>

a- |n> = n n- 1> a- |0> = 0 follows since 0 =0

0.29:56 Quantum Field - first consider non-relativistic for Bosons


No relativity yet, just ordinary quantum mechanics

For particles -> wave functions ψ(x), a function of position (forget time for now) and then relate to a
Field

A field is also a function but the connection between ψ(x) and a field is not straightforward

Facts to note regarding ψ(x):


1. ψ(x) is not an observable. You measure eg position, momentum, angulare momentum not ψ(x)
2. It applies to a fixed number of particles eg For 15 particles we can define ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ,....x15 )
where each xi is the position of a particle. Ψ(x) is function of the position of each particle

By contrast the Quantum Field Ψ:


1. Is an observable eg electro-magnetic field. Being an observable, it is an operator in the space of
states.
2. Is a function of only one co-ordinate (position 3-vector)
3. Can describe any number of particles ie describes a system where the number of particles

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(bosons of the same kind) can change.

0.39.13
Go back to theory of one particle in a box in one dimension, each ψ1 (x), ψ2 (x) etc has an energy

ψ1 (x), ψ2 (x) etc are energy eigenstates of the particle in the box. The 1,2 etc just refers to different
energy levels. Note: he used unusual notation starting from 1 instead of 0 here

1.0

ψ1(x)
0.5

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-0.5
ψ2(x)
-1.0

Consider having a number of Bosons; n1 with energy of ψ1 (x), n2 with energy of ψ2 (x) etc

This is a description of a basis of states

n1 , n2 , n3 ........> similar to the way we labelled states of harmonic oscillators

Couldn’t do this for Fermions as cant have more than one in any state

Because of this parallel try inventing operators that increase the number of bosons with a certain
ψi (x) and operators that decrease the number by creating or annihilating a boson with the appropri-
ate ψi (x)

eg Creating a boson with ψ1

a+1 n1 , n2 , n3 ... ... .. >= n1 + 1 n1 + 1, n2 , n3 ........>

0.48.43 Maths Interlude in response to a question


a+ a- |n> = (a- a+ - 1)|n>
= a- n + 1 |n+1>- |n>
= n + 1 n + 1 |n>- |n>
=(n + 1)|n>- |n>
=n|n>
or
N|n>=n|n>

These are useful definitions with which to explore systems with varying numbers of particles

The number of particles occupying a particular state can be represented by a system of harmonic
oscillators, an oscillator for each single particle state, where the occupation number of the oscilla-
tion is the number of particles occupying that state

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The vacuum state is the state which is annihilated by all of the annihilation operators.

Vacuum state has zero occupation number in every state |0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ......0>, any a - on this state
gives zero

Note: ground state and the vacuum state are the same thing

Energy of the system

Each wave function ψ1 (x), ψ2 (x) ... ... ....ψi (x) has an energy associated with it; let’s call the energy
of a particle in the first state ω1 and for the second state ω2 etc

Energy of whole system in terms of creation and annihilation operators is the sum of energy all
particles in the first state, all particles in the second state etc etc

E = ℏ(n1 ω1 + n2 ω2 .......... ni ωi )
= ℏ∑i ni ωi where ni is the occupation number if the i th state
= ℏ∑i ωi ai+ ai-

Note: elsewhere might see notation of a† a instead of a+ a-

The ni are the eigenvalues of N

Radiation in a cavity is a collection of oscillators -> idea of collections of particles as harmonics


oscillators -> eventually get to connection with fields

1.09.37
For the moment we are talking about particles that dont interact. If they interacted the energies
wouldn’t just be additive, there would be extra terms relating to the PE for the interactions

Regarding the fact that we often have been leaving out the ground state energy constant; a con-
stant always commutes with everything so adding a constant to the Hamiltonian wont change its
commutation relations

Summary
1. A field is a function of space. It is also an operator ( because it is an observable)
2. Field only depends on one co-ordinate
3. Applies to situations with varying numbers of particles

1.12:00 Definition for Quantum Field


The value of definitions depends on their utility

Quantum field theory can be thought of as a book-keeping device for keeping track of particles that
come and go; though is a little more in that you can measure these fields

Field theory was originally associated with electro-magnetic fields; Maxwell invented field equations
(classical)

Planck realised need to quantise fields. The things that occupy the occupation numbers are quanta
and when we are talking about electro-magnetic fields these are photons

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A photon is a unit of energy

Quantum Field defined as Ψ(x) depends of position, ie an operator for each position

Ψ(x) acts on space of states n1 , n2 , n3 ........> Fock’s space

Ψ(x) = ∑i ai- ψi (x) where the ψi (x) are functions like sins and cosines of different wavelengths

if the ψi (x)’s are momentum eigenstates then the a’s are quantum equivalents of Fourier co-effi-
cients

If want field at x then plug in the value of x

Ψ(x) = ∑i ai- ψi (x) or


Ψ † (x) = ∑i ai+ ψi* (x)

There are a whole set of operators - one for each position in space

A lot of operators because trying to study a system where the number of particles is unbounded

Ψ(x) and Ψ † (x) are not the Hermitian, because a+ and a- aren’t Hermitian - aren’t observables

But if you add Ψ(x) and Ψ † (x) you can make combinations that are Hermitian and can be observed

When Ψ(x) hits the vacuum -> kills it because only has a- operators

Ψ † (x) creates one particle in a superposition of states

Consider quantum mechanics of a single particle (forgetting oscillators for a minute); there are a
complete set of states - the position states |x>
∑x |x><x| = I

Similarly for the i’s


∑i |i><i| = I

is a general rule for any basis of states

The i’s are the one particle states ψ1 (x) etc like we looked at before
1.0

ψ1(x)
0.5

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-0.5
ψ2(x)
-1.0

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ψi are a complete set of states

Since ∑i |i><i| = I

∑i |i><i|x> = |x>

<i|x>= ψi* (x)

So
∑i |i> ψi* (x) = ∑i ψi* (x)|i> = |x> is state of a particle located at x

Could also write


|i> = ai+ |0> where |0> is the vacuum

One particle in the stae |i>

∑i ψi* (x) ai+ |0> = |x> = Ψ † (x) |0>

ψi* (x) are numbers (probably complex)

Ψ † (x) is an operator that creates a particle at position x

To create a particle at position y


|y> = Ψ † (y) |0>

Ψ † (x) is a function of position (here x) as it needs to know where to put the particle; ‘the quantum
field creates a particle at position x’

Ψ(x) removes a particle from position x or annihilates the state if no particle there

Remember we are talking about bosons. There is a separate quantum field for each species of
boson eg photon, graviton, Higgs, gluon

The vacuum is a state with length 1, it is not zero; when hit with an annihilation operator it literally
goes to zero and has zero length. Doesn’t describe anything physical

If add vacuum state to a state with one particle state then get a state with eg a 50% probability of
having a particle and a 50% probability of not having a particle

|0> is not zero, it is the name of a state and has length 1

Any operator that acts on the zero vector in the vector space just gives back the zero vector

1.43:08 2 particle state

Ψ † (y)Ψ † (x)|0> = |y,x>

is a particle at y and a particle at x.

x and y could be the same or different points

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The Ψ † ’s are mad out of creation operators

Every creation operator commutes with every other creation operator

So Ψ † (y) and Ψ † (x) commute

Ψ † (y)Ψ † (x)|0> = |y,x>


Ψ † (x)Ψ † (y)|0> = |x,y>

Because of the commutation |x,y> = |y,x> DEFINING PROPERTY OF BOSONS

Note: x and y are the same type of particle as both created by the same Ψ

This is the connection between particles and fields.

This is only interesting in the context of varying numbers of particles; for fixed number of particles
would not use this.

That was the simplest incarnation of a quantum field!

content from lecture by Leonard Susskind

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