DESIGN AND

PLANNING
MANUAL
For
Cost-Effective Welding
 International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-605-4

American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126

© 1999 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

NOTE: Although care was taken in choosing and presenting the data in this guide, AWS cannot guarantee that it is error
free. Further, this guide is not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of the topic and therefore may not include all avail-
able information, including with respect to safety and health issues. By publishing this guide, AWS does not insure any-
one using the information it contains against any liability or injury to property or persons arising from that use.

Photocopy Rights

Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or the internal, personal, or
educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the American Welding Society (AWS) provided that the
appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 978-750-8400;
online: http://www.copyright.com

ii
 Contents
Section Page No.

1 Primary Concepts of Weldability..................................................................................................................1

2 Accepting Metal Fabrication Projects ..........................................................................................................5

3 Production Welding Cost Analysis................................................................................................................9

4 Modular Construction..................................................................................................................................17

5 Welding Process Selection............................................................................................................................23

6 Primary Concepts of Welding Design.........................................................................................................33

7 Fatigue Considerations.................................................................................................................................45

8 Welding Safety Considerations ...................................................................................................................51

9 Weld Joint Design Considerations ..............................................................................................................57

10 Weld Distortion and Control .......................................................................................................................63

11 Checklist for Sound Welding Decisions ......................................................................................................71

12 Defects and Discontinuities of Welding ......................................................................................................75

13 Nondestructive Examination .......................................................................................................................93

14 Information for the Welder........................................................................................................................103

15 Fitting Aids..................................................................................................................................................109

16 Welding Metallurgy: Practical Aspects ....................................................................................................119

17 Arc Stud Welding........................................................................................................................................129

18 Thermal Spray Fundamentals...................................................................................................................133

iii
 SECTION 1
Primary Concepts
of Weldability

Contents
Weldability ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Personnel Concerns about Fabrication Projects............................................................................................................. 2

Fundamentals of Welding Decisions ................................................................................................................................ 3

Coordination of Expertise................................................................................................................................................. 4

Education............................................................................................................................................................................ 4

The Welder, Technician, and Production Supervisor ..................................................................................................... 4

The 100% Quality Weld and Weld-Associated Failures ................................................................................................ 4

Weldability Can Be Determined by the Manufacturer .................................................................................................. 4

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ..................................................................................................................... 4

1
SECTION 1—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY
Section 1—Primary Concepts of Weldability
Weldability
Welding is used to make large and sometimes com-
plex structures from smaller and simpler metal compo-
nents. In general, a weld is a localized coalescence of
metal that is used to join or repair metal components.
Filler metal may or may not be added to the weld. The
capacity and ability to join these metal components with
available resources help define the term weldability.
The definition of weldability is: “The capacity of a
metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions im-
posed into a suitably designed structure, which will per-
form the intended service.”
When the definition of weldability is reduced to
its lowest common denominator, this definition is “it.”
To ensure weldability, interaction of countless groups
and individuals with specific needs may be involved. For a
project to reach a successful conclusion, these needs must
be identified, clarified, and, when in conflict, resolved.
All metals may be considered weldable by the very
fact that they exist as metals. Depending on whether you
are the customer, the welder, the inspector, or the fabrica-
tor your definition of weldability may be different. Gen-
erally, it is the suitability for service, cost, and weldment
aesthetics that determines weldability. With a fundamen-
tal understanding of welding and a knowledge of the re-
sources available, “lack of weldability” causing inservice
failures, production failures, cost overruns, and schedule
delays may be avoided.
In common usage the term “weldability” is somewhat
ambiguous and about as varied as the people who use it.
The “degree” of weldability can be defined in terms of:
weld costs; the capacity of the fabrication to perform its
intended service; the ability of the weldment to meet fab-
rication acceptance standards; or the difficulty of joining
a material with a specific process.
Personnel Concerns about
Fabrication Projects
Major concerns about a fabrication project and its
weldability are expressed by those involved as follows:
2
• From the customer:
“Does the fabrication perform the intended service
and will it last as long as intended?”
“Is the fabrication completed within cost and on
schedule?”
“Is it aesthetically pleasing?”
• From the engineer:
“Does the weld and its heat-affected zone meet the
critical base metal requirements that are necessary
for the intended service of the customer?”
• From the manufacturer:
“How much money does it cost to make the weld (i.e.,
what’s my profit)?”
“Are there any inspections or requirements associated
with the weld that will prevent acceptance of my work?”
“Am I subject to any liabilities if my fabrication is not
completed on time or fails in service?”
• From the welder:
“Do I have clearly defined instructions (such as draw-
ings that specify weld size, joint design, material type,
material size, stress relief, and welding procedures)?”
“Is there adequate weld joint access?”
“Is there adequate environmental protection?”
“Do I have the proper equipment to accomplish the
work?”
“Are the fabrication requirements achievable from the
standpoint of accessibility, position, distortion con-
trol, weld size, inspection requirements and fabrica-
tion sequence?”
“Am I trained and qualified to perform the welding
required?”

It is obvious, since the weldability of a metal inter-
sects so many disciplines, that the solution to many weld-
associated problems and the ultimate success of a project
lies in a fabricator’s ability to coordinate its available
expertise.
There can be no question that people are still the most
important resource in the fabrication enterprise. Because
of this, it is recommended that a preacceptance bid re-
view group, including production as well as technical
personnel, be established to review projects prior to ac-
ceptance. Formation of this group may be the single most
important action taken to ensure a successful and profit-
able completion for all parties involved. Unless the same
project is repeated over and over again, it is obvious that
one person cannot resolve all the issues necessary for the
project to be a success for all the participants.
Fundamentals of Welding Decisions
One individual in a metals fabrication firm with a
varying workload will find it difficult to make good
welding decisions for all of the firm’s needs. The com-
plexity of welding decisions is immense if the work var-
ies. If an individual makes enough welding decisions,
expertise will be required beyond that of filler metals,
base metals, and welding processes. This expertise will
require a background in, and integration of the technical
fields.
Coordination of Expertise
One person normally does not have expertise in all of
the areas required to make sound welding decisions. It
will benefit a company to have a welding engineer to
handle the majority of the welding problems that will
arise. However, this individual will find it necessary to
coordinate with other available expertise to make the best
decisions for the company. If a company is small, this
may require hiring a part-time consultant.
Education
There is no substitute for education of personnel in-
volved in welding. Education is needed by the fabrica-
tion shop superintendents, the design engineers, the
planners and estimators, the production supervisors, and
the welding mechanics. Each has different needs. Often,
a specification or procedural requirement will not be fol-
lowed unless there is an understanding of why the re-
quirement is necessary. Understanding the importance of
preheats, postheat treatments, and filler metal selection
3
SECTION 1—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY
and how they can affect the safety of personnel and the
suitability of the part for service creates a desire by all in-
dividuals to follow requirements. Knowing the basics of
welding engineering can prevent a company from exten-
sive rework or a customer’s refusal to accept a manufac-
turer’s product.
The Welder, Technician, and
Production Supervisor
The resolution of many welding problems requires
much more than technical solutions. Welding problems
require practical solutions as well. For this reason, the
practical expertise of the journeyman mechanic and his
supervisor can never be overlooked. They are absolutely
essential if a company expects to remain profitable. It is
for this reason the use of welding engineering techni-
cians is quite common in larger companies. Technicians
frequently are trained individuals with journeymen pro-
duction experience. A balance of welding engineers and
welding engineering technicians is most desirable for re-
solving most welding problems.
The 100% Quality Weld and Weld-
Associated Failures
Designers often mistakenly expect the welds they de-
sign to have properties that equal or exceed the desired
properties of the base metal. The major error in this logic
is that the base metal and the weld metal do not perform
independently.
Rarely does the weld improve the properties of the
metal it joins. The base material, the weld, and the weld’s
heat-affected zone are not homogeneous regions. They
are, in effect, structural and metallurgical discontinuities
within the weldment. This is due to the fact that the base
materials usually have undergone significant mechanical
and/or thermal treatments to optimize their properties,
the weld usually performs its service in the as-cast condi-
tion, and the heat-affected zone has undergone widely
varying heating and cooling rates. In many cases a weld
joint lowers fatigue properties and lowers impact proper-
ties; in some cases a weld joint also lowers the tensile
and yield properties. However, large or complex struc-
tures must be welded with high joint efficiency, since
large monolithic cast or wrought structures cannot be
made in most cases.
Since welds are usually located at changes of cross
sections (commonly associated with highly stressed
areas), the welds are often in areas where the structure
fails. These failures may be wrongly attributed to welds
that are perceived as inherently weak or flawed. These
SECTION 1—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY

failures are more likely caused by poor decisions on the
part of engineers or company management due to a lack
of knowledge or training.
Improperly selected joint designs, welding processes,
locations of welds, and filler metals are frequently asso-
ciated with weld failures. The root cause of these types
of failures is in the decision-making process and not in
the quality of the weld.
Weldability Can Be Determined by
the Manufacturer
When a manufacturer designs and fabricates a weld-
ment, it can truly be said that the manufacturer deter-
mines weldability. The manufacturer then controls most
of the variables that determine weldability. The weldabil-
ity of a metal, to a large extent, is determined by the
manufacturer’s ability to:
• Recognize the cause of existing and potential produc-
tion problems.
• Properly utilize, coordinate, and develop cooperation of
available expertise to make sound welding decisions.
Often weld-associated failures are caused by lack of
knowledge about welding and its effect on the base mate-
rials. These failures are wrongly viewed as resulting
from inherent weaknesses of welds. In most cases, with
proper utilization of available expertise, the failures
could have been avoided.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding Technology
(WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

4
 SECTION 2
Accepting Metal
Fabrication Projects

Contents
Background ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Defining Special Projects .................................................................................................................................................. 6

Establish a Prebid Review Group (Before Accepting Special Projects) ....................................................................... 6

Establish a Detail Planning Group (Prior to Issuing Job Orders)................................................................................ 7

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7

5
SECTION 2—ACCEPTING METAL FABRICATION PROJECTS
Section 2—Accepting Metal Fabrication Projects
Background
The critical question asked by a metals fabricator for a
completed project to be considered successful is: Did the
project make a profit and was it completed on time?
When large or small companies have repetitive work,
they are usually quite successful. They also know the pit-
falls. They know what their minimum bid should be and
what delivery or schedule times can be met. They proba-
bly have experienced the normal day-to-day items that
threaten their profit and the quality of their work. Know-
ing these pitfalls, they can make allowances for them.
However, for a company to be successful when it
accepts work that can be defined as a special project
(meaning a different type of work for the company), the
engineer, the fabricator, and the welder need a funda-
mental understanding of the weldability of metals and the
basics of sound welding decisions. During the accep-
tance of work, many decisions that seem innocuous to
welding end up jeopardizing the weldability of materials
and the service suitability of the completed weldment.
Defining Special Projects
The critical first step for a company is the ability to recog-
nize a special project. Nearly all special projects require high
up-front costs. There are increased costs in determining:
• Should the company bid on the project?
• What should the bid be?
• To what extent are production instructions required?
• What are the costs to establish these instructions?
• How and when to monitor the work in production?
• Are the company resources adequate?
• Do company equipment and personnel capabilities ad-
equately meet project requirements?
• What additional training/equipment is required to
meet project objectives?
Resolving these issues should be accomplished with
small review groups with specific tasks in mind.
6
Special project should be defined as follows:
(1) Not a repetitive project, even though a company
may have procedures that are applicable to the work.
This includes work that the company has accomplished
before but has not done for a long period of time.
(2) Any type of field work that is away from the com-
pany’s home office, and involves a significant number of
man hours. Field work limits the company’s flexibility for
scheduling work accurately. In addition, field work limits
the company’s ability to combine work activities for eco-
nomical use of materials, man hours and equipment.
(3) Any project that requires many different disci-
plines from the same company to accomplish its task.
(4) Unusual or complex work requirements (includ-
ing inspections, paperwork, and records).
Establish a Prebid Review Group
(Before Accepting Special Projects)
Since a special project is a nonrepetitive project that
may include multiple workshops having new or unusual
requirements, the acceptance of such work should be re-
viewed by a small prebid review group before accepting
special projects. It cannot be expected that a single per-
son who plans and estimates jobs can assemble and un-
derstand all the technical, quality, material, and process
requirements of unusual work. When the structure of a
company permits, it is recommended that the member-
ship of the preacceptance bid review group consist of
comptroller, planner and estimator, design, production
lead shop, and quality assurance representatives.
A comptroller or planner and estimator should over-
see this group. The primary goal of the group should be
to assess the company’s limitations and capabilities in re-
gard to technical, quality, and special process require-
ments before accepting work. The group should also
determine the limitations and conditions that should be
placed on the project for bid acceptance.

Sometimes accepting a job just to keep the workforce
busy can cost you the company. The company’s limita-
tions and capabilities should be determined in regard to
technical, quality, and special process requirements be-
fore accepting special projects. If deemed necessary
from this determination, the company should place limi-
tations and conditions on the bid acceptance, or not ac-
cept the work.
To determine whether the company should bid or how
much it is willing to bid, the prebid review group should
evaluate the following items:
• Quality requirements (establishment of special proce-
dures, i.e., quality manual).
• Inspection requirements.
• Record requirements (degree of detail).
• Material requirements certification—receipt inspection.
• Material and labor losses in production (rework).
• Cleanliness and shipping requirements.
• Special process requirements (mockup testing or
control samples).
• Personnel availability and special qualifications.
• Special welding equipment and fixtures required.
• Health and environmental considerations.
Establish a Detail Planning Group
(Prior to Issuing Job Orders)
After a special project is accepted, a planning group is
needed for detailing the job requirements to the produc-
tion workforce. This detailed planning effort is neces-
sary, because the work is nonrepetitive, may involve
multiple trades, and may have different quality require-
ments than the company normally uses. The greatest po-
tential for noncompliance and error is when the project
is nonrepetitive and has extensive quality and technical
requirements. This detailed planning group should be
headed up by a design engineer, if possible.
Once a special project is accepted by a company,
resources must be expended in advance planning. Work
instructions should be clear, concise, and when practical,
they should be listed as line items with specific direc-
tions and accountability. The referencing of general spec-
ifications should be avoided where contract requirements
are obscure and can be easily missed. Establishing this
group early helps resolve many critical issues that make
a project a success. It also establishes early ownership in
the project by the participants. It is crucial that this group
has authority to make and implement decisions.
During the planning and engineering time of the
project, weekly or biweekly meetings should be held to
discuss the impact of technical requirements on produc-
tion with shop supervision. These meetings should be
7
SECTION 2—ACCEPTING METAL FABRICATION PROJECTS
chaired by engineering. After the production work starts,
similar meetings should be held with the lead production
shop chairing the meeting, to enable them to receive fast
and direct technical resolution to unexpected fabrication
problems.
Internal quality reviews or audits should be planned
for as work progresses. The first review should take place
early in the project. This ensures that the work in-
structions are adequate to accomplish the work, that con-
tract requirements are clear to the workforce, and
the material that is to be received is correct. Trying to re-
cover from incorrect material after a job has commenced
is almost impossible without the company experiencing
large material and labor losses. Therefore, the prebid re-
view group should also be responsible for material acqui-
sition recommendations. Any project is slated for failure
where material requisitions are made haphazardly. Mate-
rial must be ordered properly and receipt inspected accu-
rately, if a project is to progress within the preestablished
schedules. Simple, clear and concise job order instruc-
tions should be provided in the following areas:
• Specification (material and fabrication).
• Fabrication documents.
• Quality requirements (receipt inspection included).
• Records.
• Inspection requirements.
• Special process controls.
Summary
If a project has been determined (by a company’s def-
inition) to be a special project, a prebid review group
should examine all the job requirements. This group will
determine whether the company wants to make a bid on
the project and what considerations and limitations
should be placed with the bid. The group should consist
of a designer, a planner and estimator, a production shop
leader or project leader, and a quality assurance expert.
After the project has been accepted, a planning review
group needs to be established to provide clear and con-
cise work instructions. Job orders should provide details
in areas that would be expected to cause production and
record problems. Details concerning the receipt of mate-
rial, quality assurance requirements, and production shop
requirements must be provided.
Early in the production cycle, work instructions and
receipt inspection of material should be audited, or at
least reviewed. During production, work surveillances
should be made of workmanship, inspection, and records
to ensure work instruction compliance.
 SECTION 3
Production Welding
Cost Analysis

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Review of Cost Estimating .............................................................................................................................................. 10

Welding Cost Variables ................................................................................................................................................... 11

Rework.............................................................................................................................................................................. 11

Fire Protection ................................................................................................................................................................. 11

How to Control Costs ...................................................................................................................................................... 11

Joint Designs .................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Automation/Mechanization of New or Existing Thermal Joining Processes ............................................................. 12

Records: Accountability for Accomplishment of Work and Inspections ................................................................... 13

Cost Considerations of Nondestructive Examination (NDE) ...................................................................................... 13

Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 14

9
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
Section 3—Production Welding Cost Analysis
Introduction
The application of welding as a major fabrication pro-
cess in United States industry began during the late
1930s. Prior to this time period, the welding process did
not play a significant role in production applications.
Welding was primarily utilized for small-scale fabrica-
tion, maintenance, or repair. Its use was accelerated by the
military. The U.S. Navy required massive ship construc-
tion for deployment during World War II and the U.S.
Army needed significant ordnance/weaponry equipment
that could only be practically constructed by welding.
Review of Cost Estimating
There are several fundamental variables (costs) that
need to be considered prior to submitting a competitive
bid for a specific project, in terms of welding costs. For
purposes of this review, many of the following terms can
apply to repair welding or new construction applications.
These cost estimates include material, direct labor, over-
head, fixturing, and welding. Definitions of these five ex-
penses are listed below.
Material Costs
Material costs involve those materials (i.e., steel plate,
piping, or other hardware) that ultimately become part of
a finished product. These individual components can be
traced to the finished project, in terms of a unit of mea-
sure expended. Material costs also include consumables
used during the manufacturing evolution. Required re-
ceipt inspection and traceability documentation should
also be included.
Direct Labor
Direct labor is a level of effort or services that can
readily be charged or identified towards accomplishment
10
of specific projects for a customer. As an example, this
includes any personnel assigned to a specific end use
project. Particular attention should be considered not to
exceed the estimated manhours/mandays for project
accomplishment.
Overhead Costs
Overhead costs are those costs of indirect services, ma-
terials, or other expenses that cannot be specifically identi-
fied to a productive effort/customer or do not result in direct
productive work. Such examples include paid vacations,
health insurance premiums, sick leave, electricity, water,
building construction or maintenance, and capital invest-
ments not tied to a specific customer.
Fixturing Costs
Fixturing costs are expenditures for tools, jigs, or fix-
tures that are directly utilized in the manufacturing pro-
cess, which can be traced or charged to an end product.
Welding Costs
As noted in the AWS Welding Handbook, costs for
welding basically include the same elements that are ap-
plicable to manufacturing costs, i.e., labor, material, and
overhead. However, there are other variables that need to
be considered:
• Joint design type.
• Weld size.
• Weld type.
• Weld process.
• Electrode deposition efficiency.
• Special weld procedure development or verification of
essential elements.
• Heat and fire protection.

Welding Cost Variables
There are a large number of welding variables that can
affect the manufacturing costs. For example, the design
engineer should be concerned with joint design, weld size
or type, and weld process. The welding supervisor should
be aware of the setup (field or shop), production welding
time, finishing, and inspection costs. The welder holds a
very key role. Prior to welding, he/she must be familiar
with the applicable weld procedure that lists variables
such as type of shielding or required flow rates, welding
parameters (volts and amps), travel speed for auto-
mated/mechanized welding, preheat or interpass tempera-
tures, and type of filler metals required.
Rework
The welder, in many instances, has major control over
the amount of rework. Since rework can be as high as
25% of the project costs, the existence or elimination of
potential rework costs deserves a high degree of attention.
Fire Protection
Currently, it is estimated that for every hour of actual
welding time, a similar amount of time is required for re-
lated fire/heat protection. These costs may include the use
of “firewatch” personnel and the installation of flame re-
tardant material or cloth for protection from the welding,
or burning evolutions.
Finally, the company owner/management is concerned
with all of the above and additionally: utility/labor rates,
consumable costs, transportation, and overhead costs. It is
very apparent why welding costs make a significant mon-
etary impact in the overall manufacturing costs.
Now, the next obvious question is, “How can these
costs be controlled, and yet provide assurances for quality
weldments?” Has the designer given adequate thought to
“fitness for use,” or has the component been overdesigned
which increases costs? The remaining portion of this sec-
tion will attempt to introduce answers/suggestions to aid
in solving these questions.
How to Control Costs
Many weldments involve a combination of shop and
field fabrication. It is critical to understand that differ-
ences exist in job preplanning through project comple-
tion. For example, shop fabrication drawings are specific
in nature, whereas drawings for field installation or modi-
fications provide sectional views to show the location of
numerous components.
11
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
If at all possible, it is preferable to accomplish the ma-
jority of welding fabrication in the shop vs. in the field.
For example, in one case history involving Cres piping,
the field reject rate was 420% over those joints welded in
the shop. For Monel®, the same reject criteria was 189%,
and 107% higher for carbon steel. The average among
these three materials welded in the field was 238%
higher than the shop welds!
The disparity between shop and field reject rates can
be explained by reviewing the complexity behind field
conditions. In many situations, the welder will encounter
very tight space restrictions, which may require the aid of
mirrors to complete the particular pipe weld. Other physi-
cal problems might include welding out-of-position, vs.
the normal horizontal-fixed or rolled position welds found
in shop welding. Some additional negative conditions
may involve moisture or contamination in a piping sys-
tem, or a difficult configuration that restricts the flow of
the purging gas for piping welds.
Another variable affecting welding reject rates/costs is
the available skilled workforce. Promotion of experienced
personnel into management positions, retirements, etc.,
can cause an increase in the reject rates. Replacement of
skilled personnel with inexperienced welders can be one
source of higher reject rates/costs.
Regardless of the location of the particular project,
job preplanning, definition of scope, and scheduling are
essential. These should include an in-depth review of the
applicable fabrication specifications, drawings, material
lists, work documentation requirements, and schedules.
Conduct meetings with the designer, shop supervisor,
and other technical support staff to determine the proper
direction. A strong preplanning effort will provide a solid
project estimate regarding manufacturing costs and suc-
cessful job accomplishment. As an example of required
preplanning, determine what type of variables need to be
evaluated prior to making decisions about utilization of a
particular welding process for a specific job. The AWS
Welding Handbook offers the following criteria for
consideration:
• Type of welding operation to be performed.
• A clear definition of what physically can and cannot
be done.
• Nature of the material to be joined. Is preheating or
postweld heat treatment required?
• Joint geometry, thicknesses, and parts fitup/
tolerances.
• Weld quality requirements.
• Safety requirements: enclosures, shielding, scaffold-
ing, etc.
• Location/orientation of fixturing (positioners, etc.) is
important.
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
In his discussion about estimating welding costs, in
the Design of Weldments (published by the James F. Lin-
coln Arc Welding Foundation), Omer W. Blodgett states
the following:
“The cost of welding is directly affected by the
amount of weld metal required. Very few people re-
alize the great increase in weld metal and cost that
results from a slight increase in weld size.”
Joint Designs
In a further representation of Mr. Blodgett’s words, it
has been shown that a decrease of 30° in joint design bev-
els can result in a savings of almost 50%, which includes
the welding time, reduction in filler metal and distortion!
In the inverse scenario, an increase in fillet weld sizes by
a factor of 50% will require a significant increase in all
the above factors. For example, an increase in fillet weld
sizes from l/4 in. to 5/8 in. (using 1/4 in. as 100%) will
increase the labor costs by a factor of 500%! This does
not include the potential problem of weldment distortion
due to the additional welding.
Another factor involving design decisions, or joint de-
sign selections, involves the decision of when to utilize
fillet or groove welds. There is obviously a significant dif-
ference between these designs, and equally so in costs.
Based on deposited filler metal costs alone, it is evident
that for 1/2 in. plate, fillet welds are the cheapest design
per foot, but as the plate thickness increases up to three
inches, a 45° double bevel groove joint design becomes
the least expensive. The responsibility of the design engi-
neer is very significant in controlling welding or manu-
facturing costs.
Following a review of joint designs, another “tool” that
needs to be evaluated is the applicable welding proce-
dure/process to support fabrication. A welding procedure
provides the welding foreman/welder with the essential
welding elements including required gas shielding/flow
rates, welding current, applicable preheat/interpass tem-
peratures, and type of filler metals required. A careful re-
view of available procedures/processes will afford an
opportunity to determine costs, etc.
When considering the filler metal selection, thought
should be given to using the largest diameter suitable for
the joint design, without violating heat input require-
ments, to improve the electrode deposition rate. Also, it
should be noted when purchasing bare filler metal
(spools) for Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux
Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), or Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW) processes, that the largest available spool pound-
age be considered if filler metal types do not need to be
frequently changed. This will obviously avoid unneces-
12
sary down time to replace the spooled filler metal contain-
ers during the welding operation. Also, ordering filler
metal in large quantities, whether it be covered or bare
electrodes, decreases the basic costs per pound. Proper
planning regarding future needs of specific electrode
types, and their proper storage is required here.
Automation/Mechanization of New or
Existing Thermal Joining Processes
Another aspect of controlling manufacturing/welding
costs, although it involves long-range preplanning with
the possibility of only long-term payback on investment,
is the introduction of automation or mechanization of
new/existing thermal joining processes. However, before
serious consideration is given to automate (i.e., use of
robots), or to mechanize specific welding processes
(GMAW, FCAW), it is critical that fabrication projects
exist to support its development. Purchase of complex
equipment is a large capital cost, not including associated
operator training, engineering support, or maintenance. A
projected return must exist. As an example, at one naval
shipyard, after a successful development program involv-
ing a new welding process (Flux Core—Twisted wire),
specific production applications were identified. Utiliza-
tion of this new process resulted in major labor savings
over the previous welding method in reduced joint design
preparation, and increased welding deposition rate. The
savings can be realized on future thick section weldments.
In addition to the variables previously mentioned dur-
ing the preplanning section regarding the utilization of
welding processes, other variables need to be evaluated
prior to making decisions on adapting or purchasing
automated welding equipment. Additional criteria for
consideration are:
• Processing speed of parts per unit of time.
• Economic requirements: initial investment and opera-
tion costs, and payback period.
• Location of the automated equipment should be as
close to the prospective work as possible.
• The path between the work area and control unit
should be unobstructed.
• Past experiences with similar automated equipment.
• Efficient material handling and fixturing equipment
requirements are important with a new process and
higher production rates.
• Part programming is a critical time aspect, as there is
a need for a flexible software system. The necessary
coordination between the welding and actual opera-
tion of the automated equipment is important to
achieve the desired weld quality.

After review of the above criteria, one of the most cru-
cial decisions remains: is there a high degree of assurance
that utilization of the automated welding equipment or
new processes will bring about a positive rate of return on
the investment?
Records: Accountability for
Accomplishment of Work
and Inspections
Maintaining accountability for accomplishment of
work and inspection—nondestructive examination (NDE),
receipt inspections, in-process, personnel qualifications,
etc., is a tremendous, but necessary overhead cost.
Several commercial code or military codes or specifi-
cations that might be referenced on drawings or be
included in the contract provisions, require that an exten-
sive quality control system for record origination/
retention be established. Some examples of these required
records include:
• Vendor certification of welding electrodes, or test re-
sults for compliance with the applicable specification/
receipt inspection requirements.
• Records that support test data for welding/NDE.
• Records for welder/brazer/NDE operator qualifications.
• In-process inspections or data collection (measure-
ments, etc.).
• Records of NDE inspections (ET, MT, PT, RT, UT,
VT).
• Records of casting fabrication, plates, shapes or forg-
ings, and the applicable inspections.
• Verification of thermal joining surveillance inspections.
Before bidding on a project, a thorough review of the
required records, specified by the applicable fabrication
documents, is necessary. The volume of required docu-
mentation may involve hiring of additional staff, thus in-
creasing overhead costs.
Cost Considerations of
Nondestructive Examination (NDE)
The requirement to incorporate nondestructive testing
during the manufacturing or welding evolution is another
cost which has dramatic impact. Utilization of this type of
testing has great potential for increasing costs, however, it
13
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
provides assurance that the quality level for the product or
weldment is being met for critical applications.
Specific definitions/applications of NDE are covered
in another section, however, a brief overview of the six
available nondestructive inspection/testing methods in-
cludes the following: Visual Testing (VT), Eddy Current
(ET), Magnetic Particle (MT), Dye Penetrant (PT), Radio-
graphic (RT), and Ultrasonic Testing (UT).
Visual Testing
For all weldments, VT is one of the best and most
economical inspections employed. It can be accom-
plished quickly by qualified inspectors to verify pre or
post welding criteria including, but not limited to, ade-
quate joint designs, weld size, appearance (contour,
cleanliness, etc.), or detection of surface flaws, (i.e., un-
dercut, cracks, slag, etc.). The most significant disadvan-
tage with this method is that it cannot detect subsurface
or minute surface indications. Visual inspection of each
weld layer can ensure quality, as it has been shown that if
an in-depth VT is accomplished, there can be a 35% de-
crease in associated NDE inspections.
Eddy Current Testing
ET is an electromagnetic inspection method in which
small electrical currents are induced in a material. Flaws
are detected by the interruption of these currents. This
method can be used on a wide range of electro con-
ducting materials, though the depth of inspection on fer-
rous materials is restricted to approximately 0.100 in. to
0.200 in., depending on the frequency used. It is excel-
lent for measuring plating thicknesses and can be used on
painted surfaces. This is ET’s main advantage over MT.
The equipment for this technique is not expensive, easily
suitable for automation, and the labor costs are minimal.
Magnetic Particle Testing
MT can be accomplished only on ferrous materials.
This method is reasonably economical, and serves as an
excellent tool in detecting indications on joint prepara-
tions (including backgouged roots), root welding passes,
and finished weld surfaces. Magnetic particle is basically
a surface and slightly subsurface inspection process.
Dye Penetrant Testing
There are two types of dye penetrants: liquid and fluo-
rescent. Both types can only detect defects open to the
surface, and can be used on nonferrous and ferrous mate-
rials. Dye penetrant inspection is relatively economical,
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
although more time consuming than MT. However, PT
requires a better surface finish than MT for satisfactory
inspection to be accomplished.
Radiographic Testing
Of the six NDE methods, radiographic inspection is
the most expensive. This nondestructive method uses the
penetrating radiation of X-rays, or the gamma rays of a
radioactive source, to penetrate a specific object to reveal
discontinuities. It is very labor intensive for the following
reasons:
• High cost of equipment and film.
• Stringent controls of the radiation source.
• Skilled personnel capable of producing exposed film.
• Required chemical processing of the exposed film.
• Trained personnel to review/interpret the film.
• Restriction of production efforts in the area of inspec-
tion, due to the presence of harmful radiation.
This method can be used on most materials, and pro-
vides a permanent record of most surface or internal de-
fects or flaws. RT is widely utilized in inspection of pipe
and structural butt welds.
Ultrasonic Inspection
One of the most versatile NDE methods is ultrasonic
inspection. UT has several advantages including location
of internal flaws in components, and ability to be used on
most materials. However, in terms of ease of operation, it
is fairly complex, and requires the interpretative skills of
trained technicians. In regard to cost, one individual can
operate the machine and interpret the ultrasound wave
signals. This makes UT considerably less expensive than
RT. Because UT produces no radiation, inspection areas
need not be evacuated. Though unable to provide a per-
14
manent record as the radiograph, improved equipment
provides computerized printouts for records.
Summary
With ever-shrinking budgets, and strong competition
from abroad, controlling costs in the public and private
industry is a major concern. As we have seen, there are
several variables to consider when welding and related
nondestructive testing is involved. This section has at-
tempted to describe some of the welding variables that
need to be considered. Table 3.1 is a condensed review. It
is not intended to be all inclusive, rather a brief narrative
about some of the major subjects which should be re-
viewed. Table 3.2 is a check-off sheet of costs to remem-
ber prior to the bid process.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
Blodgett, O. W. 1963. Design of Weldments. The James F.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Boyer, H., ed. 1976. ASM Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Fun-
damentals of Quality Control and Quality Assurance.
ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio.
Cary, H. 1997. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Cooper, N., Davis, W. J., and Pandjiris, A. K. 1968. Know
costs then weld. Welding Journal 47(7): 561–568.
Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, sec. 12. 1973. The
Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding Technology
(WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
 SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS

Table 3.1
Review of Production Welding Costs

1. Job preplanning, definition of scope, and accurate scheduling are three critical and necessary steps that must be accomplished
prior to any project bid submittal or start of production.

2. Maintaining accountability of work accomplishments or inspections via the use of formal records is a necessary overhead cost
that must be factored into the bid.

3. If at all possible, it is preferable to accomplish the majority of fabrication or welding in the shop vs. in the field.

4. Increasing fillet weld sizes beyond what is required can be detrimental. Aside from raising the filler metal and labor costs, the
additional welding may contribute to serious distortion of the weldment.

5. Choosing the correct joint design for the particular plate thickness is very important. For example, for thicknesses over
1-1/2 in., the double bevel “T” joint design is more economical to employ than increasing the fillet weld size.

6. There are several factors that affect the efficient utilization of the many welding processes, i.e., deposition rates, joint geome-
try, fixturing, etc. Careful considerations must be made prior to utilizing a particular welding process or mode.

7. The selection of automated equipment requires a close review of several variables, including long-term preplanning and costs.
There must be a projected positive rate of return, which will justify the capital expenditures.

8. Fire/heat protection costs have significantly increased. It has been estimated that for every hour of welding time, an equal
amount of time is required for related fire/heat protection.

9. Weld procedure/personnel qualifications pose two problems. Both are expensive, and can require considerable time to accom-
plish. Early identification of specific needs is required.

10. Inexperienced welders or craftsman can affect the reject rates. Maintaining a skilled workforce should be a high priority.

11. Nondestructive testing during the manufacturing process has potential for increasing costs. However, it ensures that a quality
product is being produced, and may in the long run actually reduce costs.

12. The roles of the design engineer, welding engineer, supervisor, welder, etc., are all varied, with each being critical for success-
ful project accomplishment. Joint meetings to discuss particular attributes or suspected problem areas are necessary for uni-
fied direction. The results of these meetings will decrease costs and enhance the product quality.

15
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS

Table 3.2
Checklist of Project/Welding Cost Variables

❒ Advance planning costs; i.e., meetings, accomplishment of tasking actions, etc.

❒ Costs of origination/distribution of funding or work standard documents.

❒ Cost of origination/distribution of pertinent engineering instructions or drawings for prefabrication support.

❒ Receipt inspection costs; i.e., issue instructions for base and filler metal inspections, etc.

❒ Weld procedure and welder performance qualification costs.

❒ Material and welding electrode costs.

❒ Special equipment purchases: welding machines, fixtures, etc.

❒ Inspection costs: in-process, nondestructive, and other, such as hydrostatic.

❒ Estimated rework costs.

❒ Formal record costs: origination, tracking, and retention.

❒ Possible post weld heat treatment costs.

❒ Costs for preparation prior to welding; i.e., base metal cleaning, joint designs, fitting, etc.

❒ Rigging or crane costs in the movement of the materials during and after the weldments are completed.

❒ Labor costs associated with welding, machining, casting or forging fabrications.

❒ Distortion control costs during in-process welding, etc.

❒ Fire/heat protection costs (including labor) associated with welding/burning.

❒ Final cleaning, preservation, and shipping costs.

❒ Surveillance and audit costs.

❒ Supervision (labor) costs.

❒ Overhead costs (vacation, electric power, medical insurance, etc.) associated with labor and operation of the required equip-
ment for the fabrication of weldments.

16
 SECTION 4
Modular
Construction

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Productivity Value ........................................................................................................................................................... 18

Dimensional Accuracy (Process Control) ...................................................................................................................... 19

Preoutfitting—A Major Advantage ............................................................................................................................... 20

Designing for Zone and Preoutfitting Construction ..................................................................................................... 21

Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................... 21

17
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
Section 4—Modular Construction
Introduction
Modular construction or block construction was a nat-
ural evolution of large structures. It became advanta-
geous for structures to be assembled in small blocks
followed by joining these small blocks together until the
entire structure was completed. This method of construc-
tion offered new opportunities to the outfitting trades.
The assemblies could be turned over so work was at a
more convenient physical location and much of the weld-
ing could be flat position work. Also, machinery and
electrical components could be packaged in a less expen-
sive shop environment and landed on the block, reducing
the field assembly time. This concept initiated the move-
ment of the design and planning functions toward the
zone outfitting approach. By implementing zone meth-
ods, the blocks could be preoutfitted prior to erection and
joining of additional blocks.
Implementation of modular construction encompasses
more than just assembly and fabrication work, it requires
the engineering design and production work scheduling
to be an integral part.
System Approach
Traditional methods used a systems approach to con-
struction. For example, an entire pipe system would be
designed, planned, and scheduled for production without
consideration of the other systems that would be fabri-
cated during the same time and in the same location. The
systems method enables designers, material personnel,
and planners to rapidly define the production of an entire
system.
Modular Construction
In modular construction it is essential to change from
the systems concept to a zone concept to optimize pro-
ductivity. The structure and its systems are converted into
zones. These zones define work packages that define a
quantity of work to be accomplished within boundaries.
18
Optimizing Resources
By designing and planning for the zone work, the
scheduling of people and material is optimized. The
amount of time lost for material movement and relocation
of people is minimized. A crew of craftsmen can com-
plete a work package that may include portions of multi-
ple systems within a zone, prior to shifting to a new zone.
Productivity Value
The efficiency of a work package can be defined by a
“productivity value” which is a function of:
• Time.
• Resources.
• Quality.
These three variables must be balanced to obtain an
optimum productivity value. Each of the variables is a
function of the other two and therefore must be consid-
ered together.
Trial and Error Evaluation
Productivity value is a unitless term that cannot be
formulated mathematically. Rather, it is an expression
that can be used to evaluate performance by comparison.
Each work package process and operation can be evalu-
ated by trial and error, until the optimum level of produc-
tivity is determined. This may require changes in work
package definition until the proper balance of time, re-
sources, and quality is achieved. This process should be
repeated periodically to reevaluate the productivity
value. As methods change or schedules are readjusted,
the variable balance may be shifted and the optimum
conditions may no longer be present.
A proper review of a specific zone project must in-
clude the prior and following operations after the specific
zone function is complete. The processes should be eval-
uated in relation to resources, time, and quality. The prior
process must be included, as it establishes a baseline

condition for the measured operation. Variations in con-
ditions from the prior process or operation will affect the
productivity variables. Similarly, the following operation
will be impacted by optimizing the evaluated process.
The quality value is a good example of the effect of
one operation on the other process steps. Each process-
ing operation must result in a satisfactory consistent level
of quality being passed to the following operation.
Changes in the quality variable will skew the balance of
the three productivity value components and cause less-
than-optimum conditions. Starting with a poor-quality
product prompts the allocation of additional resources to
meet schedule requirements; or when resources are not
available, additional time is used to compensate for cor-
rection of quality deficiencies. Basically, each operation
of the production process will provide a final product to
the following operation. This process provides identi-
fiable responsibility and accountability to individuals
completing incrementally completed segments. This
customer-supplier relationship must be measured and
controlled to maintain an optimum productivity value.
Dimensional Accuracy (Process Control)
Successful preoutfitting is greatly dependent on struc-
tural dimensional accuracy. Proper implementation of
these advanced concepts requires all structural members
and platforms to be within predetermined tolerances. The
Figure 4.1—Typical Histogram
19
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
system components are located by measurements from
the nearest structure in lieu of the more traditional com-
partment or ship centerline. In addition, forcing struc-
tural block dimensional control, this now requires the
matching blocks to consider the alignment of the distrib-
utive systems (i.e., electrical systems) in addition to the
structural members.
Deviations from nominal values can become cumula-
tive and the larger block connections must be monitored
for dimensional accuracy to ensure proper alignment. In
some cases, this will force the use of less than the tradi-
tional tolerances. Process control is necessary to ensure
that a zone approach to outfitting is successful.
Accuracy Control Program
An important tool for controlling process perfor-
mance in structural fabrication is an accuracy control
program. With the use of statistical process controls,
variations in process parameters can be identified and the
causes evaluated.
Two of the more common methods of displaying the
data for accuracy control measurements are the histo-
gram and the process control chart. Each of these meth-
ods utilizes basic statistical analysis.
(1) Histogram. Figure 4.1 is a typical histogram. The
data shown represent a series of actual measurements
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
taken over a period of time. By collecting the data in the
histogram format, the variations in the process can be
collected and displayed to provide a meaningful analysis.
The histogram can be used to approximate a “bell
curve.” The bell curve is a standard statistical representa-
tion of predictable variations in a process. By utilizing
the bell curve, normal process inconsistencies can be
estimated and a process can be evaluated to determine
the frequency and magnitude of deviation from perfor-
mance to established tolerances.
(2) Process Control Charts. The process control
chart shown in Figure 4.2 is another tool that is used to
measure the performance of a continuous process. The
chart is used to monitor an operation by comparing mea-
sured accuracy to the accuracy predicted by statistical
methods. The variation between the upper and lower con-
trol limits are normal and are expected. Excursions be-
yond the limits are unusual and should be investigated to
determine the cause. Adjustments in the process can actu-
ally move the upper and lower control limits under con-
trolled conditions, thus redefining normal performance.
Other similar types of charts can be used to assist in
monitoring process performance with statistical controls.
These methods are valuable tools for management deci-
sions. By implementing a control program, process per-
formance can be measured numerically and decisions no
longer need to be based solely on management impres-
sions. Changes in each process can be measured to en-
Figure 4.2—Process Control Chart
20
sure that productivity is being improved and the effects
on baseline performance can be determined.
An accuracy control program provides essential infor-
mation for successful implementation of modular con-
struction. When sequencing work by zones, it is essential
that the systems continuing from one zone to another
properly align at the boundaries. The structure must be
accurate and within predefined tolerances to ensure that
the matching systems in two zones are within dimen-
sional tolerances to allow for proper connections.
Preoutfitting—A Major Advantage
One of the most important benefits of modular con-
struction methods is the opportunity to implement pre-
outfitting work. The objective of this approach is to
minimize the outfitting work after erection. Very thor-
ough planning and scheduling is required to optimize this
effort. When outfitting does not follow zone preoutfitting
concepts, the result may be the erection of empty steel
assemblies, which then require the more expensive con-
ventional methods of installing the distributive systems.
Scheduling and Improved Work Environment
Production defines several objectives of this planning
effort. By advance planning, much of the fitting and
welding operations can be scheduled to allow flat

position welding and horizontal fillets. As this position-
ing will allow greater use of mechanized and semi-
automatic welding processes, labor will be reduced and
productivity will be increased. Additionally, the quality
of the work will be enhanced.
By early zone planning, components can be identified
so that different types of work can be scheduled and kept
separate at the earliest manufacturing operation. This
will simplify the manning and scheduling problems asso-
ciated with multiple-operation manufacturing.
Another objective is to schedule work in uncongested
and more efficient work locations, rather than having op-
erators perform their tasks in enclosed, high or narrow
sites. Quality and productivity will be enhanced by this
planning effort which incorporates important production
personnel needs to accomplish their work efficiently.
The time span for a production zone work package
can be reduced by scheduling multiple tasks, which are
not in conflict with each other, to be performed at the
same time. This objective must consider work area space
allowances to ensure that craftsmen have sufficient room
to perform their tasks without interfering with other
work. Similarly, compatible tasks can be scheduled to be
performed in unison, and considerations of conflicting
efforts must be discouraged. For example, it is not effi-
cient to have a blast or paint operation being performed
in the same zone as a pipe-fitting operation.
Designing for Zone and Preoutfitting
Construction
Effective use of modular construction must incorpo-
rate design efforts that enhance zone definition for mate-
rial and production planning. Design by system has value
in defining the capability of each functional individual
system and in demonstrating the location and path of the
distributive systems. However, the optimum base of zone
planning and work packages requires a zone approach to
design.
Implementation of preoutfitting will not be optimized
without the corollary design package. As stated in the
introduction, there are differences between the systems
21
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
and zone approach to design. For example, with a zone
approach to design, systems arrangement drawings can
be eliminated. Also, material lists can be generated to
support the zone construction method.
Advancements in the use of computer-aided design
(CAD) will soon permit a design to be made with the tra-
ditional systems approach and then be converted to a
zone configuration. This will maintain the advantages of
a system design methodology. From this base, the CAD
programming will enable a designer to define zones of a
structure and the applicable portions of each system will
be broken down into these zones. This will gain the ben-
efits of a zone design concept without a large amount of
duplication of effort.
Summary
To reap the benefits of this construction method,
changes in many areas must be considered:
• The design effort must support a zone approach.
• Planning must be directed toward a zone work pack-
age that is producible, to ensure the proper balance of
the key variables (time, resources, and quality).
• An accuracy control program must be implemented to
adequately monitor the fabrication process to ensure
that the blocks and distributive systems align properly.
Some of the benefits of preoutfitting include:
(1) A higher percentage of shop fabrication and
assembly.
(2) Less congestion and worker interference for
structure installation.
(3) Reduction in lost material.
(4) Less on-site rigging and material handling.
(5) Less on-site cleaning and reduction in fire
hazards.
(6) Improved working conditions on the assemblies.
If properly implemented, preoutfitting and modular
construction will be cost effective and improve quality
and productivity.
 SECTION 5
Welding Process
Selection

Contents
Common Welding Processes ........................................................................................................................................... 24

Process Selection .............................................................................................................................................................. 24

SMAW............................................................................................................................................................................... 26

GMAW .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27

FCAW ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28

SAW................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

GTAW ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 32

23
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

Section 5—Welding Process Selection

Common Welding Processes
The most common welding processes used in industry
involve arc welding. The electric arc is a very effective
and portable heat source for melting most metals quickly.
When the base metal and filler metal become molten,
they mix together then solidify to produce one solid
piece. Most welding processes utilize a consumable elec-
trode, which conducts the welding current and melts as it
is continuously fed into the arc and deposited into the
joint. The most common manual arc welding process is
the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process (see
Figure 5.1), in which a fixed length of electrode is hand
fed into the joint. Typical semi-automatic arc welding
processes include the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
process (see Figure 5.2) and the Flux Cored Arc Welding
(FCAW) process (see Figure 5.3), which automatically
feed a spooled electrode filler wire into the joint while
the welder manipulates the torch manually. The Sub-
merged Arc Welding (SAW) process (see Figure 5.4) is
an automatic process whereby both filler wire and travel
speed are controlled by the machine which runs along a
preset track. The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
process (see Figure 5.5) uses a nonconsumable tungsten
electrode to establish an arc in the weld joint, and typi-
cally, a separate hand-held filler wire is melted in the arc
and deposited in the joint.
The molten weld pool created with all arc processes
must be shielded from oxidation and contamination dur-
ing the welding process. SMAW electrodes have a thick
dry flux coating, which creates a gas shield and also pro-
vides many of the alloying elements to the weld. The
SAW process obtains shielding and alloying with a simi-
lar type of dry flux in a granular form that covers the
welding arc and molten pool. Spooled FCAW electrodes
also use a dry flux contained in the center of a tubular
wire and typically obtain additional shielding from an
inert gas shield similar to the GMAW process. Both
GMAW and GTAW utilize inert shielding gases that flow
around the molten weld pool, while all alloying elements
are supplied by the wire electrode alone. For each pro-
cess the weld metal composition is an alloy combination
of filler metal and remelted base metal. Weld metal com-
position varies with each process. It is difficult to predict
weld metal composition since many elements are diluted
when crossing the welding arc.
Figures 5.1–5.5 describe the most common welding
processes and summarize their advantages and limitations.
Process Selection
When selecting a welding process for a specific appli-
cation, several factors that affect productivity and weld
quality must be balanced. This can become a compli-
cated decision, due to the number of conflicting advan-
tages and disadvantages which each process possesses in
each situation.
Productivity is usually a very important consideration
on most jobs. The deposition rate is a significant part of
this factor. Each process can be ranked in terms of its dep-
osition rate in pounds of weld metal deposited per hour.
However, there are other factors that must be considered.
For example, it usually takes time for a shop to become
familiar with a new welding process, new equipment, or
even a new brand of filler metal. Until adequate training
and acceptance by the shop personnel are accomplished,
the actual productivity rate will be less than the average.
Reject rates also have a significant impact on actual pro-
ductivity, since a considerable amount of time is required
to remove defective weld metal, replace it, and reinspect
it. Therefore, many factors must be taken into account be-
fore determining which is the best process for a specific
application. Process selection must be made by someone
who is very familiar not only with the various processes,
but more importantly with the shop’s capabilities and the
job requirements. As a minimum, the following items
should be considered prior to selecting a welding process.
Base Metal Type
Some processes are better suited to certain base mate-
rials than others. The maximum heat input must be

24

limited on some types of materials, i.e., quenched, tem-
pered, age-hardened, and other heat-treated or cold-
worked materials. Processes that derive their advantage
from high productivity and high heat input may be lim-
ited for these applications.
Joint Design and Thickness
As the section thickness increases, welding productiv-
ity becomes more important. If possible, the process selec-
tion should reflect this. The length of the weld must also
be taken into account, since a higher-productivity process
may not realize this advantage—particularly if the opera-
tor has to frequently stop the process to set up for the next
pass, as would be necessary with a small repair. Since
some processes require more access to the joint root to
avoid lack of fusion defects, the selection of some pro-
cesses may also require a joint design change.
Welding Position
The weld joint position plays a very important part
when selecting a process, since many processes are lim-
ited to only a few positions. Whenever possible, the joint
should be in the flat position, since the highest productiv-
ity and weld quality are attained when welding is accom-
plished in this position. Since most repair work is done
on large weldments that cannot be repositioned and ac-
cess to the joint is limited, use of high-productivity pro-
cesses and filler materials is limited.
The four basic welding positions are: flat, horizontal,
vertical, and overhead, as shown in Figure 5.6.
Environmental Conditions
Wind and rain are the two field conditions that typi-
cally affect welding. It takes very little wind to disturb the
gas shield that is critical for high-quality GMAW and
GTAW welding. This restricts their use outside of shel-
tered containments. The SMAW and FCAW processes
can also be affected by wind, but to a lesser degree. No
process is tolerant of direct rain. Proper placement of
tarps, dams, or other temporary containments can rectify
this situation. Due to the many problems associated with
welding outside (i.e., being exposed to the elements or
cramped inside of a structure), shop prefabrication is rec-
ommended where practical. Studies have shown that re-
ject rates for field welding increased from 100% to
greater than 400% over those for shop welding.
25
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
Availability of Equipment
Most large welding shops have access to the welding
equipment required for the processes discussed. There are
times, however, when new equipment must be evaluated to
determine if the increased productivity or versatility would
offset the initial cost and training.
Fabrication and Inspection Standards
Most welding and inspection is governed by welding
standards that often limit the use of some processes on
certain materials, and also may limit the maximum heat
input used to ensure that specific mechanical properties
are met. A high-productivity process such as SAW would
lose much of its advantage if the heat input were re-
stricted down to the range achievable by GMAW.
Table 5.1 is a general comparison guide for the most
commonly used processes in the industry, relative to
some of the factors discussed above. While some of the
ratings are subjective, they do provide a general compar-
ison for many applications.
It can be seen from this chart that many variables must
be taken into account when selecting the best welding
process for a given job. In practice, it takes experience to
identify and accurately weigh all of the variables in-
volved. Some factors, such as the attitude and perception
of shop employees toward a new process or procedure
change, may be more difficult to analyze than others.
Another factor complicating process selection is the
rapid change brought on by the computer age, which is
taking place in the electrical power sources used for arc
welding. It takes a considerable amount of study to take
full advantage of the wide variety of machines available
today and all of the functions each one is capable of per-
forming. The GMAW and FCAW processes are probably
the most influenced by these advances, in the form of
“synergic” power sources that manipulate the waveform of
the welding current through complex electrical circuits.
These advanced machines automatically adjust all of the
waveform parameters to optimize the mode of metal trans-
fer across the arc with simple operator controls. Since pro-
ductivity and weld quality are greatly affected by many
aspects of the metal transfer across the arc, these machines
offer a significant advantage over the previous generations
of power sources.
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

SMAW
Shielded metal arc welding is a manual arc welding
process. A covered electrode is used to deposit the filler
metal and supply shielding to the molten weld pool. The
12-in. to 18-in. long electrode has a dry flux coating that
decomposes in the arc to form a gas shield and a solid
slag covering on the cooled weld deposit. The flux coat-
ing often provides alloying and deoxidizing elements.

Advantages Limitations

All-position capability. Higher potential for weld contamination than for other
processes.
Many alloys are weldable.
Welding is frequently interrupted due to the short, fixed
Thick sections are weldable. length of electrodes.

Excellent for field and repair work.
Equipment is simple, low cost, low maintenance, and is
easy to set up.
Good accessibility in space-restricted areas.
The process creates spatter and smoke fumes and leaves
a slag that must be removed before the next layer can be
deposited.
Not suitable for thin material but is suitable for thin-wall
repairs on thick material.

Arc visibility is good. Poor usability for aluminum and most bronzes.

The process is fairly tolerant of environmental conditions.
Electrode travel, which helps to control heat input, is
required.
Special electrode care is required since most flux coat-
ings absorb moisture.
Foreign material exclusion for nuclear applications is
poor.

Severe arc blow can be a problem when using direct

current (dc)

Figure 5.1—Shielded Metal Arc Welding

26
 SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

GMAW
Gas metal arc welding is a semiautomatic or auto-
matic process. A small-diameter, continuous consumable
electrode is melted in the arc and deposited in the joint.
Shielding is provided by a gas that flows through the
weld torch. Depending on the amperage and wave form
used, four modes of metal transfer are possible: short cir-
cuiting, globular, pulsed spray, and spray transfer.

Advantages Limitations

High-quality welds. Gas shielding is easily disturbed during field work.

High deposit rates (three times that of SMAW). Handling gas bottles for field work can be expensive.

Most metals are weldable. Equipment is complicated and expensive.

Minimal stub loss. Flash burns easily obtained.

All-position welding with some GMAW processes. Excessive weld spatter with CO2, shielding.

No slag removal and minimum interpass cleaning. Not used for thin metals except with pulsed spray and
short-circuit transfer welding.
Easily adapted to robotics.
Limited accessibility.
Good weld puddle visibility.
Spray transfer limited to the flat position.

Restriction on the use of short circuiting transfer welding.

Figure 5.2—Gas Metal Arc Welding

27
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

FCAW
Flux cored arc welding uses equipment
similar to GMAW. The main difference is
that the electrode is a tubular wire with a
flux core. Some electrodes provide ade-
quate shielding with the flux core alone,
but others require the addition of gas
shielding.

Advantages Limitations

Large single-pass fillets possible. Large amounts of smoke and fumes.

Tolerant of mill scale. Weld spatter can clog nozzles.

Self-shielded process is good for field work.
High deposition rates possible.
All-position welding possible.
Less joint preparation required than for SMAW and
GTAW.
Good penetration with gas shielding.
Self-shielded process has lower-quality welds than exter-
nal gas shielded.
Flash burns easily obtained.
Slag coating must be removed between layers.
The flux core is susceptible to moisture pickup, which
may cause porosity and worm tracks.
Equipment is bulky, and accessibility can be a problem.

Equipment is complicated and expensive.

Figure 5.3—Flux Cored Arc Welding

28
 SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

SAW
Submerged arc welding is very similar to
GMAW except the weld pool is shielded,
deoxidized, and alloyed with a granulated
flux that melts in the arc. The flux is fed
through a hopper and a guide tube and de-
posited in the joint ahead of the welding arc.
Two or more electrode wires can be used in
tandem or metal powders can be added to in-
crease deposition rate to obtain optimum me-
chanical properties.

Advantages Limitations

High deposition rates. Welding positions limited to flat and horizontal.

Excellent weld quality. Limited to ferrous metals and high-nickel alloys (no age-
hardenable alloys).
No flash burns.
Best suited to long welds and thick sections.
Less angular weld distortion.
Special care required for the flux, since it absorbs mois-
Weld appearance excellent. ture easily.

Maintenance relatively low. Slag and unfused flux must be removed.

Smoke and fume quantities are low. High toughness properties are hard to obtain.

Penetration is excellent. Joint fit-up and design are critical to penetration control.

Less weld joint preparation.

Figure 5.4—Submerged Arc Welding

29
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

GTAW DIRECTION O WELDING

C CP
Gas tungsten arc welding is a gas shielded manual or ELECTRODE
automatic process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten LED

electrode to establish the arc. The filler metal is added to TORC

OD
the weld pool separately. Shielding of the weld pool and
SIELDING GS IN
electrode is provided by predominately inert gases. Au- COLLET OD
togenous welding (no filler wire added) is possible with GS NOLE
some materials. NONCONSLE TNGSTEN
ELECTRODE

GS SIELD
ILLER ETL

OLTEN RC SOLIDIIED
WELD ETL WELD ETL

Advantages Limitations

Excellent arc visibility. Lower deposition rates compared to SAW, GMAW, or

SMAW.
Precise filler metal placement.
High-amperage, water-cooled torches are heavier and
The best undercut control. bulkier than air-cooled torches.

Wide range of thicknesses can be welded. Both hands must be used to hold the torch and filler wire,
which limits accessibility.
Very clean welds can be achieved with no significant slag,
spatter, or smoke. Shielding gas is easily disturbed by gusts of wind.

Excellent weld quality on most metals. Flash burns are easily obtained.

Amperage can be controlled by remote foot or hand Very limited for outdoor field work.
switches.
Difficult to monitor heat input.
The process can be used either manual or automatic.

All-position welding possible.

Filler metal is not always required.

Figure 5.5—Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

30
 SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION

Figure 5.6—Four Primary Welding Positions

Table 5.1
Process Comparison Chart
Process SMAW GTAW GMAW FCAW SAW

Quality Good Excellent Excellent Good Excellent

Deposition Rate Fair Poor Good Good Excellent

Field Work Excellent Poor Fair Excellent Poor

Equipment Maintenance Low Low Medium Medium Medium

Smoke/Fumes High Low Medium High Very Low

Heat Input Control Excellent Poor Good Good Satisfactory

Arc Visibility and Filler Metal Placement Good Excellent Satisfactory Satisfactory Poor

Variety of Metals Weldable Satisfactory Excellent Good Good Fair

31
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Recommended Practices for
Gas Metal Arc Welding (C5.6). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
———. Recommended Practices for Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding (C5.5). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Recommended Practices for Laser Beam Weld-
ing, Cutting, and Drilling (C7.2). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
32
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (PHB-7). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
(PHB-4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Processes and Practices (WPP). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 2, Welding Pro-
cesses (WHB-2.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
 SECTION 6
Primary Concepts
of Welding Design

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34
What the Designer Should Know about Welding ......................................................................................................... 34
Service Requirements...................................................................................................................................................... 34
Base Metal Selection........................................................................................................................................................ 35
Welds Create a Discontinuity in the Base Material...................................................................................................... 35
Weld vs. Base Metal Properties ...................................................................................................................................... 35
Welds Rarely Improve upon Base Metal Properties .................................................................................................... 35
Keep Weldment Designs Simple ..................................................................................................................................... 35
Standardize Component Welding Design...................................................................................................................... 35
Minimize the Number of Welds...................................................................................................................................... 35
Location of Welds ............................................................................................................................................................ 36
Weld Deposit Mechanical Properties ............................................................................................................................. 36
Joint Designs—Amount and Type of Weld ................................................................................................................... 36
Partial Penetration Welds ............................................................................................................................................... 36
Full Penetration Welds .................................................................................................................................................... 38
Fillet Welds....................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Design Considerations for Change of Cross Sections................................................................................................... 39
Residual Stress—Fact or Fiction? .................................................................................................................................. 40
Summary for Improved Fabrication Design ................................................................................................................. 40
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 43

33
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
Section 6—Primary Concepts of Welding Design
Introduction
Inexperienced engineers frequently believe that if
their design can be conveyed to paper as a drawing, it can
be welded. Welding is the most common means of join-
ing two pieces of metal, but it requires special consider-
ation if it is to be done economically. What appears to be
a good design on a computer or drawing board may be a
disaster when it hits the production floor if the fabrica-
tion requirements are not properly considered. Using
quenched and tempered steel in a complex design for
strength-to-weight savings may appear to provide cost
savings. However it may be more expensive to fabricate
than heavier section mild steel.
The term “designer” is used in this section to address
any engineer, technician, draftsman, or other person issu-
ing instructions regarding metal fabrication require-
ments. These individuals are engineering type employees
with cognizance of structural, machinery, piping, and
pressure vessel fabrication. The intent of this section is
not to provide detailed welding design information but to
provide basic welding design concepts. Recommended
reading is provided at the end of this manual for more de-
tailed information on welding design specifics.
What the Designer Should Know
About Welding
Welding design must not be based on isolating the
weld alone. The designer must understand how the weld
and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) next to the weld will
affect the structure’s service. Many factors influence the
effect of the weld on a structure’s performance including
the filler metal type, the welding process and parameters,
and how and where the filler metal is placed in the struc-
ture. It is essential for the design engineer to review the
actual production site prior to and during fabrication, and
to review the finished product. This provides some prac-
tical perspective to weld design that would be missed if
the designer were primarily an analytical type.
34
Service Requirements
Service requirements are the first item that must be
clear in the designer’s mind before making welding de-
sign decisions. Welding decisions will be less than fully
adequate without clear definition of the service require-
ments, and the weldment may be subject to premature,
in-service failures.
Service requirements may be very simple or quite
complex. Weldments experience high and low tempera-
tures, high pressures and stresses, corrosive environ-
ments, and fatigue and impact loading. Often more than
one of these conditions is involved simultaneously.
The designer should consider only the service require-
ments that make the weldment (the combination of weld,
HAZ and base metal) suitable for the expected service.
Some of the service requirements the designer may con-
sider are:
• Tensile, compressive, and shear stresses and strains.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Erosion resistance.
• Abrasion resistance.
• Impact resistance (stress and temperature dependent).
• Creep strength.
• Temperature (high and low temperature).
• Fatigue resistance.
• Aesthetics (color match, anodizing, appearance).
It is rare that a designer would be concerned with
more than a few of these service requirements for a spe-
cific design.
It is poor practice to seek to achieve certain properties
from a weldment, based upon the material’s ability to
achieve these properties, even though the properties are
not related to the service. If a quenched and tempered
material is used for its strength-to-weight ratio proper-
ties, and impact loading is not of concern, the designer
should not impose requirements of impact properties just
because the material used has the ability to achieve high
impact resistance. If 300 Series stainless steel is used
because of its high-temperature yield and oxidation

resistance, as required in steam boilers, the designer
should not be concerned about weld sensitization of the
base metal during fabrication. In many cases, boiler com-
ponents will operate in the sensitizing temperature range
in service anyway.
Base Metal Selection
Weldments should be made from the most economical
and readily weldable base metals available that are suit-
able for in-service requirements. Mild steel is much less
expensive to purchase and to fabricate than the quenched
and tempered steel alloys or the heat-treatable steels and
will usually require considerably less rework. Steels de-
signed for special applications frequently require pre-
heat, and interpass temperature controls during welding,
and sometimes stress relief. Special electrodes and elec-
trode care may also be required. Since fabrication is
much more expensive with quenched and tempered
steels, special consideration should be given to their use.
From a design prospective, in some instances,
quenched and tempered steels offer little advantage. Fa-
tigue stress ranges are not improved with these steels,
only the maximum allowable fatigue stress or static loads.
If complete reversal of service stress is expected, these
steels offer little advantage for fatigue. These steels also
have lower buckling stability for similar cross sections of
mild steel, because they are typically used for higher
loads and will most likely require additional stiffening.
Welds Create a Discontinuity
in the Base Material
The designer always must keep in mind that a weld
does not create a monolithic structure that has uniform
properties throughout. Welds do not act the same as the
base metal and they have different properties. Welds are,
in fact, a discontinuity (a stress riser) in the structure—
caused by their metallurgical, chemical, and mechanical
property differences. Because welds are different than
the base metal, they must be given special design consid-
eration.
Weld vs. Base Metal Properties
Welds are used to join base metals because they are
economical, have high joint efficiencies, and reliability
relative to other fabrication processes. Service areas
where welds can perform favorably toward base metals
are:
35
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
• Allowable stress.
• High-temperature service.
• Impact loading.
• Fatigue loading.
• Leak tightness.
• Corrosion resistance.
Welds Rarely Improve upon
Base Metal Properties
As compared to base metals, welds will cause the
weldment to have:
• Lower fatigue resistance than the base metal.
• Lower impact properties than the base metal.
• Higher residual stress than the base metal.
The weld is a discontinuity which is both a geometric
and metallurgical notch that decreases the suitability for
service below that of the base metal alone.
Keep Weldment Designs Simple
Weldment design should be kept as simple as possible.
Weldments that involve multiple crossing of stiffeners on
the same plane, multiple intersecting “I” beams, or com-
plex patterns of stress flow should be minimized. Com-
plex designs are expensive to fabricate and can lose
serviceability, due to high residual stress and distortion.
Complex designs also limit welding access and may cause
the inability to meet post-weld inspection requirements.
Standardize Component Welding
Design
Standardization of design is necessary for automation
and mass production of similar items. Standardization
also reduces engineering analysis time and may include
complete foundations, stiffeners, pad eyes, weld joint de-
signs, or even the size and shape of structural members.
Unique welding processes, specialty items, varied mem-
ber size, and different materials are not economical in
terms of fabrication or engineering time to analyze each
structure. Standard design details will simplify fabrica-
tion and reduce costs.
Minimize the Number of Welds
Welding and its related processing is one of the most
expensive operations in fabrication. Shaping plate by
pressing or breaking is usually preferable to welding one
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
or more pieces of plate together. Reducing the number of
component parts by improving the design or purchasing
standard shapes is usually more economical than welding.
Location of Welds
From a design point of view, a structure’s ability to
carry service loads is only as good as the weakest part of
the structure. In most cases, the weakest link is the weld
deposit and the localized effects on the structure (espe-
cially for fatigue applications). The allowable loads that
welds are permitted to carry are determined in many in-
stances by a standard or code to which the item is fabri-
cated. Examples of such controlling codes are the AWS
D1.1, Structural Welding Code—Steel, and the American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Code.
Welds should be located according to the cost of mak-
ing the weldment, inspection requirements and the ser-
vice requirements.
Because welds represent a metallurgical notch and are
stress risers, welds should be kept in the lowest stressed
areas as practical. When fatigue, impact, or creep is a pri-
mary concern, the welds should be placed in low-stressed
areas.
When possible, the designer should arrange for the
welds to be made in the flat position. The most economi-
cal, fastest and highest-quality weld is achieved in the
flat position with standard welding processes. Flat posi-
tion welding with simple designs allows high deposition
rate mechanized, semiautomatic, or automatic welding
processes at substantial cost and time savings.
The location of welds should always provide the
welder easy and open access. The most costly welds to
make are predominately those where proper welding ac-
cess has not been provided for by the designer. If welding
access is difficult, then Nondestructive Examination
(NDE) will usually be difficult, as will any necessary fol-
low up repairs. Snipes or “rat holes” should be as large as
practical to provide access for welding and NDE.
Designs should avoid welding across flanges under
tension as drastic reductions to allowable service loads
are imposed by most codes.
Avoid welds on edges of members subject to tensile
fatigue. Edges of members subject to tensile loads usu-
ally experience higher loads than the rest of the member
and, since a weld acts as a stress riser, premature failure
of a component could occur due to unanticipated loads.
Weld Deposit Mechanical Properties
The as-deposited mechanical properties of a weld in a
fabrication should always be considered to be different
36
than the welding filler metal specification requirements.
In production the weld metal properties are dependent
upon the base metal chemistry, how much it has been di-
luted into the weld metal, and the rate of weld metal
cooling. The cooling rate of the weld can also affect the
mechanical properties of the weld and the heat-affected
zone. The cooling rate can be drastically affected by base
metal type and thickness, the amount of weld deposit, the
technique used to deposit the filler metal, and the temper-
ature of the base metal prior to each weld pass (i.e., the
preheat and interpass temperature). In general the de-
signer should use the lowest possible yield strength filler
metal compatible with the design.
Designers will frequently use filler metals that pro-
duce a deposit that exceeds base metal properties. Often
these higher-strength deposits, in combination with the
base metal HAZ, result in the weldment having:
• Decreased fatigue resistance.
• Decreased impact resistance.
• Increased distortion.
• Increased base metal cracking.
• Increased amounts of residual stress.
• Increased costs.
Joint Designs—Amount and Type of
Weld
The type and direction of loading of the weldment
will determine the type and amount of weld. The least
amount of weld should be used to meet the necessary de-
sign service requirements. Specific weld joint design se-
lection is discussed by another section of this manual.
However, it will suffice to say the primary reasons for se-
lecting a joint design are to provide the desired service
requirements (i.e., the ability to accommodate service
stress/strain and corrosion) and to accommodate welder
accessibility.
There are many other secondary factors that affect
joint design selection, such as available processes and
skill levels, cost, aesthetics, environmental conditions,
system status, base metal thickness and properties, loca-
tion of the weld, position of the weld, the number of
welds, the schedule of the project, etc.
Partial Penetration Welds
A partial penetration weld is a weld that intentionally
does not completely penetrate through the thickness of a
joint (see Figure 6.1). Partial penetration welds can often
be used for tension, compression, and shear stresses that
act parallel to the longitudinal axis of a weld and for
 SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN

(1/2)

1/2
Figure 6.1—Partial Joint Penetration with(1/2)
Joint Geometry Optional

1/2
1 1/4

WELD CROSS SECTION SYMBOL

(1/2)
1/2

3/4

WELD CROSS SECTION SYMBOL

1 1/8

(1/2)
1/2 (1/2)
1/2

WELD CROSS SECTION SYMBOL

(1/2)

1/2

WELD CROSS SECTION SYMBOL

Figure 6.1—Partial Joint Penetration with Joint Geometry Optional

37
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN

compression loads normal to a weld (see Figure 6.2).
Making full penetration welds on very thick material for
these types of loads can cause higher residual stress than
the anticipated service loads. In some cases, particularly
on heavy sections, weld failures will be experienced dur-
ing fabrication before service loads are imposed. Often
welds that are subject to shear stresses can be designed to
be 50% efficient, thereby allowing partial penetration
joint designs or lower-strength welds to be used.
Welding defects that are placed in compression or
shear while in service are much less critical than those
placed in tension by service loads. In a practical sense,
partial penetration welds have crack starters and continu-
ous lack of fusion conditions at their roots. Open roots of
partial penetration welds may be subject to crevice corro-
sion. They should not be used in corrosive environments
unless the metal is resistant to crevice corrosion. These
joints have poor resistance to fatigue and impact loading,
and they should not be used when the weld roots are sub-
ject to transverse cyclic tension or bending tension loads.
Partial penetration welds are less expensive and cause
less distortion than full penetration welds.
Full Penetration Welds
A full penetration weld penetrates through the thick-
ness of a joint (see Figure 6.3). Groove welds are used on
butts, corners, and tees. Full penetration welds should be
used only where required by the design service require-
ments. Services involving high shock, high temperatures,
axial or bending cyclic loading (fatigue), and pressure
vessels often require full penetration welds. Full penetra-
tion welds are expensive, often cause the largest distor-
tion and have high residual stress. However, they are
permitted the highest allowable stresses for design ser-
vice by all codes.
Full penetration welds on heavy sections require spe-
cial joint design consideration to minimize residual stress
and the possibility of cracking and lamellar tearing (see
Figure 6.4). Mild steel structural plate has low ductility
through its thickness and it cannot accommodate high
through thickness strains. Lamellar tearing and cracking
of the base metal adjacent to the weld is a common result
of poor welding joint details on heavy structural steels.

Figure 6.2—Compression and Tension Loads for Partial Penetration Welds

38

NOTE OVERLAP
1/4
1/4 1/4
3/8
3/8
Figure 6.3—Full Penetration Groove Welds
Fillet Welds
Fillet welds are generally triangular in cross section
and are used to join two relatively perpendicular sec-
tions. Small fillet welds result in low residual stress and
weld distortion. A 5/16-in. fillet weld can be readily
achieved in one pass.
Larger fillets will require a minimum of three passes,
which greatly increases the cost of welding. If possible, it
is better to keep the fillet size down to one pass and
extend the length of the weld to achieve joint efficiency.
The smallest typical production welds are generally
1/8-in. fillet welds, because a 1/16-in. fillet weld is nearly
impossible to produce. Since fillet welds are used prima-
rily in shear, they are unlikely to propagate weld defects
into failures except under fatigue service applications.
Intermittent fillet welds and continuous fillet welds
made from one side only should be avoided where fa-
tigue, corrosion, or debris and contamination traps are a
concern.
One of the common mistakes of engineers is that they
will frequently increase the fillet weld by one size
(1/16 in.) above their calculated values to play it safe. It
also is not uncommon for production personnel to be
conservative and go oversize due to increased attention
being given to visual inspection. Increasing fillet weld
sizes by two sizes (1/8 in.) has the potential of increasing
welding time, distortion, and cost of filler metals by
more than 100%.
Fillet weld sizing is not strictly based on engineering
calculations that are backed up by extensive laboratory
tests. The various codes and standards each have differ-
ent requirements based on different theories and assump-
tions. Laboratory tests and calculations can also vary by
the selection of the welding process, the depth of weld
39
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
NOTE OVERLAP OF 1/8
3/8
1/4 3/8
penetration, the actual mechanical properties of the weld
deposit and HAZ, the amount of weld reinforcement, and
the actual failure path. These varying conditions lead to
some conservative positions by design engineers. How-
ever, it is extremely rare that fillet welds result in service
failures unless unanticipated service fatigue or impact
loads are experienced. Great care should be taken by de-
signers in not applying liberal safety factors and over-
sizing fillet welds. Oversize fillet welds are very expen-
sive and can result in excessive distortion, welding time,
filler metal, and possibly the need for flame straighten-
ing. Fillet weld sizing formulas and tables can be found
in AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code—Steel, or see
AWS Design Handbook for Calculating Fillet Weld Size.
Design Considerations for Change of
Cross Sections
One of the fundamental errors made by design engi-
neers is not allowing for stress and strain to take place
through gradual changes of the cross section. Failures
commonly occur as a result of thermal and/or mechanical
fatigue associated with rapid changes of the cross section.
Changes of the cross section must be gradual in both the
weld metal and the base metal when fatigue is of primary
concern (see Figures 6.5 and 6.6). It is preferable to have
changes in the cross section take place in the base metal
instead of in the weld metal through a weld joint. It should
also be noted that, in general, those items that affect fa-
tigue life are also of concern if impact loading is expected.
Some common design practices allow tapered sections or
changes of cross section to be a 2:1 ratio. However, a 4:1
ratio is considered to be the most desirable.
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
Figure 6.4—Weld Configurations that
May Cause Lamellar Tearing
Residual Stress—Fact or Fiction?
What every welder knows as a fact of life, the inexpe-
rienced design engineer questions. Do welding residual
stresses exist and do they affect welding design? Are re-
40
sidual stresses caused by welds? Yes! Residual stresses
as high as the yield point do exist in weldments. The ef-
fects of residual stress can be seen in distorted weld-
ments, and fractured welds and base metal. This metal
fracturing can take place during fabrication or in service.
Without stress relief, localized areas of yield point resid-
ual stress are common and should be expected. One way
to allow for this residual stress in the design is by placing
welds in low-service stressed areas. Some items that can
minimize residual stress and metal fracture:
• Use low-yield strength base metals.
• Use low-yield strength filler metals with high ductility.
• Use the minimum weld size or the least amount of
weld metal consistent with the design requirements.
• Avoid the use of notches, sharp corners, or rapid
changes of cross section (stress risers).
• Peen the welds lightly during the welding process.
• Prestress the weld joints prior to welding.
• Avoid full penetration welds on heavy wall structural
assemblies (jumbo sections).
• In general, observing preheating and interpass tem-
perature for a quenched and tempered metal or
quench-hardened material will lower residual stresses.
• Stress relieve the weldment.
• Sequencing the weld by back stepping, balancing the
weld around the neutral axis or welding toward rigidity.
• Avoid joint designs that cause high residual stress
through the plate thickness. Joint details, when practi-
cal, should have the welds placed across the plate
ends (through the plate thickness) on heavy sections.
Summary for Improved Fabrication
Design
(1) Only consider service requirements that make the
weldment suitable for service.
(2) Welds are geometric and metallurgical notches in
base metal.
(3) Welds in base metal frequently cause the design-
allowable stresses for fatigue to drop.
(4) Welds can raise the residual stress in base metals
to the yield point.
(5) Keep weldment design simple. The weld is usu-
ally easier and less expensive to make.
(6) Avoid welding when practical. Use standard
shape material or use castings. Reduce component parts
or the number of plates.
(7) The weld and heat-affected zone are usually the
weakest link in a weldment design. The weld is a stress
riser that is preloaded by residual stress.
(8) When practical, keep welds in low-service stress
areas.
41

SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN

Figure 6.5—Design Considerations for a Change of Cross Section (Tubular)
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN

Figure 6.6—Design Considerations for a Change of Cross Section (Nontubular)

42

(9) Design for prefabricating the material in the shop
when practical.
(10) Use flat position welding. It’s cheaper, faster and
usually higher quality.
(11) Avoid designs that require welding across tension
flanges.
(12) Avoid corner welds or edge welds that are subject
to tensile fatigue.
(13) “As deposited” welds will have mechanical prop-
erties that are different from their specifications due to
base metal dilution.
(14) Use the lowest yield strength filler metal compat-
ible with the design. This reduces costs, residual stress,
distortion, and cracking.
(15) Use the least amount of weld metal necessary to
meet design requirements. A 1/8-in. fillet is typically the
smallest practical fillet size.
(16) Use partial penetration welds in lieu of full pene-
tration when the design permits (i.e., all compression
loads, tension and shear loads that act parallel to the axis
of the weld).
(17) Use full penetration welds only when required by
the service requirements.
(18) Use fillet welds when practical. Use single pass
fillet welds where possible (5/16-in. to 3/8-in. maximum
leg sizes depending on the welding process). Some stan-
dards require a two-layer minimum for leak tightness if
they are to be used for fluid containment.
(19) Balance welding about the neutral axis.
43
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
(20) Use partial penetration welds for joints subject to
axial tension and compression loads.
(21) Do not use partial penetration welds when the
weld root is subject to cyclic tension or impact loads.
(22) Base metal stiffness does not increase with in-
creasing yield strength. Additional stiffeners may need to
be added to a structure which uses high-strength material
in order to decrease plate or section thickness.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Design Handbook for Calcu-
lating Fillet Weld Sizes (FWSH). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
———. Structural Welding Code—Reinforcing Steel
(D1.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Structural Welding Code—Sheet Steel (D1.3).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Structural Welding Code—Stainless Steel (D1.6).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Structural Welding Code—Steel (D1.1). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Weld-
ing Society.
 SECTION 7
Fatigue
Considerations

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 46

Loading ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46

Stress Concentrations...................................................................................................................................................... 46

Crack Initiation Sites ...................................................................................................................................................... 46

Inspection ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48

Code Allowables and Actual In-Service Fatigue Life................................................................................................... 48

Repair of Fatigue Cracks ................................................................................................................................................ 48

Surface Finishing to Improve Fatigue Life ................................................................................................................... 48

Peening.............................................................................................................................................................................. 48

Surface Shape and its Effect on Fatigue ........................................................................................................................ 48

Grinding ........................................................................................................................................................................... 49

Base Metal and Weld Metal Changes in Cross Section................................................................................................ 49

Thermal Fatigue .............................................................................................................................................................. 49

Checklist for Fatigue Considerations............................................................................................................................. 50

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 50

45
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
Section 7—Fatigue Considerations
Introduction
Component failures result predominately from fa-
tigue, corrosion and wear, or a combination of fatigue
and corrosion (corrosion fatigue). A large percentage of
failures are directly related to fatigue. Welded structures
that are subjected to repeated fluctuating loads (cyclic)
are candidates for fatigue failure at strain levels well
below their yield strength. Many structures can sustain
static service loads forever, but under cyclic conditions
the structure may fail in a short period of time, with an
average load no greater than the static condition. Essen-
tial elements of fatigue are fluctuating loads with a ten-
sion component, a stress concentration, and localized
plastic strain. Failures are associated with a permanent
physical change in the metal at and near the stress con-
centration (crack tip).
Loading
Fatigue loads are cyclic in nature. The loads may be
induced by cyclic mechanical forces, temperature varia-
tions, pressure fluctuations, vibration from machinery or
a combination of these loads. Under some circumstances,
environmentally corrosive conditions may increase the
fatigue crack propagation rate. The fluctuating fatigue
loads must have a tension component but may reverse
even into compression loading.
Loads may also be placed on a component by fluctu-
ating bending loads, or rotational bending as is common
in pump turbines, and electrical motor shafts. Varied
loads of tension or tension and compression may cause
failure in fatigue in a matter of a few thousand cycles,
well below a load that would cause yielding. In bending
and torsional fatigue, surface discontinuities are most
significant since the maximum tensile loading is at the
surface.
The fluctuating service fatigue load can be purely
compressive in nature and still cause crack initiation.
This occurs in regions of high tensile residual stress
46
caused by welding. The residual stresses become redis-
tributed under the influence of cyclic loading and cracks
propagate out of the tensile residual stress field.
Stress Concentrations
Fatigue cracks only initiate at stress concentrations.
When they do occur in service on weld-fabricated struc-
tures, they are usually associated with welds and their
heat-affected zones. Welds and their heat-affected zones
are, by definition, discontinuities and stress risers. Welds
that have been deposited for repair, buildup, or cladding
must be considered stress concentration areas that may
be subject to fatigue failure. As soon as a fatigue crack is
initiated, the crack itself becomes the primary stress con-
centration factor.
Progressed fatigue cracks have caused catastrophic
failures, where the members have lost their ability to
carry stress because of loss of load-carrying cross sec-
tion. In some cases, members fail cataclysmically due to
overload and/or brittle failure during their final stages of
cracking (unless the stress and/or the cyclic loading is
reduced).
Crack Initiation Sites
Crack initiation sites are typically at weld-base metal
interface surfaces located along the toes of fillet welds or
edges of butt welds (see Figure 7.1). Also, hard rough
flame-cut edges that have not been dressed by grinding
are subject to fatigue. In addition, weld termination sites
are common locations for failures. Few welds experience
fatigue crack growth from the roots of fillet welds, or
from the roots of partial penetration groove welds. How-
ever, partial penetration welds with insufficient throat
thickness will typically fail through the center of the
weld and the crack will not progress into the base metal.
It is also uncommon that fatigue cracks initiate from in-
ternal weld defects. However, defects that are large in
 SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS

Figure 7.1—Cracks

47
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
area, typically associated with lack of fusion, cracks or
slag, open to or very close to a weld surface, are most
likely to progress into cracks if undesirable loading is
present. Fatigue crack growth from the toes of welds will
typically progress from the edge of the weld and through
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) into the base metal at right
angles to the fluctuating primary stress in the weldment.
By proper examination of fatigue fracture surfaces, it
can be determined where the failure initiation sites were,
and the direction and amount of primary stress.
Inspection
Fatigue cracks are difficult to find during the early
stage of growth since they are tight and exhibit no defor-
mation. Visual inspection is of limited value during this
stage of crack growth. The magnetic particle (MT), pene-
trant (PT), and eddy current (ET) tests would be the best
inspection processes for discovering fatigue cracks.
Code Allowables and Actual
In-Service Fatigue Life
There are codes, such as the American Welding Soci-
ety’s D1.1, Structural Welding Code—Steel, that desig-
nate certain allowable cyclic loads based on the type of
weld, the location of the weld, and the direction of load-
ing. It should be noted that some codes, such as the AWS
D1.1, provide no advantage in the allowable stress ranges
for high-strength steels in fatigue applications other than
permitting higher maximum allowables for static or dead
loads. To obtain actual fatigue life data, it must be deter-
mined by testing with controlled mockups, or the actual
component. (The airline industry manufacturers subject
complete airplane fuselages and wing assemblies to fa-
tigue testing.)
Repair of Fatigue Cracks
Since fatigue failures are common in machinery ser-
vice, the repair of such cracks and their prognosis for
success needs to be discussed. Repairs should com-
pletely remove the fatigue crack. Peen each weld layer to
minimize tensile residual stress loads. Finish welds
should be contour ground to a smooth finish. Weld rein-
forcement should be kept to a minimum. Any major
abrupt changes in the cross section in the weld or the ad-
jacent base metal area should be avoided. The final sur-
face condition should be inspected and proven free of
linear discontinuities. The original condition that initi-
ated the fatigue crack must be changed. A reduction of
48
loading, the rate of loading, or the number of cycles
should be examined. Welds should be kept in low-
stressed areas. Reverse cyclic loading (tension-compres-
sion) should be avoided. High-yield base metals have lit-
tle advantage if reverse cyclic loading is experienced.
Surface Finishing to Improve Fatigue
Life
Since surface shapes can directly affect fatigue life, it
is necessary to know how surface conditioning can im-
prove fatigue life. A simple example of this is that a
finely finished smooth machined plate or shaft will have
an improved fatigue performance (number of cycles and
stress limit) over base metal with mill scale. Also, plates
or shafts with mill scale will have considerably better fa-
tigue resistance than the same base metal that has been
subject to surface pitting by corrosion.
Peening
Light peening of a surface, if accomplished properly,
will provide a smoother surface than the as-welded con-
dition, it will lower the residual stress in the weld joint,
and place the surface of the weld under light compres-
sion which will increase fatigue life. Improvements as
high as 20% in the fatigue stress range or the number of
cycles can be achieved with proper peening. Some stan-
dards do not permit peening of the last layer of a weld
because finished inspections may not be able to be prop-
erly accomplished. However, for fatigue applications it is
critical that peening not be limited to internal weld
passes. Fatigue cracks most commonly progress from the
surfaces of components and peak service and residual
stresses are on the base and weld metal surfaces. Peening
of these surfaces is essential to improving fatigue life. If
necessary to facilitate subsequent inspections, light con-
tour grinding of the peened surface may be accomplished
to facilitate subsequent inspections.
Surface Shape and its Effect on
Fatigue
The surface shape of a component is critical to its fa-
tigue life. All as-welded surface shapes result in stress
risers or stress concentrations. That means that the stress
in the component in these as-welded surface areas is
higher than the nominal cross-sectional stress of the
component, just because of a change of shape.

The following weld geometry attributes are stress ris-
ers that directly lead to a lower fatigue life (see Figure
7.2).
It is important to realize that the only thing that is
being addressed here is the shape of the surface and not
differences due to a weld deposit being present, such as
residual stress or different mechanical properties. Reduc-
tion in fatigue life due to these surface conditions would
be present regardless of whether a weld were present or
not. If all base metal fatigue samples are machined into
different shapes, such as increasing amounts of rein-
forcement or increasing re-entrant angles or machined in
simulated weld ripples, the fatigue life will be decreased.
For example, if simulated undercut is machined into the
surface of a plate it will reduce the fatigue life of the
plate even though a weld is not present.
Grinding
Contour grinding of welds and the adjacent base
metal to remove undercut, excessive weld reinforcement,
weld ripples, weld defects and sharp weld re-entrant an-
Figure 7.2—Surface Geometry Effects
on Fatigue Life
49
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
gles is very beneficial for improving the fatigue life of a
component. In every case, fatigue life should be expected
to be improved over the as-welded condition by proper
grinding. Grinding that is properly accomplished can im-
prove fatigue performance by at least 20%. However,
grinding should not leave gouges or heavy grind marks.
Also, removal of weld reinforcement to nearly zero with-
out creating a noticeable angle between the reinforce-
ment and the base metal improves fatigue life. Contour
grinding of welds should be performed prior to stress re-
lief on components, such as pressure vessels. Since con-
touring of welds is very expensive, and in some cases it
is more expensive than making the weld, it should only
be accomplished for critical applications, or where
known service problems exist.
Base Metal and Weld Metal Changes
in Cross Section
Improper change in cross section is one of the most
common causes of reduced fatigue life. Abrupt changes
in the cross section (stress concentrations) must be
avoided or minimized for improved fatigue resistances.
Poor transitions in thicknesses cause higher local cyclic
fatigue stresses, and consequently, lower fatigue life.
These localized stresses and strains can be induced in the
component by different sources. Fatigue is often experi-
enced due to differential thermal expansion or vibration
of structural and machinery components. Piping system
fatigue failures are often caused by vibration of nearby
machinery components, not allowing systems to freely
expand during heating periods, or improperly installed
pipe hangers that were used to support service loads and
dampen the number of fatigue cycles.
Thermal Fatigue
When a component is comprised of thick and thin sec-
tions and is subject to transient changes in temperatures,
high thermal strains can easily develop at abrupt changes
of the cross section without considering other external
loads. During the heat-up cycle the thin material will heat
up much more rapidly than the thick sections. The hot
thin sections must thermally expand, but will be re-
strained by the thicker cooler sections. During the cool-
down cycle, the thinner sections will cool-down much
more rapidly than the thick sections, causing high ther-
mal strains, again due to differences in temperature. Fur-
ther, thermal strains can be induced as a result of the
difference in thermal conductivity between materials
used in a given joint configuration.
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
Checklist for Fatigue Considerations
(1) Keep welds in low-stressed areas.
(2) Keep the maximum stress and the number of
cycles as low as is practical.
(3) Avoid reverse cycles (tension and compression).
(4) Avoid rapid or abrupt changes in cross-sectional
thicknesses especially in weld-associated areas.
(5) Keep weld reinforcement and re-entrant angles to
a minimum.
(6) Contour grinding or peening will improve fatigue
performance.
(7) Keep components painted; it improves fatigue
performance and minimizes surface corrosion.
(8) Reverse thermal strains are common in piping and
machinery components where abrupt changes of thick-
ness are present or components’ piping systems are not
allowed to freely expand. These internal loads can be re-
duced by providing gradual changes in cross sections,
flexible supports, sliding foundations or bends in piping
systems to allow gradual strain distributions over larger
areas.
(9) When repairing a fatigue crack, be sure the crack
is completely removed. Contour grind the weld and in-
spect the weld for critical applications.
(10) Unless the stress pattern, the rate of loading, the
number of cycles, or the basic design is changed, re-
paired fatigue cracks will redevelop (usually at a more
rapid rate).
(11) Avoid the use of doubler or cover plates where
fatigue considerations are critical.
(12) For dissimilar metal welds involving thermal
fatigue applications, the filler metal should have a ther-
mal expansion rate approximately midway between the
two base metals selected.
50
(13) Continuous fillet welds have better fatigue perfor-
mance than intermittent fillet welds.
(14) Full penetration welds have better fatigue perfor-
mance than partial penetration welds.
(15) Avoid the use of welds on external cor-
ners or plate edges when practical for critical fatigue
applications.
(16) Avoid welding transverse to primary tension fa-
tigue stress (i.e., across tension flanges of beams).
(17) Flame-cut edges on heat-treatable base metal
should be ground to a smooth surface to remove peak
hardness residual/stresses and stress concentrations.
(18) Avoid forced alignment of flanged joints and
weld joints, as this may result in fatigue cracks adjacent
to welds during service.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Structural Welding Code—
Steel (D1.1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
Fatigue Assessment of Welded Joints Using Local Ap-
proaches. England: Abington Publishing. (Available
through AWS.)
Fatigue Strength of Welded Structures, 2nd ed. England:
Abington Publishing. (Available through AWS.)
Proceedings of the International Conference on Fatigue.
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
 SECTION 8
Welding Safety
Considerations

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 52

Design................................................................................................................................................................................ 52

Production ........................................................................................................................................................................ 53

Respiratory Protection and Ventilation ......................................................................................................................... 53

Use of Inert Gases ............................................................................................................................................................ 54

Planning for Safety .......................................................................................................................................................... 54

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 55

51
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Section 8—Welding Safety Considerations
Introduction
The purpose of this section is to provide the designer,
planner, or mechanic with insights into potentially
hazardous conditions that commonly exist in production
and work environments, but unfortunately are often
overlooked. All too often, hazardous conditions are
present and overlooked or not properly considered. This
results in unnecessary risk to personnel, equipment, and
product.
It can be said, with reasonable certainty, that no de-
signer, planner, production superintendent, or mechanic
ever plans to have an accident. Accidents are, by defini-
tion, unplanned occurrences, sometimes resulting in loss
of life, serious collateral damage, or both.
The information provided and discussed in the follow-
ing pages is not intended to address all of the potential
hazards associated with welding fabrication, or the sub-
sequent safety precautions necessary to resolve every po-
tential problem. This reference guide is intended to
stimulate the imagination of everyone, from the designer
to the mechanic, to look for potential hazards and elimi-
nate them before an accident occurs and it becomes a
costly lesson learned the hard way.
Safety, as related to welding fabrication, must be con-
sidered from three specific points of view: design, plan-
ning, and production fabrication. Each area has specific
responsibilities and concerns and will be looked at indi-
vidually in this section.
Design
Safety during the design phase is usually not a field
that is given independent consideration. Safety is usually
limited to general areas of consideration, and more often
than not, related to production capabilities and costs,
more than safety, such as:
• Can the component be handled or positioned for
fabrication?
52
• Can the assembled unit be lifted and transported to the
installation site?
• Joint design as related to accessibility.
• Fabrication processes.
• Materials.
• Process safety.
All of the above are important aspects of a well-
formulated plan. While these items do not directly ad-
dress safety, it can be seen that several of the items will
greatly impact the safety of the production personnel per-
forming the specified task.
The designer must use knowledge and experience to
weigh production techniques against worker safety re-
quirements. For example, are the weld joint design and
component configuration consistent with the intended
weld process, i.e., will a joint’s backside accessibility be
in a tank, with a single access at the top of the tank, jeop-
ardizing a welder’s safety by asphyxiation due to lack of
oxygen? This resulting from the plan-specified weld pro-
cess, “gas metal arc” welding which incorporates an inert
shielding gas. It cannot be assumed by the designer that
production personnel will take this type of potential haz-
ard into consideration before starting work.
There are many industry publications available that
cover industry-associated health and safety hazards, e.g.,
AWS Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Pro-
cesses, and AWS Effects of Welding on Health I–X.
These and other industry reference materials can be valu-
able sources of information if your organization is not
fabricating under some other safety standard, such as
those of the Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA).
The following are specific areas that designers should
consider prior to issue of plans and instructions:
(1) Design and lay out welds which will allow for ad-
equate and safe welder accessibility.
(2) Design assemblies so that fabrication welds can
be performed in areas where adequate ventilation can be
provided.

(3) Provide direction on plans and instructions where
known fire and safety hazards exist, i.e., tanks which
have contained or presently contain flammable or health-
hazardous material and air-tight compartments or voids
which have been closed for long periods of time.
(4) Design assemblies to utilize automated systems
wherever possible.
Production
While safety is everyone’s concern, the ultimate re-
sponsibility for a welder’s safety is the welder who is
performing the work. Without a thorough understanding
of the risks and the initiative to eliminate potentially haz-
ardous conditions in the interest of their own and their
fellow worker’s safety, injurious and costly accidents
will occur.
Training that instructs the welder on the types of
safety hazards which exist in his/her particular work en-
vironment and even more important, how to spot unsafe
conditions under various circumstances, whether related
specifically to welding or some other trade, must be pro-
vided. As the safe working environment ethic becomes
intrinsic to all workers, supervisors, planners and design
personnel, accidents and losses will be greatly reduced.
The following is a listing of many common hazardous
conditions and practices that have caused and will con-
tinue to cause lost time, serious injury, and death.
CAUTION
• Do not forget that argon, carbon dioxide, mapp, pro-
pane, and natural gas are heavier than air and will
flood a space if stored inside a room or compartment.
Always store in a well-ventilated area. Never store
leaky cylinders indoors.
• Do not dip a hot electrode holder in water to cool it
off.
• Do not assume that because power sources are low
voltage they are not dangerous. A welder should avoid
standing on wet floors and never touch the bare metal
parts of an electrode holder with any exposed skin or
wet covering on their body. The danger of electrical
shock is particularly present in hot weather where the
welder may be wet from perspiration.
• Do not weld while standing in water without properly
insulated footwear.
• Do not transport arc welding cables coiled around the
shoulders when the conductors are carrying power.
• Do not weld in areas that are not fire safe, especially if
the work can be moved to a safe location. It has been
53
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
found that the majority of fires have been caused by
portable equipment. Permanent weld stations are
made fire safe.
• Do not weld on tanks that contain or have contained
combustible material or liquids unless they have been
inerted according to IAW local instructions.
• Do not weld when material or personnel are improp-
erly supported or staged.
• Do not weld with equipment that is improperly insu-
lated or has broken electrical insulation.
• Do not oxyfuel cut, weld, or carbon arc gouge on
bulkheads or walls without stationing a fire watch or
taking appropriate precautions to protect against fire
on the opposite side. Equipment and machinery in the
area must also be protected.
• Do not enter a previously sealed void without check-
ing the atmosphere for the presence of oxygen and po-
tentially harmful gases.
• Do not weld in a tank or void without adequate venti-
lation and especially when using processes such as
gas tungsten and gas metal arc welding that employ
inert gases.
NOTE: All inert gases will displace air.
• Do not weld or grind without appropriate eye and skin
protection.
• Do not weld or oxyfuel weld/cut in an oxygen-
enriched environment, as the potential fire hazard is
greatly increased.
Respiratory Protection and
Ventilation
• The respiratory health hazards associated with weld-
ing operations evolve largely from the inhalation of
the gases, dusts and metal fumes produced. Whether
respiratory damage occurs during welding will de-
pend on the use of precautionary measures that are in-
dicated by an evaluation of the hazards involved. With
only a few, relatively simple precautions, the chance
of respiratory damage can be eliminated.
• The single most important factor influencing the
amount of fumes inhaled by a welder is governed by
the welder himself, by the position of his head with
respect to the plume of the fumes.
• The nature of any toxic materials to which a welder is
exposed will depend on the type of welding process,
filler and base metal, presence of contamination on
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
the base metal or the presence of volatile solvents in
the air.
• Zinc and magnesium oxide inhalation.
— Toxicity produces chills, fevers, nausea four to
eight hours after exposure.
— Toxicity disappears almost invariably, within 24
hours.
• Copper fumes toxicity.
— Toxicity symptoms similar to zinc and magnesium
except it is more severe, longer lasting and is pre-
cipitated by less exposure.
• Nickel (1 mg per cubic meter), cobalt (0.1 mg per cubic
meter), and mercury (0.1 mg per cubic meter) are:
— Strongly suspected of causing a chemical pneu-
monitis which may have severe or even fatal
results.
• Cadmium oxide and beryllium oxide.
— These oxides produce severe fume pneumonitis.
— They are extremely dangerous.
• Iron and aluminum apparently do not cause a metal
fume fever although inhalation of very large amounts
of iron fumes for a period of years may cause a condi-
tion known as siderosis, a deposit of iron in the lungs.
• Materials coated, even accidentally, with toxic materi-
als such as lead, cadmium, mercury or paints contain-
ing toxic materials produce what is probably the
greatest health hazard in welding or cutting. Any such
coatings should be removed prior to welding, or rigid
ventilation control measures should be established.
Welding on materials containing lead, or other toxic
materials such as high-lead bronze, may produce a harm-
ful exposure, depending largely on the amount of such
material present and the amount of metal melted. Pro-
fessional safety advice should be consulted prior to
welding.
Welding on materials containing Beryllium may pro-
duce an extremely dangerous condition. No such welding
should be undertaken until complete control of fumes has
been provided.
Welding on tanks, pipelines or containers of any sort
from which the contents have not been completely re-
moved may introduce a serious hazard by volatilization
or decomposition of the residue. This is particularly
true when halogenated materials or plating solutions are
involved.
54
Use of Inert Gases
Due to the serious nature of the potential hazards as-
sociated with the use of inert and other gas mixtures re-
quired during welding, additional emphasis is warranted.
The use of nonflammable (inert) gases within structural
enclosures, piping systems, etc., creates a potential per-
sonnel hazard. The inherent danger in the use of inert
gases is that sufficient quantities may be released into an
occupied compartment or space to reduce the oxygen
content of the atmosphere below that required to support
human life.
Inert gases are used in many production methods in
the building and repair of ships, argon (Ar) for purging
piping systems, nitrogen (N 2 ) for drying air piping,
helium (He) for some types of welding and carbon diox-
ide (CO 2 ) for inerting tanks containing flammables, to
name a few.
An atmosphere deficient in oxygen (O2) usually gives
little or no warning, particularly if the gas that has dis-
placed the oxygen is odorless. A trained observer may
notice an increase in pulse or breathing rate in time to es-
cape; however, the average individual may fail to recog-
nize the lack of oxygen until he is too confused and weak
to save himself, especially when a considerable distance
must be traveled to reach fresh air.
To minimize the hazards, the use of inert gas must be
closely controlled. Positive exhaust systems must be in
operation to reduce the possibility of an inert gas
buildup, should accidental leakage occur. Low areas
where heavier gases tend to accumulate require special
attention. In addition to general ventilation requirements
to reduce this hazard, local exhaust ventilation should be
installed in such a manner as to exhaust the inert gas.
Each opening from which the inert gas is flowing must
have individual ventilation.
Personnel using and/or having access to inert gas should
receive additional training about its potential hazards and
the appropriate methods for handling and working with it.
Planning for Safety
It is often the case during the planning and funding
phase of a project, that safety is assumed to be a normal
work practice and is just another unaccounted for ex-
pense of completing a project. This can be a dangerous
approach to doing business. This attitude or lack of
awareness of what is required to ensure the safety of the
workers places an unnecessary burden on those produc-
tion people trying to meet the schedules. Not properly
identifying and subsequently funding safety require-
ments may cause production personnel, in their efforts to
complete a job in a timely, cost-effective manner, to
overlook serious safety considerations. Safe working

conditions for your personnel are not an incidental part
or expense of doing business. Staging, eye, ear, ventila-
tion, respiration, skin, and fire protection add consider-
able cost to a job and must not be overlooked.
Successful completion of any complicated task
requires thoughtful coordination of assets and per-
sonnel—usually from a variety of trades. The same
can be said for thorough planning and funding of that
task prior to the start of a complex job. Without careful
coordination between design, planning, and production
personnel, a costly lesson to be learned would be in the
making. Areas that require special safety considerations
may be overlooked, resulting in a potential loss of both
human and material resources.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. A Sampling Strategy Guide
for Evaluating Contaminants in the Welding Environ-
ment (F1.3). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
55
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
———. Arc Welding Safely (AWS). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
———. Effects of Welding on Health, vols. I-X (EWH).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Fire Safety in Welding and Cutting (FSW). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Lens Shade Selector (F2.2). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
———. Safe Practices (SP). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
———. Safety and Health Fact Sheets (SHF), 2nd ed.
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
(Z49.1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
 SECTION 9
Weld Joint Design
Considerations

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 58

Design................................................................................................................................................................................ 58

Weld Joint Design Considerations ................................................................................................................................. 58

Accessibility...................................................................................................................................................................... 59

Environmental Conditions .............................................................................................................................................. 60

Temperature Control....................................................................................................................................................... 60

Base/Filler Material......................................................................................................................................................... 60

Pipe Welding Considerations.......................................................................................................................................... 60

Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................... 61

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 61

57
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Section 9—Weld Joint Design Considerations
Introduction
Manufacture/assembly of most products requires
joining of component parts. When welding is used for
joining, the assembly is called a weldment. As in any as-
sembly process, the basic objective of a weldment design
is to perform the intended function of the product with
minimum fabrication costs.
Design
During the conceptual design phase, the design en-
gineer needs to review items such as the fabrication
standard/code being invoked, operating condition/envi-
ronment, material selection, assembly techniques, re-
quired inspections and maintenance/repair. The design
engineer should have basic knowledge or seek consulta-
tion from related engineering and production personnel
in the following areas:
(1) Mechanical and physical properties of base met-
als and weld metals.
(2) Weldability of metals and the effect of their
strengthening mechanisms (alloyed, cold worked, age
hardened, heat treated).
(3) Welding processes (advantages and limitations).
(4) Preparation and fabrication of welded joints.
(5) Thermal effects of welding, cutting, gouging, and
grinding.
(6) Effects of restraint, stress concentrations and
residual stress.
(7) Distortion control, prevention and cause.
(8) Nondestructive examination methods and the ap-
plicable acceptance standards.
(9) Applicable welding and safety codes/standards.
(10) Assembly and erection methods.
(11) The proper use of welding symbols and terms.
The AWS Welding Handbooks are a good source of
information on material properties and welding.
58
Weld Joint Design Considerations
When selecting welded joint designs, the following
items need to be considered.
Application
What is the function of the weldment? Generally all
fabrication is covered by a standard or code that is in-
voked by the customer. Standards/codes have specific
sections that define/clarify structural welding, piping
systems, pressure vessels, machinery components, tur-
bine components, etc. Information is also given for
allowable joint designs/limitations, required nondestruc-
tive tests, and the acceptance standards that have to be
met.
Cost
The designer should keep in mind that variables in
joint design, material type, welding process, nondestruc-
tive testing, and fabrication sequence have an effect on
cost. During the initial design/planning stage, meetings
should be held to review the projected fabrication with
related engineering, funding, and production personnel
who will be involved with the work. Preplanning helps
minimize fabrication cost. Items to discuss at these meet-
ings should include:
(1) Review of the fabrication standard/code require-
ments including weld type and size, and nondestructive
testing.
(2) Review of possible base materials.
(3) Review of assembly sequence including weld
joint accessibility and position.
(4) Review of possible weld joint designs and welding
processes with consideration to mechanized processes.
(5) Welder and procedure qualification requirements.
(6) Post weld stress relief and machining.
(7) Alternate fabrication methods.
(8) Staffing and equipment requirements.
(9) Documentation of job performance.

Welding Processes
When selecting a weld joint design, it is necessary to
consider what welding processes are to be used. Will the
welding be accomplished in the field or in the shop?
Each welding process has its limitations. Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding (GTAW) should not be used on heavy struc-
tural sections, but rather on piping or sheet metal. Sub-
merged Arc Welding (SAW) will only be used in the flat
or horizontal position preferably in a shop-type environ-
ment. If weld deposition rates are of concern in the field
then the Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) process
should be considered rather then Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW). Joint access and position may deter-
mine which welding process can be used. This in turn de-
termines the weld joint design.
Corrosion Resistance
What type of service (operating media such as high-
temperature steam, seawater, acidic fluids, etc.) will the
joint experience? Weld joints with backing strips or
backing rings and partial penetration joints with open
roots will be subject to crevice corrosion and should not
be used in the above-mentioned service without specific
consideration.
Joint Efficiency
Joint efficiency is the ability of the weld joint to trans-
fer stresses between the members being welded and the
weldment. Weld joint efficiency requirements will, to a
large extent, determine what type of weld joints are
needed. Welds joints can be put into two groups, full
penetration and partial penetration. A full-penetration
joint has fusion through the entire cross section of the
weld. A partial-penetration joint allows an unfused area
within the joint cross section, and the weld does not com-
pletely penetrate the joint thickness. Keep in mind that
joint efficiency is not totally equated with weld size, but
is largely dependent on factors including weld metal
properties and stress transfer.
Fatigue Resistance
When designing a weld joint, fatigue resistance must
be considered. Any abrupt change in cross section or di-
rection along the path of stress flow will reduce the fa-
tigue life. To increase fatigue life, sharp corners should
be replaced with smooth transitions, simple butt joints
should be used instead of lap or “T” joints, and changes
in cross section should include a minimum 4:1 taper into
or out of a weld joint. Smoothly ground weld reinforce-
ment will also increase the fatigue life. Weld discontinui-
ties such as excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap,
59
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
lack of penetration or weld surface roughness should all
be avoided to maximize fatigue life. Weld reinforcement
sized to the members being joined will increase fatigue
life. Welds are often designed as full penetration and fil-
let welds designed as continuous instead of intermittent
in order to maximize fatigue life.
Impact Resistance
Impact loading may result from any sudden applica-
tion of a load. During impact loading, a member is re-
quired to absorb energy rapidly. Designs that are
susceptible to fatigue failures are often also subject to
impact failure. The weld and base material should be
ductile and have suitable impact resistance at the lowest
possible service temperature. Weld joints subject to im-
pact loading will gain increased resistance by design in-
corporating many of the guidelines used for “Fatigue
Resistance.”
Distortion Control
There are a number of distortion origins during the
manufacture of structural sections and piping systems.
Distortion is primarily due to restricted expansion when
the heat of welding is applied. With preplanning, distor-
tion can be kept to a minimum. Design factors of distor-
tion control include:
(1) Minimize welding by using standard shapes.
(2) Use partial-penetration joints when design
permits.
(3) Balance welding around the neutral axis. Use
double “V” or “U” joints so that welds can be balanced
by welding alternately on either side of the plate.
(4) Weld toward restraint.
(5) Do not use excessive force to align joints for fit
up.
(6) Preplace or preposition weld joints to accommo-
date weld joint shrinkage.
(7) Prestress weld joints to off set weld shrinkage.
(8) Peen welds.
(9) Use processes that use the minimum total heat
input to fabricate the joint.
(10) Use the least amount of total weld metal consis-
tent with adequate design.
(11) Use subassemblies to accommodate distortion
shrinkage.
Accessibility
Joint accessibility for the welder needs to be taken
into consideration when issuing design instructions and
drawings for assembly in the shop or field. Is the job new
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
construction or repair? Can component subassemblies be
accomplished in the shop? Shop assembly increases ac-
cessibility by permitting plates to be turned, and piping
to be rolled. To assist in making sound design/planning
decisions, the design engineer should visit and review the
job site prior to issuing work instructions.
Environmental Conditions
A job site and work condition review will assist in se-
lection of weld process and associated joint design. Ad-
verse weather conditions and contaminates such as water,
paint, and oil in or near an existing weld joint are factors
to consider when designing new weld joints, or specify-
ing repairs and welding processes. Windy conditions re-
quire additional sheltering if a gas-shielded welding
process is selected.
Temperature Control
Heat transfer from the welding process into the weld
and the adjacent base metal can cause damage to compo-
nents. When welding a component with finished ma-
chined surfaces control of temperatures before, during
and after welding has to be addressed so as to keep dis-
tortion of those surfaces to an acceptable level. There
may be paint that needs to be protected on the inaccessi-
ble backside of a component that requires weld repair.
Material thickness and maximum temperature the paint
can withstand have to be known before welding. A
mock-up of the job may have to be done.
O-ring seating surfaces located near weld repair areas
require heat input control for distortion protection. Some
considerations for controlling heat to a desired area can
be done by preheat and interpass temperature restric-
tions, limiting length of weld bead, joint design, size of
welding electrode, number of weld passes, and forced
cooling (air or water).
Base/Filler Material
Base metal and filler material selection can determine
what weld joints can be used. When choosing base/filler
materials the designer has to be aware of conditions that
may affect the final selection such as:
(1) Is the project new construction, rework, or repair?
(2) What is the form of the base material (wrought,
forged, or cast)?
(3) What service environment will the material be
subjected to?
60
(4) What physical and chemical properties need to be
considered?
(5) What material types and thicknesses are available?
(6) Are dissimilar metals to be joined? (Some filler
metals are extremely crack sensitive depending on the
base metal/filler metal combination.)
Fabricated components, throughout their life span,
may have to be weld repaired. The designer should keep
this in mind for weldability and welding access in the
field. Components that will be weld repaired or replaced
often should be designed for ease of welder access and
ease of weldability (i.e., process to be used, base material
type, and joint design).
Pipe Welding Considerations
Pipe Joint Design
Design criteria for welded pipe joints are set forth in
specifications. These criteria are dependent upon the
piping system. The designer is guided in selection of a
particular joint design by one or more of the following
factors:
(1) Contractual requirements.
(2) System application (pressure, temperature, corro-
sion, erosion, etc.).
(3) Piping material.
(4) Piping wall thickness.
(5) Specifications.
(6) Classification of joint (i.e., consumable insert,
backing ring, socket, or square butt).
(7) Availability of fittings.
(8) Welding accessibility for butt or socket joints vary
with location. Butt welds usually require greater working
space.
(9) Butt weld joints are more difficult and generally
more expensive to make than socket welds.
(10) Butt weld fittings may be joined directly to one
another, requiring only one joint.
(11) A length of pipe between two socket fittings re-
quires two weld joints.
A piping designer should take into consideration that
any joint in any piping system could be subject to failure
under a given combination of adverse circumstances, and
must therefore be accessible for repair. Designers must
also consider that repairs may be necessary in the field
and not under ideal conditions. Consequently, whenever
a welded joint can be eliminated in design, it automati-
cally eliminates a source of possible future failure. This
could be done by designing bends instead of welded
joints into a given piping system.

Summary
When designing weldments, the design engineer
needs to know the properties of the materials selected,
the service requirements of the weldments, and the fun-
damentals of the fabrication processes.
Engineers designing welded components need to
know basic mathematical formulas for calculating forces
and their effects. The calculations need direct application
to the specific weld joint design that is selected for join-
ing component parts.
Weldment design should always be based on the thin-
ner member being joined. The minimum amount of weld
metal should be used while maintaining weld joint
strength requirements.
61
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Standard Symbols for Weld-
ing, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination
(A2.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
Blodgett, O. W., Design of Weldments. The James F. Lin-
coln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Cary, H. 1997. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (Available through AWS.)
Metals Handbook, 9th ed. vol. 6, Welding, Brazing, and
Soldering. American Society for Metals, Metals
Park, Ohio.
 SECTION 10
Weld Distortion
and Control

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64

Mechanisms of Weld Distortion ..................................................................................................................................... 64

Theoretical Shortening under Ideal Conditions ........................................................................................................... 65

Metal Properties Affecting Distortion ........................................................................................................................... 65

Considerations for Minimization of Weld Distortion................................................................................................... 66

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 69

63
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL

Section 10—Weld Distortion and Control

Introduction
UNWELDED PLATE
Control of distortion during fabrication is essential.
Weld distortion is evident on practically all weldments. It
is readily visible on thin plate and sheet metal when
welded. In addition to lowering stress-carrying capabili-
ties, distortion can make it extremely difficult to fit sub- ARC IS STRUCK
assembly parts together to complete a fabrication. Weld
distortion can be extremely expensive to correct and it is
easier to prevent than to correct for critical applications.
Fabrication distortion is caused by:
HEATED PORTION
• Volumetric shrinkage of molten metal solidifying to EXPANDS
ambient temperature.
• Thermal shortening of metal adjacent to a weld.
• Filler metal with higher yield strengths than their base
metals. ARC IS
EXTINGUISHED
The metallurgical and mechanical properties of the
base metal greatly influence the degree of distortion ex-
perienced. Because of their different mechanical and
CONTRACTING
metallurgical properties, different base metals exhibit SHAPE WITH
varying amounts of distortion for the same amount of COOLING
heat input. The following base metals are listed in order
of increasing distortion problems: HY-100, HY-80, high-
strength steel, mild steel, Monel®, copper-nickel and 300 RESOLIDIFIED
Series stainless steel. WITH RESIDUAL
STRESS

Mechanisms of Weld Distortion

We l d M e t a l S o l i d i fi c a t i o n S h r i n k a g e Figure 10.1—Shrinkage in a Weld Caused
(Shortening) by Expansion and Contraction

Figure 10.1 exhibits the primary distortion mecha-

nism involved when a weld is deposited in a grooved
plate. The weld that is deposited in the plate will de-
crease in volume about two percent during solidification
and cooling to ambient temperature. If the solidified
weld metal could be removed from the base metal it
would have a shorter length than the base metal length it
was deposited upon. Since the yield strength of the weld
deposit is invariably higher than the base metal, the weld
will cause the adjacent base material to distort and to
have high residual stress at ambient temperature.
Distortion of Metal Adjacent to a Weld Due
to Heat Input
Another mechanism by which weld distortion oper-
ates is that the metal (which includes previously depos-

64

ited weld metal) adjacent to the weld is heated under
restricted expansion (compression). The metal is only
free to thermally expand and plastically deform in the
through thickness dimension of the base metal (perpen-
dicular to the weld surface). The end result is that the
nonuniformly heated area adjacent to a weld is generally
thicker, narrower in width, and shorter in length than
base metal outside the heated area (see Figure 10.1).
Restricted Expansion during Heating Cycle
When base metal is heated in a plate by a single pass
of weld metal, the base metal being heated adjacent to
the weld thermally expands as the temperature rises
while the base metal a short distance away from this
heated area is much cooler. The cooler base metal re-
strains thermal expansion in the plane of the plate. This
places the heated area adjacent to the weld under high
compressive strain. The yield strain of the base metal
being heated decreases with increasing temperature
while that of the adjacent cooler base metal remains
stronger due to its lower temperature. As the adjacent
metal continues to be heated to higher temperatures as a
result of thermal conduction from the deposited weld, it
reaches yield point. The heated area adjacent to the weld
yields (or plastically flows) perpendicular to the plate or
weld surfaces (see Figure 10.1).
Cooling Cycle
As the heated area adjacent to the weld cools off, the
area that is plastically deformed is always at a lower tem-
perature than the center of the weld. This causes retained
increased thickening or deformation that was formed
during the heating cycle in this peripheral weld area.
During the cooling cycle, the periphery area (this may be
previously deposited weld metal or the base metal) has a
higher yield strength than the weld, due to its lower tem-
perature. The average thickness at ambient temperature
of this plastically flowed area is greater than it was prior
to heating. This thickening can only be accommodated
by shortening of dimensions in the plane of the base
metal. In other words, the thermally upset base and weld
metal now have a shorter length and shorter width in the
plane of the plate. The end result of this shortening in
width and length and increased thickness is high elastic
and plastic deformation of the weld and the base metal
adjacent to the weld metal. This results in weld distortion
and high residual stress.
Theoretical Shortening under Ideal
Conditions
The nonuniform heating and cooling of the weld
metal and the surrounding base metal during weld fabri-
65
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
cation can result in distortion. It should be noted that as
the temperature increases, the strain to cause yielding
(permanent deformation) decreases. As one inch of base
metal is heated, it must thermally expand (volumetri-
cally) to accommodate this increased energy; and since it
cannot thermally expand in its length because of restraint
(ideal), the metal experiences compressive strains.
At low temperatures these strains are elastic (no per-
manent deformation). As the temperature is increased,
the compressive strains become so high that they reach
the compressive yield strain of the base metal, and any
increased temperature results in plastic deformation. By
subtracting the yield strain curve from the thermal ex-
pansion curve, the resulting curve represents the perma-
nent deformation (shortening) of the one-inch length of
base metal after it has been subjected to temperatures
higher than approximately 180°F.
By developing these curves for different base metals
from published data and then comparing them, increased
information can be gained as to what temperatures are
necessary to initiate deformation under ideal conditions
with single axial restraint. Under ideal conditions very
small changes of temperature are required to reach base
metal yield points and to cause plastic flow.
Metal Properties Affecting Distortion
Each component brings its own manufacturing history
of residual stress to the fabrication assembly. Castings
have solidification stresses, and plates are stressed by
rolling and cooling operations. Each metal’s properties
(thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, elasticity,
yield strength, its structural shape) influence the severity
of manufacturing stresses and resultant weld distortion.
Thermal Expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion is used to ex-
press the amount of expansion and contraction of metal
with temperature change. The higher the coefficient, the
more expansion and contraction is predicted for a given
temperature change. 300 Series stainless steel, copper-
nickel, and Monel® all have high thermal expansion rates
and this, in conjunction with relatively low yield strains,
makes them subject to considerable distortion.
Thermal Conductivity
Metals with low thermal conductivity will experience
increased distortion due to a greater temperature gradient
between the weld and base metal. The reason for this is
that when weld metal is deposited, the base metal cannot
conduct the heat of welding away rapidly and a large
difference in temperature is created in a narrow zone,
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
causing large thermal expansion in this localized area.
Plastic flow occurs in this restricted expansion area, re-
sulting in distortion. Stainless steel has much lower ther-
mal conductivity than mild steel and this is partially why
it is much more susceptible to distortion than mild steel.
Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a
metal. A material with a higher modulus is more resistant
to distortion, since increased stress is required to strain or
stretch the material. However, it should be noted that the
mild steel and most alloy steels have nearly the same
modulus of elasticity.
Yield Strength/Strain
Yield strength or yield strain is an indication of the
metal’s resistance to permanent deformation. A lower
yield strength filler metal accommodates some of the dy-
namic weld joint stresses by stretching rather than creat-
ing distortion. Conversely, base metals with high yield
strain are less susceptible to distortion due to their in-
creased strength.
Manufacturing Residual Stresses
Components have their own residual stress patterns
that can affect the resultant distortion of the finished
product after welding. Because of different cooling pat-
terns, castings, plate, and shapes have varying residual
stress patterns that directly affect distortion. For exam-
ple, the flanges of rolled I-beams are typically under ten-
sion, while the webs are under compression, because
during manufacture the thinner cross section of the webs
cool first followed by the flanges. The cooling and short-
ening of the flanges place the webs under compression.
Considerations for Minimization of
Weld Distortion
Minimize Welding
Avoid welding when practical. Use standard shapes or
rolled sections, use castings or break/roll material into
different shapes rather than welding several pieces
together.
• Minimize root openings and bevel angles of full pene-
tration joints. However, adequate access for the weld-
ing process and operator must be provided.
• A “J” or “U” groove requires less welding than a
bevel or “V” groove and will result in less distortion
of thicker metals.
66
• A double “V” groove requires less welding than a sin-
gle “V” in the same plate thickness and will help bal-
ance angular distortion.
• Use partial penetration joints whenever possible.
• Use smallest weld size possible to meet the strength
requirements. Oversized welds increase distortion.
• Use flanged corners instead of welded corners.
• Use intermittent welds to reduce welding where prac-
tical (see Figure 10.2).
Balance Welding
Weld in a sequence that offsets one shrinkage stress
against a previously deposited weld on the opposite side
(see Figure 10.3). However, the resultant shrinkage of the
second weld will not equal the distortion of the first weld.
Distortion is best controlled by welding both sides simul-
taneously such as double fillet welds where practical.
Joint Design
Joint designs should have minimum root openings and
bevel angles, yet provide adequate joint access for good
fusion for the welding process used. Joint designs need
to be selected that will balance welding (see Figure
10.4).
Restraint
Reduce distortion by restraining assemblies in fixtures
or to other assemblies. When practical weld toward max-
imum restraint; weld away from edges; weld toward the
centroid or the center of gravity when practical.
Neutral Axis
Position weld joints at a neutral axis to provide less
leverage for shrinkage forces, or balance welding around
the neutral axis.
Structural Tacks
Structural tacks help force the welds to deform rather
than distorting the base metal. Structural tacks are usu-
ally a minimum of two inches long and are often two lay-
ers thick. These tacks will restrain the root opening from
closing during welding and will help force the root weld
pass to deform instead of pulling the plates together. It
should be kept in mind that any restraint that can be
placed on hot weld metal will be very effective, due to its
low yield strength at high temperatures. The structural
tacks need to be thick enough so that they cannot be
fused through by subsequent passes, as this will reduce
some of their effectiveness.
 SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL

Figure 10.2—Fillet Weld Applications

67
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
Figure 10.3—Sequence Welds
α
β let welds by one size on thin material.
Figure 10.4—Joint Designs
to Minimize Distortion
Fit Up
Proper edge preparation with joint alignment and
minimum root openings decrease welding and result in
less weld distortion. Do not use excessive force to align
joints for welding. High residual stress will be induced
into the weld joint resulting in weld distortion.
Backstep Welding
Backstep welding uses the restraint of a previously
deposited weld to minimize the tendency of the two
plates from pulling together as the welding progresses.
Controlled Wandering (Backstep) Weld
A backstep weld is used in wandering sequence.
Welds made in short segments, distributed along the
length of the joint, cause less distortion than continuous
welding (see Figure 10.5).
Prestressing and Interference Fits
Prestressing surfaces to be welded by bending or by
interference fits develops tensile stresses on surfaces to be
68
welded. This will counteract weld and base-metal short-
ening and reduce weld distortion. The two interference
fit examples show how it may be used to maintain critical
inside dimensions and circularity when adding length to
or repair welding a finished machine part.
Preset
Alignment of the joint is set up out of position to
allow for anticipated shrinkage during welding to bring
the assembly to the desired position (see Figure 10.6).
Use mockup test assemblies to estimate amount of preset
necessary as the amount of preset will vary with each
welding process and the parameters used.
Overwelding
Weld convexity increases shrinkage but does not in-
crease strength. Use intermittent welds or partial penetra-
tion welds where practical. Do not oversize fillet welds.
Excessive distortion can result from oversizing small fil-
Weld Process Selection
The greater the total heat input by conventional weld-
ing processes the greater the distortion. Weld process se-
lection should consider weld deposition, amperage, and
travel speed. Use of largest suitable electrode is fre-
quently recommended as transverse weld stresses are
somewhat cumulative and distortion can be increased by
multiple passes.
Prefabrication
Welds made in the flat position or with joint rotation
allow use of larger electrodes and deeper-penetrating
weld processes with less joint preparation. The result is
less weld distortion.
Subassemblies
Fabrication of subassemblies provides additional dis-
tortion control, since each subassembly can be adjusted for
distortion before being matched to another subassembly.
Peening
Weld shrinkage may be counteracted by peening,
which stretches the weld in the area peened. Peening is
most effective at higher temperatures. A blunt tool
should be used to plastically deform (stretch) the weld
after slag is removed. However, a root bead should only
be peened lightly or not at all because of the danger of
causing a root crack. Peening marks should be removed
from the final weld surface if they are expected to inter-
 SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL

OGRESS
N OF WELD PR 4
DIRECTIO 3
2
1

Figure 10.5—Controlled Wandering (Backstep) Weld

added to the load stress may exceed the material’s yield

strength. Stress relief after welding reduces residual
stress of fabrication. Stress relief, properly accom-
plished, is essential for components that are to receive in-
tricate machining to close tolerances. Without stress
relief, the component will “walk” or move during the
machining of the weld deposit (removing the weld de-
posit changes the residual stress pattern) and the part
may be lost as scrap when finished.

Figure 10.6—Presetting for

Fillet and Butt Welds
fere with final inspection. Peening marks may act as
stress risers if peening is not accomplished properly.
Stress Relief
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th ed.,
vol. 1, Welding Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.

The shrinkage of a cooling weld applies stress to the ———. Welding Processes and Practices (WPP). Miami,
weld metal and surrounding base metal. These stresses Fla.: American Welding Society.

69
 SECTION 11
Checklist for
Sound Welding
Decisions

Contents
The Intended Service Requirements.............................................................................................................................. 72

Base and Weld Metal Properties .................................................................................................................................... 72

Fabrication Conditions Imposed .................................................................................................................................... 73

71
SECTION 11—CHECKLIST FOR SOUND WELDING DECISIONS

Section 11—Checklist for Sound Welding Decisions

No item has a greater effect on weldability than
the common everyday decisions made by the designer,
welding engineer, shop supervisor, and the journeyman
mechanic.
Before making a welding decision, there are three
basic areas that should receive consideration:
• The intended service requirements.
• The base metal and weld metal properties.
• The fabrication conditions imposed.
As an aid, to make sure you have checked items that
can affect weldability, a Sound Welding Decisions
Checklist is provided in this section. This list is not all
inclusive and may be added to depending upon the indi-
vidual’s specific experience. However, it is a list of spe-
cific areas that deserve attention in avoiding the majority
of serious welding problems.
Once a problem or potential problem area is identi-
fied, it should be referred to or coordinated with the per-
son having technical cognizance, i.e., the designer,
welding engineer, or the production supervisor. It should
be noted that:
❒ Tensile and compressive stresses and strains (axial/
bending).
❒ Corrosion resistance.
❒ Erosion resistance.
❒ Abrasion resistance.
❒ Impact resistance (stress and temperature dependent).
❒ Creep resistance.
❒ Temperature (high- or low-temperature physical
properties).
❒ Fatigue resistance (thermal and mechanical).
❒ Aesthetics (color match, anodizing, and appearance).
Base and Weld Metal Properties
Welding Engineering Cognizance
The effects on the HAZ and weld metal properties
due to the maximum welding temperature reached
and the rate of change of temperature are of pri-
mary importance. They can result in weld defects,
metallurgical notches and drastic changes in base
metal properties.

• The design engineer is most knowledgeable about the

❒ Base metal chemical composition.
intended service of requirements.
❒ Diluted weld metal properties.
• The welding engineer is most knowledgeable about ❒ Tensile/yield strength.
the weld metal. ❒ Elongation/ductility.
• The production supervisor and mechanic are most ❒ Quench hardenability properties.
knowledgeable about the imposed fabrication condi- ❒ Work hardening properties.
tions (environment). ❒ Age-hardening properties.
❒ Susceptibility to hot cracking.
❒ Solubility of gases (porosity, embrittlement, and
The Intended Service Requirements cracking).
❒ Homogeneity/soundness (coring, loose structure,
and lamellar tearing).
Design Cognizance ❒ Sensitization to corrosion and corrosion cracking.
Will the weld and heat-affected zone (HAZ) provide ❒ Grain size.
the desired service? Consider only those service re- ❒ Refractory oxide formation.
quirements that make the weldment fit for use. ❒ Conductivity (thermal).
❒ Viscosity or fluidity.

72
 SECTION 11—CHECKLIST FOR SOUND WELDING DECISIONS

❒ Thermal expansion (yield strength vs. temperature ❒ Number of welds.

and restraint). ❒ Weld shrinkage.
❒ Machinability. ❒ Distortion control, prestress, structural tacks, back
setting, and peening.
❒ Weldment design (joint design, weldment geometry,
Fabrication Conditions Imposed material selection, weld sizes, and equipment
maintenance).
Production Supervisor’s Cognizance ❒ Cleanliness.
❒ Weld location (accessibility, restrictions, position,
The actual welding environment and welding re- shop vs. field).
sources will often determine the success or failure ❒ Weld sequence (shop controlled).
of a welding project. ❒ Weather or atmosphere.
❒ Purging requirements.
❒ Skilled, qualified mechanics (experience and good ❒ Thermal stress developed Restraint Safety of men
morale). and equipment.
❒ Schedule. ❒ Quality control evaluations (defects vs. failures
❒ Available equipment, materials, and facilities. and cost to meet NDE).
❒ Welding process characteristics. ❒ Weld procedure (various welding parameters).

73
 SECTION 12
Defects and Discontinuities
of Welding
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Weld Acceptance Standards ........................................................................................................................................... 76
The Cause of Welding Defects ........................................................................................................................................ 76
Weld Discontinuities ........................................................................................................................................................ 77
Cracking ........................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Delayed Cracking—Hydrogen Embrittlement ............................................................................................................. 83
Techniques for Allowing Hydrogen to Escape from Welds.......................................................................................... 84
Minimizing the Available Amount of Hydrogen to the Weld Deposit......................................................................... 84
Welding Processes and their Available Hydrogen ........................................................................................................ 84
Summary of Rules to Minimize Hydrogen Embrittlement Cracking ........................................................................ 85
Slag Inclusions ................................................................................................................................................................. 85
Lack of Fusion or Incomplete Fusion ............................................................................................................................ 85
Lack of Penetration ......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Porosity ............................................................................................................................................................................. 87
Undercut (Including Root Undercut) ............................................................................................................................ 88
Tungsten Inclusions ......................................................................................................................................................... 88
Arc Strikes........................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Spatter .............................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Crater Pit.......................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Burn-Through .................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Incomplete Insert Melting .............................................................................................................................................. 91
Root Centerline Crease ................................................................................................................................................... 91
Melt-Through................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Oxidation .......................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Root Concavity................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Root Convexity................................................................................................................................................................. 92
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 92

75
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Section 12—Defects and Discontinuities of Welding
Introduction
Weld discontinuities are unintentional conditions that
occur during the welding process and result in undesir-
able conditions in the weld or the adjacent base metal. If
weld discontinuities are expected to be detrimental to the
service, they must be evaluated. All unintentional weld
conditions that could possibly affect the weld’s service,
and that are caused by the welding process, are called
discontinuities. Those discontinuities that do not meet
the acceptance standards imposed by the owner/engineer
or are reasonably expected to have detrimental effects on
service are call defects.
Weld Acceptance Standards
Weld acceptance standards are usually written for the
worst case. They may not be reasonable in all cases. En-
gineering evaluation and judgement may be necessary to
prevent unnecessary expenditures of resources to repair a
defect that would not affect the service of a weldment.
The designer/owner that imposes acceptance standards
should always keep in mind that in some cases a weld re-
pair just to meet acceptance standards may cause a com-
ponent to become less useful, or in some cases useless. A
pore of porosity that does not meet the acceptance stan-
dard and is deep within a casting wall would frequently
be better left as found rather than attempting repair. The
reason for this is that when the casting is repaired, it will
have: a nonuniform metallurgical structure (cast metal
has been replaced with weld metal); high residual stress;
lower fatigue performance; micro shrinkage in the adja-
cent cast metal may develop into micro casting tears; se-
rious distortion problems may develop; and frequently,
corrosion resistance properties are lowered.
The Cause of Welding Defects
There are many specific causes of welding discontinu-
ities, however they can be generally categorized in the
following groups:
76
Personnel Skill and Experience
The operator’s manual skill and knowledge with spe-
cific materials and processes can greatly reduce weld re-
ject rates.
Welding Process Characteristics
Each welding process has specific characteristics that
make it more susceptible to a certain type of weld dis-
continuity such as:
• SAW—Solidification centerline cracking.
• GMAW—(short arc)—Lack of fusion.
• SMAW—Starting porosity.
• GTAW—Tungsten inclusions.
Base Metal Selection and Properties
The specific properties of a base metal can make it
much more prone than other base metals to certain weld
defects such as:
• Quench and tempered and heat-treatable steels are
very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and de-
layed cracking of the weld and the heat-affected zone
(HAZ).
• Tin bronzes are susceptible to intergranular cracking
(hot shortness).
• Copper-nickel alloys are prone to incomplete fusion
and porosity.
• Inconel ® alloys are subject to oxide inclusions, and
centerline cracking on concave bead shapes.
• Aluminum alloys are susceptible to porosity and in-
complete fusion.
• Mild steel is very susceptible to lamellar tearing in
heavy sections with high through thickness stresses.
Welding Environment
The welding environment probably has a greater in-
fluence on the total number of weld rejects than any
other condition. The greatest influence is whether the
 SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

weld is made in the field or the shop. Some field environ- Cause
mental conditions that increase weld rejects are:
Cracking occurs when the metal under stress exhausts
• Out of position welding. its ductility and does not have the ability to elastically or
• Restricted access welds. plastically flow without fracturing.
• Mirror welds.
• Wind, rain, cold, etc. Service Impact
• Wet systems to purge.
Cracking is one on the most serious discontinuities,
since it usually requires the least amount of energy to
progress into a failure. Any cracking that exists transverse
Weld Discontinuities to primary stress in fatigue or is subject to impact loading
The common discontinuities found on completed must be considered hazardous, unless the base material is
welds are: specifically designed for energy absorption under these
types of conditions. However, because a crack is present
• Crater cracks.
or exists does not mean that the weldment is unsuitable
• Face cracks. for service. When cracks are left in service they must be
• Heat-affected zone cracks. evaluated for suitability based upon orientation, location,
• Lamellar tears. loading and the base metal properties.
• Longitudinal cracks.
• Root cracks. Hot Cracking
• Root surface cracks.
• Throat cracks. This cracking occurs at elevated temperatures and
• Toe cracks. generally travels in grain boundaries between the grains
• Transverse cracks. of crystalline metal. If fracture surfaces are exposed to
• Underbead cracks. air during hot cracking they frequently will exhibit tem-
• Weld interface cracks. per colors. Hot cracking is most common in bronze and
• Weld metal cracks. brass alloys, copper-nickels and base metals that are high
• Lamination. in elements such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, and sul-
fur. Welds that experience galvanize (zinc) contamina-
For the location of the above-listed discontinuities in tion or are made on free machining metals are also
weld joints and the associated base metal, see Table 12.1 subject to hot cracking.
and Figures 12.1–12.6.
Solidification Cracking
This cracking mechanism is commonly witnessed in
Cracking deep penetrating welds which may have long solidifying
surfaces that have a chevron shape as is often seen with
Definition submerged arc, flux cored arc and electroslag welding. It
A linear rupture of base and/or weld metal. It has a is generally caused by insufficient liquid weld metal nec-
high length-to-width ratio and is characterized by a sharp essary to accommodate a restrained, contracting volume
tip. of solidifying weld metal. When grain growths from each
side of a weld are nearly parallel to each other, as in deep
Shape penetrating welds, they close off a finite amount of liquid
metal to accommodate weld metal shrinkage or contrac-
Usually a tight linear separation of metal that can be tion (see Figure 12.8). The last metal to freeze will most
very short (microscopic) to very long indications extend- likely be higher than the rest of the weld in low melting
ing the full length of a weld. constituents like sulfur, phosphorous, tin, lead, or zinc,
which also increases its crack susceptibility.
Location
Crater Cracking
Cracking takes place in the weld, the weld-base metal
fusion line or the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ). Weld- The craters that appear at weld bead termination sites
ments of age hardened or brittle metal may sometimes are common areas of cracking (see Figure 12.9). This
crack several inches away from the weld. Figure 12.7 weld metal is the most rapidly cooled metal of the entire
exhibits potential crack locations. weld. It is being cooled in all directions after the welding

77
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Table 12.1—Fusion Weld Discontinuity Types

Discontinuity
Type of Discontinuity Identification Appearing in Figure Number Location* Remarks

Porosity
Uniformly scattered 1a 12.2, 12.6 W Weld only as discussed herein

Cluster 1b 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld only as discussed herein

Linear 1c 12.2, 12.6 W Weld only as discussed herein

Piping 1d 12.1, 12.2, 12.6 W Weld only as discussed herein

Inclusions
Slag 2a 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W

Incomplete fusion 3 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5 W At joint boundaries or between passes

Inadequate joint 4 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5 W Root of weld preparation
penetration

Undercut 5 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 HAZ Junction of weld and base metal at
surface

Underfill 6 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5 W Outer surface of joint preparation

Overlap 7 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W/HAZ Junction of weld and base metal at
surface

Laminations 8 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 BM Base metal, generally near
midthickness of section

Delamination 9 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 BM Base metal, generally near
midthickness of section

Seams and laps 10 12.1, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 BM Base metal surface, almost always
longitudinal

Lamellar tears 11 12.3, 12.5 BM Base metal, near weld HAZ

Cracks (includes hot

cracks and cold cracks)
Longitudinal 12a 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W, HAZ, Weld or base metal adjacent to weld
BM fusion boundary

Transverse 12b 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W, HAZ, Weld may propagate into HAZ and base
BM metal

Crater 12c 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld, at point where arc is terminated

Throat 12d 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld axis

Toe 12e 12.1, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 HAZ Junction between face of weld and base
metal

Root 12f 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld metal, at root

Underbead and 12g 12.1, 12.2, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 HAZ Base metal, in HAZ
heat-affected zone

Fissures W Weld metal

*W—weld, BM—base metal, HAZ—weld heat-affected zone

78
 SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Figure 12.1—Double-V-Groove Weld in Butt Joint

(See Table 12.1)

Figure 12.2—Single-Bevel-Groove Weld in Butt Joint

(See Table 12.1)

79
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Figure 12.3—Welds in Corner Joint

(See Table 12.1)

Figure 12.4—Double Fillet Weld in Lap Joint

(See Table 12.1)

80
 SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Figure 12.5—Combined Groove and Fillet Welds in T-Joint (See Table 12.1)

Figure 12.6—Single Pass Fillet Welds in T-Joint (See Table 12.1)

81
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

LEGEND O OT SUF ACE C AC

1 C ATE C AC T O AT C AC
2 1 1 2 FACE C AC TOE C AC
2 1 E ATA FFECTED 1 T ANS E SE C AC
O NE C AC 11 UNDE EAD C AC
LAE LLA TEA 12 WELD INTEF ACE C AC
LONGITUDINAL C AC 1 WELD E TAL C AC
1 O OT C AC

1
11 12
1
1 2 1

Figure 12.7—Potential Weld Crack Locations

arc is withdrawn and does not have the arc as a source of

heat to slow its cooling rate. The weld crater solidifies
from its perimeter toward its center, making all of its
shrinkage strains away from the crater center. Weld bead
termination sites are usually concave in shape (a high
stress profile) and are very prone to cracking. Metals most
likely to crater crack have wide solidification ranges, low
ductility at high temperatures, or are subject to low melt-
ing temperature segregates. Aluminum, copper-nickel, In-
conel® , Monel® , AISI 4130, and AISI 4140 are quite
susceptible to crater cracks, which is a form of hot crack-
ing. For Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), welding
current decay should be used to help reduce the shrinkage
stress while continuing to fill the crater to create a flat or
slightly convex bead termination site. By reducing (de-
caying) the current before extinguishing the arc the actual
Figure 12.8—Solidification crater size that must solidify is much reduced in diameter.
Cracking Mechanism Thin, concave welds (like weld craters) have high suscep-
tibility to centerline cracking (see Figure 12.10).

Figure 12.10—Typical Centerline Cracks

Figure 12.9—Typical Crater Cracks Due to Thin Concave Bead Shapes

82
 SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Cold Cracking
Cold cracking generally occurs below 400°F. Marten-
sitic base metals are subject to high stresses and have a
microstructure that is susceptible to low-temperature
cracking. Cold cracks are predominately transgranular,
occurring across metal grains, while hot cracking usually
occurs between grains or interdendritically.

Lamellar Tearing
Some mild steel base metals are subject to cracking
adjacent to welds due to their inability to withstand high
through-thickness stresses, because their through-thick-
ness ductility is low. This low ductility is the result of
non-metallic inclusions that developed during the initial
pouring of the ingot to make the material. These inclu-
sions are in the form of oxides, silicates, sulfides, etc.
When the plates are rolled, some of these inclusions are
rolled out into thin, lamellar plate inclusions lying paral-
lel to the plate surface at different depths throughout the
thickness of the material. When high through-thickness
stresses are placed on the plate by welding, cracking oc-
curs by shearing from one inclusion in the plate to an-
other inclusion within the base metal. This cracking
pattern has a stair-step appearance in the base metal (see
Figure 12.11). Corner welds that involve welding across
the end of both members and butt welded joints, mini-
mize through-thickness strains and are most desirable be-
cause in some applications they place the metal under
through-thickness compression. TEE welds are examples
of unavoidable through-thickness stresses. In these cases,
the most successful remedy is clad welding the plate in
the area of the groove’s reinforcement fillet or fillet weld
or peen each weld pass.
Recommendations to prevent lamellar tearing are:
(1) Select weld joints that minimize through-thickness
stresses.
(2) Peen all weld layers.
(3) Keep weld sizes down.
(4) Use low-strength filler metals.
(5) Use thin plate (less than one half inch).
(6) Provide for slight root openings under “T” welds.
(7) Select fine-grain steels with stabilized inclusions
than cannot be rolled out into lamellar inclusions.
Figure 12.11—Examples of
Lamellar Tearing
Delayed Cracking—Hydrogen
Embrittlement
The presence of hydrogen can develop tremendous presence and the effects of hydrogen during welding can
stress when present in welds and their heat-affected cause cracking of the base metal (under-bead cracking)
zones in low-alloy steels (heat treatable) such as HY-80, or weld metal immediately or several days after the weld
HY-100, AISI-4130, AISI-8630, and AISI-4340. The was completed. Thus comes the term delayed cracking.

83
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
The presence of hydrogen causes a drastically localized
loss of ductility in ferritic welds and their heat-affected
zones. Classical cracks are transverse across the weld de-
posit. Hydrogen may also contribute to other types of
cracks such as longitudinal cracks and localized cluster
cracks depending on the restraint and environmental con-
ditions. Techniques and procedures that a welder must
use to minimize cracks are:
(1) Minimize the amount of hydrogen available to the
molten weld metal.
(2) Allow hydrogen to escape from the weld and the
HAZ.
Techniques for Allowing Hydrogen to
Escape from Welds
Deposit Thin Beads
Thin weld passes allow hydrogen to escape much
more rapidly than thick weld beads, because the hydro-
gen has less distance to travel. The time required for hy-
drogen gas diffusion is a square relationship of the weld
pass thickness. Therefore doubling the weld pass thick-
ness quadruples the time for hydrogen to escape from the
weld.
Time Delay between Deposition of Succes-
sive Weld Passes
Hydrogen escapes most rapidly immediately after a
weld is deposited, probably because of the amount of hy-
drogen present and the elevated temperature of the weld
deposit. It is much more effective to provide hydrogen
diffusion time between each weld pass than to deposit
several layers of weld metal and then allow time for hy-
drogen to escape. Hydrogen escapes much slower from
heavy weld buildups.
Closely Control the Preheat and Interpass
Temperature
Maintaining the preheat and interpass temperatures
increases the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld. It is
essential that the preheat soaks completely through the
base metal thickness. Rapid cooling of the weld deposit
makes it much more susceptible to cracking. It has been
reported that at temperatures above 200°F hydrogen em-
brittlement cracking is unlikely to occur. This means that
a minimum preheat temperature of 200°F during welding
will minimize the possibility of hydrogen-induced crack-
ing and also accelerate the removal of hydrogen. However,
84
200°F minimum preheats and interpass temperatures are
not suitable for all base metals.
Hold the Weld at Interpass Temperature
after Welding
The weld and the adjacent base metal should be held
near the maximum interpass temperature for at least one
hour after welding; and on heavy sections, 24 hours is
highly desirable to permit hydrogen to diffuse from the
weld without developing cracks.
Minimizing the Available Amount of
Hydrogen to the Weld Deposit
Welds should be made with the lowest hydrogen con-
tent materials available. Weld electrodes must be kept
clean, dry and properly stored in a heated, vented oven
when not in use. Welds should be made only on clean
and dry base metals. All sources of hydrogen should be
minimized.
(1) Water, rain water, condensed water from torches,
and the atmosphere are all sources of hydrogen.
(2) Combined water in electrode coatings and fluxes
are sources of hydrogen. Only baking will drive off com-
bined water. Many coatings are hydroscopic and will au-
tomatically absorb moisture out of the air.
(3) Paint, grease pencils, oils, wood, paper, shop dirt,
and tape are all potential sources of hydrogen.
Welding Processes and their Available
Hydrogen
Of the commonly used welding processes, gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) has a lower amount of hydrogen
available than do the shielded metal arc, flux cored arc or
submerged arc welding. Since SMAW consumes its hy-
droscopic coating during the welding process, higher
amounts of hydrogen are available to the molten weld
puddle. Flux cored arc welding, like SMAW, has a flux
that is consumed in the welding process that may intro-
duce hydrogen to the molten weld puddle. Of the arc
welding processes that utilize flux, submerged arc weld-
ing requires the greatest amount of concern because of its
high flux usage. SAW consumes approximately a pound
and a half of flux for each pound of weld metal depos-
ited. Also, its weld passes are generally thicker than the
other processes, which makes it more difficult for hydro-
gen to escape.
 SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Summary of Rules to Minimize
Hydrogen Embrittlement Cracking
(1) Good housekeeping and proper handling of weld-
ing materials.
(2) Use thin weld beads.
(3) Allow time for hydrogen to escape between weld
passes.
(4) Maintain interpass temperature for up to 24 hours
after welding.
(5) Use welding processes that will minimize the
amount of available hydrogen.
Slag Inclusions
Definition
A slag inclusion is a non-metallic solid inclusion
trapped within weld metal, between weld passes, or be-
tween the weld metal and the base metal.
Shape
Slag inclusions are usually elongated globular shapes.
However, slag can be found in stringers and in thin or
very thick layers. Slag inclusions can be microscopic in
size or very much larger, extending through the entire
thickness of a weld or across a complete layer of weld (as
can be found in submerged arc welds).
Location
The most common area for slag entrapment is in the
first layer and between the root layer and the second
layer. Slag is also found at sharp re-entrant angles be-
tween weld passes and between weld passes and the base
metal. Overhead welding is most prone to slag inclusions,
due to the quick freezing slag of smaller weld beads.
Sources of Slag
The major source of slag is the flux and electrode
coating used in SMAW, FCAW, and SAW processes.
However, GMAW and GTAW processes may contain
slag inclusions due to metal and silicon oxides. As the
amount of oxygen increases in GMAW shielding gases,
the amount of slag produced increases. Slag can also
occur with GTAW process, when the molten end of the
filler metal is removed from the shielding gas and oxides
are formed. The oxides are introduced into the weld pud-
dle when the filler metal is added. Another source of slag
is the base metals themselves, since nonmetallic oxides
and nitrides are available to form slag from these materi-
als. Shop dirt in the form of oxides of burning and goug-
85
ing, paper, wood, grease, and paint will all contribute to
slag formation if they are allowed to contaminate the
weld joint.
Cause
By far the most common reason for slag inclusions is
incomplete de-slagging of the previous weld layer, leav-
ing slag at sharp re-entrant angles and at the edges of
weld beads. When an SMAW deposit is made, slag may
tightly adhere to both the start and stop areas, leading to
slag inclusions. Slag entrapments can be caused by a
number of reasons: lack of operator skill; amperage too
low; improperly prepared weld joints; improper back
gouging; erratic progression; weave too wide; electrode
too large; and improper bead placement. There is also a
common misconception by welders that tightly adhering
slag, which is difficult to remove, can be burned out by
the next pass by turning up the amperage. This practice is
extremely risky, unreliable, and should not be attempted.
Service Impact
Most acceptance standards allow some slag to be con-
tained within weld deposits but it is limited in size and
frequency. It is not considered nearly as severe a defect
as a crack, since slag is usually globular in shape. It is
more closely allied to porosity in its effects on service,
except that slag, when its area becomes significant or its
shape is not globular, will probably affect fatigue perfor-
mance to a greater degree than porosity.
Lack of Fusion or Incomplete Fusion
Definition
This condition exists when there is incomplete fusion
between the weld metal and a preceding weld deposit or
the weld metal and base metal (fusion that is less than
complete). Frequently, incomplete fusion appears as
metal-to-metal contact with a thin line between beads
with no metallurgical bonding.
Shape
On weld cross sections, lack of fusion is usually a
curved line. On a radiographic image, lack of fusion will
frequently appear to have a straight portion with a curved
end (a tail).
Location
Lack of fusion occurs between weld passes, or be-
tween weld passes and the base metal (see Figure 12.12).
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

INCO LETE
FUSION

INCO LETE FUSION

INCO LETE FUSION

INCO LETE FUSION INCO LETE FUSION C

Figure 12.12—Lack of Fusion Locations

Cause Table 12.2—Melting Temperature

The most common cause of incomplete fusion is inad- Comparison Chart—Base Metal
equate welding heat (amperage/current). The heat input vs. Refractory Oxide
from welding must be great enough to melt the base
metal and to allow sufficient time for thin surface oxides Melting Melting
to be removed. Other causes of incomplete fusion are im- Temperature Temperature
Metal (°F) Oxide (°F)
proper travel speeds (too fast or too slow), insufficient
electrode size, improper joint design selection, improper Aluminum 1100 Al2O3 3659
electrode or torch manipulation, improper surface clean-
ing, and improper removal of refractory oxides. Monel® 2400 NiO 3614
Refractory oxides melt at much higher temperatures Inconel® 2525 Cr2O3 4109
than their base metals and are a major cause of incom-
plete fusion, particularly in high-nickel or aluminum al- Titanium 3137 TiO2 3344
loys. The only oxide that melts at a lower temperature
than its metal constituent is iron oxide. Also some filler
metals are alloyed with elements that form refractory ox-
ides, such as: titanium, aluminum, nickel, magnesium
any lack of fusion. Lack of fusion is considered a serious
and chromium. Base metals that readily form refractory
defect when it is open to the surface of a joint. In general,
oxides are: aluminum, Inconel®, copper-nickel, Monel®,
lack of fusion is considered a higher stress concentration
and K-Monel® (see Table 12.2).
factor than slag, due to its linear shape and sharper edges.
Removal of Oxides
Wire brushing has little effect on the removal of
refractory oxides for most metals except aluminum. In
Lack of Penetration
most instances grinding, pickling, or machining is used Definition
to remove oxides. When welding K-Monel® light grind-
ing is frequently required between each layer or every Unintentional, incomplete penetration of a weld
other layer of weld metal. through the thickness of a weld joint.

Service Impact Shape and Location

Some acceptance standards permit lack of fusion in Lack of penetration is the unfused or unpenetrated
welds. However, other acceptance standards do not permit portion of a weld joint (see Figure 12.13).

86
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

INCO LETE O INT E NET ATION INCO LETE O INT E NET ATION

Figure 12.13—Incomplete Penetration

Cause
Lack of penetration is most commonly caused by im-
proper weld joint selection for the weld process used, or
the use of improper welding parameters such as: welding
amperage too low, improper travel speeds, improper po-
larity, improper filler metal selection, improper filler
metal manipulation, or improper backgouging. Another
error is sometimes just forgetting to weld the opposite
side of a weld joint. Weld joint designs must be properly
selected for the base metal, filler metal, and welding pro-
cess used. The welding arc penetration and the weld pud-
dle fluidity depend on these conditions. Unlike mild
steel, low-alloy steels, and stainless steels, high-nickel
and copper alloys do not spread or wet easily.
Figure 12.14—Locations of Porosity
Service Impact
Few codes permit lack of penetration when a full pen-
etration weld is required. Lack of penetration is a very se-
rious discontinuity when fatigue is involved (particularly
when the axis of the discontinuity is transverse to primary Location
stress). Lack of penetration has resulted in a large per-
Porosity is always located within the weld deposit.
centage of service failures involving ship hulls, piping
Lack of visual porosity on a weld surface is not an indi-
systems, pressure vessels, and machinery components.
cation of a porosity-free weld.
Lack of fusion that is totally enclosed within a weld is not
nearly as hazardous as lack of penetration open to a joint
surface (i.e., a one-sided joint weld). However, when Cause
properly selected for service, partial penetration joints
welded from one side are desirable joint designs. Porosity is caused when there is not enough time for
the gas bubble to escape the molten weld metal before
the puddle solidifies. Porosity can be formed by any vol-
Porosity atile material being trapped within molten metal; gas
evolving out of the weld from elements that were in solu-
Definition tion at a higher temperature; the reduction of metal ox-
ides or nitrides; chemical reactions that create sulfur
Porosity is a void or gas pocket contained within a dioxide or carbon monoxide gas; and entrapment of
weld. The gas is entrapped within the weld during the so- shielding gas. In some metals like aluminum, gaseous el-
lidification process (see Figure 12.14). ements (most likely hydrogen) will come out of solution
near the solidifying dendrites growing into the liquid
Shape metal. The liquid metal cannot keep the element in
The most common shape is spherical; however, poros- solution as the puddle cools and solidifies, so the element
ity can be elongated and extend from one weld pass into collects into a gas pocket. Hydrogen is 20 times more
another. soluble in molten aluminum than in solid aluminum.

87
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Sources of porosity include:

• Moisture in electrode coatings or fluxes.
UNDERCUT
• Shop dirt contamination of the weld joint.
• Paint. UNDERCUT
• Oil.
UNDERCUT
• Rust (oxides and nitrides).
• Free machining constituents of metals such as sulfur
OVERLAP OVERLAP
or selenium.
• Excessive welding arc lengths that aspirate atmo-
spheric gas.
• Inadequate purging of equipment that uses external
shielding gases.
• Excessive amperage that will disrupt the shielding gas.
• Poorly maintained equipment. Figure 12.15—Undercut
• Travel speeds that are too high or too low, etc.
Porosity can come from so many sources that it is
sometimes difficult to identify the contributing source that undercut would contribute to a weld-associated fail-
and resolve the problem. ure other than for critical fatigue applications. The thin-
There is a common misconception among welders ner the base metal, the more likely it is that undercut may
that porosity can be burned out by the following pass, affect the service of the weldment.
however, this technique rarely works.

Service Impact Tungsten Inclusions

Nearly every acceptance standard permits some po-
rosity to be present within a weld. Although welds have
been removed from service with extensive amounts of
porosity, it is very rare to find porosity leading to service
failures, particularly if the amount of porosity is within
acceptance standard limits.
Undercut (Including Root Undercut)
Definition, Shape and Location
Undercut is an intermittent or continuous narrow
groove, immediately adjacent to a weld toe, that has been
melted into the base metal and not subsequently filled by
weld metal. Undercut is always a groove that is left
below the adjacent base metal surface. Undercut may be
on either or both faces of a weld, even if the weld was
made from only one side (see Figure 12.15).
Service Impact
Undercut has a direct effect on weld performance in
fatigue loading of critical applications. Acceptance stan-
dards typically specify that undercut shall not exceed
1/64 in.; however, some standards allow undercut to
1/32 in. deep or 10% of the thickness of the base metal,
whichever is less. Other codes may state only that the
welds are to be reasonably free from undercut. It is rare
Definition
Particles of tungsten in a weld or in the adjacent base
metal surface deposited from the electrode used in the
gas tungsten arc welding process (see Figure 12.16).
Shape
The tungsten inclusions may appear as globular
shapes or as splintered or flaked pieces. The inclusions
may occur in clusters or widely distributed particles. The
size of the inclusions may range from several thou-
sandths of an inch to pieces larger than the tungsten elec-
trode diameter.
Location
Inclusions can be located completely within the weld
deposit, on the weld surface, or on the adjacent base
metal surface. They most frequently occur at arc starts.
Cause
Tungsten inclusions may be caused by excessive am-
perage for the size of tungsten, dipping the tungsten in
the weld puddle, touching the tungsten with the filler
metal, improperly ground tungsten, linear ruptures in the
tungsten as received from the manufacturer, tungsten
stickout too long, or inadequate shielding gas flow.

88
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Figure 12.16—Tungsten Inclusions

Alternating current (ac) requires larger tungsten diam- Shape

eter than does direct current (dc) straight polarity because
of higher electrode heat input. A tungsten diameter in-
crease of 0.001 in. is recommended for every 1.25 amps
of alternating current. Usually one size larger tungsten is
recommended for a-c welding than is used for the same
amperage range with dc.
It appears as a localized disturbance of the metal sur-
face and exists as a single spot or multiple spots, usually
with some alignment (see Figure 12.17). Convexity and
undercutting may exist with the arc strikes. Small fis-
sures (cracks) and porosity may also exist.

Note: Tungsten inclusions cannot be burned out of a Location

weld by increasing welding current and rewelding over
the area. Tungsten melts at 6120°F, which is more than
3000°F higher than the melting temperatures of most
common metals. Tungsten inclusions must be removed by
grinding or machining.
Arc strikes may be found on the finished weld or base
metal surface. Arc strikes made in weld joints or on inte-
rior weld passes that will be welded over are usually not

Service Impact
Tungsten is considered to have a similar effect on ser-
vice as porosity. Service failures associated with tungsten
are rare, even where the amounts on tungsten exceeded
the acceptance standard. Tungsten inclusions are usually
accepted to the same standard as porosity.

Arc Strikes
Definition
An arc strike is caused by unintentional melting or
heating of a finished weld or base metal surface by an
electric current. It results in a localized weld and heat-
affected zone (HAZ). Figure 12.17—Arc Strikes

89
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

of concern. However, if the arc strikes are extensive, light

grinding of the surface may be advisable.

Cause
Arc strikes may be caused by improper manipulation
of the electrode, loose ground clamps, and low amperage
that causes sticking and dragging of the welding elec-
trode. Even magnetic particle inspection prods can cause
arc strikes, if improperly used.

Service Impact
Arc strikes are critical on heat-treatable steels. An arc
strike area creates a hardened weld and HAZ due to the
extremely rapid quenching caused by the surrounding
metal. Arc strikes should not be permitted on high-speed Figure 12.18—Spatter
rotating shafts particularly if they are made of quench-
hardenable steel. Some standards may require that all arc
strikes and associated HAZ be removed by grinding.
Arc strike protection of the base metal adjacent to the
weld joint is a good practice and should be maintained
for critical applications. Service Impact
Excessive spatter could mask a defect during weld in-
spections and in those areas it must be removed. Some
Spatter standards exclude the presence of weld spatter. Spatter
should be considered similar to arc strikes for highly
hardenable heat-treatable metals that are subject to severe
Definition fatigue loads, such as high-speed rotating shafts.
Globular metal particles that are ejected from the
welding arc area. Weld spatter does not form an inten-
tional part of the weld.
Crater Pit
Shape
Spatter is usually spherical or globular in shape.
Definition, Shape, and Location
A crater pit is usually a circular-shaped depression. It
is a cavity that extends down into a weld at its termina-
Location
tion site (weld stop).
Weld spatter may or may not attach or weld itself to
the existing weld or the adjacent base metal (see Figure
12.18). Cause
Crater pits are caused by a volumetric contraction of
Cause molten metal during solidification and lack of filler metal
to fill the void. It is usually the result of abruptly remov-
The most frequent causes of weld spatter include: ex- ing the welding arc or not using current decay with
cessive welding current; arc length too long; or short cir- GTAW. It may be minimized by gradually reducing the
cuiting the welding arc causing a high surge of welding weld current (current decay) at the weld stop, increasing
current that will expel weld spatter. Some spatter is nor- the travel speed, gradually withdrawing the welding arc,
mal with most welding processes except submerged arc or adding additional filler metal at the termination site of
welding and gas tungsten arc welding. GTAW welds.

90
 SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

Service Impact Root Centerline Crease

Unless crater pits have cracks or other associated weld An intermittent or continuous shallow linear groove
defects, they are not expected to cause in-service failures. (centerline crease) concavity formed by distortion or up-
Crater pits are not addressed by most acceptance standards. setting of the root surface by subsequent weld passes.

Burn-Through
A void or hole fused and extending into the surface on
the back side of a consumable insert weld, a backing
strap weld, or open root weld. Droplets of metal may
stick out from this burn-through area.
Melt-Through
A root surface or base metal irregularity on a consum-
able insert or closed root full penetration joint resulting
in fusion completely through a localized region without
development of a void or opening. The melt-through may
or may not be associated with the weld root.

Incomplete Insert Melting Oxidation

Incomplete melting of the consumable insert either
with or without the fusion between the insert and the
base metal along one or both sides of the consumable in-
sert (see Figure 12.19).
Root surface oxidation results from partial or com-
plete lack of purge of atmospheric gases and moisture
from heated or molten weld metal on the root surface of a
weld joint (see Figure 12.20). This condition may be in
the form of a slight oxidation, a heavy black scale, or an
extremely rough crinkled appearance. Similar conditions
result on the weld face when drafts of air displace the arc
shielding gas and permit oxidation.

Root Concavity
A root surface depression or concavity that may be
ORIGINAL INSERT due to gravity (weld segment in the overhead position),
NOT MELTED surface tension, or too high of an internal purge pressure
on the molten metal. Also, distortion caused by subse-
quent weld passes can cause concavity of the root pass. It
is controlled by using the proper joint design, the correct

INSERT NOT
COMPLETELY MELTED

WELD JOINT INSERT

COMPLETELY MELTED

Figure 12.19—Incomplete Melting Figure 12.20—Oxidation

91
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING

size consumable insert, and proper welding parameters

(i.e., amperage, travel speed, and purge pressure).

Root Convexity
Root weld reinforcement (convexity) that is beyond
the base metal surface which may be due to gravity (weld
segment in the flat position), surface tension, or low in-
ternal purge pressure effects on molten metal (see Figure
12.21). Also, distortion caused by subsequent weld passes
can cause convexity of the root pass. It is controlled by
using the proper joint design, the correct size consum-
able insert, and proper welding parameters (i.e., amper-
age, travel speed, and purge pressure).
Figure 12.21—Convexity
References/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Guide for Nondestructive In- ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
spection of Welds (B1.10). Miami, Fla.: American spection and Weld Discontinuities (PHB-2). Miami,
Welding Society. Fla.: American Welding Society.

———. Guide for Visual Inspection of Welds (B1.11).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Practical Reference Guide for Radiographic In-
spection Acceptance Criteria (PRG). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
———. Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of
Welds (B4.0). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Weld-
ing Society.
———. Welding Inspection (WI-80). Miami, Fla.: Amer-
ican Welding Society.
———. Welding Inspection Technology (WIT). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.

92
 SECTION 13
Nondestructive
Examination

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 94

When Should NDE Be Performed?................................................................................................................................ 94

Nondestructive Examination Methods .......................................................................................................................... 94

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................. 102

93
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Section 13—Nondestructive Examination
Introduction
The field of Nondestructive Examination (NDE) pro-
vides methods to measure or detect soundness criteria
placed on material by design requirements.
NDE gathers this information through testing, in such
a way as to not adversely affect the serviceability of the
material; hence, the term nondestructive testing.
Quality cannot be inspected into a material; however,
NDE can ensure that the material has acquired quality at-
tributes. The proper selection and application of NDE to
key phases of fabrication or assembly can save time, ma-
terial, and money, as well as provide assurance that de-
sign requirements are met.
When Should NDE be Performed?
When to perform an inspection can be as important as
selecting an NDE method. After a designer has com-
pleted the selection of materials and determined an as-
sembly design, it becomes the fabricator’s responsibility
to meet those requirements. To do this, inspection mile
markers are essential.
Receipt Inspection
Raw materials that meet specification requirements
are essential for high-quality fabrication. Various NDE
methods often provide a quick and relatively inexpensive
way to verify the material’s properties or identification.
When material problems or discrepancies are caught at
this stage, rather than during fabrication or in service,
savings of time and money can be immense.
In-Process Inspection
During fabrication, visual inspection of the joint de-
signs, weld preparations, and the deposited weld metal
provides evidence of a quality product. In-process in-
spection ensures that quality is built into an assembly and
can reduce final inspection requirements. Welding appli-
cations that involve weld buildup for corrosion or wear
94
repair, base metal defect repair, and other repair welding
should be inspected prior to welding. A nondestructive
test of the repair area and surrounding material can be
used to determine the extent of defects and ensure part
soundness before repair welding begins.
Finished Product Inspection
With the proper selection and application of various
NDE methods, NDE can provide overall quality assur-
ance of the finished product.
In-Service Inspection
Maintenance inspection can be scheduled to meet the
service needs of a product. Monitoring of known and
suspected wear and stress areas with NDE can determine
the frequency of service required.
Nondestructive Test Methods
There is a wide variety of NDE methods available to-
day. More than one may be used on the same weldment.
The various test methods do not necessarily compete
with each other. For detailed military requirements see
MIL-STD-271 and MIL-STD-278. The following sec-
tions present a brief overview of major NDE methods.
Visual Inspection Testing (VT)
VT provides important information about weld con-
formance and practical quality control. VT uses trained
observation and attention to requirements as the primary
inspection criteria. Although visual inspection is exclu-
sively a surface application, experience and training can
reveal discontinuities such as surface porosity and some
types of surface cracks, weld bead contour and rough-
ness, bead placement, residual slag and oxide films, un-
dercut, joint misalignment, and other indicators of
potential inferior quality. Adequate lighting, cleaning of
inspection area, and specific inspection standards are re-
quired to effectively ensure quality. See Table 13.1.
 SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

developer is applied, the dye that bleeds out of the dis-

Table 13.1
Visual Inspection Testing
Advantages
Best method for detecting weld
bead contour and roughness, weld
bead placement, residual slag,
undercut, and joint misalignment.
Minimal equipment required.
Very fast and economical to use.
Results are obtained immediately.
Does not interfere with other work
in the area.
Results are obtained immediately.
Disadvantages
Limited to surface and
alignment attributes.
No easily recordable
permanent record.
Cannot reliably detect
some types of surface
cracks.
continuities provides a visible indication of the flaw.
PT is typically used to inspect forgings, castings, ex-
trusions, and weldments of most solid, nonporous mate-
rials. The surface being inspected must be sufficiently
smooth to allow removal of excess dye without over
cleaning the test surface. If open to the inspection sur-
face, all weld and base metal defects can be detected in-
cluding cracks, lack of bond, cold shuts, edge lamination,
shrinkage areas, laps, and open porosity. The portability
of PT materials make them an ideal tool for field inspec-
tion. See Table 13.2.
Precleaning
The test surface must be cleaned (usually with isopro-
pyl alcohol) to remove contaminants to allow the pene-
trant to penetrate surface discontinuities (see Figure 13.1).

VT inspection acceptance criteria must first be de-

fined. VT provides a simple method of examination with Table 13.2
diverse applications and can be used in all phases of fab- Penetrant Testing
rication. Welders and fitters should continuously com-
Advantages Disadvantages
pare their product to the fabrication requirements. In-
process observations should include joint alignment, the Well suited to nonmagnetic Detection is limited to
presence of cracks and surface porosity, the condition of materials that cannot be discontinuities open to the test
the weld crater, weld bead contour and placement, and inspected with MT. surface.
weld size.
Inspection materials/ Temperatures are restricted
In addition to a clean inspection area, lighting and sur- equipment are relatively (typically 50 to 100°F) but high-
face finish are important factors for visual inspection. low cost, easy to use, and temperature penetrants, up to
Background lighting should be supplemented with a por- highly portable. 500°F, are available.
table light directed at the inspection area. The light should
be moved as a pointer to focus attention as the inspection Test results are easy to Post cleaning of penetrant and
interpret. developer is required.
progresses. Areas that are questionable and need addi-
tional attention should be marked and inspected again. Results are obtained Some penetrants are flammable
Poor surface finish may mask surface discontinuities. immediately. and some require special disposal.
It is recommended that paint be removed and the inspec-
Complex equipment not Some inspection materials can be
tion preparation be extended a minimum of 1 in. beyond required. corrosive to sensitive base metals.
the weld, or as required by the fabrication standard.
The following tests are often helpful aids to VT: Personnel are easy to train. Inspection process is time
consuming (typically one hour per
(1) Visual. Color and written codes help identify ma- No practical limit to inspection).
terial composition and characteristics. specimen size.
Coatings such as paint and scale
(2) Magnification. It is often beneficial to use mag-
Capable of detecting very must be removed prior to
nification as an aid to VT. However, it should be used for small (0.003) linear and inspection.
acceptance only where specified in the inspection rounded indications.
requirements. No easily recordable permanent
Does not interfere with record of actual surface
other work in the area. indications.
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Rough and porous surfaces can
A liquid penetrant (dye) is applied to the surface being hide actual indications and create
inspected, which penetrates any discontinuities open to false indications.
the surface. When the excess penetrant is removed and a

95
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

Figure 13.1—Cleaned Test Surface Figure 13.2—Penetrant on Test Surface

and in Crack

Applying Penetrant
After the cleaners have evaporated, a liquid penetrant
is applied and allowed time to penetrate discontinuities
by capillary action (see Figure 13.2). Both color contrast
dye, which can be seen with visible light, and fluorescent
dye, which can only be seen with ultraviolet light, are
commonly used, depending on the specific application.

Removing Excess Penetrant

The excess penetrant not remaining in the discontinui-
ties is removed (see Figure 13.3). There are three basic
categories of penetrants based on the method of their re-
moval: post emulsifier, which becomes water soluble Figure 13.3—Excess Penetrant Removed
after the emulsifier has been applied; solvent washable,
which requires solvents to remove the penetrant; and
washable, which is removed with water.

Applying Developer
The developer is evenly applied on the test surface.
Adequate time is allowed for it to act as a “blotter” for
the discontinuity (see Figure 13.4). The test surface is
then examined with visible light, when color contrast
dyes are used, or with ultraviolet light, when fluorescent
dyes are used.

Postcleaning
After the test surface has been evaluated, it is cleaned
(usually with isopropyl alcohol) to remove the developer Figure 13.4—Visible Indication after
and any remaining penetrant. Application of Developer

96
 SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

A magnetic field (flux) is applied to the inspection
area (see Figure 13.5). The field is maintained while an
iron oxide powder is evenly applied to the surface. If a
discontinuity causes a sufficiently strong disruption (flux
leakage) of the magnetic field, it will attract the iron par-
ticles. The stronger the flux leakage, the stronger the
forces of magnetic attraction (see Figure 13.6). The
greatest flux leakage occurs when the major dimension
of the discontinuity is perpendicular to the direction of
the magnetic lines of force. Conversely, where there is no
disruption of the field, the particles are easily removed
by blowing them off with regulated air (when using dry
MT method) or by letting them flow off with a liquid me-
dium (when using the wet MT method) (see Figure 13.7).
Figure 13.5—U-Shaped Magnet in
When the field is oriented at 45 degrees or greater from
perpendicular, the flux leakage is undependable for dis-
Contact with a Ferromagnetic Material
continuity detection. For that reason, the field must be Containing a Discontinuity
oriented in at least two directions (angled at from 30 to
45 degrees from each other) to ensure adequate flux leak-
age. The MT method is limited to the inspection of ferro-
magnetic materials and can detect surface and (under
certain conditions) near-surface discontinuities. MT is
typically used to inspect ferromagnetic castings, weld-
ments, extrusions, forgings, and components subject to
cracking. See Table 13.3.

Precleaning
Usually grinding or “needle gunning” to remove
paint, slag, and scale is sufficient precleaning. The iron
particles must be allowed to migrate freely across the in-
Figure 13.6—Throat Crack in a
spection surface.
Fillet Weld Root
Applying the Magnetic Particles
The iron oxide particles are applied to the surface of
the test area while the electrical current is still producing
the magnetic field. There are two widely used methods of
doing this:
(1) Dry Method—in which a thin, even coat of dry
iron oxide particles are sprinkled or dusted onto the sur-
face. There are a choice of colors available to provide a
color contrast on the test surface.
(2) Wet Method—in which iron oxide particles are
suspended in water, kerosene or a petroleum distillate.
The liquid is allowed to flow onto the test surface. Flo-
rescent coatings are usually added to the particles to en-
hance their visibility.

Establishing the Magnetic Field

There are four primary methods used to establish the Figure 13.7—Direct Method
magnetic field within the part being inspected. The (Longitudinal Magnetism)

97
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

Table 13.3
Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages

Inspection materials Limited to ferromagnetic materials.

and equipment are
relatively low cost, An electrical power source is
easy to use, and required.
highly portable.
No easily recordable permanent
Test results are easy to record.
interpret.
Multiple inspections (angled 30 to
Results are obtained 45 degrees from each other) may be
immediately. required in order to detect all linear Figure 13.8—Central Conductor
discontinuities. (Circular Magnetism)
Personnel are easy
and economical to Degaussing may be required
train. (especially for machinery
applications).
Inspection time is
relatively short. Does not reliably detect rounded are most easily detected. Defects oriented perpendicular
discontinuities. to the length of the central conductor cannot be detected
No practical limit to with this method since the direction of the magnetic field
specimen size. Inaccurate interpretation of
cannot be maneuvered beyond that as shown.
nonrelevant indications may result
Other work in the area from changes in:
is not disturbed. • Sectional geometry.
(3) Wrapped Coil Method. A magnetic field can be
• Heat treatment. established by placing a wire coil around a longitudinal
• Magnetic permeability. part. As the current flows through the coil, a longitudinal
• Magnetic writing. field is set up around the conductor and within the part.
Linear discontinuities lying perpendicular to the axis of
the part are most easily detected. Defects oriented in line
with the length of the part cannot be detected with this
geometry of the part and defect orientation usually deter- method, since the direction of the magnetic field cannot
mine which method or methods are used to inspect a be maneuvered beyond that as shown.
given part.
(4) Yoke Method. A magnetic field can be estab-
(1) Direct Method. A magnetic field can be estab- lished as shown in Figure 13.9 by placing a yoke in con-
lished as shown in Figure 13.8 by passing an a-c or d-c tact with the flat surface of the part. When coupled with
current directly into the test area with electrodes placed the part, the magnetic field in the yoke induces a corre-
in contact with the part. The magnetic flux lines within sponding field in the part. No current from the yoke
the part run perpendicular to the current path that flows flows into the part. The magnetic flux lines within the
between the two electrodes. Linear discontinuities lying part flow between the two ends of the yoke. Linear dis-
parallel with a line connecting the two electrodes are continuities lying perpendicular to the line connecting
most easily detected. This method is best suited to flat the yoke ends are most easily detected.
surfaces. Care must be taken when testing certain materi-
als with high hardenability to avoid moving the elec- Removing the Excess Magnetic Particles
trodes while the current is flowing. This can result in arc
strikes which result in very small, and potentially very While the electrical current is still producing the mag-
hard, heat-affected zones. netic field, the excess particles are blown off with low-
(2) Central Conductor Method. A magnetic field pressure air (when the dry method is used) or they are al-
can be established by placing a central conductor within lowed to run off (when the wet method is used). If done
a hollow cylindrical part. As the current flows through properly, only the particles attracted by the flux leakage
the conductor, a cylindrical magnetic field is set up will remain. After the test surface has been evaluated, it
around the conductor and within the part. Linear discon- is easily cleaned, usually by brushing or wiping, to re-
tinuities lying perpendicular with the central conductor move any remaining particles.

98

Figure 13.9—Yoke Method
Discontinuity Detection
MT may be used to detect many surface and near-
surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. These
include all types of cracks, voids, inclusions and lamina-
tions. As these discontinuities become closer to the sur-
face and sharper (less rounded) they become easier to
detect.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Pulses of ultrahigh-frequency sound are produced
when a pulsed electrical current is used to “shock” a
piezoelectric transducer (search unit) (see Figure 13.10).
The pulses are dissipated rapidly in air; therefore, they
must be coupled onto the test piece through a liquid,
couplant medium. The transducer is then electrically
switched to receive (or another search unit can be desig-
nated to receive) the reflected pulses which have been al-
99
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Figure 13.10—Sound Deflection
from a Discontinuity
tered by internal conditions and the geometric shape of
the test piece. A rapid succession of pulses (creating a
beam) are received and displayed on a cathode ray tube
(CRT) (for thickness measurements, a digital display
may be used) as spikes (blips). The blips (or lack of
blips) are evaluated as to their horizontal distance on the
CRT, their height, and their shape. These CRT presenta-
tions in turn are compared to known physical standards.
Like miniature sonar, UT can be used to detect, locate,
and in some cases describe the shape of discontinuities.
See Table 13.4.
Applications
In addition to being able to detect the discontinuities
mentioned below, UT can be used to accurately measure
thickness, loss of thickness, determine soundness, inves-
tigate attachment location, determine bond quality, and
determine liquid levels. It can do so by passing through
plastic, metal, glass, ceramic, and other materials from
one side only.
Ultrasonic Wave Types
Both longitudinal and shear waves are commonly
used for ultrasonic inspection. Longitudinal waves are
propagated into the test material at an angle normal to its
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

Table 13.4
Ultrasonic Testing
Advantages
Modern equipment is
highly sensitive,
programmable and
portable.
Results are obtained
immediately.
Internal discontinuities in
the proper orientation are
easily detected.
Accurate location of the
discontinuity.
Access is required from
one side only.
Excellent sensitivity.
Process can be automated
for rapid inspection of
plate and bar stock.
Linear discontinuities
lying perpendicular to the
plate surface are readily
detected.
Disadvantages
High initial cost for equipment
and training.
Equipment is complex and
fragile.
Considerable operator skill and
experience is required to
interpret the results.
The test surface must physically
conform to the search unit
contact surface, grinding and
paint removal may be necessary.
Poor surface and near-surface
resolution.
Linear discontinuities lying
parallel to the plate surface are
readily detected.
No easily recordable permanent
record.
Large grain metal castings
(i.e., 300 series stainless) can be
difficult to inspect.
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
ET is a NDE method whereby a coil, energized with
high-frequency alternating current, produces an alter-
nating magnetic field which is introduced into the test ma-
terial (see Figure 13.11). The field induces alternating
currents (eddy currents) in the metal. The eddy currents, in
turn, produce a weaker, alternating magnetic field which
opposes the primary field. A second coil, used as a refer-
ence, is electrically “bridged” (i.e., inserted into a com-
mercial Wheatstone induction bridge configuration) with
the primary coil. As the primary coil is moved across the
test material, the bridge electrically “compares” both coils.
If the eddy current field moves within range of a disconti-
nuity or change in material properties, the magnitude and
direction of the eddy currents are altered. This change of
eddy current density changes the inductive reactance of
the primary coil. These variations are registered on an out-
put device and, depending on the sensitivity of the electri-
cal instrumentation, can be used to locate discontinuities
or variations in the test material. Due to the “skin effect”
of both the eddy currents and the primary current, the coil
is limited to detecting surface and near-surface parameters.
The depth of effective penetration is determined by the pri-
mary coil power output and frequency. See Table 13.5.

surface. They are mainly used for thickness and sound-

ness examination. Shear waves are introduced into the
test material at an angle offset from normal to the sur-
face. Shear wave frequency is much greater than that of
longitudinal frequencies. For that reason, their resolving
power is also much greater. Discontinuities whose major
dimension is oriented parallel to the ultrasound path are
difficult to detect with both wave types. Very thin materi-
als are also difficult to examine with longitudinal and
shear waves.
Ultrasonic shear waves are able to detect:
• Internal cracks and surface cracks on far side only.
• Cold shuts.
• Porosity.
• Nonmetallic inclusions.
• Voids.
Ultrasonic longitudinal waves are able to detect:
• Laminations.
• Porosity.
• Nonmetallic inclusions. Figure 13.11—Induced Eddy Currents in
• Voids. Test Object

100
 SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

practical depth of detection, which is typically no more

Table 13.5
Eddy Current Testing
Advantages
A permanent record can be
produced with special com-
puter techniques.
Equipment is low to
moderate cost and portable.
Some techniques are easily
automated.
Some techniques/
procedures allow the paint
to remain on the test
surface.
Some techniques allow the
inspection surface to be
wet, oily, or greasy if the
primary coil is waterproof.
Disadvantages
The depth of the inspection area
is limited to about 1/4 inch
(depending on the frequency of
the primary coil).
Some types of equipment are
expensive and complex.
Some techniques require
expensive training.
The final evaluation is
dependent on inspector
interpretation.
The surface must be sufficiently
smooth and clean to keep the
test coil at a consistent distance
from the surface.
than 1/4 in.
Radiographic Testing (RT)
RT uses the penetrating power of X-rays or gamma
rays to produce an image of the interior conditions of the
test material on film (see Figure 13.12). The material is
positioned between the source of radiation and a piece of
unexposed film. After going through the test material,
the rays expose the film. The film is developed, revealing
any change in thickness of the material by the variation
of shades of gray (film density) of the film. The pattern
and degree of variation in film density is used to deter-
mine the type, size, and position of the discontinuity, and
ultimately determine its acceptability. See Table 13.6.
RT is capable of detecting all of the discontinuities
detectable with VT, MT, PT, and also most subsurface
discontinuities, some of which may not be detectable
with UT. RT is most sensitive to discontinuities whose
major dimension is aligned with the source beam,
whereas UT is most sensitive to discontinuities whose
major dimension is perpendicular to the sound beam.

Limitations
Applications
The application of RT for weld inspection is largely
ET can be used to identify and classify materials by dependent on the location of the joint in the weldment,
comparing them to a standard. Thickness measurements the joint configuration, and section thickness. These fac-
of thin sheet materials and nonconductive coatings are tors may combine to limit the best use of RT and favor
also common. Surface and subsurface discontinuities can another method. One of the primary limitations of RT is
also be detected which may be related to welding or its difficulty in detecting cracks or other closed disconti-
other fabrication processes. nuities which are not aligned with the source beam. Mul-
tiple shots at various angles can be used to detect most
Advantages
The primary advantage of ET over other methods is
that it can be completely automated and produce accurate
results at high speeds without ever contacting the part
being tested. ET is, therefore, especially well suited to
continuous production lines. Another advantage is that
the signal generated by ET is often proportional to the
size of the discontinuity detected.

Limitations
Surface cleanliness is important for accurate results,
since any magnetic particles on the surface may cause
nonrelevant indications. The major limitation of ET is
that the primary coil design must be compatible with the
part geometry and defect or attribute type being investi-
gated. Care must also be used when calibrating the ET
equipment with a reference standard as this will deter- Figure 13.12—Orientation of Radiation
mine the accuracy of the results. Another limitation is the Source, Test Plate, and Radiographic Film

101
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

cially true for field work. For these reasons, RT should

Table 13.6 only be required where absolutely necessary. When prop-
Radiographic Testing erly trained personnel use well-maintained equipment
Advantages Disadvantages according to approved procedures, RT is a safe and via-
ble NDE method that plays a valuable role in assuring
Permanent records easily High initial cost for equipment that the required quality is obtained.
obtained. and training.

Internal discontinuities in An electrical power source is

the proper orientation are required (except gamma). References/Recommended Reading
easily detected.
High hazard potential.
List
Excellent sensitivity. American Welding Society. Guide for Nondestructive In-
Laminations and other linear spection of Welds (B1.10). Miami Fla.: American
Wide variety of materials discontinuities lying parallel to
may be tested. the plate surface are difficult to Welding Society.
detect.
———. Guide for Visual Inspection of Welds (B1.11).
Linear discontinuities lying
perpendicular to the plate Considerable time required Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
surface are easily detected. for setup, exposure, and
———. Practical Reference Guide for Radiographic In-
interpretation of results.
spection Acceptance Criteria (PRG). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
———. Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of
Welds (B4.0). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
discontinuities; however, due to limited accessibility,
multiple shots are often not possible. When cracks are ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
suspected to occur in a critical applications, another spection and Weld Discontinuities—Causes and Rem-
NDE method such as UT may be a better choice. edies (PHB-2). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.

Radiation Hazard ———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding

One unique disadvantage with RT is that radiation ex-
posure to humans can result in permanent injury and
death, without the individual ever knowing they were ex-
posed. The necessary precautions that must be taken to
protect the health of workers in the area accounts for
much of the expense associated with RT. This is espe-
Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Weld-
ing Society.
———. Welding Inspection (WI-80). Miami, Fla.: Amer-
ican Welding Society.
———. Welding Inspection Technology (WIT). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.

102
 SECTION 14
Information
for the Welder

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 104

Material .......................................................................................................................................................................... 104

Filler Material ................................................................................................................................................................ 104

Welding Process ............................................................................................................................................................. 104

Quality Control and Quality Assurance ...................................................................................................................... 105

Weld Size and Penetration ............................................................................................................................................ 105

Distortion Control.......................................................................................................................................................... 105

Standards and Specifications........................................................................................................................................ 105

Welding Department Required Information Facilitated by the Design Engineer/Technical Support .................. 105

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................. 107

103
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
Section 14—Information for the Welder
Introduction
For the welding department to join components into a
product that will perform in service, the engineer must
communicate to the welder the exact requirements of the
design and quality control necessary to ensure that the
part is built as designed. To perform this function, the en-
gineer may call on other experts to assist him. The weld-
ing department would provide information on equipment
and welding skills available to perform the work. The
metallurgist would provide information on material se-
lections and their behavior, and provide procedures for
heat treating to achieve the desired mechanical proper-
ties. The welding engineer would provide information on
welding and provide the welding procedures. Welding
procedures can be written to cover a variety of situations
and base material grades. Because of this, details of the
procedure should be clarified to the welding department
by the design engineer. Documentation requirements
should be detailed on the engineering instruction with
clear direction to access forms or with copies of forms to
be filled out and attached. In most organizations, the
quality assurance requirements are buried deep in corpo-
rate procedures and difficult for the welder to uncover.
The procedures should be interpreted by the engineer,
and details provided to the welder. The term “welder” as
used in this section refers to the actual production welder
or his immediate supervisor.
Material
A welder must know the base material to determine a
correct welding procedure. Providing material specifica-
tions to the welder ensures that he has this information.
In some special cases, the production welding supervisor
or welder must know the base material chemistry, along
with the mechanical requirements. Some specifications
only specify physical requirements, i.e., tensile and yield
strengths. These types of specifications allow a variety of
materials to be used for the end product. In other cases,
104
welding on metals strengthened by cold rolling or age
hardening will cause substantial loss in strength in the
HAZ. The chemistry determines the electrode type and
heat treatment required to achieve the desired mechanical
properties. Although specific information is usually pro-
vided by a welding engineer, many machine-shop weld
repairs require material background by shop supervision
beyond that of the average welder. This additional infor-
mation is helpful in making proper weld repairs. If the
base material is low-alloy steel and is being welded in
the final heat-treated condition, care must be taken so
that post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) does not exceed
the tempering temperature of the base material. If the
item is being heat treated after welding, a welding mate-
rial that will respond similarly to the base material must
be selected. Improper heat treatment can cause loss of
mechanical and corrosion-resistant properties.
Filler Material
The filler material should be specified by the welding
procedure or the engineering instruction. The welding
procedure should be reviewed to ensure that it is clear in
selecting the correct filler material. Some welding proce-
dures are written to cover a variety of materials and situ-
ations and need to be clarified for the welder at time of
use.
Welding Process
Each organization assigns the responsibility of pro-
cess selection to different groups at different levels of
management. In today’s world of CAD/CAM, productiv-
ity improvements, and quality demands, the welding
equipment may be preselected by engineering and speci-
fied by the work document. In other cases, the selection
is left to the production shop foreman or the welder per-
forming the work. Quality, weld appearance, productiv-
ity, qualifications, welder skills, equipment, and

available electrode, all can influence the process selec-
tion and determine the end product cost. The job may re-
quire cleanliness levels to the point that flux and other
leftover items cannot be tolerated, e.g., work inside a nu-
clear plant. A high-quality, but slower welding process
can sometimes be more productive than the faster weld-
ing process that requires rework. The welding instruction
should specify the welding process or specify that the
process is the choice of the welding department.
Quality Control and Quality
Assurance
Quality control and quality assurance can be confus-
ing to the welder. The quality assurance requirements are
usually specified in some corporate document that is ref-
erenced on the engineering instructions. Because of this,
the welder gathers quality control information mostly by
word of mouth. It is rare that a welder will spend his time
reviewing documents to determine the quality control
and quality assurance requirements. The welder will usu-
ally seek the information from a person that he knows is
familiar with the work. Surprisingly, this system works
quite well. However, the process can be improved a great
deal by providing this information via the work instruc-
tion. Information as to what inspections are required and
when, and what documents need to be completed will
help the job progress and avoid costly rework. For qual-
ity control and quality assurance, the more detailed the
information to the specific task and the easier it is for a
welder to understand, the better the job will progress.
Preferably, the welder is given a sheet of specific instruc-
tions to accomplish the desired work. The welder should
also know whether he is qualified to the appropriate stan-
dards to perform the work required.
Weld Size and Penetration
Joint configuration, buildup thickness, and/or weld ef-
ficiency (i.e., full penetration) should be clearly specified
to the welder. Fillet and partial penetration welds are the
most economical and are frequently used. In most struc-
tural fabrication shops, the routine of using partial pene-
tration welds can cause errors when full penetration
welds are required and not clearly identified. This error
has caused serious rework in many instances. Proper and
consistent use of welding symbols is imperative and
AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and
Nondestructive Examination, is a national standard.
Weld buildup, as in machinery repair work, should be
specified in final finish dimensions. The welder should
determine how much metal to apply to achieve the finish
105
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
dimension required. When hardfacing materials or
corrosion-resistance materials are being applied to im-
prove service performance, the minimum material thick-
ness should be specified.
Distortion Control
All welding creates distortion, which is caused by
shrinkage of the weld nugget during solidification. Weld-
ing shrinkage cannot be eliminated, but it can be con-
trolled, through design and fabrication methods. The
assembly must be designed to allow for the weld shrink-
age that will occur. Weld sequencing and restraints can
be used to control the shrinkage in a desired direction.
Different welding processes will produce a different
amount of shrinkage. In general, the faster the welding
process and the more weld produced per pass, the less
shrinkage and distortion will occur. Also a smaller joint
design cross section reduces shrinkage. A square butt
joint, with no bevel, and welded with the submerged arc
process would produce the least amount of shrinkage.
Standards and Specifications
Specifying standards, specifications, and applicable
revisions on the engineering instructions can be helpful in
solving problems and answering unanticipated questions;
also, providing phone numbers of persons or departments
that have technical authority helps to resolve problems
quickly. Most standards cover a variety of work, so it is
wise to spell out the category the work fits, i.e., high pres-
sure and temperature piping or low temperature and pres-
sure piping, such as pressure vessel category. See Figure
14.1.
Welding Department Required
Information Facilitated by the Design
Engineer/Technical Support
Coordinate Decisions with Fabrication Shop
Prior to Issuing Instructions
(1) Description of work.
(2) Drawing numbers.
(3) Volume of work.
(4) Is process preselected? By whom?
(5) Details of selected process/equipment.
(6) Welding procedure.
(7) Status of welding procedure? Qualified?
(8) Base material specification.
(9) Base material chemistry (special cases).
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER

Figure 14.1—Typical WPS

106

(10) Base material mechanical requirements (special
cases).
(11) Base material post weld heat treat requirements.
(12) Filler material.
(13) Joint type and weld penetration requirement.
(14) Inspection requirements and when inspection is
to be performed.
(15) Acceptance criteria.
(16) Documentation (record) requirements, and who is
required to record and/or certify.
(17) Specify the responsible office of the design engi-
neer, welding engineer, and job specialist.
(18) Standards applicable to this job.
(19) Whom to contact when questions arise.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. WELDPERFECT: The Easy
Guide to Perfect Welding (WPERF). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
———. Joint Weld Terminology and Standard Welding
Symbol Interpretation (textbook). Miami, Fla.: Amer-
ican Welding Society.
———. Lens Shade Selector (F2.2). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
———. Prequalified Joint Details in AWS D1.1, Struc-
tural Welding Code—Steel (chart). Miami, Fla.: Amer-
ican Welding Society.
———. Standard for Welding Procedure and Perfor-
mance Qualification (B2.1). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
107
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
———. Suggested Filler Materials for Welding Struc-
tural Steels (chart). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
———. Suggested Preheat Temperatures for Welded
Structural Steel Materials (chart). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Arc Welding
Steel (PHB-1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding
(FCAW) (PHB-4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW) of Aluminum (PHB-8). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (PHB-7). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
spection and Weld Discontinuities—Causes and Rem-
edies (PB-2). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
spection of AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code—
Steel, Fabrication and Welding Requirements (PHB-6).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook on Metric Prac-
tices for the Welding Industry (PHB-5). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook on Welded Joint
Details for Structural Applications (PHB-3). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Welding Symbols (chart). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
 SECTION 15
Fitting Aids

Contents
Background .................................................................................................................................................................... 110

Current Problems in Fabrication................................................................................................................................. 110

Fitting Aid Categories ................................................................................................................................................... 111

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................. 117

109
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Section 15—Fitting Aids
Background
The use of fitting aids has been and will continue to
be an integral part of fabrication. Fitting aids were in use
when the ancients built the first wooden ships. Since
then, the methods used for fitting and aligning have
changed. Over the past one hundred years, materials and
fabrication methods have changed dramatically.
Currently, building materials are mainly ferrous al-
loys. Non-ferrous metals, composites, and wood are used
in a small portion of the total fabrication. All of these
materials have flaws, inaccuracies, and stresses that will
manifest themselves during the fabrication process as
distortions of one sort or another. This, and the need to
hold and align components, create the basic need for fit-
ting aids.
It may be said that a fitting aid is a method or device
used to hold or align (or both) two or more parts in a pre-
determined location. They may also be used to correct
distortion while assembling components of structures,
and the structures themselves. The ideal situation would
be to use the minimum number of aids possible, but un-
fortunately, inherent flaws in the materials and other in-
fluencing factors seem to prohibit this.
It is important to have a knowledge of the available
aids so that an intelligent choice may be made for any
particular application. Current technology, such as line
heating, can dramatically increase the accuracy of parts,
assemblies, and overall fabrication. Use of such technol-
ogy should decrease the need for fitting, while increasing
productivity.
Current Problems in Fabrication
The problem of inaccuracy is many-faceted and be-
gins before the material enters the plant.
Foundry and Mill
Problems start with the way many materials are made.
Stresses from rolling mills and heat treatments can cause
110
problems during the fabrication process. Edges and sur-
face conditions are not always as they should be and need
to be checked when materials enter the plant. Mill toler-
ances are often excessive and can add up during fabri-
cation, if not found before the material is used. The
cumulative effect of this may result in excessive local-
ized stress and distortion.
Storage and Handling
Storage and handling of such materials as plate, pipe,
shapes, and castings can have a deleterious effect on sur-
face condition and dimensional accuracy if done improp-
erly. Problems occur when material is handled roughly or
misused while in storage.
Burning and Cutting
Burning or cutting operations can greatly increase the
accuracy of assemblies if performed correctly. The heat of
cutting may cause shrinkage and other distortions that must
be monitored and offset. Edge condition must be held to
specifications or fitting and welding time will be increased.
Forming and Shaping
When material is mechanically formed on rolls or simi-
lar equipment, deformation results. This causes stresses
that will, in turn, cause distortion when stresses are relieved
by the heat of welding or cutting, removal of portions of the
material and any heat treatments. Other than forming parts
by line heating, there is little that can be done to eliminate
or reduce stresses set in by mechanical forming. All opera-
tions must be closely watched to ensure accuracy.
Fitting and Welding
Stresses induced by fitting restraints, large gaps, and
welding are well known. These stresses result in distortion
and deviation from design. These problems can be reduced
by obtaining precise fitting, reducing the amount of weld-
ing and sequencing welding to minimize distortion.
 SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS

Fitting Aid Categories

The fitting aid devices documented herein are classi-
fied by their primary method of mechanical advantage in
their design. Some of the aids shown use a combination
of methods for force application.
• Wedge devices (see Figures 15.1–15.4).
• Threaded devices (see Figures 15.5–15.8). Figure 15.2—Weld-On Saddle
• Hydraulic devices (see Figures 15.9–15.10).
• Pneumatic devices (see Figure 15.11).
• Gear-pulley devices (see Figures 15.12–15.13).
• Magnetic devices (see Figures 15.14–15.15).
• Strongbacks (see Figure 15.16).
• Padeyes, stays, and cables (see Figures 15.17–15.19).
• Jigs, mocks, and fixtures (see Figures 15.20–15.22).

Wedge Devices (Figures 15.1–15.4)

Wedge, a piece of hard material, as wood or metal, ta-
pering from a thick board to a thin edge that can be
driven or forced into a narrow opening. Configurations
are usually made from one-inch-thick steel plate and are
typically 12 in. and 17 in. in length.
Step-Cut Dog, also known as dog, a metal device Figure 15.3—Yoke and Pin
used for holding or backing the force applied by a wedge
or other tool. This device is attached by welding.
Weld-On Saddle, also known as “U” dog yoke and
hairpin, a “U”- or “L”-shaped metal device used in con-
junction with a wedge to straddle and hold one part to
another.
Yoke and Pin, also known as clip and wedge, a flat
metal plate with an oblong hole, used in conjunction with
wedges or bull pins to align edges of plate.
Pulldown, a metal device welded or mechanically
fastened to the part at one end and slotted at the other,
used in conjunction with a wedge and anchor clip to pull
one part toward another.

Figure 15.4—Pulldown

Threaded Devices (Figures 15.5–15.8)

Figure 15.1—Wedge and Step-Cut Dog
Push-Pull Jack, also known as steamboat jack and
ratchet jack, a device having a ratcheting sleeve with op-
posite internal threads at each end or with an internal
thread at one end and a swivel at the other. The effective
length of the device can be changed by rotating the sleeve
or swivel.

111
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS

Figure 15.5—Push-Pull Jack

Turnbuckle, a device having a metal loop or sleeve

with opposite internal threads at each end or with an
internal thread at one end and a swivel at the other. The
effective length of the device can be changed by the
sleeve or swivel.

Jacking Clamp, any number of devices which are

booked or welded having a screw at one end to apply
force for aligning.

Clip and Bolt, a device consisting of an angle support

and a headless bolt, and used to pull parts toward each Figure 15.6—Turnbuckle
other. The angle support and bolt can be welded or me-
chanically fastened.

Portable Hydraulic Ram, also known as Porta-

Hydraulic Devices (Figures 15.9–15.10)
Hydraulic Jack, also known as buda jack and bottle
jack, a hydraulic and geared device having a single-
or double-acting cylindrical piston used for hoisting or
lifting.
power and Enerpack, a hydraulic device having an oil
reservoir and a single- or double-acting cylindrical pis-
ton, used for lifting, pushing and holding parts together.
Used where short reach or stroke is required and in con-
junction with other devices for fitting.

Figure 15.7—Jacking Clamp

112

Figure 15.8—Clip and Bolt
Figure 15.9—Hydraulic Jack
Pneumatic Devices (Figure 15.11)
Vacuum Saddle, also known as vacuum jacking
clamp, an air-operated device having suction pads for
gripping relatively smooth surfaces and a “U”- or “L”-
shaped metal structure for straddling and holding parts
together. This device is used in conjunction with a screw
and thread or hydraulic ram for applying pushing force.
113
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Figure 15.10—Portable Hydraulic Ram
Figure 15.11—Vacuum Saddle
Gear-Pulley Devices (Figures 15.12–15.13)
Chainfall, also known as chain hoist, a device having
gears and pulley(s) and operated by chain to obtain
mechanical advantage in lifting or pulling.
Come-Along, a device having a ratcheting gear-
pulley arrangement to change the effective length of a
chain for lifting or pulling.
Magnetic Devices (Figures 15.14–15.15)
Magnetic Saddle, also known as magnetic jacking
clamp, a device employing an electrically induced or per-
manent magnetic field(s) and a “U”- or “L”-shaped metal
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Figure 15.12—Chainfall
Figure 15.13—Come-Along
structure for straddling and holding ferrous metal parts
together. This device is used in conjunction with a screw
and thread or hydraulic ram for applying pushing force.
Fitting Magnet, a device employing an electrically in-
duced magnetic field(s) for drawing ferrous metals together.
114
Figure 15.14—Magnetic Saddle
Figure 15.15—Fitting Magnet
Strongbacks (Figure 15.16)
Strongback, any number of devices used to restrain
applied forces and/or hold alignment. These devices may
be welded or mechanically fastened and are used with
many other tools for applying forces to parts.
 SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS

Figure 15.16—Strongback

Padeyes, Stays, and Cables (Figures 15.17–15.19)

Padeye, also known as a doughnut, a metal device for
use as an anchor, support and/or connector for lifting and
applying force. This device can be welded, clamped or
mechanically fastened.
Stay, a strip of stiffening material used to hold, prop,
and/or support parts. This device can be welded or me-
chanically fastened.
Cable, a wire bundle or rope with means for attaching
ends, used for lifting, pulling and holding parts. This de-
vice is normally attached by mechanical means to other
fitting aids.

Mocks, Fixtures, and Jigs (Figures 15.20–15.22)

Mock, a device which imitates the shape of an object
for reference or support.
Fixture, a device used to hold, position, and/or align a
workpiece for an operation or process.
Jig, a device used to guide a tool; a template. Jigs are
often incorporated into fixtures. Figure 15.17—Padeye

115
 SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS

Figure 15.18—Stay

Figure 15.19—Cable

Figure 15.21—Fixture

Figure 15.20—Mock Figure 15.22—Jig

116

Specialized Devices
One-Side Welding System, a system that consists of
a heavy structural frame hydraulic magnetic or pneu-
matic clamping rams, plate positioning and/or feeding
conveyors, weld backing bar and welding equipment.
Stiffener Positioning System, a system that consists
of a heavy structural beak and/or gantry, hydraulic, mag-
netic and/or pneumatic stiffener clamping and position-
ing equipment and tack welding equipment.
Web Positioning System, a system that consists of a
heavy structural beam and/or gantry, hydraulic magnetic,
pneumatic, and/or gear-pulley equipment and tack weld-
ing equipment.
117
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Panel Line with One-Side Butt Welding Station,
stiffener attachment and welding station, web frame at-
tachment and welding station, and bulkhead attachment
and final welding station.
Panel Line with Tacking Station, two-side butt
welding station, stiffener attachment and welding station,
web frame attachment and welding station, and bulkhead
attachment and final welding station.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th ed.,
vol. 1, Welding Processes (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
 SECTION 16
Welding Metallurgy:
Practical Aspects

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 120

Primary Base Metal Groups ......................................................................................................................................... 120

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................. 127

119
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
Section 16—Welding Metallurgy: Practical Aspects
Introduction
Designers should have an understanding of the pri-
mary concepts of welding metallurgy as it relates to the
service of a weldment. This should include how metals
obtain and maintain their mechanical and corrosion-
resistant properties. There should also be an awareness of
the effect that welding and filler metal composition have
on the metallurgy and service life of the weldment.
The designer should be aware of:
(1) The specification requirements that are invoked.
(2) How metals obtain their strength and other me-
chanical properties.
(3) How metals obtain and maintain their corrosion
resistance.
(4) The effect welding has on base metal mechanical
properties.
(5) The effect welding has on base metal corrosion
resistance.
(6) How filler metals obtain their strength and corro-
sion resistance.
(7) Special treatments which are necessary to main-
tain base and weld metal properties.
(8) Detrimental elements that reduce weldability.
Primary Base Metal Groups
The following list covers the majority of base metals
and their strengthening mechanisms used by designers in
their day-to-day work.
(1) Mild steel (ferrous alloys not strengthened by heat
treatment) [i.e., ordinary steel (OS), ASTM A 36].
(2) High-strength, low-alloy, structural steel (normal-
ized) (i.e., HS of MIL-S-22698, ASTM A 242, A 441,
A 572, and A 588 Grade 50).
(3) Low-alloy steel with quench hardening and tem-
pering heat treatment before welding (i.e., T-l, HY-80,
HY-100, HY-130, ASTM A 514).
120
(4) Low-alloy steel hardened by quenching and tem-
pering (heat treatment after welding) (i.e., AISI-4130,
4140, 8620, 8630, 4340).
(5) 300 Series austenitic stainless steel (304, 316,
321, 347).
(6) Copper-nickel (90Cu:10Ni, 70Cu:30Ni).
(7) Nickel-copper (70Ni:30Cu).
(8) Inconel® (NiCrFe, 600 and 625).
(9) Aluminum.
(10) Metals strengthened by cold work (mild steel and
Monel®).
(11) Metals strengthened by age hardening (K-Monel®,
HSLA, 17-4 ph stainless steel, aluminum 6061-T-6, 356-
T6).
From this list the first seven groups will be reviewed
as to:
• How these metals develop their mechanical and
corrosion-resistant properties.
• How welding affects these properties.
• What special processes are required to maintain de-
sired properties.
• What metallurgical effects put the weldability of the
metal at risk.
Mild Steel and High-Strength Low-Alloy
Structural Steel (OS, HS, ASTM A 36, A 242,
A 441, A 588, A 572, and Grade 50)
1. Base Metal Strengthening Mechanisms of Mild
Steel
Mild steel, with typically well less than 0.29% carbon,
has a relatively low hardenability and is not typically
strengthened by heat treatment. Its primary yield and ten-
sile strength properties are primarily developed from its
microstructure of pearlite and ferrite. Mild steel’s chemis-
try is basically carbon up to approximately 0.30%, man-
ganese up to approximately 1.5%, and a small amount of
silicon, with residuals of phosphorous and sulfur.
 SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
High-strength low-alloy steels have similar micro-
structures and chemistries as mild steel and they are
strengthened by a fine-grained (small) crystal structure
created from small additions of elements such as vana-
dium, nickel, chromium, or molybdenum and frequently
receive normalizing heat treatment. This process consists
of heating the steel to approximately 1550°F and air
cooling.
Mild steels such A-36 or OS typically will have yield
strengths below 50 ksi, and the high-strength steels such
as HS, those steels that contain a grain-refining element
such as vanadium will have yield strengths of 50 ksi or
more. Typical applications are ships, bridges, buildings,
towers, automobiles, tanks, boilers, pressure vessels,
home utensils, appliances, etc.
2. Corrosion Resistance of Mild Steel
All of these steels have relatively poor resistance to
corrosion unless they are thermal sprayed with aluminum
or zinc, or are painted or galvanized. Sometimes these
steels are alloyed with a small amount of copper which
causes a tightly adhering oxide scale that retards the nor-
mal rate of corrosion. Steels alloyed with copper may be
used without painting.
3. Welding Effects on Mild Steels Base Metal
Mechanical Properties
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical prop-
erties of OS and HS base metals. There is increased hard-
ness in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) but the depth of
hardening is not found to the extent that is present in the
quenched and tempered low-alloy steels. The HAZ’s
maximum hardness is limited by its carbon content. Mild
steel is the most readily welded of all the steels.
4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion Resistance
There is no loss of corrosion resistance of the base
metal due to welding.
5. How Filler Metals Obtain Metal Strengthening
and Corrosion Resistance
Recommended weld metals have higher tensile and
yield strengths than mild steel or high-strength structural
base metals. This is primarily due to the presence of man-
ganese, silicon and other deoxidizers in the filler metals
which are used to improve the welding characteristics
and weld quality. These weld metals do not have signifi-
cantly better corrosion resistance compared to base met-
als. They require similar protection as the base metal
(usually galvanizing, thermal spraying, or painting).
121
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties
There are no special routine treatments of these steels
other than when heavy sections are cut and welded. Due
to the rapid cooling rate of heavy sections, preheating in
the range of 150°F to 200°F is sometimes advisable.
These steels are typically only stress relieved for machin-
ing dimensional stability or when required by fabrication
codes for pressure vessels or other designs where cyclic
fatigue is a major concern.
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
Some mild steels have lead or sulfur additions to im-
prove machining operations. These steels are frequently
called free machining steels. These additions may cause
porosity and/or develop low melting temperature constit-
uents that cause hot short cracking. Welding is not rec-
ommended and should be avoided if at all practical, but if
welding must be accomplished, use of low-hydrogen
shielded metal arc filler metals may reduce cracking and
porosity.
Low-Alloy Steel with Quench Hardening
and Tempering Heat Treatment before
Welding (High-Strength Steels T-l, HY-80,
HY-100, HY-130, and ASTM A 514)
1. Base Metal Strengthening Mechanisms of
Quenched and Tempered Steel
Quenched and tempered steels such as HY-80 have
moderately high hardenability. They are alloyed to pro-
duce weldments with high yield strengths with good duc-
tility and high toughness at low temperatures without
post-weld heat treatment. Postheat treatment is rarely
accomplished after welding. When postheat is accom-
plished, it is usually for dimensional stability and re-
quires special procedures. These steels receive their
primary yield and tensile strength from the micro-
structure of tempered bainite and/or martensite, which
are typically created by quenching the material from ap-
proximately 1550°F and tempering (reheating) at 1100°F
or higher. The carbon content is kept low to improve
weldability and eliminate the need for post-weld heat
treatment. Depending on the alloy, maximum carbon con-
tents are usually in the range of 0.12 to 0.23%. Alloying
elements are typically less than 6 percent and may be
comprised of elements such as manganese, nickel, chro-
mium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium and boron. The
function of these elements is to increase strength, harden-
ability, and toughness at low levels of carbon content (im-
proved weldability). Each base metal specification has
well defined mechanical properties. Typical applications
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
are pressure vessels, bridges, ballistic protection, ships,
mining, penstocks, and buildings.
The designer should keep in mind that if mild steel or
grain-refined mild steel will meet the service require-
ments, they should be used since they are easier and
more economical to fabricate.
2. Base Metal Corrosion Resistance of Quenched and
Tempered Steels before Welding
The quenched and tempered steels have only slightly
better corrosion resistance than mild steel. They are rou-
tinely painted for corrosion protection. Improved corro-
sion resistance of these steels comes from the small
amount of alloying elements present. They are rarely gal-
vanized probably due to their susceptibility to hydrogen
embrittlement.
3. Welding Effects on the Base Metal Properties of
Steels that are Quenched and Tempered before
Welding
Welding can have drastic effects on the mechanical
properties of the base metal and their heat-affected zone
(HAZ). The heat-affected zone is the unmelted base
metal area next to the weld having any noticeable effects
from the heat of welding. These effects may include
changes in mechanical properties. These steels are some-
what difficult to weld and special precautions must be
observed if the yield strength, impact resistance and duc-
tility are to be maintained. Improper welding techniques
can result in hidden cracks and cracking that may not
occur until many hours after welding is complete (hydro-
gen embrittlement cracking). Welding heavy sections
without preheat and/or low interpass temperatures can
result in extensive HAZ/fusion line cracking. Welding
with excessive preheat and interpass temperatures can re-
sult in a loss of impact toughness.
4. What Effects Does Welding have on the Base Metal
Corrosion Resistance?
Welding has little effect on the corrosion resistance of
the base metal.
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
Filler metals typically have chemical compositions
similar to base metals except they are not micro alloy
hardened by elements such as boron. They are frequently
alloyed with elements such as nickel, chromium, molyb-
denum and manganese. The carbon content is kept much
lower than the base metal carbon content. This is because
the weld metal goes through an extremely rapid quench
and would be susceptible to cracking at carbon contents
122
similar to those of the base metal. Filler metal carbon
contents are typically less than 0.12%.
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties?
Strict adherence to the manufacturer’s recommenda-
tions or code requirements is essential if the desired
properties of these base metals are to be preserved. Pre-
heat and interpass temperatures that are too low during
the welding process can result in base metal and weld
metal cracking. Probably the most frequent cause of
cracking of these metals while welding is lack of ade-
quate preheat. When preheats are required they should be
soaking preheats. Preheat is frequently required to pre-
vent restraint cracking on heavier sections. Soaking pre-
heats can be verified by measuring the preheat on the
opposite (back side) of the weld joint.
Preheats that are too high will produce undesirable
nonuniform microstructure. Preheat and interpass tem-
peratures that are too high will result in low impact prop-
erties. This can cause a drastic loss in the ability to arrest
crack propagation during impact loading particularly at
low temperatures.
Heat input that is too high is detrimental for good im-
pact resistance. Excessively high preheats, high interpass
temperatures, high amperage, and slow travel speeds can
cause a retarded cooling rate. All in-process welding
conditions causing excessive heat input result in the same
outcome: a retarded cooling rate from peak welding tem-
peratures. Retarded cooling rates cause a heterogeneous
microstructure that is more susceptible to fracture on im-
pact loading.
Heat Input (J/in.) = Volts × Amps × 60
Travel Speed (ipm)
The maximum heat inputs should be in accordance
with the applicable code, standard or qualified welding
procedure. A serious loss of the metal’s ability to absorb
energy without cracking can result if excessive heat in-
puts are permitted. Stringer beads (straight-line progres-
sion) having higher travel speeds than weaving beads
(oscillating progression) are preferred, since this reduces
the heat input into the base metal and previously depos-
ited weld metal. It is important to protect the weld metal
properties. One of the most limiting factors in welding
these quenched and tempered steels is the marginal abil-
ity of weld metal to match base metal toughness.
Stress relief as previously mentioned is generally not
recommended. However, it is sometimes accomplished
for dimensional stability of weldments that are to receive
close tolerance machining. Stress relief should only be
accomplished if permitted by the manufacturer or the
governing code or standard. The manufacturer’s or code
 SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
requirements should be strictly followed. Usually this in-
volves stress relieving the part 50°F below the tempering
temperature, if known, and sometimes it requires forced
cooling to minimize the loss of fabrication impact prop-
erties. Also, it is essential that the weld metal contain less
that 0.05% vanadium or the weld will be subject to seri-
ous temper embrittlement. Since these alloys are subject
to serious embrittlement by improper heat treatment,
post-weld stress relief should be under the direction of a
welding engineer or a metallurgist.
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
The most common element on earth, hydrogen, is also
the most hazardous to welding quenched and tempered
steels. Hydrogen is commonly produced when water, oil
and rust are broken down in the arc. Procedures and tech-
niques to avoid hydrogen embrittlement cracking are dis-
cussed in Section 12 of this manual. Other hazardous
elements are those such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous,
sulfur, etc., that will form low melting temperature
constituents.
Low-Alloy Steel with Quench Hardening
and Tempering Heat Treatment after Weld-
ing (Post Weld Heat Treatable) (AISI-1040,
-8620, -8630, -4130, -4140, -4340, etc.)
1. Base Metal Strengthening Mechanisms of Steel
Quenched and Tempered after Welding
Steels that are quenched and tempered after welding,
such as AISI-8620, 4130, or 4340, have high hardenabil-
ity. They are alloyed to produce high tensile and yield
strengths and may have limited ductility and toughness
even at room temperatures. These steels are usually se-
lected for their high strengths or hardness for wear resis-
tance. Commonly these metals are welded in a soft
condition called annealed. Postheat treatment is accom-
plished after welding to obtain desired mechanical prop-
erties. These steels primarily receive their yield and
tensile strength from the microstructure of tempered
high-carbon bainite and/or martensite which are created
by quenching the material from approximately 1550°F
and tempering (reheating) at 1100°F or higher. Desired
mechanical properties can be selected by varying the
tempering temperature. The carbon contents are typically
high which lowers the weldability and requires special
procedure requirements. Depending on the alloy, maxi-
mum carbon contents are usually in the range of 0.23 to
0.43%. Alloying elements are typically less than 6 per-
cent and may be comprised of elements such as manga-
nese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, and
vanadium. The primary function of these elements is to
123
improve hardenability (the depth of hardening). These
metals often do not have mechanical property require-
ments in their applicable base metal specification. Vary-
ing mechanical properties can be selected by the user and
are achieved by varying the heat treatment. These alloys
are used for machinery applications such as gears, shafts,
and fasteners for increased wear, tensile strength, or
sometimes for improved fatigue resistance.
The designer should keep in mind that if mild steel, or
even the steels that are quenched and tempered before
welding (i.e., HY-80/100) will meet the service require-
ments, they should always be used in lieu of these post-
weld heat treatable steels.
2. Base Metal Corrosion Resistance of Quenched and
Tempered Steels after Welding
The quenched and tempered steels have only slightly
better corrosion resistance than mild steel. They are rou-
tinely painted for corrosion protection. Improved corrosion
resistance of these steels comes from the small amount of
alloying elements. They are not typically galvanized.
3. Welding Effects on the Base Metal Properties of
Steels that are Quenched and Tempered after
Welding
Welding can drastically affect the mechanical proper-
ties of the base metal in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
The heat-affected zone is the unmelted base metal area
next to the weld having any noticeable affects from the
heat of welding. These effects may include changes in
tensile and yield strength, increased hardness, loss of
ductility, mechanical and/or corrosion-resistant proper-
ties. These steels are typically very difficult to weld and
special precautions must be observed or serious cracking
may result. Improper welding techniques can result in
immediate gross cracking, hidden cracks and cracking
that may not occur until many hours after welding is
complete (hydrogen embrittlement cracking). Welding
heavy sections with no preheat and low interpass temper-
atures can result in extensive HAZ/fusion line and weld
metal cracking.
4. What Effects Does Welding have on the Base Metal
Corrosion Resistance?
Welding typically has no noticeable effect on the cor-
rosion resistance of the base metal.
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
Filler metals may or may not have similar chemical
compositions as their base metals. They are frequently
alloyed with elements such as nickel, chrome, molybde-
num, and manganese, with the exception that the carbon
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
content is usually kept much lower than the base metal.
This is because the weld metal goes through an ex-
tremely rapid quench and is very susceptible to cracking
at carbon contents approaching the base metal. Under
special circumstances base metal or filler metals that
nearly match the base metal are used for welding. It is
common to use undermatching filler metal and rarely do
welds match the base metal mechanical properties, un-
less unique and specialized procedures are developed.
However, post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) can be se-
lected so that the resultant base metal properties nearly
approximate those attainable by the weld. In most cases,
designers must take into account that the welds will typi-
cally undermatch the base metal properties.
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties?
Strict adherence to manufacturer’s recommendations,
special developed procedures, or code requirements is
absolutely essential if the desirable properties of these
metals are to be achieved. Preheat and interpass tempera-
tures that are too low during the welding process can re-
sult in base metal and weld metal cracks. Preheats as
high as 600°F may be required. Typically, these metals
may require soaking times after welding at preheat tem-
peratures to minimize cracking or they may require to be
immediately stress relieved, if post heat treatment for
mechanical properties will not occur until later in the
fabrication process. Probably the most frequent cause of
cracks while welding these metals is lack of adequate
preheat. When preheats are required, they should be
soaking preheats. Soaking preheats can be verified by
measuring the preheat on the opposite (back side) of the
weld joint.
Generally, there are no welding heat input restrictions
on these metals like those required on metals that are
quenched and tempered metals before welding. The rea-
son for this is the mechanical properties are achieved
through heat treatment after welding and the weld and
HAZ are recrystallized during heat treatment.
Since these metals are heat treated after welding, they
are not usually stress relieved unless they are welded in
the heat-treated condition or following manufacturing
processes makes it necessary to dimensionally stabilize
the metal or to reduce the hardness of the material (as
might be needed for machining). The manufacturer’s rec-
ommendations or code requirements should be strictly
followed. When components are welded in the heat-
treated condition, stress relieving is usually accom-
plished 50°F below the tempering temperature. It should
always be kept in mind that the temperatures reached
during the heat treatment and the quenching process will
124
frequently cause unacceptable distortion and scaling of
close-tolerance machined components.
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
One of the most common elements on earth, hydro-
gen, is also the most hazardous to welding these
quenched hardenable steels. Procedures and techniques
to avoid hydrogen embrittlement cracking are discussed
in Section 12 of this manual. Other hazardous elements
are those such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, sulfur, etc.,
that will form low melting temperature constituents.
300 Series Austenitic Stainless Steel (An-
nealed) [304, 310, 316, 321, 347 Corrosion-
Resistant Steel (CRES)]
1. Strengthening Mechanisms of Austenitic Stainless
Steel Base Metal
Typical austenitic stainless steels used in industry
have 18% or more chromium and 8% or more nickel,
with the remaining balance of approximately 50 to 60%
iron, and are sometimes called the 18-8 stainless steels.
Depending on the alloy type and application, the carbon
content will be 0.20% and less. Typically carbon is less
than 0.08% for corrosion resistance. Higher carbon con-
tent metals (309, 310) are commonly used where high-
temperature strength is required. Austenitic stainless
steels are not strengthened by quench hardening, since
their primary phase and structure do not change with
temperature as with the quenched and tempered steel al-
loys. Their primary yield and tensile strength properties
are developed from what is called substitutional and in-
terstitial alloy strengthening. The microstructure is auste-
nitic at all temperatures with small amounts of carbides.
Austenitic stainless steels containing nickel, chrome, and
manganese with small amounts of silicon are sometimes
alloyed with molybdenum, titanium, niobium, or copper
with residuals of unwanted sulfur and phosphorous. Aus-
tenitic 300 Series stainless steels typically have yield
strengths of 35 ksi at room temperature, with very little
loss of strength even at relatively high temperatures. Ten-
sile strengths of 75–80 ksi are common with ductility of
30–35%. These steels are typically used for their high-
temperature yield strength, oxidation resistance for both
high- and low-temperature applications, and excellent
toughness. These steels are nonmagnetic.
Galvanic Series. When any of these 300 series stainless
steels are used in combination with a dissimilar metal for
sea-water service the galvanic series should be examined.
This will help determine if accelerated corrosion can be
expected due to the different metal being brought used in
the same system. The surface areas of the dissimilar met-
 SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
als can also greatly affect the amount and extent of corro-
sion. In general austenitic stainless steels are not
recommended for sea-water service environments.
2. Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel
Austenitic stainless steels have excellent atmospheric
corrosion resistance and resist corrosion very well at
high temperatures. When alloyed with copper (320) it
has good corrosion and erosion resistance in sea water.
The iron in these austenitic stainless steels is protected
from corrosion or oxidation by the formation of a protec-
tive stable refractory chrome-oxide film. This tenacious
film develops when the surface of the metal is exposed to
an oxidizing atmosphere and once formed prevents con-
tinuing corrosion or oxidation. The continued presence
of this oxide film is imperative to maintain corrosion
resistance. If service conditions cause the loss of this
film, the material will be susceptible to corrosion. Also,
the effects of welding heat can cause a loss of the metal’s
ability to form these protective oxides. These metals are
frequently used without painting.
3. Welding Effects on Stainless Steel Base Metal
Mechanical Properties
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical prop-
erties of austenitic stainless steel base metals. Since
austenitic stainless steels are not quench hardenable, the
HAZ does not exhibit increased hardness as a result
of welding. These steels are readily weldable but do re-
quire some special controls to maintain their corrosion
resistance.
If the stainless steel has been cold worked prior to weld-
ing to increase its yield strength, the effects of welding
may cause a drastic loss of the base metal’s yield strength
in the HAZ to approximately its annealed condition.
4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion
Resistance
The effects of welding can cause a serious loss of cor-
rosion resistance of the base metal adjacent to the weld.
For some service applications, the presence of carbon
and the heat of welding can result in reduced corrosion
resistance of some stainless steel alloys by the preferen-
tial formation of chromium carbides in lieu of the protec-
tive chrome-oxide films. This depletion of available
chromium for oxidation resistance by the formation of
chromium carbides is called sensitization. Therefore, for
special applications the carbon content may be held to
0.04% or less (extra low carbon 308L or 316L) or addi-
tions of titanium (321) or niobium (347) may be made to
the base metal. The stabilizing elements of titanium and
niobium will form carbides, preferentially chromium
125
carbides, leaving the chrome available to form its protec-
tive oxide film. Stressed stainless alloys that have exten-
sive depletion of chrome by sensitization and are in a
corrosive halogen product environment, such as salt wa-
ter, may be subject to stress corrosion cracking. Stress
corrosion cracking can be extensive, penetrating com-
pletely through the base material thickness in a short pe-
riod of time.
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
and Corrosion Resistance
Stainless steel filler metals have chemistries similar to
the base metals they are intended to weld. They develop
their mechanical properties and corrosion resistance due
to their similar base metal chemistry and metallurgy.
There is no significant improved corrosion resistance of
the stainless steel weld metals over the base metal.
Some stainless steel filler metals have slight chemistry
modifications to permit the development of delta ferrite
in the weld deposit. Fully austenitic welds have a ten-
dency to fissure (develop small cracks). When delta fer-
rite is present in the weld deposit the tendency for
fissuring is reduced. Stainless steel filler metals such as
308, 309, 316, all may contain small amounts (usually
less than 10%) of delta ferrite when deposited. The stain-
less filler metal 312 typically has 40% ferrite and is very
crack resistant. However, it should not be used for high-
temperature applications, as the soft and ductile delta fer-
rite will change to a hard and brittle phase called sigma
ferrite that is extremely crack sensitive.
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties
Austenitic stainless steel welds are somewhat subject
to high-temperature fissuring. They are also subject to re-
duced corrosion resistance with increased potential of
stress corrosion cracking when sensitized. Sensitization
by chromium carbide precipitation takes place at 900°F
to 1500°F and is time dependent. The more time spent in
the sensitizing temperature range the greater the degree
of chromium carbide precipitation. To minimize fissuring
and sensitization, minimum preheats are used and inter-
pass temperatures are kept low (350°F maximum). By
keeping the preheat and interpass temperature low, less
time is spent at sensitizing temperatures and the amount
of the base metal and degree of sensitization will be re-
duced. Avoiding high heat input welding processes will
also lower the amount of time at sensitizing temperatures
and the amount of base metal subject to sensitization. The
use of stringer beads is recommended instead of weave
beads, which minimizes heat input and sensitization.
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
Some stainless steels have selenium, phosphorous, or
sulfur additions to improve machining operations. These
steels are frequently called free machining steels (303-Se,
316F, 347F). These additions may cause porosity and/or
develop low melting temperature constituents that result
in hot short cracking during welding. Welding of these al-
loys is not recommended. The contamination of weld
joints by low melting constituents can cause serious weld-
associated cracking. Lead contamination from radioactive
shielding or from machinists’ hammers, sulfur from sulfu-
rized cutting fluids, lead and tin from soft solder contami-
nation, and cadmium from silver brazing alloys, etc., are
examples of potential sources of contamination.
Carbon contamination can have a serious effect on the
corrosion resistance of stainless steels; therefore, it must
be considered a detrimental contaminate. Its potential
sources are shop dirt, grease, oil, paint, shellac, antispatter
compounds, and carbon arcing slag.
Copper-Nickel and Nickel-Copper Base
Metals [90:10 CuNi, 70: 30 CuNi , and
70Ni:30Cu (Monel®)]
1. Strengthening Mechanisms of Copper-Nickel and
Nickel-Copper Base Metal
These alloys are not strengthened by quench harden-
ing, since their primary phase or crystal structure does
not change with temperature as it does with quenched
and tempered steel alloys. The primary yield and tensile
strength properties are developed from what is called
substitutional alloy strengthening (the mixing of copper
and nickel atoms in a geometric pattern). Its structure is
austenitic at all temperatures. These austenitic copper
and nickel alloys have copper and nickel as their major
alloying elements, with small additions of elements such
iron for yield strength and erosion resistance, manganese
to minimize hot cracking, silicon for strength and manu-
facturing fluidity (high percentages silicon 4% for hard-
ness), and niobium for increased weldability with
residuals of unwanted sulfur and phosphorous.
90:10 CuNi (90% copper-10% nickel) wrought metals
typically have minimum yield strengths of 15,000–
18,000 psi, and minimum tensile strengths of 38,000 psi
with minimum elongations of 25–35%. It is considered a
hot short material having reduced ductility at tempera-
tures above 500°F to 1400°F and subject to cracking
while under stress. This metal is also less expensive than
the higher nickel content copper-nickel alloys. It is more
difficult to weld than 70:30 CuNi and Monel® (70%Ni-
30%Cu) metals.
126
70:30 CuNi (70% copper-30% nickel) wrought metals
typically have yield strengths of 18,000–20,000 psi, and
tensile strength of 45,000–50,000 psi with elongation of
20–35%. It is considered a hot short material having re-
duced ductility at temperatures above 1100–1400°F and
is subject to high-temperature cracking while under
stress.
NiCu (70% nickel-30% copper alloy), commonly
called Monel®, has the highest tensile and yield strength
of any ratio of nickel-to-copper contents. Its minimum
tensile strength is 70–85 ksi and its yield strength is 23–
25 ksi with 35% minimum ductility.
2. Corrosion Resistance of Copper and Nickel Alloys
These alloys have excellent atmospheric and corro-
sion resistance. These metals are frequently used without
painting.
CuNi–90:10
It is typically used for water corrosion resistance with
good antifouling resistance. This alloy has a higher iron
content than the 70:30CuNi alloys, which improves its
strength and corrosion protection. This alloy performs
better in stagnant water (pitting/crevice corrosion) than
either 70:30 CuNi or Monel® (70%Ni-30%Cu). It is also
superior in its antifouling resistance.
CuNi–70:30
It is used primarily for water corrosion and erosion re-
sistance where increased strength and hardness is re-
quired with less antifouling resistance than the higher
copper content 90:10 CuNi alloy. It has better erosion re-
sistance in flowing water but has less pitting resistance
(crevice corrosion) than 90:10 CuNi.
Monel®–70NI:30Cu
It is used primarily for water corrosion and erosion re-
sistance where increased strength and hardness is re-
quired (with less antifouling resistance) than the higher
copper content copper-nickel alloys. It has better perfor-
mance for erosion resistance than either of the copper-
nickel alloys, but has inferior performance for crevice
corrosion and antifouling resistance.
Galvanic Series
When any of these copper and nickel alloys are used
in combination with a dissimilar metal, for water service,
the galvanic series should be examined. This will help
determine if accelerated corrosion can be expected, due
to the different metal being used in the same system. The
surface areas of the dissimilar metals can also greatly
 SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
affect the amount and extent of corrosion. These alloys
are frequently recommended and used for water-service
environments.
3. Welding Effects on Base Metal Mechanical
Properties
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical prop-
erties of nickel alloys and copper base metals. Since
these alloys are not quench hardenable the HAZ does not
exhibit increased hardness as a result of welding. These
alloys are readily weldable but do require some special
controls to minimize cracking and weld porosity. If any
of these alloys have been cold worked prior to welding to
increase its yield strength, the effects of welding may
cause a drastic loss of the base metal’s yield strength in
the HAZ, approximating its annealed condition.
4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion
Resistance
The effects of welding have little effect on the corro-
sion resistance of the adjacent base metal.
5. How Welds Obtain Metal Strengthening and
Corrosion Resistance
Filler metals for welding alloys of nickel and copper
have chemistries/compositions similar to the base metals
they are intended to weld. They develop their mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance due to their similar
base metal metallurgy. There is no significant improved
corrosion resistance of weld metals over the base metal.
In the case of Monel® filler metal (70% Ni/30% Cu), it is
found that under some wet conditions, these filler metals
will preferentially corrode over similar composition base
metals. Monel ® welds on wetted surfaces of Monel®
castings will often preferentially corrode in lieu of the
base metal.
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties
Since copper and nickel alloys are somewhat hot short
and subject to high-temperature fissuring, welding inter-
pass temperatures are maintained relatively low. Typi-
cally, welding preheat and interpass temperatures are
350°F maximum.
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
Some copper and nickel alloys have selenium, phos-
phorous, or sulfur additions to improve Machining oper-
127
ations. These are frequently called free machining alloys.
These additions may cause porosity and/or develop low
melting temperature constituents that jeopardize welding
due to hot short cracking. Welding of these alloys is not
recommended.
The contamination of a weld joint by low melting
constituents can cause serious weld-associated cracking.
Lead contamination from radioactive shielding or from
machinists’ hammers, sulfur from sulfurized cutting flu-
ids, lead, tin or zinc from soft solder contamination, and
cadmium from silver solder, etc., are all potential sources
of contamination.
Castings
Copper and nickel alloy components that are castings
and are not made by weld fabrication should always have
suspected poor weldability. Because of the iron contents
permitted in these castings and the higher silicon con-
tents to facilitate pouring operations, some of these cast-
ings have extremely limited weldability. Unless properly
alloyed for weldability, they may experience extensive
fusion line cracking.
For Monel® castings, iron and silicon contents must
be held low, preferably at 1.7%. Niobium is also required
to minimize the harmful effects that silicon has on the
weldability of Monel®. Niobium-to-silicon ratios of 1.5
to 1.8 are believed to be adequate to minimize weld
cracking caused by silicon. A Nb/Si ratio of 1.7 is con-
sidered optimum. Iron content above 2% is a major con-
tributor to both weld metal and heat-affected zone
cracking. Also, shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) has
slight advantages over gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
for casting repairs.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Practical Reference Guide for
Welding Metallurgy: Fabrication and Repair (PRGM).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Proceedings of the U.S.–Japan Symposium on
Advances in Welding Metallurgy. Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
can Welding Society.
———. Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., vol. 1, Fundamen-
tals (WM1.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
 SECTION 17
Arc Stud
Welding

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 130

How a Stud is Welded.................................................................................................................................................... 130

Elements of a Stud Weld ............................................................................................................................................... 130

Testing and Judging Welds ........................................................................................................................................... 131

Operating Instructions .................................................................................................................................................. 131

Setting Up to Weld......................................................................................................................................................... 132

How to Handle the Stud Welding Gun ........................................................................................................................ 132

129
SECTION 17— ARC STUD WELDING

Section 17— Arc Stud Welding

Introduction (1) Welding heat is developed by drawing an electric

arc between the stud and the base metal.
Arc stud welding is an arc welding process that is (2) The two pieces are fused together by the weld.
used to weld threaded connectors, insulation pins, small
Stud welding differs from manual arc welding, in that
brackets, pipe hangers, and concrete shear pins, etc., to
the welding cycle is controlled by equipment adjustments.
other compatible base metals. The process accomplishes
fusion at the stud/base metal interface using only the
melted electrode as filler metal. It is very fast, economi-
cal, is essentially automatically controlled, and requires Elements of a Stud Weld (See Figure 17.1)
less operator skill than other welding processes. During
stud welding, an arc is drawn between the stud and the The stud, inserted in the welding end (chuck) of the
base material forming a molten puddle. The stud is then gun, is positioned against the work plate (A). The opera-
plunged into the puddle and as the molten metal cools a tor then presses the gun to the work plate until the fer-
weld is formed. The stud welding equipment is adjusted rule, which is around the stud, is flat against the plate
to control the arc initiation, arc time and the distance the
electrode is plunged into the molten metal.
Stud welded fasteners are attached with a full penetra-
tion weld. They are available in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Stud welding may be performed in tight space re-
strictions and with minimal clearance. Studs can be
welded in most positions to carbon and alloy steels,
stainless steel, and aluminum alloys. Additional special
purpose applications are available for some copper, mag-
nesium, titanium, zirconium, and zinc alloys. Stud weld-
ing produces only localized heating and has low heat
input.
(A)
(a) (B)
(b) (C)
(c)
The stud attachment surface must be clean and pre-
pared for arc welding. The stud welding process is lim-
ited by the stud size and the stud shape. Only one end of
the stud can be welded with this process, and preproduc-
tion mock-up testing is usually accomplished for process
control. The welded studs may be torque or load tested
for production quality assurance.

How a Stud is Welded

(D)
(d) (e)
(E) (f)
(F)
The process of stud welding has some similarities to
the manual arc welding processes. The process consists
of two steps: Figure 17.1—Stud Welding Cycle

130

The trigger switch is depressed, starting the welding
cycle (B). The stud is drawn away from the work plate,
creating an electric arc between the stud and the plate
(C). A molten weld pool is created when a portion of the
stud and the plate are melted by the arc (D).
After the arcing period, the main spring in the gun is
automatically released, plunging the stud into the molten
weld pool of the plate to form a weld within the ferrule
hollow (E). The gun is removed from the completed stud
weld and the ferrule is broken away (F).
Testing and Judging Welds
It is recommended that a few sample welds are made,
inspected, and tested whenever new operations start, and
at the beginning of each day’s work. Weld a few studs to
a piece of metal that is the same composition and thick-
ness as the actual workpiece.
Inspect the sample stud welds for:
(1) Positioning—Perpendicular to the base plate.
(2) Weld Quality—Adequate fusion and fillet, weld
quality acceptable.
(3) Length—Approximately 1/8 in. of the stud
length is consumed by weld.
Test the sample stud welds to the production require-
ments. Production studs that require proof testing should
be load or torque tested to the design requirements.
Figure 17.2—Gun Accessories
131
SECTION 17— ARC STUD WELDING
Operating Instructions
Gun Accessories (see Figure 17.2)
(1) Chuck—The chuck holds or grips the stud in the
gun for welding. A different chuck must be used for each
diameter of stud.
(2) Ferrule Grip—The ferrule grip fits into the foot
and holds the ferrule in position for welding.
(3) Foot—The foot is used to secure and align the
ferrule grip.
(4) Legs—The legs are used to hold and provide po-
sitioning of the foot and ferrule grip assembly. The leg
length must be adjusted for different lengths of studs.
Setting up the Gun
(1) Insert a chuck that is of proper size for the stud,
and tap lightly with a hammer until it is held firmly in the
taper.
(2) Put the legs in place and tighten.
(3) Fasten the foot to the legs with screws and wash-
ers provided.
(4) Insert the ferrule grip into the foot and secure by
tightening set screws in foot.
(5) Insert the stud in the chuck and the ferrule in the
ferrule grip.
Adjustment of Plunge
Adjust the legs so the stud extends from 1/8 in. to
3/16 in. beyond the end of the ferrule. When the stud
stickout is correct, tighten leg screws so that the assem-
bly is stationary.
NOTE: The lift height, which determines the arc length,
has been preset at the factory and will automatically
compensate for small changes in stud length.
Centering of Ferrule on Stud
Adjust the foot so that the stud is centered in the fer-
rule. This is vital. Improper welds can result if there is
any binding or friction between the stud and ferrule dur-
ing the welding cycle.
Test Action of the Gun
Work the lower assembly of the gun in and out to
make sure that the stud moves freely through the ferrule.
If there is any binding, readjust foot assembly until free
action is obtained.
SECTION 17— ARC STUD WELDING
Setting Up to Weld (See Figure 17.3)
Turn power OFF when making connections.
(1) Position the control unit and the power supply as
near the work area as possible. Excessive cable lengths
adversely affect stud welding.
(2) Connect the ground cable to the terminal of the
power supply (positive or negative ground orientation
must be determined by the weld procedure test data).
Secure the c-clamp to the work plate. Make sure both
connections are tight and eradicate any paint or rust at
the connection points.
(3) Connect the timer input cable to the other termi-
nal of the power supply and to the connector marked
“power supply” on the control unit.
(4) Connect the control unit ground clamp to the
work plate. This completes the electrical path needed to
supply power to the control unit.
(5) Connect the combination cable (control and weld-
ing cable) to the control unit and the gun.
(6) Make sure the power supply is set for required po-
larity, and that the input cable and the ground cable is
properly connected. The power supply is typically a con-
stant voltage (CV) type and should have a minimum
open circuit voltage of 65 volts dc.
(7) Turn on the power supply and the control unit. The
light on the control unit should light indicating that power
is available and is connected for the required polarity.
(8) Adjust the time on the control unit and current
setting of the power supply. The settings provided are ap-
Figure 17.3—Stud Welding Setup
132
proximate and will vary with the type of application.
Note that the power supply may not be calibrated to indi-
cate actual welding current.
How to Handle the Stud Welding Gun
(1) Hold the gun firmly with your hand placed so that
you can readily press the trigger.
(2) Keep your hand off the side cable.
(3) Hold the gun square/perpendicular to the work.
(4) Be sure the ferrule is seated firmly against the
workpiece.
(5) Press the gun’s trigger only once and release.
Pressing the trigger a second time will damage the chuck
or stud threads.
(6) Do not move the gun during the welding action.
(7) After welding the stud, draw the gun straight back
away from the workpiece. Avoid pressing the trigger
again.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Recommended Practices for
Stud Welding (C5.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
 SECTION 18
Thermal Spray
Fundamentals

Contents
Why Use the Thermal Spray Process? ........................................................................................................................ 134

Corrosion Control Applications ................................................................................................................................... 134

Machinery Component Applications ........................................................................................................................... 134

Fundamentals................................................................................................................................................................. 134

Thermal Spray Processes.............................................................................................................................................. 134

Finishing Thermal Sprayed Coatings .......................................................................................................................... 135

Quality Assurance ......................................................................................................................................................... 137

Future Applications ....................................................................................................................................................... 137

Advantages ..................................................................................................................................................................... 137

Limitations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 137

Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................. 137

133
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
Section 18—Thermal Spray Fundamentals
Why Use the Thermal Spray Process?
The thermal spray process is used primarily for two
reasons:
(1) Corrosion control.
(2) Machinery component refurbishment.
Corrosion Control Applications
More than 20 years of corrosion protection of steel
and iron can be obtained by applying thermal sprayed
aluminum or zinc coatings. In a wet environment, these
coatings can serve as an expendable anode, preventing or
minimizing corrosion of steel and iron substrates.
Because of the portability of arc and flame spray sys-
tems, many components can receive a corrosion-preventing
coating either in the shop or in the field. Examples of
some of the items that have received this corrosion control
method are valves and piping.
Machinery Component Applications
The thermal spray process can be a cost-effective
method for dimensional restoration. The process is an ex-
cellent repair method and should be considered, when
appropriate, in lieu of other processes, such as weld re-
pair, chrome plating, or instead of manufacturing of a
new component.
Thermal spray is also used to enhance the service life
of many machinery components. Ceramics can be
sprayed on packing areas of valve stems and pump shafts
to give those areas a smoother, longer-lasting surface
than the substrate material. This will also cause less dam-
age to the packing material and provide better operation
of the component. Thermal sprayed metallic coatings
that will resist wear, erosion, corrosion, heat, and chemi-
cal attack better than the substrate material can be ap-
plied to machinery components.
134
Fundamentals
Before a machinery component is repaired (i.e., to
build up worn areas) using a thermal spray process, the
repair area is undercut. Standard practice is first to clean
the component to be thermal sprayed, and then use an
aluminum oxide grit blast to create an anchor tooth pat-
tern for the coating to lock into. When repairing machin-
ery components, thermal spray materials are used as
bond coats to create a mechanical interaction between
the substrate and the coating.
Thermal Spray Processes
By definition, thermal spray is heating a metallic or a
nonmetallic material, in a heating zone to a molten or
semi-molten state, and then propelling that material onto
a substrate to form a coating. There are four primary
spray processes used by fabricators at this time: plasma
powder process, arc wire process, flame powder process,
and flame wire process.
Plasma Powder
With the plasma powder process, the heating zone is
produced by an arc that is created inside the plasma pow-
der gun between a tungsten electrode and the nozzle. A
gas or gas mixture is passed through the arc. This excites
the gas into a plasma state, creating temperatures higher
than can be obtained with just oxygen fuel flame mix-
tures. The gas or gas mixture exits the nozzle, forcing the
plasma flame outside the gun. A powder is fed into the
flame, melted, and propelled to the substrate by the force
of the gas or gas mixture (see Figure 18.1). The plasma
powder process is used primarily for the refurbishment
of machinery components.
Arc Wire
The heating zone of the arc wire process is produced
by creating an arc between two continuously fed metallic

Figure 18.1—Plasma Powder Process
wires. The heating zone melts the wires and the molten
material is atomized and propelled to the substrate by
compressed air or an inert gas (see Figure 18.2). The arc
wire process can be used for corrosion control and ma-
chinery refurbishment applications.
Flame Wire
The flame wire process uses an oxygen fuel flame to
create the heating zone. A wire is then continuously fed
into the heating zone where it is melted and then pro-
pelled onto the substrate by the force of the burning gas-
ses and compressed air (see Figure 18.3). The flame wire
process can be used for corrosion control and machinery
refurbishment applications.
Figure 18.2—Arc Wire Process
135
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
Flame Powder
The flame powder process uses an oxygen fuel flame
to create the heating zone. Powder is fed into the heating
zone and melted. The molten material is then atomized
and propelled to the substrate by the force of the burning
gasses and compressed air (see Figure 18.4). The flame
powder process is used primarily for machinery refur-
bishment applications.
Finishing Thermal Sprayed Coatings
The structure of a thermal sprayed coating may be
different than the structure of that same material in
wrought form. Sometimes this different structure creates
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS

4 TO 10 in.
(100 TO 250 mm)

Figure 18.3—Flame Wire Process

Figure 18.4—Flame Powder Process

136

problems in finishing. If personnel are unfamiliar with
the finishing of coatings, they should follow the thermal
spray equipment and material manufacturer’s recommen-
dations. If thermal sprayed coatings are properly finished
and they still separate or flake off during finishing the
spraying operation should be reviewed.
Quality Assurance
To help ensure the quality of thermal sprayed coat-
ings, operators must receive thorough training and be
tested to determine whether they have the ability to use
all the thermal spray processes required. Tested and/or
certified procedures and personnel should be used to
spray production components. Facilities must have the
personnel and the methods to determine whether their
thermal spray equipment and consumables will produce
quality coatings. Thermal spray facilities must also have
personnel capable of making sound application and coat-
ing selection decisions or have an organization that can
help them do so.
Future Applications
There are processes that can accomplish the most crit-
ical applications. Vacuum spray systems perform spray-
ing on highly critical components for the airline industry.
Then there are the high-velocity oxyfuel system and the
high-velocity plasma systems.
Throughout the world, industry uses the thermal spray
process for numerous applications. These applications
include electromagnetic shielding, clearance control
(abradable coatings), thermal barrier coatings, and the
thermal spraying of babbitt bearings. New processes and
equipment that will provide superior coatings for many
future applications are also being developed by equip-
ment and thermal spray material manufacturers.
Advantages
Thermal sprayed coating properties can be tailored to
suit the application. Coatings (metallic and ceramic) can
be applied to restore or attain desired dimensions, to pro-
vide electrical or thermal shielding (or conduction), or to
improve the resistance to abrasion, corrosion, or high
temperatures.
Thermal spray coatings can also be used for clearance
control. Abradable coatings wear when contact is made
137
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
with the mating part. This makes it possible to form a
precise seal.
While the substrate is frequently preheated, the ther-
mal spray process is generally considered a metallurgi-
cally cold process. This means in most applications no
warpage or heat-affected zone is created.
Limitations
It should be remembered that when refurbishing ma-
chinery components with the thermal spray process, no
strength is added to that component. If the undercut
depth will reduce the strength of the component enough
to make it unusable for service, then thermal spray must
not be considered as a repair option.
Thermal spraying a highly corrosion-resistant mate-
rial (Monel®) over a carbon steel will not make that ma-
terial perform equal to Monel®.
Thermal spray coatings are ideally applied with the
spray gun perpendicular to the substrate surface; how-
ever, most processes can apply high-quality coatings at
angles up to 45 degrees from perpendicular.
Thermal sprayed coatings should not be used when
the area to be repaired would see a point load or line
load, such as ball bearings or roller bearings without lab-
oratory service-proven results.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Guide for the Protection of
Steel with Thermal Sprayed Coatings of Aluminum
and Zinc and Their Alloys and Composites (C2.18).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Guide for Thermal Spray Operator Qualifica-
tion (C2.16). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Thermal Spraying: Practice, Theory, and Appli-
cation (TSS). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Thermal Spray Manual (TSM). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
Ingham, H., and Shepard, A. Plasma Flame Process.
Flame Spray Handbook, vol. III, Metco Inc., West-
bury, N.Y.
 Acknowledgment
The original Manual was the result of a contract between Ingalls Shipbuilding and the Maritime Administration with
support from the U.S. Navy. This project was performed by Puget Sound Naval Shipyard for the Welding Panel, SP-7, of
the Ship Production Committee of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Recognized contributors to the
original project included the American Welding Society, the Lincoln Electric Foundation, Mr. Omer Blodgett, and New-
port News Shipbuilding. In addition, Mr. Frank Gatto, Puget Sound representative to SP-7, was singled out for apprecia-
tion. The Manual is meant to serve as a practical guide for engineers, planners, and hands-on professionals to improve
scheduling and lessen rework. The Manual was released to the public in 1992.

iv