CALCULUS OF ZERO

IN BHASKARA’S FRAMEWORK
THE FOUNDATION OF DIFFERENTIATION AND
INTEGRATION

OKOH UFUOMA
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The following illustrative example given by Bhaskara will be of incalculable guild to the reader.

A certain number is multiplied by 0 and added to half of result. If the sum so ob-
tained is first multiplied by 3 and then divided by 0, the result is 63. Find the original
number.

If the number is x, then we write

( )
1
x·0+ x·0 3
2
= 63
0
which becomes
3
3x · 0 + x · 0
2 = 63
0
which in its turn becomes
6x · 0 + 3x · 0
= 63.
2·0
This is simplified to
9x · 0
= 63
2·0
which, canceling out the two zeros, becomes
9x
= 63
2
which finally gives x = 14. This is the answer Bhaskara would expect.
Let the following illustration suffice. Suppose the variable quantity x is the proposed num-
ber of chairs in each classroom of a certain school. If there are n = 15 classrooms in the school,
then the number of chairs in the entire school will be the variable quantity y = 15x. Since x is
a variable quantity and the number of chairs is discrete we say that x can take only the whole
numbers 0, 1, 2, . . .. Now if x = 0, i.e. if there are no chairs in each classroom, then the number
of chairs in the school will be the multiple of zero y = 15 · 0. Although 15 · 0 is absolute nothing,
we should retain the multiple of zero 15 · 0 because of the future operation of finding n.
Suppose we want to derive the number of classrooms in the school based on the number of
chairs in the school. Now the number of classrooms in the school will be
Number of chairs in the school
n= .
Number of chairs in each classroom
Since there is 0 chair in each classroom and 15 · 0 chair in the whole school, we write
15 · 0
n= = 15.
0
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POWERS OF ZERO AND INFINITY

The product which we get by multiplying a number once, or several times by itself, is called the
power of the number. Thus, the square of 0 arises from the multiplication of 0 by itself, and the
cube of 0 which we obtain by multiplying 0 twice by itself, are powers of 0. We say also in the
former case, that 0 is raised to the second degree, or to the second power; and in the latter, that
0 is raised to the third degree, or to the third power.
We distinguish those powers from one another by the number of times that 0 has been mul-
tiplied by itself. For example, the square of 0 is called the second power of 0, because 0 has been
multiplied by itself; and if 0 has been multiplied twice by itself we call the product the third
power of 0, which therefore means the same as the cube of 0; also if we multiply 0 three times
by itself we obtain a fourth power of 0; and thus it will be easy to understand what is meant by
the fifth, sixth, seventh, etc. power of 0.
The different powers of 0 can be represented by

0, 02 , 03 , 04 , ....

Hence, we see that in this manner we might have written 01 instead of 0 for the first term to
show the order of the sequence more clearly. In the sequence each term is found by multiplying
the preceding term by 0 which increases the exponent by 1. So when any term is given we may
also find the preceding term if we divide by 0 because this diminishes the exponent by 1. This
shows that the term which precedes the first term 0, must necessarily be 0/0, or 1; and if we
proceed according to the exponent, we immediately conclude that the term which precedes
the first must be 00 ; and hence we deduce this remarkable property, that 00 is equal to 1.
We may also continue our sequence of powers of 0 in a retrograde order, and that in two dif-
ferent ways; first, by dividing always by 0; and secondly, by diminishing the exponent by unity;
and it is evident that, whether we follow the one or the other, the terms are still perfectly equal.
This decreasing sequence is represented in both forms in the following, which must be read
backward, or from right to left.
...,0−2 , 0−1 , 00 , 0, 02 , 03 , ...
1 1
..., 2
, , 1, 0, 02 , 03 , ...
0 0
We are now come to the knowledge of infinity, the powers of zero whose exponents are
negative. Thus, from what has been said, it appears that

ORDERS OF ZERO AND INFINITY

OF THE CALCULATION OF ZEROS OF HIGHER ORDERS

When the various integer powers of 0, namely,

0, 02 , 03 , ...

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enter into the same calculation, these various powers are called respectively numerical zeros
of the first, the second, the third orders, etc respectively. In general, we call a zero a numerical
zero of the first order if the ratio with 0 is a finite quantity. We call a numerical zero a zero of
the second order if the ratio with 02 is a finite quantity, and so forth for higher orders. Given
this, if k1 , k2 , k3 , . . . denote finite quantities different from 0, the general forms of zeros of the
first order, the second, the third orders, etc are respectively

k1 · 0, k2 · 02 , k3 · 03 , ...

The generality form of zeros of order n will be

kn · 0n .

Thus, a numerical zero of order n is a zero of the form k · 0n where n is a positive integer and
k is any finite number. The number k is called the finite part of the zero. The expression 0n is
called the unit zero part of the numerical zero. The following zero is of order 5 and has a finite
part of 3: 3 · 05 .
The sum of two zeros of the same order is found by adding their finite parts. If k1 · 0n and
k2 · 0n are two zeros of the same order n, then, using the distributive property

k1 · 0n ± k2 · 0n = (k1 ± k2 ) · 0n .

Consider the following example:

2 · 03 + 3 · 03 .

This expression can be written as

2 · 03 + 3 · 03 = (2 + 3) · 03 = 5 · 03 .

Similarly, we have the subtraction

2 · 03 − 3 · 03 = (2 − 3) · 03 = −03 .

The process of addition or subtraction is performed only with the finite parts as we already
mentioned. The zero part remains unchanged. Recall that 0 is the same as 1 · 0. The finite part
is understood to be 1. Also, −0 is the same as −1 · 0.
Suppose we wish to perform the indicated addition and subtraction

6 · 02 − 4 · 0 + 3 · 0 − 2 · 02 .

We work as follows:

6 · 02 − 4 · 0 + 3 · 0 − 2 · 02 = 6 · 02 − 2 · 02 − 4 · 0 + 3 · 0
= 4 · 02 − 1 · 0
= −0 + 4 · 02

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Because of the commutative and associative properties, we can rearrange the expression and
add zeros of like order.
If the zero k · 0n is multiplied by the finite number c, only the finite part is involved in the
multiplication. Thus, c × k · 0n = (ck) · 0n . For instance, to multiply 2 by the zero 3 · 05 , we only
need to find the product of the finite number 2 and the finite part of 3 · 05 which is 3. So,

2 × 3 · 05 = 6 · 05 .

The multiplication of two numerical zeros is a third zero expressed as the product of their
finite parts times the product of their unit zero parts. To multiply 3·02 by 2·0, we apply the com-
mutative and associative properties of multiplication along with the properties of exponents.
We then write the expression 3 · 02 × 2 · 0 as a product of the finite parts 3 × 2 times the product
of the unit zero parts 02 × 0. That is
( )
3 · 02 × 2 · 0 = (3 × 2) · 02 × 0 = 6 · 03 .

OF THE CALCULATION OF INFINITIES OF HIGHER ORDERS

We now turn to the operations with and on infinity of high order. When the various integer
powers of 1/0, namely,
1 1 1
, , , ...
0 02 03
enter into the same calculation, these various powers are called respectively infinities of the
first, the second, the third orders, etc respectively. In general, we call an infinite quantity the
infinity of the first order if the ratio with 1/0 is a finite quantity. We call an infinite quantity
the infinity of the second order if the ratio with 1/02 is a finite quantity, and so forth for higher
orders. Given this, if k1 , k2 , k3 , . . . denote finite quantities, the general forms of infinities of the
first, the second, the third orders, etc are respectively
k1 k2 k3
, , , ...
0 02 03
The generality form of zeros of order n will be
kn
.
0n
For the quotient form
a
0n
where n > 0 and a is positive or negative finite number, we use the two signs, namely +∞ and
−∞. We find, further, that in transferring the notions greater and less to these symbols, +∞
is greater than any positive finite number, however great, and −∞ is smaller than any negative
finite number, however small. We read these signs, accordingly, plus infinity and minus infinity.
It will also be easy, from the forgoing notation, to discuss the operations on infinities. We
have nothing particular to observe with regard to the addition and subtraction of infinities of

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higher orders; for we only represent those operations by means of the signs + and −, when the
orders are different. For example,
6 19
2
+ 3
0 0
is the sum of the second and third orders of infinities and
6 1
− 4
5·05 0
is what remains when we subtract the fourth order of infinity from the fifth. Neither of these
results can be abridged. But when we have infinities of the same order, it is evidently unneces-
sary to connect them by signs. For instance,
6 1 7
3
+ 3 = 3
0 0 0
and
6 2 4
− 3 =−
5·0 3 0 5 · 03
If the infinity a/0n is multiplied by the finite number c, only the finite part is involved in the
multiplication. Thus, c × a/0n = (ac)/0n . For instance, to multiply 4 by the infinity 3/05 , we only
need to find the product of the finite number 4 and the finite part of 3/05 which is 3. So,
3 12
4× = .
05 05
The multiplication of two infinities is a third infinity expressed as the product of their finite
parts divided by the product of their unit zero parts. To multiply 3/02 by 2/0, we work as follows:

3 2 (3 × 2) 6
× = 2 = 3.
02 0 (0 × 0) 0

Of importance in this work is the division of any power of the unit zero, say 0m by another
power of the unit zero, 0n or the multiplication of the zero 0m by the infinity 1/0n . The rule is
to subtract the exponent n of the zero divisor from the exponent m of the zero dividend:
1 0m
0m × = = 0m−n .
0n 0n
Thus 02 , 03 , 04 , . . ., divided by 02 give the respective results 1, 0, 02 , . . .. The indicated division

8 · 05
02
when simplified gives 8 · 03 . If, however, m = n, we obtain 00 = 1 as follows.
0n
= 0n−n = 00 .
0n
But
0n
= 1.
0n
Hence we have 00 = 1.

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COMPOUND ZEROS
Compound zeros are zeros containing two or more zeros of different orders connected by the
signs plus or minus or both. Thus
0 + 4 · 03 ,
√ 3 · 04
0 + 4 · 03 − ,
5
0
− 4 · 02 + 9 · 03 + · · · ,
4
are all compound zeros.
A compound zero cannot be reduced to simpler form. Thus the compound zero 0 + 4 · 03
can be reduced to no simpler expression; 0 + 4 · 03 ̸= 0. All we know of this expression is that it
stands for absolute nothing.

INFINITE SUMMATIONS OF ZEROS

When a number, say 2, for instance, is said to be multiplied by the unit zero, this only means
that the product 2 · 0 is zero but it must not by any means be thought that it is impossible to
form an idea of zeros. Zeros deserve therefore particular attention since they result from the
multiplication of the unit zero 0 by a finite number. It is also particularly worthy of observation
that if we add the unit zero to itself a finite whole number of times, we shall obtain an integral
zero. For instance, the first few integral zeros are obtained as follows:

0=1·0
0+0=2·0
0+0+0=3·0
0+0+0+0=4·0

and, in general,
0| + 0 + 0 +{z· · · + 0 + 0} = n · 0
n unit zeros

where n is a finite natural number.

If we write the integral zeros in succession as they follow each other, thus,

1 · 0, 2 · 0, 3 · 0, 4 · 0, . . . (0.1)

we may ask whether it is possible to reach the finite natural numbers as we continue the se-
quence as far as we please. I answer, yes; for if we add the unit zero to itself up to the unit
infinity (−1)!, we shall have unity, viz

0 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1.

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There is a demonstration why this so. We begin with the series

|0 + 0 + 0 +{z· · · + 0 + 0} = n · 0
n unit zeros

and set n = (−1)!. We obtain

0| + 0 + 0{z+ 0 + · ·}· = (−1)! · 0 = 1.

(−1)! unit zeros

Thus, we may conclude that as the sequence (0.1) progresses onward, we will surely arrive
at the limit of the sequence, the first finite whole number, the number 1. Therefore, the infinite
sequence (0.1) may be extended to include unity as its last term 1 :

1 · 0, 2 · 0, 3 · 0, 4 · 0, . . . , 1. (0.2)

We have said that

0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1.

Here is where the great error has been committed on this subject. It is widely believed that the
sum of any infinite number of zeros is always zero, a view contrary to the result 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 +
· · · = 1. It is said, based on our intuitions, that

0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 0.

It may be as well to comment here that what our intuitions tell us are not necessarily evidence
of mathematical results. It must not be assumed that infinite number of zeros cannot effec-
tively sum up to something.
An infinite summation of zeros may be equal to a zero if the zeros refer to are not all the
unit zeros or if the series is 0 − 0 + 0 − 0 + · · · which has the sum 0/2 derived from setting
x = 0 in the series expansion x − x2 + x3 − · · · = x
1+x
. We cannot in this work fully dwell on
this contrariness for we have only stated it for the reader to set his mind on it. Although we
have many criticisms of this tremendous result 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1, we cannot state all here,
for our work does not admit of such a labour. It would, therefore, seem proper to examine few
conditions for which the sum of infinite number of zeros is zero.
We begin with the series expansion
y
y − xy + x2 y − x3 y + · · · − xn y + · · · = (0.3)
x+1
which, on setting x = −1, becomes the following infinite series with the equal terms y:
y
y + y + y + y + ··· + y + ··· = . (0.4)
0
1
The sequence of numbers 1 · 0, 2 · 0, 3 · 0, 4 · 0, . . . , 1 may be used to represent the set of points in the
continuum line of unit length since the difference between any two consecutive numbers in the sequence is the
unit zero which implies 0(= 1/(−1)!) gap between consecutive points on the line, e.g. 2·0−1·0 = 0, 3·0−2·0 = 0,
and so on.

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Letting y = 0, 02 , 03 , · · · 0n furnishes the following splendid results:
0
0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ··· + 0 + ··· = = 1
0
02
02 + 02 + 02 + 02 + · · · + 02 + · · · = =0
0
03
03 + 03 + 03 + 03 + · · · + 03 + · · · = = 02
0
4
0
04 + 04 + 04 + 04 + · · · + 04 + · · · = = 03
0

and, in general,
0n
0n + 0n + 0n + 0n + · · · + 0n + · · · = = 0n−1
0
where n > 1. We may now deduce from these results that

0 + 0 2 + 03 + 04 + · · · + 0n + · · ·

is naught since the degree of nothingness of the infinite series

02 + 02 + 02 + 02 + · · · + 02 + · · ·

is less than that of the infinite series

02 + 03 + 04 + · · · + 0n + · · ·

and
02 + 02 + 02 + 02 + · · · + 02 + · · · = 0.
Let us say, therefore, that x = −0 and y = 0. It will be emphatically confirmed, on substituting
these zeros in (0.3), that
0
0 + 0 2 + 0 3 + 04 + · · · + 0n + · · · = .
−0 + 1
Thus the series 0 + 02 + 03 + 04 + · · · equals nothing.
The question now is, What is the nature of the sum of

k · 0 + k · 02 + k · 03 + k · 04 + · · ·

where k is a finite value? Since the above series is expressible as the product of the finite k and
the series 0 + 02 + 03 + 04 + · · · which we found to be naught, the sum of

k · 0 + k · 02 + k · 03 + k · 04 + · · ·

is also naught no matter how large the value of the finite number k.
It follows also from this analysis that the sum of

k1 · 0 + k2 · 02 + k3 · 03 + k4 · 04 + · · ·

is naught provided k1 , k2 , k3 , . . . are all finite numbers.

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SOME APPLICATIONS OF ZERO
ARITHMETIC

We had in in the preceding chapters given the beautiful arithmetic of 0, but then we had not provided
any application of it, and hence, there was more room to doubt its power. Here we shall furnish appli-
cations of this arithmetic that may be assured of what has been instructed of.

SERIES EXPANSION OF ln(1 + X)

We start with the expansion
α(α − 1) 2 α(α − 1)(α − 2) 3
(1 + x)α = 1 + αx + x + x + ··· .
2! 3!
Letting α = 0 gives
0(0 − 1) 2 0(0 − 1)(0 − 2) 3
(1 + x)0 = 1 + 0x + x + x + ··· (0.5)
2! 3!
which actually becomes
(1 + x)0 = 1

since the rest terms are all absolute nothing. But because further operations impend, we must
strictly uphold (0.5) and use it in these operations.
Consider the series expansion
y 2 ln2 a
ay = 1 + y ln a + + ··· .
2!
Setting a = 1 + x gives
y 2 ln2 (1 + x)
(1 + x)y = 1 + y ln(1 + x) + + ···
2!
and letting y = 0 gives
02 ln2 (1 + x)
(1 + x)0 = 1 + 0 ln(1 + x) + + ··· . (0.6)
2!
Equating (0.5) and (0.6) furnishes
0(0 − 1) 2 0(0 − 1)(0 − 2) 3 02 ln2 (1 + x)
1 + 0x + x + x + · · · = 1 + 0 ln(1 + x) + + ···
2! 3! 2!
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which becomes

0(0 − 1) 2 0(0 − 1)(0 − 2) 3 02 ln2 (1 + x)

0x + x + x + · · · = 1 − 1 + 0 ln(1 + x) + + ··· .
2! 3! 2!
The expression 1 − 1 is not worthy of a notational symbol as it is the elimination of 1. Thus we
write

0(0 − 1) 2 0(0 − 1)(0 − 2) 3 02 ln2 (1 + x)

0x + x + x + · · · = 0 ln(1 + x) + + ··· .
2! 3! 2!
Let us now divide both sides of the above equations by 0. Accomplishing this, we have

(0 − 1) 2 (0 − 1)(0 − 2) 3 0 ln2 (1 + x)
x+ x + x + · · · = ln(1 + x) + + ··· .
2! 3! 2!
Since this is the terminus of our calculation, we make 0 display its unique feature of being void.
Hence, the equation above becomes

(−1) 2 (−1)(−2) 3
x+ x + x + · · · = ln(1 + x)
2! 3!
which, being simplified and rearranged, becomes
1 1
ln(1 + x) = x − x2 + x3 − · · · .
2 3

SERIES EXPANSION OF (1 + Z)−1

A well known identity in combinatorics is as follows:
∑
∞
(1 + z)n = n Ck z
k

k=0

where n Ck is a combination function. If we substitute −1 for n and evaluate, we get the follow-
ing workings:
∑
∞
−1 k
(1 + z) = −1 Ck z
k=0

=−1 C0 z 0 +−1 C1 z 1 +−1 C2 z 2 +−1 C3 z 3 + . . .

(−1)! 0 (−1)! 1 (−1)! 2 (−1)! 3
= z + z + z + z + ...
0!(−1)! 1!(−2)! 2!(−3)! 3!(−4)!
1 1/0 1/0 1/0
= z0 + z1 + ( ) z2 + ( ) z3 + . . .
0! 1!(−(1/0)) 1 −1
2! (1/0) 3! (1/0)
2! 3!
1 0 0 0
= z0 + z1 + ( ) z2 + ( ) z3 + . . .
0! 1!(−0) 1 −1
2! ·0 3! ·0
2! 3!
= z0 − z1 + z2 − z3 + . . .

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( )
ON THE FORM B − A /0 0 0

We begin with the identity

(x ln a)2
x
a = 1 + x ln a + + ···
2!
Therefore the difference bx − ax is expressed as the following:
( 2 ) 2
ln b − ln 2
a x
bx − ax = 1 − 1 + (ln b − ln a) x + + ···
2!
which, taking 1 − 1 as empty space arising from the elimination of 1, becomes
( 2 )
ln b − ln2 a x2
b − a = (ln b − ln a) x +
x x
+ ··· .
2!
Letting x = 0 gives
( )
ln2 b − ln2 a 02
b − a = (ln b − ln a) 0 +
0 0
+ ···
2!
which becomes ( ) 2
ln 2
b − ln 2
a 0
b0 − a0 = (ln b − ln a) 0 + + ··· .
2!
Dividing both sides by 0 furnishes
( 2 )
b 0 − a0 ln b − ln2 a 0
= (ln b − ln a) + + ···
0 2!
which becomes the final result
b 0 − a0
= ln b − ln a (0.7)
0
since ( )
ln2 b − ln2 a 0
+ ···
2!
is equal to naught.

SERIES EXPANSION OF ln(1 + Y /X)

We now consider the series expansion of ln(1 + y/x). We start with the binomial theorem
n! n!
(x + y)n = xn + xn−1 y + xn−2 y 2
1!(n − 1)! 2!(n − 2)!
n!
+ xn−3 y 3 + . . .
3!(n − 3)!
which can be rewritten as
n! n!
(x + y)n − xn = xn−1 y + xn−2 y 2
1!(n − 1)! 2!(n − 2)!
n!
+ xn−3 y 3 + . . .
3!(n − 3)!

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Letting n = 0 gives
0! 0!
(x + y)0 − x0 = x0−1 y + x0−2 y 2
1!(0 − 1)! 2!(0 − 2)!
0!
+ x0−3 y 3 + . . .
3!(0 − 3)!
which becomes
1 1 1
(x + y)0 − x0 = x−1 y + x−2 y 2 + x−3 y 3 + . . . .
1!(−1)! 2!(−2)! 3!(−3)!
It was demonstrated that
1
(−1)! =
0
1 1
(−2)! = − ·
1! 0
1 1
(−3)! = ·
2! 0
1 1
(−4)! = − ·
3! 0
1 1
(−5)! = ·
4! 0
and so on. Applying these we get
0 −1 −1! · 0 −2 2 2! · 0 −3 3
(x + y)0 − x0 = x y+ x y + x y + ...
1! 2! 3!
which becomes
0 0 0
(x + y)0 − x0 = x−1 y − x−2 y 2 + x−3 y 3 − . . .
1 2 3
which in turn, dividing by 0, becomes
(x + y)0 − x0 y 1 ( y )2 1 ( y )3
= − + − ....
0 x 2 x 3 x
Thus, applying (0.7), we obtain
y 1 ( y )2 1 ( y )3
ln(x + y) − ln x = − + − ...
x 2 x 3 x
which becomes ( )
x+y y 1 ( y )2 1 ( y )3
ln = − + − ...
x x 2 x 3 x
which finally becomes
( y ) y 1 ( y )2 1 ( y )3
ln 1 + = − + − ....
x x 2 x 3 x

SUM OF ALTERNATING HARMONIC SERIES

In one of his works, Euler showed that
2n+1 − 1
1n − 2n + 3n − 4n + · · · = (−1)s Bn+1
n+1
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where s = [(n+1)/2] is the integer part of (n+1)/2 and Bn is the nth Bernoulli number. Setting
n = −1 gives

2−1+1 − 1
1−1 − 2−1 + 3−1 − 4−1 + · · · = (−1)[(−1+1)/2] B−1+1
−1 + 1

which simplifies to
[(0)/2] 2 − 1
0 0
1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = (−1) B0 .
1 2 3 4 0
With the understanding that B0 = 1 and considering that

20 − 10
= ln 2 − ln 1 = ln 2,
0

we get
1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = ln 2.
1 2 3 4

INTEGRATION OF X −1
The ordinary “rule” for the integration of xn is known to be
∫ b [ ]b
n xn+1
x dx = .
a n+1 a

One instance stands out and sometimes gives trouble though being wrongly regarded as an ex-
ceptional case - a sort of black sheep - of the xn family. This instance is x−1 which on application
of the ordinary “rule” for the integration of xn gives
∫ b [ ]b
−1 x0
x dx =
a 0 a

To resolve this difficulty, we work as follows. We evaluate the right-hand expression of the
above identity and get
∫ b
b 0 − a0
x−1 dx =
a 0
which, considering (0.7), becomes
∫ b
x−1 dx = ln b − ln a = [ln x]ba .
a

EULER’S CONSTANT
In this section we use the way of zero and infinity to derive the famous identity

γ = HΩ − ln Ω

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where Ω is the infinite integer for which HΩ = 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + · · · + 1/Ω is the harmonic series
and γ = 0.57721 . . . is the Euler’s constant. We start with the sums of powers formula
∑
n
(B + n + 1)m+1 − B m+1
km =
k=1
m+1

where B m equals the mth Bernoulli number Bm . If we set m = −1, we get

∑
n
(B + n + 1)−1+1 − B −1+1
k −1 =
k=1
−1 + 1

which becomes
∑
n
(B + n + 1)0 − B 0
k −1 = .
k=1
0
If we consider (0.7), the above result becomes
∑
n ( ) ( )
1 B+n+1 n+1
= ln (B + n + 1) − ln B = ln = ln 1 + .
k=1
k B B

∑n 1
This, setting k=1 = Hn where Hn is the nth harmonic number, becomes
k
( ) ( )
B+n+1 n+1
Hn = ln = ln 1 + . (0.8)
B B

The question now is, What is B? To answer this question we need to express B in terms of n
and set n = 1, 2, 3, . . . to see what would happen to B. Now B expressed as the subject is
n+1
B=
−1
eHn
where e is Euler’s number. Computing B for the first few values of n, we observe that B varies
with n. We conclude that B is a variable depending on n. Let now B be rewritten as the function
B(n). The above equation becomes
n+1
B(n) = .
−1
eHn
It remains to compute the functional value of B(n) when Hn becomes the harmonic series HΩ =
1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + · · · + 1/Ω. To perform this we construct a table of values of B(n) as n becomes
larger and larger. From this table, we see that as n becomes larger and larger, B(n) becomes
closer and closer to 0.561459 . . . = e−γ where e = 2.71828 . . . . Let Ω be the value of n for which
HΩ is the harmonic series. It follows that

B(Ω) = 0.561459 . . . = e−γ .

We see immediately that, setting n = Ω in (0.8), the harmonic number becomes

( )
Ω+1
HΩ = ln 1 + −γ
e

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n Hn B(n)
10 2.92896 . . . 0.62117 . . .
100 5.18737 . . . 0.56742 . . .
1000 7.48547 . . . 0.56205 . . .
10000 9.78760 . . . 0.56151 . . .
100000 12.0901 . . . 0.56146 . . .
1000000 14.3927 . . . 0.56146 . . .
.. .. ..
. . .

TABLE 1: VALUES OF B(N )

which becomes
HΩ = ln (1 + (Ω + 1)eγ ) .

Since Ω is an infinite quantity, it is immutable in the presence of finite addends or minuends.

Thus the above equation becomes
HΩ = ln (Ωeγ )

which becomes the required identity

γ = HΩ − ln Ω.

GENERALIZING A FAMILY OF FIGURATE NUMBERS

A family of figurate numbers defined as
( )
n+r−1
Pr (n) =
r

is well worthy of our attention. One enchanting feature of these figurate numbers is that if the
nth term of a sequence of any given r- figurate numbers be added to the (n + 1)th term of the
sequence of the preceding r- figurate numbers, the sum will be equal to the (n + 1)th term of
the sequence of the given r- figurate numbers. As an instance, let us take two sequences of the
triangular numbers and the tetrahedral numbers:

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ...

1, 4, 10, 20, 35, ....

Here, if we add to any term in the upper sequence that term in the lower which stands one place
to the left, the sum is the next term in the lower sequence. Starting with 6 sequences of 1’s, all

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of the sequences of figurate numbers may be deduced in succession by the aid of this principle:

r=0 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
r=1 : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r=2 : 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36
r = 3 : 1 4 10 20 35 56 84 120
r = 4 : 1 5 15 35 70 126 210 330
r = 5 : 1 6 21 56 126 252 462 792.

By the just principle laid down by Bhaskara that a·0/0 = a we shall generalize these figurate
numbers. Let us now consider the cases where r is a negative integer. We begin by setting
r = −m, that is ( )
n−m−1
P−m (n) =
−m
which becomes ( )
n−m−1
P−m (n) = .
−m
This binomial coefficient is expressible as
(n − m − 1)!
P−m (n) =
(−m)!(n − 1)!
(n − m − 1)!
=( )
1 1
· · (n − 1)!
(−1)m−1 (m − 1)! 0
(−1)m−1 (m − 1)!(n − m − 1)! · 0
= .
(n − 1)!
Letting m = 1, we get
(−1)1−1 (1 − 1)!(n − 1 − 1)! · 0
P−1 (n) =
(n − 1)!
which becomes
0!(n − 2)! · 0
P−1 (n) =
(n − 1)!
0
= .
n−1
Setting n = 1, 2, 3, . . . gives
0 0
= =1
P−1 (1) =
1−1 0
0 0
P−1 (2) = =
2−1 1
0 0
P−1 (3) = =
3−1 2
0 0
P−1 (4) = =
4−1 3
0 0
P−1 (5) = =
5−1 4
and so on. The case where m = 1 consists of only one finite figurate number, namely, 1. The
rest numbers are all absolute nothing.

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Letting m = 2, we get

(−1)2−1 (2 − 1)!(n − 2 − 1)! · 0

P−2 (n) =
(n − 1)!

which becomes
−1!(n − 3)! · 0
P−2 (n) =
(n − 1)!
−0
= .
(n − 1)(n − 2)
Setting n = 1, 2, 3, . . . gives
−0 −0
P−2 (1) = = =1
(1 − 1)(1 − 2) (0)(−1)
−0 −0
P−2 (2) = = = −1
(2 − 1)(2 − 2) (1)(0)
−0 −0 −0
P−2 (3) = = =
(3 − 1)(3 − 2) (2)(1) 2
−0 −0 −0
P−2 (4) = = =
(4 − 1)(4 − 2) (3)(2) 6
−0 −0 −0
P−2 (5) = = =
(5 − 1)(5 − 2) (4)(3) 12

and so on. For the case where m = 2 there exists only two finite figurate numbers, namely, 1
and −1. The other numbers are all absolute nothing.
Letting m = 3, we get

(−1)3−1 (3 − 1)!(n − 3 − 1)! · 0

P−3 (n) =
(n − 1)!

which becomes
2!(n − 4)! · 0
P−3 (n) =
(n − 1)!
2·0
= .
(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)
Setting n = 1, 2, 3, . . . gives
2·0 2·0
P−3 (1) = = =1
(1 − 1)(1 − 2)(1 − 3) (0)(−1)(−2)
2·0 2·0
P−3 (2) = = = −2
(2 − 1)(2 − 2)(2 − 3) (1)(0)(−1)
2·0 2·0
P−3 (3) = = =1
(3 − 1)(3 − 2)(3 − 3) (2)(1)(0)
2·0 2·0 0
P−3 (4) = = =
(4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3) (3)(2)(1) 3
2·0 2·0 0
P−3 (5) = = =
(5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3) (4)(3)(2) 12

and so on. The case where m = 3 comprises three finite figurate numbers which are 1, −2 and
1. The others are all naught.

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The reader can apply the same approach for cases where m = 4, 5, 6, . . .. If he gather to-
gether all the finite figurate numbers for all the cases, he will discover that they form signed
Pascal Triangle numbers. We thus generalize the figurate numbers by combining the old and
new sequences of figurate numbers. The table below shows these sequences.

r = −6 : 1 −5 10 −10 5 −1
r = −5 : 1 −4 6 −4 1
r = −4 : 1 −3 3 −1
r = −3 : 1 −2 1
r = −2 : 1 −1
r = −1 : 1
r=0 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
r=1 : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r=2 : 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36
r=3 : 1 4 10 20 35 56 84 120
r=4 : 1 5 15 35 70 126 210 330
r=5 : 1 6 21 56 126 252 462 792.

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FOUNDATION OF DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS

We are well aware that what we are about to discuss in this chapter is in open opposition to much of
the understanding that is current both in literature and papers in Europe and America. It will help us
if we bear in mind that differentials of the calculus are zeros. Those who think they are not zeros are
themselves wrong. However skilfully they present their arguments, the evidence that the differentials
are actually zeros is irrefutably supported throughout this chapter.

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FOUNDATIONS

Suppose that the fixed point P lies on the graph of y = y(x) (see the figure below). If we let
(c, y(c)) denote the coordinates of P and (x, y(x)) denote the coordinates of a variable point Q,
then the secant line joining P and Q has slope

∆y y(x) − y(c)
y ′ (x) = = .
∆x x−c

If the point Q is made to coincide perfectly with the point P , the secant line becomes the point P
and the variable x becomes equal to the constant c. Hence the gradient of the curve y = y(x)
at the point P where x = c is

y(c) − y(c)
y ′ (c) =
c−c

which becomes

y(c) − y(c)
y ′ (c) = .
0
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y − axis
y = y(x)

Q
y(x)

P
y(c)

c x x − axis

There is another expression for the gradient of the curve y = y(x) at the point P that is
sometimes easier to use. Let h = x − c. Then x = c + h, so the secant line joining P and Q has
slope
y(c + h) − y(c)
y ′ (c + h) = .
c+h−c
which becomes
y(c + h) − y(c)
y ′ (c + h) = .
h
When P = Q i.e when x = c, h = 0 and the expression for the gradient of the curve y = y(x) at
the point P is
y(c + 0) − y(c)
y ′ (c + 0) = .
0
which becomes
y(c + 0) − y(c)
y ′ (c) = .
0
*The First Approach This make use of formula

y(c) − y(c)
y ′ (c) = .
0
for finding the derivative of y = y(x) with respect to x.
Differentiation of xn

Let us apply the above relation to find the gradient of the curve

y = xn

at the point where x = c. One interesting fact should be mentioned for we shall make use of it
here. The evaluation of
x n − cn

setting x = c is
cn − cn = ncn−1 · 0.

There is a beautiful demonstration as to why this is true, for if we begin with the familiar identity
( )
xn − cn = xn−1 + xn−2 c + · · · + xcn−2 + cn−1 (x − c)

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and set x = c, we will obtain
( )
cn − cn = cn−1 + cn−2 c + · · · + ccn−2 + cn−1 (c − c) .

This equation simplifies to

( )
cn − cn = cn−1 + cn−1 + · · · + cn−1 + cn−1 · 0

which in turn becomes

cn − cn = ncn−1 · 0.

Although ncn−1 · 0 is absolute nothing, we must retain it in this form as product of zero since
further arithmetic operation of division by zero impends. Thus the gradient of the curve y = xn
at the point where x = c is
y(c) − y(c)
y ′ (c) =
0
which becomes
′ c n − cn
y (c) =
0
which becomes
ncn−1 · 0
y ′ (c) = .
0
The two zeros cancel out each other, and the final stage is

y ′ (c) = ncn−1 .

Differentiation of sin x and cos xx

We now consider the trigonometric curves y = sin x and y = cos x. We start with the Taylor
series expansion for sin x, namely
x3 x5
sin x = x − + − ··· .
3! 5!
It follows then that
( ) ( )
x3 x5 c3 c5
sin x − sin c = x− + − ··· − c − + − ···
3! 5! 3! 5!
which becomes
x 3 − c3 x 5 − c5
sin x − sin c = x − c − + − ··· .
3! 5!
Letting x = c gives
c 3 − c3 c 5 − c5
sin c − sin c = c − c − + − ···
3! 5!
which, observing that cn − cn = ncn−1 · 0, becomes
3c2 · 0 5c4 · 0
sin c − sin c = 0 − + − ···
3! 5!
which simplifies to ( )
c2 c4
sin c − sin c = 0 1 − + − · · · .
2! 4!

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With the understanding that
c2 c4
1− + − ···
2! 4!
is the Taylor series expansion of cos c, we finally arrive at

sin c − sin c = 0 · cos c.

The product 0 · cos c is naught but we must retain this product in the next operation which is
the division by zero. Thus the gradient of the curve y = sin x at x = c is

y(c) − y(c)
y ′ (c) =
0
which becomes
sin c − sin c
y ′ (c) =
0
which becomes
0 · cos c
y ′ (c) = .
0
This becomes the final result
y ′ (c) = cos c.

MISSING PAGES
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Bibliography

[1] Bhaskaracarya’s Lılavatı with Colebrooke’s translation and notes by H.C.Banerji, Second Edition,The Book
Company, Calcutta, 1927; Rep. Asian Educational Series, New Delhi, 1993.

[2] Bhaskaracarya’s Lılavatı: Ed. with Bhaskara’s Vasana and Buddhivilasanı of Ganesa Daivajnaby V.G.Apte, 2
Vols., Pune, 1937.

[3] Bhaskaracarya’s Lılavatı, A Treatise of Mathematics of Vedic Tradition, Tr. by K.S.Patwardhan, S.M.Naimpally
and S.L.Singh, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2001.

[4] Brahmagupta, Brahmasputa Siddhanta , Ed. Acharyavara Ram Swarup Sharma, Indian Insitite of Astronomical
and Sanskrit Research, 1966.

[5] Bhaskaracarya’s Lılavatı with Colebrooke’s translation and notes by H.C.Banerji, Second Edition,The Book
Company, Calcutta, 1927; Rep. Asian Educational Series, New Delhi, 1993.

[6] Bhaskaracarya’s Lılavatı: Ed. with Bhaskara’s Vasana and Buddhivilasanı of Ganesa Daivajnaby V.G.Apte, 2
Vols., Pune, 1937.

[7] Bhaskaracarya’s Lılavatı, A Treatise of Mathematics of Vedic Tradition, Tr. by K.S.Patwardhan, S.M.Naimpally
and S.L.Singh, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2001.

[8] Brahmagupta, Brahmasputa Siddhanta , Ed. Acharyavara Ram Swarup Sharma, Indian Insitite of Astronomical
and Sanskrit Research, 1966.

[9] F. Cajori, A History of Mathematics, The Macmillan Company, New York, 2nd Edition, 1919.

[10] L. Euler, Element of Algebra, Translated from the French; with the Notes of M. Bernoulli, and the Additions
of M. De Grange, 3rd Edition, Rev. John Hewlett, B.D.F.A.S., London, 1822.

[11] Newman., Claire M. The Importance of Definitions in Mathematics:Zero, Arithmetic Teacher, 1967, 14, pp.
379-382

[12] U. Okoh, Euler’s Constant: A Proof of its Irrationality and Trancedence by Means of Minus One Factorial,
IAENG Transactions on Engineering Sciences (2015), World Scientific Publishing.

[13] U. Okoh, Euler’s Constant: New Insights by Means of Mimus One Factorial, (Periodical style), Proc. WCE
2014.

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