Cohesion

Coherent texts - contain text-forming devices which enable the writer or speaker to
establish relationships across sentence, which help to tie the sentences in a text
together.
5 different types of cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical
cohesion.

1. Referential cohesion {{cần reference để hiểu}

If a single sentence is taken out of context and presented in isolation, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to be understood {so it needs some source of references}. There are 5
types of referential cohesions

1.1 Anaphoric and cataphoric reference

{reference items can function within a text}

Anaphoric reference : + "she/he, him, his,.." are examples of this type of device
+ Points the reader or listener 'backwards' to a previously
mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.
+ More common
Ex: James is a nice guy, he is a friend of mine.

Cataphoric references : + "she/he, him, his,.." are examples of this type of device
+ Points the reader or listener 'forward' into the text to identify
the elements to which the reference items refer.
Ex: He started confessing “ My name is Connor,...”

1.2 Personal, demonstrative, comparative reference

+ PERSONAL REFERENCE expressed through pronouns and determiners. They

serve to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other point in the
text.
Ex:"Mikhail Gorbachev didn't have to change the world. He could have chosen to
rule much as his predecessors did."
+ DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE expressed through determiners and adverbs,
which represent a single word or phrase, or much longer chunks of text
Ex:"[Recognizing that his country had to change, Gorbachev could have become
a cautious modernizer in ….]. This did not happen."
+ COMPARATIVE REFERENCE expressed through adjectives and adverbs and
serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity.
Ex: A: Would you I like these seats?
B: No. I'd like the other seats.

2 +3. Substitution and ellipsis {cần reference để hiểu}

These two types of cohesion are essentially the same. Ellipsis is described as a form
of substitution in which the original item is replaced by zero, while Substitution does
not. Without original item, both cannot happen or be understood.

2.1 Substitution
{3 types of subsitution - nominal, verbal and clausal}

+ NOMINAL SUBSTITUTION {a noun for a noun}

Ex: There are some new tennis balls in the bag. These ones've lost their bounce.

+ VERBAL SUBSTITUTION {a modal verb/auxilary for a verb}

Ex: A: Annie says you drink too much.
B: So do you!

+ CASUAL SUBSTITUTION {“so/ the same…” for a clause}

Ex: A: Is it going to rain?
B: I think so.

Note: Substitutional items (ones, do, so…) can only come after their references.

2.2 Ellipsis
{y như substitution nhưng là bỏ luôn, ko cần thay thế, để hiểu người đọc bắt buộc
phải biết reference đằng trước}
+ NOMINAL ELLIPSIS {0 for a noun}
Ex: My kids play an awful lot of sport. Both (0) are incredibly energetic.
+ VERBAL ELLIPSIS {0 for a verb}
Ex: A: Have you been working?
B: Yes. I have (0).
+ CLAUSAL ELLIPSIS {0 for a clause}
Ex: A: Why'd you only set three places? Paul's staying for dinner, isn’t he?
B: Is he? He didn tell me (0).
 4. Conjunction { ko cần reference để hiểu}
{người đọc không cần reference đi trước để hiểu, tuy nhiên conjunction vẫn được xếp
là một cohesive device bởi vì nó là dấu hiệu phản ánh mối quan hệ giữa hai câu
hoặc hai utterances, ta sẽ không thể nào hiểu đầy đủ chúng nếu ko có conjunction}
Note: gọi là dấu hiệu vì mối quan hệ giữa 2 câu, người nghe/đọc có thể tự suy diễn
được mà ko cần đến conjunction, conjunction chỉ là để làm rõ lên thôi.
Ex: John came in. (Then) He sat down
{người đọc có thể hiểu được trình tự thời gian hai hành động mà ko cần đến conjunction
“then” }

3.1 Adversity {thông tin sau Giảm nhẹ, làm dịu thông tin trước}
Ex: I afraid I'll be heme late tonight. However, I won’t have to go in until late tomorrow.

3.2 Additive {thông tin sau thêm vào/bổ sung thông tin trước}
Ex: From a marketing viewpoint, the popular tabloid encourages the reader to read the
whole page instead of choosing stories. And isn't that what any publisher wants?

3.3 Temporal {trình tự thời gian thông tin sau và thông tin trước}
Ex: Brick tea is a blend that has been compressed into a cake. It is taken mainly by the
minority groups in China. First, it is ground to a dust. Then it is usually cooked in milk.

3.4 Casual {Nguyên nhân – kết quả}

Ex: Chinese tea is becoming mcreasingly popular in coffee shops. This is because of th
several health-giving properties.

5. Lexical cohesion
{Là khi hai từ trong một câu hoặc một đoạn có liên quan đến nhau, có 2 loại}.
4.1 Reiteration {Sự lặp lại, 2 từ chung nghĩa} : repetition, synonym or
near synonym, super-ordinate, and general word.
+ REPETITION {lặp hoàn toàn}
Ex: What we lack in a newspaper is what we should get. In a word, a ’popular'
newspaper may be the winning ticket.
+ SYNONYM {thay bằng từ đồng nghĩa}
Ex: You could try reversing the car up the slope. The incline isn't all that steep.
+ SUPERORDINATE {thay bằng trường từ của từ thay thế}
Ex: Pneumonia has arrived with the cold and wet conditions. The illness is striking
everyone from infants to the elderly. Note: “illness” bao gồm luôn cả “Pneumonia”, nên
“illness” là trường từ của” Pneumonia”
+ GENERAL WORD {thay bằng từ chung chung}
Ex: A: Did you try the steamed buns? B: Yes. I didn't like the things much.
4.2 Collocation {Sự liên quan, 2 từ liên quan đến nhau}
{Khúc này đại khái nói về những khó khăn gặp phải khi cố gắng xác định tình huống
mà trong đó những từ trong cùng một đoạn văn có thể liên hệ đến nhau, hay thậm
chí là đồng nghĩa nhưng trong đoạn văn khác lại chẳng có liên hệ gì đến nhau}
Ex: The scoundrel punched my neighbor and took all his money.
{Trong câu này, từ “scoundrel”{tên côn đồ} và “neighbor”{hàng xóm} ko liên quan gì
đến nhau}
My neighbor hit me in the face and left. The scoundrel is unnegotiatable.
{Trong câu này, từ “scoundrel”{tên côn đồ} và “neighbor”{hàng xóm} là một người}

 TỔNG TÓM TẮT COHESION

COHESION IN ENGLISH
 References -------------------> (Personal - Demonstrative - Comparative)
 Substitution and Ellipsis------> (Nominal - Verbal - Clausal)
 Conjunction-------------------> (Adversative - Additive - Temporal - Causal)
 Lexical cohesion--------------> (Reiteration - Collocation)