Accepted Manuscript

Improvement of texture and sensory properties of cakes by addition of potato

peel powder with high level of dietary fiber and protein

Khawla Ben Jeddou, Fatma Bouaziz, Soumaya Zouari- Ellouzi, Fatma Chaari,
Semia Ellouz-Chaabouni, Raoudha Ellouz-Ghorbel, Oumèma Nouri-Ellouz

PII: S0308-8146(16)31321-8
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.08.081
Reference: FOCH 19727

To appear in: Food Chemistry

Received Date: 1 May 2016

Revised Date: 23 August 2016
Accepted Date: 23 August 2016

Please cite this article as: Jeddou, K.B., Bouaziz, F., Ellouzi, S.Z., Chaari, F., Ellouz-Chaabouni, S., Ellouz-Ghorbel,
R., Nouri-Ellouz, O., Improvement of texture and sensory properties of cakes by addition of potato peel powder
with high level of dietary fiber and protein, Food Chemistry (2016), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.
2016.08.081

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1 Improvement of texture and sensory properties of cakes by addition of potato
2 peel powder with high level of dietary fiber and protein
3

4 Running title:

5 Addition of potato peel powder in cake formulation

6 Khawla Ben Jeddou1,5, Fatma Bouaziz1*, Soumaya Zouari- Ellouzi1*, Fatma Chaari1, Semia
7 Ellouz-Chaabouni1,2, Raoudha Ellouz-Ghorbel1,2 and Oumèma Nouri-Ellouz3,4

1
8 Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax, Unité Enzymes et Bioconversion, BP 1173, 3038

9 Sfax, Tunisia.

2
10 Université de Sfax, ENIS, Unité de Service Bioréacteur couplé à un ultrafiltre, Route de

11 Soukra km 4, BP 1173, 3038 Sfax (Tunisia)

3
12 Institut Préparatoire aux Etudes d'Ingénieurs de Sfax, Département de Biologie et Géologie,

13 BP 1172, 3018 Sfax, Tunisia.

4
14 Faculté des Sciences de Sfax, Laboratoire des Biotechnologies Végétales Appliquées à

15 l'Amélioration des Cultures, BP 1171, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia.

5
16 Corresponding Author: Khawla Ben Jeddou

17 Tel: +216 96961537

18 E-mail: benjeddou_khaoila@yahoo.fr
19

20 * These authors contributed equally to this work

21

22

23

24

25

1
26 Abstract:

27 Demand for health oriented products such as low calories and high fiber product is increasing.

28 The aim of the present work was to determine the effect of the addition of potato peel

29 powders as protein and dietary fiber source on the quality of the dough and the cake.

30 Powders obtained from the two types of peel flour showed interesting water binding capacity

31 and fat absorption capacity. Potato peel flours were incorporated in wheat flours at different

32 concentration. The results showed that peel powders additionally considerably improved the

33 Alveograph profile of dough and the texture of the prepared cakes. In addition color

34 measurements showed a significant difference between the control dough and the dough

35 containing potato peels. The replacement of wheat flour with the potato powders reduced the

36 cake hardness significantly and the L* and b* dough color values. The increased consumption

37 of cake enriched with potato peel fiber is proposed for health reasons. The study demonstrated

38 that protein/fiber-enriched cake with good sensory quality could be produced by the

39 substitution of wheat flour by 5% of potato peel powder. In addition and technological point

40 of view, the incorporation of potato peel powder at 5 % increase the dough strength and

41 elasticity-to-extensibility ratio (P/L).

42 Key words: Potato peels; dietary fiber; protein content; dough characteristic; texture and

43 sensory properties of cakes.

44

2
45 1. Introduction

46 Cakes are the most popular bakery items consumed nearly by all levels of society. This is

47 mainly due to its ready-to-eat nature, availability in different varieties and affordable cost.

48 The development of staple foods enriched with fiber is an important contribution to a broader

49 supply of food products with health beneficial effect. In accordance with this trend,

50 dietary fiber (DF) plays a very important role in the human diet. DF consists of indigestible

51 cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, gums and mucilage. Regular consumption of fiber is an

52 important factor to prevent many types of diseases and is associated with a standard balanced

53 diet (Rosell, Santos, & Collar, 2009).The beneficial role of the DF in health and nutrition is

54 associated with the reduction in chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, certain types

55 of cancer and constipation (Lairon, Arnault, Bertrais, Planells, Clero, &Hercberg, 2005;

56 Schaafsma, 2004).The insoluble fraction of fibers (IDF) has been related to intestinal

57 regulation, whereas soluble fibers (SDF) are associated to the decrease in cholesterol levels

58 and the absorption of intestinal glucose (Rodríguez, Jiménez, Fernández-Bolaños, Guillén, &

59 Heredia, 2006).

60 Due to the nature of fiber having both insoluble and soluble properties, it has a range of

61 technological attributes such as water binding, gelling, and structure building, resulting in

62 texture modification and enhancement of the stability of the food during production and

63 storage (Thebaudin, Lefebvre, Harrington, & Bourgeois, 1997).

64 Very recently, novel sources of fiber have been discovered and utilized. One of these sources

65 is the by-product fraction from different types of food processing. In particular, the by-

66 products obtained from fruit and vegetable processing (e.g. juices, drinks etc.) are gaining

67 attention as novel and economic sources of a healthy functional ingredient.

68 Several workers have used fiber sources such as wheat bran, oat bran, corn bran and barley

69 bran and psyllium husk, among others to prepare high fiber bread (Pomeranz, Shogren,

3
70 Finney, & Bechtel, 1977; Sidhu, Suad, & Al-Saqer, 1999; Wang, Rosell, & Barber, 2002).

71 Infact, Leelavathi and Rao (1993) reported that up to 30% raw wheat bran could be used to

72 substitute flour in the preparation of high fiber biscuits. Besides, Ayadi, Abdelmaksoud,

73 Ennouri, and Attia (2009) tested the effect of Cladodes from Opuntia ficusindica as a source

74 of dietary fiber in dough characteristics and cake making. Moreover, potato peel, a by-product

75 of the potato industry, rich in dietary fiber, was used as a source of dietary fiber in bread

76 making (Toma, Orr, D’Appolonia, Dintzis, &Tabekhia, 1979).

77 Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) are one of the most commonly consumed vegetables

78 throughout the world. While consumption of potatoes has decreased, processed products such

79 as French fries, chips, and puree have experienced growing popularity. Peels are the major by-

80 product of potato processing industries, which represent a major waste disposal problem for

81 the industry concerned (Sabeena Farvin, Drejer Grejsen, & Jacobsen, 2012). These peels are

82 rich in substances with high added value: starch, proteins, and DF (Ben Jeddou, Maktouf,

83 Ghazala, Frikha, Ghribi, Ellouz-Ghorbel, & Nouri-Ellouz, 2014). Potato peel now produced

84 as a waste or by-product of commercial processes, might provide dietary fiber. Use of peel

85 might also significantly reduce waste pollution from commercial potato peeling processes

86 (Toma, et al., 1979).

87 In his line, the aim of this report was to investigate the effect of addition of two types of

88 potato peel powders (the first purchased from market and the second from variety Spunta as

89 dietary fiber and protein source on cake formulation. The influence of potato peel powders

90 addition at different concentrations (2%, 5 % and 10 %) on dough characteristics and cake

91 making was also investigated.

92 2. Materials and methods

93 2.1. Materials

4
 94 Potatoes of the variety Spunta were collected in the area of Sfax (Tunisia) between March and

95 June for the tree years 2013, 2014 and 2015. Commercial potato used as positive reference

96 was purchased from market in which the potato cultivar was not clearly indicated. The tubers

97 were washed and potato peel wastes (PPW) from Spunta or market varieties were first washed

98 in tap water then in distilled water to remove the adhered surface dust particles. It was finally

99 dried at 50◦C in an oven for 48 h and ground in a mixer grinder (Moulinex). The average

100 particle size of PPW was between 500 and 1000 µm. It was then stored at room temperature

101 (25 ± 5◦C) until use. (Ben Jeddou ,Chaari, Maktouf, Nouri-Ellouz, Boisset- Helbert, and

102 Ellouz- Ghorbel 2016).The flour of peels was used as raw material to determine its physical

103 characteristics and as source of dietary fiber and protein in cake making.

104 2.2. Fiber analysis

105 The amount of soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and total dietary fiber

106 (TDF) was determined according to the gravimetric enzymatic method as previously

107 described by Elleuch et al., 2008. Briefly, the potato peel powders were gelatinized with heat

108 stable α- amylase (100 °C, pH 6, 15 min) and then enzymatically digested with protease (60

109 °C, pH 7.5, 30 min), in order to solubilize protein. This step was followed by incubation with

110 amyloglucosidase (60 °C, pH 4.5, 30 min) to in order to remove starch. Then, the samples

111 were filtered, washed (with water, 95% ethanol and acetone), dried and weighed to determine

112 insoluble fiber. After that, four volumes of 95% ethanol were added to the filtrate and to the

113 water washings. Then, the precipitates were filtered and washed twice with 80 % ethanol and

114 acetone. After that, the residues (soluble fiber) were dried and weighed. Total dietary fiber

115 was determined by summing insoluble dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber.

116 All measurements were performed in duplicate.

117 2.3. Physical characterization of potato peel flour

118 2.3.1. Bulk density measurement

5
119 PPW powder sample was gently filled into 10 ml graduated cylinders, previously tarred. The

120 bottom of the cylinder was gently tapped on a laboratory bench several times until there was

121 no further diminution of the sample level after filling to the 10 ml mark. Bulk density was

122 calculated as weight of sample per unit volume of sample (g/ml) (Kaur& Singh, 2005).

123 2.3.2. Color measurement

124 Color parameters of PPW flour were measured with a Portable Colorimeter with unmatched

125 ruggedness and application flexibility (KONICA MINOLTA, CHROMA METER CR-410

126 Japan) on the basis of L*, a* and b* values. After calibration, the sample was placed on a

127 holding device. L* value indicates the lightness, a* value gives the degree of the red–green

128 color. The b* value indicates the degree of the yellow–blue color. Color analyses were

129 performed on samples treated three times at the same process conditions and the mean values

130 together with the standard deviations reported (Bouaziz et al., 2016).

131 2.3.3. PPW powder swelling

132 PPW powder (1g) was hydrated with 10 ml of distilled water, containing 0.02% azide as a

133 bacteriostat, in a calibrated cylinder (1.1cm diameter) at room temperature. After

134 equilibration(18 h), the bed volume was recorded and expressed as volume/g original peel dry

135 weight (Robertson, Monredon, Dysseler, Guillon, Amadò, & Thibault, 2000).

136 2.3.4. Water solubility index

137 Water solubility index (WSI) of potato peel powder was determined by slightly modifying the

138 method of Anderson, Conway, Pfeifer, and Griffin, (1969).The powder sample (2.5 g) was

139 dispersed in 30 ml of distilled water using a glass rod, and cooked at 90◦C for 15 min in a

140 water bath. The cooked paste was cooled to room temperature and centrifuged at 3000×g for

141 10min. The supernatant was decanted to determine its solid content into a tarred evaporating

142 dish. The weight of the dried solids was recovered by evaporating the supernatant overnight at

143 110◦C. The WSI was calculated by the following equation: WSI (%) = (WS/WDS) × 100

144 Where Ws: weight of dissolved solids in supernatant and WDS: weight of dry solids.

6
145 2.3.5. Water-holding capacity (WHC)

146 The water-holding capacity was measured by the method of Robertson et al., 2000. PPW (3 g)

147 was placed in a centrifuge tube and weighed (tube with potato powders). Distilled water (30

148 mL) were added, and held at room temperature for 18 h. The PPW solutions were then

149 centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 20 min using a refrigerated centrifuge (Hettich Zentrifugen,

150 ROTINA 380R, Germany). The upper phase was removed and the centrifuge tube was

151 drained for 3 h at 105°C in a vacuum oven. The WHC was calculated using the formula:

152 WHC (g water /g potato powders) = [(fresh residue – dry residue)/dry residue]

153 2.3.6. Fat-binding capacity (FAC)

154 The FAC was measured by the method of Abdul-Hamid, and Luan (2000). PPW (0.5 g) was

155 placed in a centrifuge tube and weighed. Ten milliliters of soybean oil were added. The PPW

156 solution was mixed with a vortex mixer for 30 s every 5 min for 30 min. The solution was

157 then centrifuged at 1600 × g for 20 min using a refrigerated centrifuge. The separated oil was

158 then removed with a pipette and the centrifuge tube was drained for 30 min on a filter paper to

159 drain the oil prior to reweighing. Their FACs was calculated using the formula:

160 Fat- absorption capacity (g oil/ g potato powders) = [(weight of the contents of the tube after

161 draining - dried potato powders)/ dried potato powders].

162 2.4. Dough properties

163 Doughs were prepared from blends containing 0%, 2%, 5% and 10% potato peel flour by

164 replacing wheat flour. Dough without potato peel powder was used as control sample. The

165 effect of potato peel powder addition on Alveographic and textural properties of the dough

166 was studied using an Alveographe Chopin (20 av Marcellin Berthelo) and a Texture Analyzer

167 (LLOYD instruments, England), respectively. Doughs were prepared by hand-mixing of 100

168 g of wheat flours and potato peel blends with 60 ml distilled water and 0.25 g NaCl.

169 2.4.1. Alveographic analysis

7
170 The following Alveograph parameters were automatically recorded by a computer software

171 program developed by R-Design, (Pullman, WA): the maximum overpressure (P) needed to

172 blow the dough bubble, which is an index of resistance to extension; the average abscissa (L)

173 at bubble rupture, an index of dough extensibility, the deformation energy (W), an index of

174 dough strength and P/L ratio (elastic resistance and extensibility balance of a flour dough)

175 which indicate dough quality.

176 2.4.2. Textural analysis

177 Dough samples were evaluated by the texture profile analysis (TPA) method using a Texture

178 Analyzer (texture analyzer: LLOYD instruments, England) equipped with a 1000 (N) load

179 cell, and a 0.05 (N) detection range. A sample of dough was transferred into a moulded

180 Nalgene polypropylene tube (5 cm height) that was placed in a fixture to hold it in place under

181 the Texture Analyzer. An acrylic cylindrical probe was used to compress the sample by 50%

182 of its original height (40 mm)at a speed of 10 mm/s. The Texture Analyzer was interfaced

183 with a computer, which controls the instruments and analyses the data, using the software

184 supplied by Texture Technologies Corp. Textural parameters (hardness, cohesion, springiness,

185 adhesion and chewiness (Chewiness is a secondary texture parameter that is associated with

186 difficulty in chewing the sample and forming a bolus before swallowing) were calculated

187 from the TPA curves. In fact, the hardness represent the peak force of the first compression

188 cycle, stickiness is the distance of the detected height of the product on the second

189 compression divided by the original compression distance, cohesiveness (ratio of positive

190 areas of second cycle to area of first cycle), adhesiveness(negative force area of the first byte

191 represented the work necessary to pull the compressing plunger away from the sample), were

192 determined.

193 2.5. Baking test

194 Cakes were prepared from blends containing 0%, 2%, 5% and 10% of potato peel flours.

8
195 2.5.1. Cake preparation

196 The formulation for the preparation of cake of Sudha, Baskaran, and Leelavathi(2007 b)was

197 used with some modifications: flour blend (g) – 100; sugar (g) – 100; wet compressed

198 yeast(g) – 5.0; olive oil (g) –100 and egg (g) – 103.9.The flour, and baking powder were

199 creamed together. Eggs and sugar were whipped together until semi-firm foam. And then, the

200 vegetable oil was added in small portions. The blend of sugar–egg foam and oil was mixed

201 with the creamed flour. 165 g of Cake batter was poured into a cake pan and baked at 160 ◦C

202 for 1 h. Cakes were cooled to room temperature.

203 2.5.2. Physical characteristics of cakes

204 Volume (V, cc) of cakes was measured using the rapeseed displacement method (Rosell ,

205 Rojas, &Benedito de Barber, 2001).Weight (W, g), length, width and height (L, Wi, H: m) of

206 the cakes were measured. The textural properties of cakes were measured using a Texture

207 Analyzer. Cake slices(2.5 cm thick) were placed on the platform. An acrylic cylindrical probe

208 was used to compress the cake sample 50% of its original height at a speed of 10 mm/s.

209 Colors of crust and crumb were measured using the Portable Colorimeter ( KONICA

210 MINOLTA, CHROMA METER CR-410 Japan).

211 2.5.3. Sensory analysis

212 Thirteen panelists participated in the study. The panelists were asked to evaluate the products

213 for crumb color, eating quality, odor, tenderness, aspect and overall quality (Sudha,

214 Vetrimani, & Leelavathi, 2007 a).

215 Participants used a 5-point hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely, 2= dislike, 3=neither dislike

216 nor like, 4= liked, and 5=like extremely). They completed paper ballots that contained the

217 hedonic scales and instructions. Participants were instructed to rate each sample individually

218 and not to rate samples against each other.

219 2.5.4.Determination of protein and dietary fiber content of cakes

9
220 Nitrogen content of cakes was estimated by the Kjeldhal method and was converted to protein

221 using the factor 6.25.

222 The amount of soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) of cakes was

223 determined according to the gravimetric enzymatic method as described by Elleuch et al.(

224 2008) as previously described.

225 2.6. Statistical analysis of results

226 All experiments were carried out in triplicate, and average values with standard deviation

227 errors are reported. Significant differences at 95% confidence were determined by Duncan’s

228 multiple range tests, using SPSS software (version 17.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

229 3. Results and discussion

230 3.1. Physical and chemical characterization of potato peel flour

231 The physical properties of the potato peel flours are summarized in Table 1A. Bulk density of

232 Market and Spunta powders were 0.94 and 0.96 (g/ml), respectively. The potato peels were

233 denser than the powders obtained from spiny and spineless cladodes: 0.703 and 0.647

234 respectively (Ayadi et al., 2009).

235 Swelling capacity (Flour’s swelling is attributes to its content on polysaccharides), water

236 solubility index and water holding capacity are presented in Table 1A. The results obtained

237 show that the two potato powders were significantly different for in their swelling values,

238 WSI and WHC (P < 0.05). Market and Spunta powders presented a WSI index (WSI are

239 related to the presence of soluble molecules) of 34.78±0.52% and 24.88±0.70%, respectively.

240 Table 1A shows that flours obtained from market and Spunta potato peels present a different

241 swelling value: 4.68±0.23 and 2.58±0.13 cm3/g, respectively. Study of Raymundo, Fradinho,

242 and Nunes (2014) highlights the high swelling power of Psyllium fiber in relation to the wheat

243 flour, about 15 times higher.

10
244 WHC represents the ability of a product to associate with water (Singh, 2001). Market flour

245 showed the highest WHC (4.45±0.22 g/g dry weight). WHC of potato peels from market and

246 Spunta variety was lower than that of peels obtained by hand peeling methods (Toma, et al.,

247 1979). The differences in water absorption is mainly caused by the greater number of

248 hydroxyl group which exist in the fiber structure and allow more water interaction through

249 hydrogen bonding (Rosell , Rojas, & Benedito de Barber, 2001).

250 Fat absorption capacity (FAC) is an important feature of polysaccharides. It is in part related

251 to the chemical composition, but it is more closely linked to the porosity of the fiber structure

252 than to the affinity of the fiber molecule to oil (Biswas, Kumar, Bhosle, Sahoo, & Chatli,

253 2009).Market and Spunta powders showed no significant difference for fat absorption

254 capacity (P < 0.05). Analysis of potato peel waste from the market and Spunta variety,

255 revealed that the wastes contained a very important amount of soluble and insoluble dietary

256 fiber (IDF and SDF) and protein. The results (Table 1A) also indicate that there was no

257 significant (p<0.05) difference of the dietary and protein content between the Spunta variety

258 and market tuber peels. The two most common glycoalkaloids found in potatoes are a-

259 chaconine and a-solanin and their ratio in potato plants depends on the genotype, tissue, and

260 growing and storage conditions. Concentrations of these glycoalkaloids in the range of 1–15

261 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW) are regarded as acceptably low, while values above 20 mg/100 g

262 FW produce a bitter taste and can induce strong gastro enteric symptoms, coma, and even

263 death ( Morris & Lee, 1984). The average content in the peel can vary from 3 to more than

264 100 mg/100g of peel. For peeled potatoes, the average content can vary from 0.10 to 4.50

265 mg/100g. In addition we described a test for the determination of total alkaloid in our

266 previous work (Ben jeddou et al., 2016). The Alkaloid content of PPW from the verity spunta

267 and market tubers were 93.3±0.02 µg/g and 85±0.12 µg/g. So, samples contained less than 10

268 mg /100 dry weight i.e. below the permitted limit for potatoes for direct consumption or

11
269 further processing and therefore our potato peel flours may not be considered as detrimental

270 to human health.

271 CieLab coordinates (L*, a* and b*) of potato peel powder and wheat flour are presented in

272 Table 1B. Indeed, wheat flour was significantly (P<0.05) lighter (L*) than the market and

273 Spunta powder. The red (a*) and yellow (b*) colors of the potato peels were significantly

274 (P<0.05) higher than of the wheat flour.

275 3.2. Dough properties

276 3.2.1.Alveographic and textural properties of dough

277 The total moisture content of the control wheat flour and wheat flours enriched with different

278 amounts of potato peel powders was determined and is presented in supplementary material 1.

279 Wheat flour presents the highest moisture content (12.38±0.62%). Thus, the addition of

280 market and Spunta flours resulted in a marginal decrease in moisture content.

281 Incorporation of 0%, 2%, 5% and 10% market or Spunta powders showed differences in the

282 dough properties as measured by the Alveographe and texture parameters. The effect of

283 potato peel powders addition on the Alveograph parameters of wheat flour dough is presented

284 in Fig.1. Dough resistance to deformation or tenacity (P) is a predictor of the ability of the

285 dough to retain gas (Rosell ,Rojas, & Benedito de Barber, 2001). Fig. 1 shows that this

286 parameter increased with the addition of peel powders, the highest effect being exhibited with

287 addition of 5% market flour. This may likely be due to the interaction between

288 polysaccharides and proteins from wheat flour as reported earlier by Sudha, Vetrimani, and

289 Leelavathi (2007 a).The extensibility values of dough (L) ( an indicator of the handling

290 characteristics of the dough) were greatly reduced by the addition of both market and Spunta

291 flours. Moreover, the P/L ratio (elastic resistance and extensibility balance of flour dough)

292 increased with the increasing level of the two potato flours. The highest level was exhibited

293 with the incorporation of 10 % market flour (5.83 vs. 0.7 in the control), which reveals a great

294 fortifying effect of potato peel powders, likely due to the strongest interaction between the
12
295 polysaccharides of these powders and the protein of the wheat flours. The deformation energy

296 (W) decreased with the addition of potato peel flours. The highest effect was observed with

297 market flours at a level of 10% (W= 146×10−4J vs. 220×10−4 J in control).

298 These results showed that the two potato peel flours present a positive impact on the

299 alveograph properties of wheat flour dough, and this was especially so in dough resistance

300 and extensibility. Same results were obtained by Ayadi et al. (2009).

301 Textural properties (hardness, cohesiveness, stickiness, and adhesion) were analyzed to assess

302 dough quality. As reported by Carson, and Sun (2001) and Szczesniak (2001), texture analysis

303 is an objective physical examination of baked products and gives direct information on the

304 product quality, as opposed to dough rheology tests that provide information on the baking

305 suitability of the flour, as raw material.

306 Textural evaluation of dough, containing 0%, 2%, 5%and 10%, of potato peel powder, is

307 presented in Table 2C. The results show a great improvement of the textural properties of

308 dough supplemented with either Spunta or market potato peel. In fact, at 10% market potato

309 peel addition, the cohesion, adhesion, stickiness and hardness of the corresponding dough

310 prepared increased with 30.18, 84.27, 64.83, and 77.8 %, respectively. Additionally, at 10 %

311 Spunta potato peel incorporation, the adhesion and the hardness of the corresponding dough

312 was increased to 30 %and 50 % respectively. However, the cohesion of this dough was

313 decreased by 42.3 % at the same concentration.

314 Both potato peel flours have a great impact on Alveograph properties of wheat flour dough,

315 and this was especially in dough resistance and extensibility.

316 3.2.2.Dough color

317 Supplementary material 2 shows photos of dough prepared with different levels of market and

318 Spunta powders. This figure shows a change in dough color with the incorporation of peel

319 powders. Indeed, with the increase of potato peel flour fractions, dough became darker

13
320 especially at 10% concentration. To more clearly evaluate the effect of potato peel addition on

321 the flour and the dough color, the CieLab parameters were investigated.

322 The effects of potato peel addition on the flour and dough color are shown in Table 2. The L*

323 scale ranges from 0 black to 100 white; the a* scale extends from a negative value (green hue)

324 to a positive value (red hue); and the b* scale ranges from negative blue to positive yellow.

325 Significant differences were observed between the wheat flour with and without potato peel

326 addition (Table 2A). In fact, the control wheat flour gave significantly (P<0.05) higher L*

327 values compared to the samples supplemented both with market and Spunta flours. The same

328 result was observed for the dough (Table 2B). This is mainly due to Maillard and

329 caramelization reactions (Ayadi et al., 2009).The a* values for the flour containing market and

330 Spunta powders and the corresponding dough samples (with and without potato peels) were

331 all positive, which means that there was no green hue. Nevertheless, the control flour without

332 any addition exhibited a negative value of a*. Thus, the* value increases with the addition of

333 peel powders (market and Spunta) and the highest effect was exhibited with peel flour

334 addition at a level of 10%.

335 Moreover, flour substituted with potato peel powders showed higher b* values than the

336 control. However, after mixing, dough control presented the highest value of b* compared to

337 the others samples supplemented with potato flours except for the dough with 10% market

338 flour. The high values of a* (red component) and b* (yellow component), indicating a

339 significantly brighter and more saturated brown-orange color (Martínez-Cervera , Salvador,

340 Muguerza , Moulay , &Fiszman., 2011).

341 Im and Kim (1999) also reported that the addition of green tea powder to white bread affected

342 the crumb color and caused L* and b* values to decrease.

343 3.2.Baking test

344 3.2.1.Physical characteristics of cakes

14
345 The effect of potato peel powder incorporation into some physical properties of the cake is

346 summarized in Table 3A. Dough length, width and height were affected by the addition of

347 market and Spunta peel powders in wheat flour. Indeed, the length of cakes with 5% and 10%

348 market potato peel substitution was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the control cake

349 without any addition. However, the length of cakes with 2, 5 and 10% Spunta potato peels

350 were similar to the control cake. In addition, the width and the height of cakes with both

351 market and Spunta (2.5 and 10%) were significantly higher than that of the cake without any

352 addition. The weight and the volume of the cake were also affected by the addition of these

353 two potato peels in cake formulation. In fact, the weight of the cake after cooking was

354 increased with the addition of Spunta and market potato peel flours. The highest weight was

355 exhibited with market potato peel flour addition at a level of 5%. Moreover, the volume of

356 cakes increased with addition of market and Spunta flours. In fact, cake volume increased

357 from 339 ±16.95 cm3to 398±4.56cm3 and 375±18.74 cm3 with 5% market and 10% Spunta

358 flours, respectively. Rosell, Santos, and Collar (2009) explained these results due to the high

359 water absorption. An increase in cake volume prepared with spiny and spineless cladode

360 powders at a concentration of 10% as a source of dietary fiber was reported by Ayadi et al.

361 (2009).

362 3.2.2.Texture characterization of cakes

363 Texture analysis is one of the most helpful analytical methods of the product development, as

364 it is suitable to quantify the effects of flour blends and additives on physical properties of

365 crust and crumb of the breads. The texture of food products can be determined by either

366 instrumental analysis or sensory evaluation. The use of instrumental analysis is more

367 convenient than that of sensory evaluation. Analysis is primarily concerned with the

368 evaluation of mechanical characteristics when a material is subjected to a controlled force

15
369 from which a deformation curve of its response is generated (Mnif, Besbes, Ellouze, Ellouze-

370 Chaabouni, & Ghribi , 2012).

371 The texture properties of cakes with 2%, 5% and 10% market and Spunta potato flours are

372 evaluated by the analysis of the following parameters hardness, cohesion, springiness,

373 adhesion, chewiness and breaking strength (Table 3B and supplementary 3). The results

374 obtained show that all texture parameters are significantly improved by the incorporation of

375 potato peel flours. Indeed, the hardness of cakes with 2, 5 and 10 % of Spunta and market

376 potato peels were significantly (p<0.05) decreased compared to the control cake. At 5%

377 substitution of wheat flour by Spunta and market potato peels decreased by 30.24 % and

378 36.12%, respectively compared with control cake.

379 This result is in line with the previous observations of Sabanis and Tzia (2011) and Miñarro,

380 Albanell, Aguilar, Guamis, and Capellas (2012) whose also observed a negative correlation

381 between crumb hardness and volume. Additionally the increase of the two potato peel

382 contents leads to a decrease of the cake springiness, paralleled by a decrease of its

383 adhesiveness and its cohesiveness compared with control cake. The effect was more

384 pronounced with increasing potato peel powder concentrations reaching an optimum

385 improvement at 10% for most responses.

386 Chewiness, which is a parameter positively correlated with how easy food can be broken

387 down in the mouth and calculated from the product of hardness, springiness and cohesiveness

388 (Pongjaruvat, Methacanon, Seetapan, Fuongfuchat, & Gamonpilas, 2014), also followed the

389 same trends as the hardness values. Cakes became less hard as seen in the decreasing breaking

390 strength values especially at 10% levels of potato peel powders. Indeed, the breaking strength

391 of cakes was reduced from 2.11±0.15N for the control cake to 1.41±0.64 N and 1.45±0.06 N,

392 for cake substituted with market and Spunta potato peels, respectively. Sudha, Vetrimani, and

393 Leelavathi (2007 b) reported that the incorporation of rice bran affect the hardness of biscuits,

16
394 indeed biscuits became harder as seen in the increase in breaking strength values from 1.34 to

395 2.11 kg.

396 Thus, the texture properties clearly demonstrated a positive influence of market and Spunta

397 flour addition on the cake.

398 3.2.3.Color values of cake samples

399 The effect of potato peel incorporation on cakes' color is an important factor in determining

400 their acceptability by consumers. As shown in Fig. 2 and supplementary material 4, the color

401 of crumbs ion the control cake and cakes obtained with 2%, 5% and 10% market or Spunta

402 flours was statistically different (P< 0.05).

403 The higher L* values was detected in control cake compared to all samples supplemented

404 with potato flours. As the level of the potato peel powder increased, L*values

405 decreased(106.13 in the control to 72.96 and 61.48 in cakes prepared with Spunta and market

406 flours up to 10% level, respectively). This effect can result from a more pronounced non-

407 enzymatic browning when wheat flour is replaced by fiber with different sugar composition.

408 Consequently, as the Spunta and market peel powder level increased, the b* value decreased

409 while the a* value increased (yellow and red components increased) and the crumb color

410 became darker. The a* values for the crumb of cake were all positive, which means that there

411 was a red hue for crumb (Lazaridou, Duta, Papageorgiou , Belc, &Biliaderis, 2007).

412 The higher redness and yellowness values for treatment products observed in the present

413 study might be contributed by color of potato peel powders. Raymundo, Fradinho, and Nunes

414 (2014) also reported that the biscuits became darker with increasing level of fiber and this

415 effect can result from a more pronounced non-enzymatic browning when wheat flour is

416 replaced by fiber with different sugar compositions.

417 3.2.4.Sensory analysis

418
419 Assessment of cake quality by sensory evaluation is largely based on personal judgment and

420 subjective qualitative evaluation; the results cannot be absolute but reflect the influences of
17
421 consumer preferences. The effects of different types of potato peels on the sensory attributes

422 (appearance, color, odor, taste, tenderness and overall appreciation)of control cake and cake

423 containing potato peel powder are shown in Table 3C. Generally, to be successful it should

424 improve or at least preserve the functional characteristics and sensory feelings of the food in

425 which it will be used. In this case, the flour replacer should maintain the functional

426 characteristics of the product (ie, cake weight, cake volume and symmetry) and preserve the

427 taste, texture, and color of the cake as compared to the traditional formula (control). The

428 results from sensory evaluation indicated that both Spunta and market flours had no

429 significant effects on cake quality. In fact, there is no significant difference in overall

430 acceptability between the control and the cakes with different potato peel concentrations (2, 5

431 and 10 %). Control cake formulation obtained the highest score for all sensory characteristics

432 evaluated. Same results were obtained by (Martínez-Cervera , Salvador, Muguerza , Moulay ,

433 &Fiszman., 2011). This study showed that substituting wheat flour in the cake formulation

434 with Spunta and market powder maintained the functional and sensory characteristics of the

435 product. Similarly, other report shows that reported that up to 10% apple pomace flour could

436 be incorporated in the formulation of cakes (Sudha, Vetrimani, & Leelavathi, 2007 b).

437 3.2.5. Nutritional quality

438 In terms of health benefits, both insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and soluble dietary fiber (SDF)

439 have different physiological effects. IDF is mainly related to intestinal regulation and water

440 absorption, whereas SDF is associated with cholesterol lowering and improved diabetic

441 control (Cummings, Roberfroid, & Anderson, 1997) and with moderate glycaemic responses

442 (Vergara-Valencia, Granados-Perez, Agama-Acevedo, Tovar, Ruales, & Bello-Perez, 2007).

443 The effect of Spunta and market flour addition on protein and dietary fiber content of cakes

444 were compared to the control cake without potato peel and the results are presented in Fig. 2.

445 The results obtained show that the protein, the IDF, and the SDF content of the cakes tested

18
446 increased with increasing of the two potato peel flour concentrations. Protein determination

447 showed that all cakes containing potato peel flowers had a higher level of protein content than

448 the control cake. The highest protein content was found in cakes supplemented with 10% peel

449 flours. Indeed the addition of 10% Spunta and market powders achieves a percentage of

450 protein improvement in prepared cake equal to 17.4 and 17.8%, respectively. A slight

451 decrease of the protein content in biscuits with Psyllium incorporation was observed, resulting

452 from the highest protein level of wheat flour (9%w/w) compared with the Psyllium fiber

453 (1.41%w/w) (Raymundo, Fradinho, & Nunes ., 2014).

454 Moreover, the increase of Spunta and market levels on cake formulation increased the IDF

455 and SDF contents of cakes. In fact, at10 % incorporation level of the potato peel powders, the

456 soluble dietary fiber content increased from 3.3% in control cake to 4.8% and 4.7%, in cakes

457 enriched with Spunta and market potato peel, respectively. Additionally, the insoluble fiber

458 content of the cakes increased significantly from 15.9% (control) to 21.4% for cake

459 containing 10% Spunta flour, and to 22.5% for cake containing 10% market flour. Sudha et

460 al., 2007a reported that the incorporation of 20% barley bran increased the total dietary fiber

461 content from 1.6% to 9.3% and incorporation of oat bran (30%) and wheat bran (20%)

462 showed an increase to 6.3% and 6.9%, respectively.

463 The results proved that potato peels were an excellent source of proteins, and of soluble and

464 insoluble fibers.

465 Conclusions

466 The chemical characterization of potato peel powders showed a high fiber and protein

467 content. The inclusion at different concentrations of potato peel flour from the market (which

468 the potato cultivar was not clearly indicated) or from the variety Spunta in food formulation

469 improved the nutritional, technological and stability of formulated food stuffs. Flours obtained

470 from the two types of peels showed a great technological potential as water binding capacity

19
471 (WBC) and fat absorption capacity (FAC). It was found that the rheological properties of the

472 dough, such as the texture of the resulting cakes were highly dependent on the addition of

473 potato peel flours. Indeed, the P/L ratio (elastic resistance and extensibility balance of flour

474 dough) increased with the increasing level of the two potato flours. Baking test showed that

475 potato peel flour incorporation caused a great change on cake aspect and quality especially for

476 the levels 10%. After potato peel flour addition, the hardness of cakes were significantly

477 (p<0.05) decreased compared to the control cake, the crumb color became darker and a high

478 values of a* (red component) and b* (yellow component) were observed, indicating a

479 significantly brighter and more saturated brown-orange color. The supplemented cakes had

480 high acceptability ratings by the consumer panel. These studies have shown the potential of

481 developing fiber-rich cakes in order to increase the dietary fiber intake.

482 Acknowledgments

483 This research was financially supported by the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education,

484 Scientific Research and Information and Communication Technology. The authors are

485 grateful to Anne-Lise Haenni from the Institute Jacques Monod (France) for reading and

486 improving the English.

487

488

489

490

491

492

493

20
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637
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680 Figure captions

681 Figure 1: Effect of potato peel powders from the market and Spunta variety on the tenacity,
682 elasticity, P/Lratio (Tenacity/ Elasticity) and deformation energy of dough.

683 Figure 2: Effect of potato peel powders additions on the color characteristic (A and B)and the
684 nutritional quality(C, D and E)of cakes prepared with wheat flour fortified with potato peel
685 powder at 2, 5 and 10% levels.

686

687
688
689
690
691
692
693

694

695

696

697

698

25
699

700 Fig. 1

701

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703
704

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707

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711

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713

714

715 Fig. 2

716

717

27
718 Table 1: (A)Physical and chemical characteristics of potato peel powders from the market
719 and Spunta variety, (B)Color characteristic of wheat flour , potato peel powders from the
720 market and potato peel powders from Spunta variety. Different lower case letters indicate
721 significant differences (p<0.05) between the different powders.

722 (A)

Spunta Market
Bulk density measurement (g/ml) 0.96±0.01 0.94±0.01
Water solubility index % 24.88±0.70b 34.78±0.52a
Water holding capacity (g/g) 3.37±0.17b 4.45±0.22a
Fat-binding capacity (g/g) 2.07±0.10 2.08±0.10
PPW powder swelling (cm3/g) 2.58±0.13b 4.68±0.23a
Soluble dietary fiber % 10.14±0.29b 9.21±0.07a
Insoluble dietary fiber % 19.59±0.48 19.23±0.32
Protein % 15.71±0.79 15.21 ± 0.82
Glycoalkaloids (µg/g) 93.3±0.02 85±0.12
723

724 (B)

Spunta Market Wheat Flour

L* 85.51±4.28a 82.32±4.12a 102.12±5.11b

Color a* 4.89±0.24a 4.06±0.20a 0.54±0.03b
b* 21.34±1.07a 19.55±0.98a 12.56±0.63b
725

726

727

728

729

730

731

732

733

734

28
735

736 Table 2: Color characteristic of wheat flour (A) and dough (B) prepared with wheat flour
737 fortified with potato peel powder at 2, 5 and 10% levels and textural properties (cohesion,
738 adhesion, stickiness and hardness) of different type of dough (C).Different lowercase and
739 uppercase letters indicate significant differences (p<0.05) between the different powders.

740 (A)

Control Spunta 2% Spunta 5% Spunta10% Market 2% Market 5% Market 10%

L* 91.26±0.01aA 91.21±0.01B 87.76±0.01C 86.62±0.01D 89.68±0.00b 88.10±0.01c 87.04±0.01d

a* -0.15±0.04aA 0.01±0.01B 0.52±0.02C 0.79±0.00D 0.32±0.03b 0.67±0.04c 1.01±0.03d

b* 10.94±0.01aA 11.06±0.00B 10.98±0.01C 11.37±0.01D 11.15±0.00b 11.24±0.01c 12.24±0.01d

741

742 (B)

Control Spunta 2% Spunta 5% Spunta 10% Market 2% Market 5% Market 10%

L* 78.52±0.02aA 74.94±0.08A 70.20±0.09B 63.55±0.16D 71.13±0.08b 66.06±0.18c 64.35±0.12d

a* 1.12±0.06aA 1.31±0.02A 2.43±0.03B 3.86±0.02D 2.22±0.03b 4.00±0.04c 5.91±0.03d

b* 14.24±0.25aA 13.40±0.05B 13.49±0.04B 13.65±0.05B 13.70±0.05b 12.90±0.11c 15.40±0.08d

743

744 (C)

Cohesiveness Adhesion (N) Stickiness (N) Hardness (N)

(mm)
Control 0.37±0.05 0.14±0.04 0.91±0.21 0.37±0.04
Spunta 2% 0.28±0.03A 0.16±0.001B 1.01±0.65A 0.56±0.06B
Spunta 5% 0.24±0.008A 0.14±0.01A 0.48±0.12A 0.59±0.02B
Spunta 10% 0.26±0.02A 0.20±0.01C 0.93±0.02A 0.74±0.02C
Market 2% 0.72±0.42 0.22±0.09 1.28±0.7 0.32±0.05
Market 5% 0.38±0.09a 0.25±0.07a 1.47±0.69a 0.67±0.03b
Market 10% 0.53±0.06a 0.89±0.02b 1.5±0.05a 1.67±0.16c
745

29
 746 Table 3: Physical characteristics(A), textural properties (hardness, cohesion, springiness,
747 adhesion, chewiness and breaking force) (B)and sensory evaluation (C) of cakes prepared
748 with wheat flour fortified with potato peels powders at 2, 5 and 10% levels.

749 (A)

Width Height Volume

Length (cm) Weight before Weight after
(cm) (cm) cooking (g) cooking (g) (cm3)
Control 12.8±0.64 7.4±0.37 3.4±0.17 165±8.25 144±1.44 339 ±16,95
a b b a b
Spunta 2% 13.0±0.64 8.5±0.43 3.9±0.19 165±8.25 153±0.01 363±18.13a
Spunta 5% 13.5± 0.68a 8.5±0.43b 4.0±0.00b 165±8.25a 152±0.14b 363±18.13a
Spunta 10% 13.3±0.67a 8.5±0.43b 3.7±0.19b 165±8.25a 152±7.60b 375±18.74a
Market 2% 13.3±0.35AB 8.3±0.35B 4.0±0.00B 165±8.25A 152±7.58AB 362±3,33B
Market 5% 14.2±0.99B 8.7±0.14B 4.3±0.07C 165±8.25A 161±8.03B 398±4,56C
Market 10% 14.1±0.07B 8.5±0.00B 4.0±0.00B 165±8.25A 152±7.60AB 374±2,69B
750
751 (B)

Control Spunta 2% Spunta 5% Spunta 10% Market 2% Market 5% Market 10%

Hardness (N) 2.11±0.15aA 1.43±0,09b 1.62±0,09b 1.45±0.06b 1.57±0.11B 1.55±0.03B 1.77±0,13B
Cohesion(mm) 0.47±0.02aA 0,39±0.01b 0.38±0.02b 0.37±0,01b 0.44±0.04AB 0.42±0,00BC 0.38±0,01C
springiness (mm) 7.56±0.29aA 6.84±0.03bc 6.97±0.12b 6.52±0.31c 7.14±0.12AB 6.75±0.11B 6.59±0.46B
Adhesion (N) 0.99±0.11aA 0.57±0.05b 0.61±0.06b 0.53±0.02b 0.69±0.11B 0.65±0.01B 0.68±0,07B
Chewiness(Nmm) 7.49±1,12aA 3.90±0.33b 4.28±0.53b 3.46±0.28b 4.90±0.85B 4.41±0.02B 4.47±0.77B
Breaking force (N) 2.11±0.15aA 1.25±0.34b 1.62±0.09b 1.45±0.06b 1.47±0.24B 1.55±0.03B 1.41±0.64B
752 (C)

Crumb color Odor Taste tenderness Aspect overall acceptability

Control 4.17±0.92 3.24±1.18 3.69±0.90 3.70±1.07 3.79±1.01 3.86±0.92
Spunta 2% 3.31±0.81 3.2±0.94 3.45±0.98 3.10±0.94 3.24±1.02 3.33±0.92
Spunta 5% 2.97±0.91 3.19±0.92 4.10±0.97 3.14±0.91 3.1±0.85 3.16±0.79
Spunta 10% 2.48±0.87 3.21±0.97 2.79±0.80 2.95±0.88 3.03±0.86 3.07±0.88
Market 2% 3,30±0.91 3,20±1.03 3,23±1.07 3,01±1.11 3,27±1.11 3,22±1.03
Market 5% 3,57±0.89 3,33±1.06 3,40±1.03 3,67±0.88 3,53±0.86 3,67±0.96
Market 10% 2,77±0.97 3,30±1.11 3,10±1.15 2,97±1.09 3,10±1.00 3,12±0.89

753

754

755

30
 756 Supplementary material 1: Moisture content of wheat flour fortified with potato peel
757 powder at 2, 5 and 10% levels.

Control Spunta 2% Spunta 5% Spunta 10% Market 2% Market 5% Market 10%

Moisture content (%) 12,38±0.12 12,13±0.10 12±0.10 11,5±0.17 12,24±0.11 12,2±0.11 11,7±0.18

758

759

760

31
 M arket 2% M arket 5% M arket 10 %

C o n tr o l

S p u n ta 2 % S p u n ta 5 % S p u n ta 1 0 %

761
762 Supplementary material 2:Effect of potato peel powders additions on the color
763 characteristic of dough prepared with wheat flour fortified with potato peel powder at 2, 5 and
764 10% levels.

765

766

767

768

769

770

771

772

773

774

775

32
776 Supplementary material 3:TPA: (A) two bite texture profile analysis of control cake.
777 (b)two bite texture profile analysis of cake with 5% spunta flour.

778

779

780

33
781

782 Supplementary material 4:Effect of potato peel powders additions on the crumb color
783 characteristic of cakes prepared with wheat flour fortified with potato peel powder at 2, 5 and
784 10% levels.

785

786

787

34
788

789 • Effect of potato peels powders on the rheological properties of dough and the quality
790 of cakes.
791 • Cakes containing potato peel flowers had a high level of protein and dietary fiber
792 content.
793 • The overall acceptability rate showed that a cake with 5% of potato peel was
794 acceptable.

795

35