Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2006) 30: 669–676
DOI 10.1007/s00170-005-0101-2
ORIGINA L ARTI CLE
P. K. Palani . N. Murugan
Development of mathematical models for prediction of weld bead
geometry in cladding by flux cored arc welding
Received: 7 January 2005 / Accepted: 20 June 2005 / Published online: 7 March 2006
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2006
Abstract The mechanical and corrosion resistant proper-
ties of cladded components depend on the clad bead
geometries, which in turn are controlled by the process
parameters. Therefore it is essential to study the effect of pro-
cess parameters on the bead geometry to enable effective
control of these parameters. The above objective can easily be
achieved by developing equations to predict the weld bead
dimensions in terms of process parameters. Experiments were
conducted to develop models, using a three factor, five level
factorial design for 317L flux cored stainless steel wire with
IS:2062 structural steel as base plate. The models so
developed were checked for their adequacy. Confirmation
experiments were also conducted and the results show that the
models developed can predict the bead geometries and dilu-
tion with reasonable accuracy. It was observed from the
investigation that the interactive effect of the process param-
eters on the bead geometry is significant and cannot be
neglected.
Keywords Cladding . GMAW . Weld bead parameters .
Dilution . Response surface methodology
1 Introduction
Engineering components used in many industrial applica-
tions are subjected to wear and corrosion, which dictates
frequent maintenance and jeopardizes reliability. Affected
industries include aviation, mining, agriculture and power
P. K. Palani (*)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Government College of Technology,
Coimbatore-13, India
e-mail: pkpalaniku@yahoo.com
Tel.: +91-422-245227
N. Murugan
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore-14, India
e-mail: drmurugan@yahoo.com
Tel.: +91-422-2513080
generation. The replacement cost of many of these com-
ponents is extremely high. Consequently extension of
service life can result in significant savings [1]. Also, plates
or tubes of carbon or low alloy steel clad with an alloyed
material are an economical solution to meet the increasing
demand of industrial processes for combining elevated
strength with good corrosion resistance [2]. Weld cladding
has been a popular method for repairing worn out parts or
for achieving a corrosion resistant surface. Cladding is a
process of depositing a relatively thick layer of filler
material on a carbon or low alloy steel base metal [1, 3].
Among fusion welding processes, flux cored arc welding
(FCAW) has been widely used for cladding due to several
advantages. Process parameters for FCAW should be well
established and categorized to enable automation and ro-
botization of arc welding. The selection of welding pro-
cedure must be more specific to ensure that adequate bead
quality is obtained [4]. Further to obtain the desired quality
welds, it is essential to have complete control over the
relevant process parameters to obtain the required bead
geometry shown in Fig. 1 and shape relationships on which
the integrity of a weldment is based [4]. It has also been
reported by some researchers that in FCAW, process qual-
ity can be represented by bead shape [5]. Thus, the weld
bead geometry plays an important role in determining the
mechanical properties of the weld [6]. Therefore, it is very
important to select and control the welding process param-
eters for obtaining optimal weld bead geometry. Numerous
attempts have been made to develop mathematical models
relating process variables and bead geometry for the
selection and control of the process variables. These results
show that the mathematical models derived from experi-
mental results can be used to predict bead geometry
accurately [4, 7].
Also, it has been proved by several researchers that
efficient use of statistical design of experiment techniques
allows development of an empirical methodology to incor-
porate a scientific approach in the welding procedure [7–
10]. Hence, in this investigation, design of experiments
was used to conduct the experiments for exploring the
interdependence of the process parameters.
670
Fig. 1 Weld bead geometry
Penetration (P)
The main objectives of this study are to (1) develop
regression models for the prediction of bead width, depth
of penetration, height of reinforcement and dilution and to
(2) study the effect of process parameters on the bead
geometry using the models so developed.
The study was carried out for 1.2 mm diameter, 317L
stainless steel (AWS: A5-22–95; EN 12073) flux cored
wire with base plate as IS:2062 structural steel plate under
the shield of 95% CO2 and 5% Ar gas mixture. The
chemical compositions of base and filler material are given
in Table 1.
2 Plan of investigation
The research work was planned to be carried out in the
following steps:
1. Identifying the important process control variables and
finding their upper and lower limits
2. Developing the design matrix and conducting the
experiments as per the design matrix
3. Recording the responses viz., penetration (P), bead
width (W), reinforcement (R) and calculating %
dilution (D)
4. Developing mathematical model, determining the co-
efficients of the regression model
5. Checking the adequacy of the model developed
6. Presenting the effects of process parameters in
graphical form and analyzing the results
2.1 Identifying the important process control variables
and finding their upper and lower limits
The independently controllable process parameters were
identified; they are welding current (I), welding speed (S)
Table 1 Chemical composition of materials used
S. No. Materials used Element weight %
C Si Mn
1 317L (flux cored wire) 0.021 0.89 1.38
2 IS:2062 0.180 0.180 0.980
Width (W)
A Reinforcement (R)
B
Area A is added metal
Area B is base metal melted
% Dilution = [B/(A+B)] x 100
and nozzle-to-plate distance (N). Initial trial runs were
carried out with the bead laid on plates by varying one of
the process parameters whilst keeping the rest of them at
constant values, to obtain the working range of the process
parameters. The working range was decided upon by
inspecting the bead for smooth appearance and the absence
of any visible defects. Also it was found that the wire feed
rate is directly proportional to the welding current and the
relation is found to be Wf= −6.92+0.0860*I where I is the
welding current in A; Wf is the wire feed rate in m/min and
hence it was considered as a dependent variable.
The upper limit of a factor was coded as +1.682 and its
lower limit as −1.682, the coded values of the intermediate
levels being calculated from the relationship Xi=1.682*
[2X–(Xmax+Xmin)]/(Xmax–Xmin), where Xi is the required
coded value of a variable X and X is any value of the
variable from Xmin to Xmax; Xmin is the lower level of the
variable; Xmax is the upper level of the variable. The se-
lected values of the process parameters together with their
units and notations are given in Table 2.
2.2 Developing the design matrix and conducting
the experiments as per the design matrix
A three factor, five level central composite experimental
design with six centre points shown in Table 3 was selected
to conduct the experiments.
Structural steel plates of 20 mm thickness were cut into the
required size of 200 mm×150 mm by using an oxyacety-
lene flame cutting machine. The top surfaces of the test
plates to be cladded were cleaned by means of emery paper
and wire brush to remove rust. The experiments were
conducted by laying a single bead on structural steel plates
using 317L stainless steel flux cored wire of 1.2 mm
diameter. Experiments were carried out using the Unimacro
Esseti 501 Welding Machine under the shield of 95% Ar
P S Cr Mo Ni N2 Cu
0.016 0.007 18.46 3.18 13.10 0.057 0.007
0.016 0.016 - - - - -
 671
Table 2 Process variables and their bounds
Process variables Units Notation Factor levels
−1.682 −1 0 1 1.682

Welding current A I 176 190 210 230 244

Welding speed cm/min S 26 29 34 39 42
Nozzle-to-plate distance mm N 15 17 20 23 25

and 5% CO2 gas mixture supplied at the rate of 16 l/min. 2.4 Development of mathematical models
Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) with electrode to
work angle of 90° was maintained throughout the study. The response function representing any of the weld bead
dimensions can be expressed [3, 10–16] as

2.3 Recording of responses Y ¼ f ðI; S; N Þ (1)

Twenty experimental runs were conducted as per the Where

design matrix at random to avoid any systematic error
creeping into the system. The surface plates were cross-
sectioned at their midpoints to obtain test specimens of
25 mm width. These specimens were ground, polished and
etched with 2% nital. Weld bead profiles were traced by
using an optical profile projector and the bead dimensions
viz., width (W), penetration (P) and reinforcement (R) were
measured. With the help of a digital planimeter area of
penetration and bead area were determined to calculate the
percent dilution (D). The observed and calculated values of
the bead parameters and dilution are given in Table 3.
Figures 2 and 3 show the typical weld bead cross sections
and weld bead geometry traces, respectively.
Y is the response e.g. penetration, bead width etc.,
I is welding current, A
S is welding speed, cm/min
N is nozzle-to-plate distance, mm
The second-order polynomial (regression) equation used
to represent the response surface for three factors could be
expressed as given below:
Y ¼ b0 þ b1 I þ b2 S þ b3 N þ b12 IS þ b13 IN
(2)
þ b23 SN þ b11 I 2 þ b22 S 2 þ b33 N 2
Where bo is the free term of the regression equation, the
coefficients b1, b2 and b3 are linear terms, the coefficients

Table 3 Design matrix and Expt. run Process variables Bead geometry and dilution
responses
I (A) S (cm/min) N (mm) P (mm) R (mm) W (mm) %D

1 −1 −1 −1 0.80 4.50 9.43 3.77

2 1 −1 −1 1.10 4.75 13.52 7.11
3 −1 1 −1 0.75 4.00 8.33 7.72
4 1 1 −1 1.00 4.25 12.07 10.00
5 −1 −1 1 0.90 4.65 9.47 9.18
6 1 −1 1 1.10 4.85 12.00 8.08
7 −1 1 1 0.75 4.10 9.35 7.52
8 1 1 1 0.76 4.38 11.80 4.48
9 −1.682 1 0 0.70 4.12 8.69 7.95
10 1.682 1 0 1.00 4.70 13.58 7.39
11 0 −1.682 0 1.10 5.10 12.03 6.92
12 0 1.682 0 0.98 4.25 10.00 5.99
13 0 0 −1.682 0.90 4.50 11.00 5.68
14 0 0 1.682 0.85 4.53 12.00 7.45
15 0 0 0 0.98 4.40 10.63 6.81
16 0 0 0 1.00 4.50 10.00 8.11
17 0 0 0 0.95 4.24 10.15 7.00
18 0 0 0 0.94 4.35 10.26 7.66
19 0 0 0 0.95 4.49 11.00 6.85
20 0 0 0 1.00 4.60 9.41 8.00
672
Fig. 2 Typical weld bead cross
sections for experimental runs 4,
6 and 7

b11, b22 and b33 are the quadratic terms and the coefficients icant coefficients, the final models were constructed by
b12, b13 and b23 are the interaction terms [11–16]. using only these coefficients.

2.5 Estimation of coefficients of the model 3 Development of final model

The values of the coefficients of the above polynomial The final mathematical models with parameters in coded
were calculated with the help of Systat, a statistical form, as determined by the above procedure are presented
software. The estimated coefficients are given in Table 4. below:

P ¼ 0:971 þ 0:093
I  0:062
S  0:016
N

2.6 Checking the adequacy of the model developed
2.6.1 ANOVA
The estimated coefficients obtained above were used to
construct the model for the response parameter. The ad-
equacy of the model so developed was then tested by using
the analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique which is
presented in Table 5. As per this technique it was found that
calculated F ratios were larger than the tabulated values at
95% confidence level; hence the model is considered to be
adequate [17]. One more criterion that is commonly used to
illustrate the adequacy of a fitted regression model is the
coefficient of determination (R2) and adjusted R2. For the
models developed the calculated R2 and adjusted R2 values
are provided in Table 5. These values indicate that the
regression model is quite adequate [17].
2.7 Testing the coefficients for significance
The values of the regression coefficients give an idea as to
what extent the factors affect the responses. Insignificant
coefficients can be eliminated without sacrificing much of
the accuracy to avoid cumbersome mathematical labour. To
achieve this the t-test and F tests are used. The test of
significance was done automatically by the SYSTAT soft-
ware. During backward steps, a variable is removed from
the model and during forward steps, a variable is added
automatically to the model. After determining the signif-
 0:047
I
I þ 0:02
S
S  0:039
N
N
 0:03
I
S  0:042
I
N  0:042
S
N
(3)
R ¼ 4:417 þ 0:143
I  0:253
S
(4)
þ 0:038
N þ 0:067
S
S
W ¼10:531 þ 1:539
I  0:46
S þ 0:069
N
(5)
þ 0:3
N
N  0:357
I
N
D ¼ 7:533 þ 0:039
I þ 0:001
S þ 0:266
N
 0:275
S
S  0:237
N
N  1:22
I
N
 0:375
I
S  1:512
S
N
(6)
3.1 Scatter diagrams
The validity of the regression models developed were
further tested by drawing scatter diagrams. A typical scatter
diagram for the depth of penetration is shown in Fig. 4. The
observed values and predicted values of the responses are

Fig. 3 Typical weld bead ge-

ometry traced for experimental
runs 10 and 15 using profile
projector
 673

Table 4 Estimated regression coefficients of mathematical model 4.1.1 Effects of process variables on depth of
for bead geometry parameters penetration
Coefficient Values of coefficients
P R W D
Figure 5 shows that an increase in current results in
increased penetration; thus current is the first parameter to
b0 0.971 4.417 10.531 7.533 be considered for decreasing this depth. There is a decrease
b1 0.093 0.143 1.539 0.039 in penetration with an increase in welding speed; therefore
b2 −0.062 −0.253 −0.460 0.001 it assists in penetration control. This is due to the fact that,
b3 −0.016 0.038 0.069 0.266 at higher welding speeds, the weld pool becomes smaller
b1b1 −0.047 −0.029 0.205 0.171 providing lesser cushioning effect and causing deeper
b2b2 0.020 0.065 0.161 −0.258 penetration. If the nozzle-to-plate distance (N) is increased,
b3b3 −0.039 0.008 0.333 −0.220 the depth of penetration at first increases a little and then
b1b2 −0.030 0.009 −0.054 −0.375 sharply diminishes.
b1b3 −0.042 −0.024 −0.357 −1.220
b2b3 −0.042 −0.003 0.279 −1.512
4.1.2 Effects of process variables on reinforcement (R)

Figure 6 shows the effects of welding current (I), welding

scattered close to the 45° line, indicating an almost perfect
fit of the developed empirical model [7].
3.2 Confirmation experiments
Experiments were conducted to verify the above developed
regression equations (Eqs. 3, 4, 5, 6). Three weld runs were
made using different values of current, welding speed and
nozzle-to-plate distance other than those used in the design
matrix and the bead parameters were measured using the
same procedure described in Sect. 2. The results obtained
were quite satisfactory and the details are presented in
Table 6.
4 Results and discussions
4.1 Direct effects of welding variables on bead
geometry
Based on the mathematical models developed for predict-
ing the bead geometry and dilution, the effects of welding
process parameters on the bead parameters are presented
graphically in Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8. The effects of various
process variables on the bead geometry are presented under
different headings as follows.
speed (S) and nozzle-to-plate distance (N) on reinforce-
ment (R). It can be observed that an increase in welding
current results in an increase in reinforcement, whereas
with an increase in welding speed, the reinforcement de-
creases, which may be attributed to the fact that the fusion
rate of the wire is kept constant for all the values of welding
speeds. Though the height of reinforcement increases
slightly with increase in nozzle-to-plate distance, the effect
of N on R is not significant.
4.1.3 Effects of process variables on bead width (W)
Figure 7 shows that the current and welding speed have
contrasting influence on width similar to reinforcement. It
can be noted that the bead width increases with an increase
in current. Higher deposition rate with higher fluidity of the
molten wire may be attributed for this increase in bead
width with current. Though the nozzle-to-plate distance
does not have much influence on W, compared to I and S,
width first decreases a little and then increases with the
further increase of N.
4.1.4 Effects of process variables on % dilution (D)
Effects of the welding current, welding speed and nozzle-
to-plate distance are depicted in Fig. 8, which shows that

Table 5 ANOVA for the models developed

Bead geometry Sum of the squares Degrees of freedom Mean square F ratio P R2 (%) Adjusted R2 (%)
Regression Residual Regression Residual Regression Residual

Penetration (P) 0.269 0.014 9 10 0.030 0.0014 20.614 0.000 95 90

Reinforcement (R) 1.238 0.148 4 15 0.309 0.0100 31.371 0.000 89 87
Bead width (W) 37.644 4.699 5 14 7.529 0.3360 22.433 0.000 89 85
% Dilution (D) 34.086 4.496 8 11 4.261 0.4090 10.425 0.000 88 80
Tabulated values of F: F0.05 (9, 10) = 3.02; F0.05 (4, 15) = 3.06; F0.05 (5, 14) = 2.96; F0.05 (8, 11) = 2.95
674
Fig. 4 Scatter diagram for pen-
etration model

the percent dilution increases to a maximum value and
starts decreasing when the values of N and S are increased.
This may be due to the fact that the weight of deposited
metal per unit of length decreases when the welding speed
increases; however, on further increase in the welding
speed, the depth of penetration decreases causing a decline
in the dilution. Though the percentage dilution increases
with an increase in welding current, but effect is not very
significant.
4.2 Interaction effects of process parameters
on bead geometry
4.2.1 Interaction effects of welding current and
welding speed on penetration
becomes larger; penetration increases, but only to a certain
limit. With increasing welding current the weld pool be-
comes larger but at the same time the weld pool cushions
the arc and prevents deeper penetration.
4.2.2 Interaction effects of welding current and
welding speed on bead width
Figure 10 depicts the effect of I and S on W and it is evident
that the bead width decreases with an increase in welding
speed for all levels of welding current.
The regions of various weld bead width for different
combinations of I and S are depicted in Fig. 11 which
shows that, when I and S are increased together, there is an
increase in weld bead width.

From Fig. 9, it is evident that P increases with an increase

in welding current at all levels of welding speed. However, 4.2.3 Interaction effects of welding current and
if the welding speed is increased above 34 cm/min, P welding speed on reinforcement
increases with an increase in welding current, but the value
of P starts decreasing after reaching a higher value with From Fig. 11, it can be observed that the reinforcement
further increase in welding current. This may be due to the increases with an increase in welding current for all levels
fact that, if the welding speed is reduced, the weld pool of welding speed, but it is also evident that the reinforce-
Table 6 Results of confirmation experiments
Expt. No. Parameters Measured values Predicted values using regression model % Error
I (A) S (cm/min) N (mm) P (mm) W (mm) R (mm) D (%) P (mm) W (mm) R (mm) D (%) P W R D

CON1 230 34 23 0.97 12.2 4.5 6.4 0.92 12.08 4.59 6.3 5.4 1 −2 1.6
CON2 200 32 21 0.98 10 4.45 7 0.93 9.9 4.5 6.6 5.3 1 −1.1 6
CON3 220 45 18 0.87 9.9 4.22 8.9 0.83 10.4 4.24 9.36 4.8 −4.8 −0.5 −4.9

Value  Predicted
% Error ¼ Measured Predicted Value
Value
 100
 675

1.15 26
S
N = 20 mm

Penetration (P), mm
1.20

Penetration (P), mm
29
1.05

0.95 N 1.00 34
39
0.85
42
I 0.80
0.75 S, cm/min

0.65 0.60
-2 -1 0 1 2 170 190 210 230 250
Factors at coded values Welding Current (I), Amps
Fig. 5 Direct effects of welding current (I), welding speed (S) and Fig. 9 Interaction effects of welding current (I) and welding speed
nozzle-to-plate distance (N) on penetration (P) (S) on penetration (P)
Reinforcement (R), mm

5 S

4.8

4.6
N
4.4
4.2 I
4
-2 -1 0 1 2
Factors at coded values

Fig. 6 Direct effects of welding current (I), welding speed (S) and Fig. 10 Surface plot for the interaction effects of welding current (I)
nozzle-to-plate distance (N) on reinforcement (R) and welding speed (S) on bead width (W) holding N at 20 mm (level 0)

13.5
I
12.5
Width (W), mm

N
11.5

10.5

9.5 S

8.5

7.5
-2 -1 0 1 2
Factors at coded values
Fig. 11 Surface plot for the interaction effects of welding current (I)
Fig. 7 Direct effects of welding current (I), welding speed (S) and and welding speed (S) on R holding N at 20 mm (level 0)
nozzle-to-plate distance (N) on bead width (W)
12
S=42 cm /m in

7.6 10 N = 20 mm S=39 cm /m in
I
% Dilution (D)

7.4 8 S=34 cm /m in
% Dilution (D)

S
7.2
6
7
S=29 cm /m in
6.8 N 4
6.6 S=26 cm /m in
2
6.4
6.2 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 170 190 210 230 250
Factors at coded values Welding Current (I), Amps
Fig. 8 Direct effects of welding current (I), welding speed (S) and Fig. 12 Interaction effects of welding current (I) and welding speed
nozzle-to-plate distance (N) on % dilution (D) (S) on percent dilution (D)
676
ment decreases with increasing welding speed for all levels
of welding current. Therefore, the current and welding
speed can both be used to change the weight of metal
deposited per unit bead length.
4.2.4 Interaction effects of welding current and
welding speed on percent dilution (D)
Figure 12 shows the interaction effects of welding current
(I) and welding speed (S) on percent dilution (D). From
the figure, it is evident that, if the welding speed is
increased, the value of D increases. But it is interesting to
note that, when the welding current increases, the percent
dilution increases, provided that the welding speed is
above 34 cm/min. However the value of D decreases with
the increase in welding current, when the welding speed is
below 34 cm/min. At 34 cm/min, the effect of welding
current is not significant and the value of D remains
unchanged for all levels of welding current.
5 Conclusions
1. Experiments conducted using DOE concepts were
applied to develop regression models using response
surface methodology to predict the weld bead
geometry for cladding of 317L flux cored wire on
IS:2062 structural steel plates.
2. The values of P, W and R increase with the increase in
welding current, whereas these values decrease with
the increase in welding speed. However, the percent
dilution increases with the increase in welding speed
(S) and nozzle-to-plate distance (N) to a higher value
but starts decreasing on further increasing S and N.
3. It was observed that interaction effects have consider-
able influence over the weld bead geometry and their
effects cannot be neglected.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the All India
Council for Technical Education, New Delhi and University Grant
Commission, New Delhi, India for their financial support for
procuring the equipment and materials. The authors also wish to
thank M/S Böhler Thyssen Welding, Austria, for sponsoring the
317L flux cored wire to carry out this investigation.
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